PHẦN NGỮ PHÁP:

CHAPTER 1: PHRASES
NOUN AND NOUN PHRASE
1. Grammatical categories of English nouns
A noun is a word used to name person, thing, animal or abstract concept. Example..
Categories:
- Number: distinguish count N into: singular and plural
In terms of number, Ns are classified as Invariables and Variables
+ Invariables: depending on meaning maybe singular only (the true, news) or plural only (thanks,
cattle). Most of them are classified as non-count
+ Variables: can be used either singular or  plural (boy-boys). They are count noun
+ In many case, a non count N can be used as a count noun with changes from abstract or
general meaning (difficulty - difficulties)
- Case: ‘s genitive (e.g) and of -genitive (e.g)
There is a choice either -s genitive or of-genitive
Normally, animate nouns take the ‘s genitive, inanimate nouns take the of-genitive, but there is a
large overlap between the 2 choices
- Gender: unimportant in E
Masculine: actor - feminine: actress
2.  Structures of basic NP and complex NPs
- Basic NPs: Closed-system premodifier + Head Noun
+ Predeterminers (3): inclusive (all), multipliers(twice) + fractions(a third)
+ Determiners (6): Article, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, quantifier
+Post determiner(2): quantifiers, numeral
- Complex NPs: Premodifier + Head N + Post modifier
Premodifier: closed-system or open-class
+Open-class: adj/verb/noun/adv (the then minister)/prep.P (on-the-job classes) /clause (pop-
down-for-the-weekend cottage)
3. Post-modifiers in complex NPs
-Adv/prep P: The man there/ the book on the left
-Non-finite clause:
+ V-ing: The girl sitting in the corner
+ P2 clause: the house built 50 years ago
+ To-V : His effort to earn 1mil dollars
- Relative clause: the man who is standing these is my partner
- Adj: is the something new?
4.  Syntactical functions of English NPs (9)
S: My mother is a teacher.
Od: They like football.
Oi: We gave our friend a book.
Cs: My father is a lawyer.
Co: He drove me mad.
Cprep: On the way, he looked at it.
Appositive: My friends, a teacher, will come soon.
A: Last week, we went to Sam Son beach.
Cadj: The game isn’t worth the candle.
Premodifier: adult life is not easy
VERB PHRASE
 
5. Classification of English verbs
-Lexical Verbs: denote action or state
+ dynamic (often denote action) - Stative (often denote state)
+ Intensive (denote intensive relationship, between S and C: She is my sister) - Extensive
(extend their meaning to a new entity: she knows me)
Sometimes, extensive V are intransitive V (she has come)
+ Intransitive - Transitive (mono/di/complex-transitive)
+ Based on word formation: simple, derived, compound
- Auxiliary verbs: help complete the meaning of the verbs: close-system, grammatical meaning,
limited number, go with lexical V to add meaning
+ Primary (do-does-did, have-has-had, be-am/is/are - was/were- been-being)
+ modal (can/may/might/must…)
- Semi-modal verb (need/dare): can be used as auxiliary-modal verb or lexical verb
6. Grammatical categories of English verbs
Four categories: tense, aspect, voice and mood
- Tense: use of V to indicate time of action/state: present/past tense
-Aspect: denotes the manner in which the action/state is performed
+Simple
+ Perfect
+Progressive
+ Perfect progressive
- Voice: denotes relationship between S and V: active/passive
- Mood: indicates speaker’s attitude to the prediction action/state
+ Indicate: have concord between S-V
+ Imperative: menh lenh, doesn’t have SV concord
+ Subjective: gia dinh, doesn’t have SV concord
*Five forms n the functions related to the grammatical categories of V
+ Base form: open the door please
+ the -s form: he sings well
+ the -ed past:
+the -ing participle
+ the -ed participle:
7. Finite and non-finite VPs
- Finite Verb Phrase
+ Simple finite VP: a lexical V with its form based on an S-V concord to show the simple tenses
singular). present or past (He comes - simple present tense, third person,
+  Complex finite VP: consists of an Auxiliary verb with its form based on an S-V  concord to
show the tense+ aspect and/or voice of the VP and a Lexical verb in base form (He has come -
present perfect).
- Non-finite VP: Non-finite VP goes without tense and S-V concord. It may be a simple VP (to do,
do, doing, done), or a complex non-finite, if it expresses aspect or voice categories in (to have
done, having done...). There are three forms of the non-finite verb: the base form (either bare or
to-infinitive), the -ing participle, and the -ed participle.
- Syntactic functions
+ Finite Verb phrases function as Predicate sentences (We have been learning E)
+ Non-finite verb phrase can take many different function, and in sentence they are normally
referred to as Non-finite Clause; A, S, O, Cs, Co, Cadj (our E is sure to be better), Cprep, App
and Modifier
8. Seven basic clause types and the realizations of the complementation of each type of
verb
1. S + V_intransitive: She’s coming / They have gone out/ The plane took off.
2. S + V intensive + C: She’s my sister/ They look tired.
3. S + V intensive + A: They were here/ She got off the bus.
4. S + V mono-transitive + O: They built this house/ He gave up tobacco.
5. S + V ditransitive +O + O: We gave him a book/ She informed me of the news.
6. S + V complex-trans + O + C: We elected him our President.
7. S + V complex-trans + O + A: I put it here.
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
9. Classification of English adjectives and adverbs
 Adjective:
a) Central Adjective: This type of adjective is used to describe the core characteristics of a noun.
For example, "red" in "red car" or "fast" in "fast car".
b) Attributive Adjective: This type of adjective comes before the noun it describes. For example,
"beautiful" in "beautiful flowers".
c) Predicative Adjective: This type of adjective comes after a linking verb (such as "be",
"become", "seem", etc.) and describes the subject of the sentence. For example, "happy" in
"She seems happy".
d) Stative Adjective: This type of adjective describes a state or condition that is unlikely to
change. For example, "bored" in "I'm bored".
e) Dynamic Adjective: This type of adjective describes a temporary state or condition that can
change. For example, "tired" in "I'm tired".
f) Gradable Adjective: This type of adjective can be used with different degrees of intensity, and
can be used with comparative and superlative forms. For example, "tall" in "tall, taller, tallest".
g) Non-gradable Adjective: This type of adjective cannot be used with comparative or superlative
forms, and indicates an absolute quality. For example, "unique" in "a unique experience".
 Adverbs:
a) Adverb of Time: This type of adverb describes when an action takes place. For example,
"yesterday" in "I went to the store yesterday".
b) Adverb of Place: This type of adverb describes where an action takes place. For example,
"here" in "Come here".
c) Adverb of Reason: This type of adverb describes why an action takes place. For example,
"because" in "I went to the store because I needed milk".
10. Syntactical functions of English adjectives and adverbs
  Functions of Adjectives:
Attributive function: Adjectives can be used before a noun to modify it. For example, in the
sentence "The blue car is mine," "blue" is an adjective modifying the noun "car."
Predicative function: Adjectives can also be used after a linking verb to describe the subject. For
example, in the sentence "She is happy," "happy" is a predicate adjective describing "she."
Postpositive function: In some cases, adjectives are placed after the noun they modify. For
example, in the phrase "The president elect," "elect" is a postpositive adjective modifying
"president."
 Functions of Adverbs:
Adverbial function: Adverbs can be used to modify a verb, adjective, or other adverb in a
sentence. For example, in the sentence "She sings beautifully," "beautifully" is an adverb
modifying the verb "sings."
Sentence modifier function: Adverbs can also be used to modify the entire sentence, providing
additional information or expressing the speaker's attitude. For example, in the sentence
"Fortunately, the storm passed quickly," "fortunately" is an adverb modifying the entire sentence.
Focusing function: Adverbs can also be used to emphasize a particular word in a sentence. For
example, in the sentence "I really love chocolate," "really" is an adverb emphasizing the
speaker's love for chocolate.
PREPOSITION PHRASE
11. The structure of prepositional phrases
    There are two obligatory components in a prepositional phrase: a preposition as Head
and the prepositional complement (in the room).
  The prepositional complement is realized variously: By a NP (at the door), by a finite
clause (in what you have said), and by non- finite clause (in learning English)
12. Realizations of prepositional Complement
  Noun phrase (NP) complement: The preposition is followed by a noun phrase that
functions as the complement. Example: She is waiting for her friend (NP complement =
her friend).
 Gerund phrase complement: The preposition is followed by a gerund phrase that
functions as the complement. Example: He is interested in hiking (gerund phrase
complement = hiking).
 Infinitive phrase complement: The preposition is followed by an infinitive phrase that
functions as the complement. Example: They are eager to start their new job (infinitive
phrase complement = to start their new job).
 Clause complement: The preposition is followed by a clause that functions as the
complement. Example: She was surprised by what he said (clause complement = what
he said).
13. Syntactical functions of prepositional phrase
Preposition Phrase might take the functions as
A (We live in Hanoi)
Post-modifier in NP (Students in our faculty will win)
Adjective Complement (We are proud of our success)
CHAPTER 2: CLAUSES
1. Clause elements
 Subject: The subject is the noun or pronoun that performs the action in a sentence or that
the sentence is about. Example: John is playing soccer.
 Predicate: The predicate is the part of the sentence that provides information about the
subject, such as the action or state of being. It includes the verb and any objects,
complements, or modifiers. Example: John is playing soccer.
 Verb: The verb is the word that expresses the action or state of being in a sentence.
Example: John is playing soccer.
 Object: The object is the noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb. Example:
John kicked the ball.
 Complement: The complement is a word or phrase that completes the meaning of the
verb and is necessary for the sentence to be grammatically correct. There are several
types of complements, such as direct objects, indirect objects, and subject complements.
Example: John was elected president.
 Modifier: A modifier is a word or phrase that provides additional information about
another word in the sentence, such as an adjective or adverb. Example: The tall man ran
quickly.
 Conjunction: A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses together.
Example: I went to the store, but I forgot my wallet.
 Subordinator: A subordinator is a word that introduces a dependent clause and indicates
its relationship to the main clause. Example: I will eat dinner when I finish my work.
2. Classification of clauses in terms of usage, structures and semantics
Clauses can be classified based on their usage, structure, and semantics.
 Usage-based classification:
Independent clause: A complete sentence that can stand alone and express a complete thought.
Dependent clause: A sentence fragment that cannot stand alone and relies on the main clause
for its meaning.
 Structure-based classification:
Simple clause: A clause that contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses.
Compound clause: A clause that contains two or more independent clauses and no dependent
clauses.
Complex clause: A clause that contains one independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses.
Compound-complex clause: A clause that contains two or more independent clauses and one or
more dependent clauses.
  Semantics-based classification:
Adverbial clause: A clause that functions as an adverb in a sentence and provides information
about the time, place, manner, reason, or condition of the main clause.
Adjectival clause: A clause that functions as an adjective in a sentence and modifies a noun or
pronoun in the main clause.
Noun clause: A clause that functions as a noun in a sentence and can act as the subject, object,
or complement of the main clause.
Relative clause: A type of adjectival clause that modifies a noun or pronoun in the main clause
and is introduced by a relative pronoun or adverb.
CHAPTER 3. SENTENCES
1. Simple sentences
A simple sentence is a type of sentence that consists of one independent clause and no
dependent clauses. It is the most basic and straightforward type of sentence, and it typically
contains a subject and a predicate. The subject is the noun or pronoun that performs the action
in the sentence or that the sentence is about, while the predicate is the part of the sentence that
provides information about the subject, such as the action or state of being.
Examples:
 The cat is sleeping.
 She sings beautifully.
 They are playing tennis.
 He cooked dinner for his family.
 The sun is shining.
2. Sentence elements
There are Five in type: Subject, Verb, Object, Adverbial, Complement, each with some specific
features
3. Syntactic and semantic features of sentence elements
Semantic and syntactic roles: An obligatory element, often as 'doer', determining the V-form
according to grammatical principle of S-V concord in finite clause.
 Nouns:
Syntactic features: Nouns can serve as the subject or object of a sentence and can be modified
by adjectives or other nouns.
Semantic features: Nouns refer to people, places, things, or concepts and convey meaning in
the context of the sentence.
 Verbs:
Syntactic features: Verbs indicate the action or state of being in a sentence and can be inflected
for tense, aspect, mood, and voice.
Semantic features: Verbs express meaning related to actions, processes, or states and can be
transitive or intransitive, indicating whether they take a direct object or not.
 Adjectives:
Syntactic features: Adjectives modify nouns and can appear before or after the noun they
modify.
Semantic features: Adjectives describe or quantify the qualities of a noun, such as size, shape,
color, or personality.
 Adverbs:
Syntactic features: Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs and can appear in various
positions within a sentence.
Semantic features: Adverbs indicate the manner, time, place, or degree of an action or state
described by the verb, adjective, or adverb they modify.
 Prepositions:
Syntactic features: Prepositions indicate the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other
elements in a sentence and are followed by a noun or noun phrase.
Semantic features: Prepositions indicate spatial or temporal relationships, such as location,
direction, time, or means.
  Conjunctions:
Syntactic features: Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence and can be
coordinating or subordinating.
Semantic features: Conjunctions indicate the relationship between the elements they connect,
such as addition, contrast, cause, or condition.
4. Classification of simple sentences in terms of communicative functions and their
structures.
 Based on communicative function
Statements/declarative sentences (We are having lovely weather.)
  Interrogative sentences (Are you having lovely weather?)
  Exclamatory sentence (What lovely weather we are having!)
 Imperative sentences (Enjoy it!)
 Base on structure:
One depnedend clause:
SVO: In a Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) sentence, the subject performs the action, the verb
describes the action, and the object receives the action. Example: "The cat chases the mouse."
SV: In a Subject-Verb (SV) sentence, the subject performs the action, and the verb describes
the action without an object. Example: "The cat runs."
SVOO: In a Subject-Verb-Object-Object (SVOO) sentence, the subject performs an action on
two objects. Example: "The cat gave the mouse to the dog."
SVC: In a Subject-Verb-Complement (SVC) sentence, the subject is linked to a complement that
describes or identifies it. Example: "The cat is black."
5. Kinds of concord and negation.
Subject-Verb Concord: This refers to the agreement in number and person between the subject
and verb in a sentence. For example, in the sentence "She sings," the singular subject "she"
agrees with the singular verb "sings." In the sentence "They sing," the plural subject "they"
agrees with the plural verb "sing."
Pronoun-Antecedent Concord: This refers to the agreement in number and gender between a
pronoun and its antecedent. For example, in the sentence "John loves his dog," the masculine
pronoun "his" agrees with the masculine antecedent "John."
Adjective-Noun Concord: This refers to the agreement in number and gender between an
adjective and the noun it modifies. For example, in the sentence "The red flowers are beautiful,"
the singular noun "flower" agrees with the plural adjective "red."
Double Negation: This is the use of two negative words in a sentence to express a negative
meaning. For example, in the sentence "I don't have no money," the double negative "don't" and
"no" cancel each other out, and the sentence means "I have money."
Single Negation: This is the use of a single negative word in a sentence to express negation. For
example, in the sentence "I don't have any money," the negative word "don't" negates the verb
"have," and the negative word "any" negates the noun "money."
Affirmative Negation: This is the use of affirmative words to express negation. For example, in
the sentence "She is not unkind," the affirmative word "kind" negates the negative prefix "un-."
6. Adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts
Adjunct: Place, Time, Process, Focusing, Intensifier, Others (reason, purpose...)
Disjunct: Style (speakers/writers' seriously/personally...) speaking or writing style:
Attitude (speakers '/writers' comment on the content of what is said) Conjunct: Most conjuncts
are adverb phrases or prepositional phrases. The most commonly used conjuncts are:
- Enumerative: first(ly), second(ly), for one thing, for a start, to start with, in the second place
- Reinforcing: also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, what is more
- Equate: equally, likewise, in the same way
Transitional: incidentally, by the way
- Apposition (al): namely, in other words, for example
- Result(ive): consequently, hence, therefore, as a result
7. Complex sentences
More than one clause combined by subordination. The subordination is - realized by
subordinators, which are numerous in types, expressing different types of semantic relationship
between the subordinate and superordinate clauses.
8. Subordinators
Subordinators make any clause with basic structure become dependent and function only as a
sentence element (Because he works hard I want him to have a rest-optional Al+SVOCo)
There are many kinds of subordinators and they are used to express different relationship in
meaning: Time (when, while after...), Cause-effect (because, so, that, that's why...), Concession
(although, even though, no matter what/how...), etc.
9. Structural and communicative classification of subordinate (dependent) clauses
 Structural classification:
Adverbial clauses: These subordinate clauses function as adverbs to modify the verb in the
independent clause. They can indicate time, frequency, condition, cause, manner, purpose,
concession, and other relationships. Examples:
When he arrived, we had already eaten.
Since you're here, let's get started.
Although it was raining, he went for a walk.
Adjectival clauses: These subordinate clauses function as adjectives to modify a noun or
pronoun in the independent clause. They usually begin with a relative pronoun such as "who,"
"whom," "whose," "which," or "that." Examples:
The book that I read last week was really interesting.
The girl who won the race is my friend.
The car whose engine is broken down is parked on the street.
Nominal clauses: These subordinate clauses function as a noun within the independent clause,
either as a subject, object, or complement. They usually begin with a subordinating conjunction
such as "that," "whether," or "if." Examples:
I know that he is coming.
She asked whether I wanted to go with her.
The problem is that we don't have enough money.
 Communicative classification:
Declarative clauses: These subordinate clauses provide additional information to make a
statement. Examples:
I hope that you can come to the party.
They believed that the project would be successful.
Interrogative clauses: These subordinate clauses ask a question. Examples:
I don't know whether she will be able to come.
Can you tell me what time it is?
Imperative clauses: These subordinate clauses express a command or request. Examples:
He asked that we be quiet.
She requested that he bring her a glass of water.
10. Syntactical  functions of finite and non-finite nominal clauses
 Nominal clauses are clauses that function as nouns within a sentence. They can be
classified as either finite or non-finite, based on whether they contain a finite verb or a
non-finite verb.
 Finite nominal clauses contain a finite verb and function as a noun in the sentence. They
can serve various syntactical functions such as subject, object, predicate nominative, and
appositive. Here are some examples:
 Subject: That she is happy is good news.
 Object: I believe that he will come.
 Predicate nominative: His only concern is that it might rain.
 Appositive: His wish, that he could go to the party, was not granted.
  Non-finite nominal clauses contain a non-finite verb and function as a noun in the
sentence. They can also serve various syntactical functions such as subject, object, and
appositive. Here are some examples:
 Subject: To study medicine is her dream.
 Object: She loves reading books written by Nobel laureates.
 Appositive: My goal, to improve my writing skills, requires daily practice.
 Non-finite nominal clauses can be further classified based on the type of non-finite verb
they contain. For example, infinitive clauses begin with "to" and can function as subjects
or objects in the sentence, while gerund clauses end in "-ing" and can function as
subjects, objects, or appositives.
B. PHẦN TỪ VỰNG – NGỮ NGHĨA
CHAPTER I: WORD STRUCTURE AND FORMATION
1. The concept of morpheme, classification of morphemes, types of words based on
morphemes
The concept of morpheme:
A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language. It is defined as the smallest part of a
word that has its own meaning or grammatical function. Morphemes can be words themselves,
such as "cat" or "dog", or they can be parts of words, such as the "-ed" ending in "walked".
Classification of morphemes:
There are two main types of morphemes: free and bound.
Free morphemes are morphemes that can stand alone as words. For example, "cat" is a free
morpheme because it can stand alone and still have meaning.
Bound morphemes are morphemes that cannot stand alone as words but must be attached to
other morphemes. For example, the "-ed" ending in "walked" is a bound morpheme because it
cannot stand alone and still have meaning.
Types of words based on morphemes:
Simple words: These are words that consist of only one morpheme, such as "cat" or "dog".
Compound words: These are words that consist of two or more free morphemes, such as
"toothbrush" or "rainbow".
Derived words: These are words that are formed by adding affixes, which are bound
morphemes, to base words. For example, "happy" is a derived word formed by adding the suffix
"-y" to the base word "happi-".
2. Different ways of forming English words
- Affixation
- Compounding
- Shortening
- Back derivation
- Conversion
-  Sound and Stress Interchange
-  Sound Imitation
- Word from name
3. Affixation
Affixation: the formation of new words with the help of affixes. As affixes consist of prefixes and
suffixes, affixation is further divided into pre-fixation and suffixation.
4. Pre-fixation  
Pre-fixation is the formation of words by means of prefixes. This process mainly modifies the
lexical meaning of the root, and rarely forms new parts of speech:
happy (adj) - unhappy (adj) do (v) - redo (v)
5. Suffixation  
Suffixation is the formation of words by means of suffixes. The process changes the meaning of
the root, both lexically and grammatically. Suffixation transfers words to different parts of
speech: beautiful (adj) beautifully (a)
6. Compounding
Compounding (word-composition) is the building of a new word by joining two or more words. As
a result, a compound word is a word consisting of at least two stems (roots) which occur in the
language as free forms.
e.g. classroom, time-table, bedroom, schoolgirl, passer-by, aircraft-carrier, kind- hearted,
handwash, sunbeam etc.
7. Shortening
Shortening is a productive way of building words in English, especially in colloquial speech and
advertisement.
e.g. ad (advertisement), TV, 1.O.U
8. Conversion (functional change/zero derivation)
Conversion is the formation of a new word in a different part of speech without
adding any element.
e.g.
  chair (n) to chair
 finger (n) to finger
9.  Sound and Stress Interchange
1. Sound interchange: New words are built by changing the root vowel or consonant of the
old words.
E.g. food (n) > feed (v) (root vowelng Đại học Mở Hà Nội speak (v) speech (n) (root consonant)
life (n) live (v) (both)
2. Stress interchange: The new word is built by changing the place of the stress on
the old one, eg.
 'export (n) to ex'port (v) 'conduct (n) → to conduct (v)
 'contrast (n) → to contrast 'convict (n) to con'vict
 'digest (n) to di'gest 'essay (n) to a'ssay
10.  Sound Imitation
Sound imitation
Sound imitation is the way of forming words by imitating sounds produced by
actions, things etc.
 Words showing animals: crow, cuckoo, humming bird, cricket.
 Words showing sounds made by animals: howl, quack, croak, mew, moo. Words
showing movement of water: flush, splash, babble.
 Words showing actions made by man: giggle, chatter, grumble, murmur,
11. Back Derivation
Back derivation (back formation)
Definition: Back derivation is the building of new words by subtracting a real or
supposed affix from existing words. Eg:
 to beg from beggar
 to burgle from burglar
 to cobble from cobbler
 to baby-sit from baby-sitter
 to force-land from forced-landing
12.  Coinage, and Reduplication
 Coinage is the process of creating a completely new word, typically by inventing a word
or phrase that did not previously exist. This can be done intentionally, such as when a
company creates a new brand name, or it can happen spontaneously, such as when a
slang term is created and then widely adopted by a community.
 Examples of coinage include words such as "Kodak", which was invented as a brand
name for a camera company, and "googling", which was created to describe searching
for something on the internet using the Google search engine.
Reduplication:
Reduplication is the process of repeating either a whole or a part of a word to create a new word
with a different meaning. In English, reduplication is typically used to create words with an
emphasis on intensity, such as "ping-pong" or "mish-mash".
There are two types of reduplication: total and partial. Total reduplication involves repeating the
entire word, while partial reduplication involves repeating only a part of the word.
Examples of total reduplication include words such as "choo-choo" and "night-night", while
examples of partial reduplication include words such as "flip-flop" and "zigzag".
13.  Borrowings
Borrowings, also known as loanwords, are words that have been borrowed from one language
and incorporated into another language. These borrowed words can come from a variety of
languages and can be adopted for a number of reasons, such as to describe new concepts or to
express cultural ideas.
English is a language that has borrowed extensively from other languages, especially from
French, Latin, and Greek. Many words related to science, medicine, and academia have been
borrowed from Latin and Greek, while words related to food, fashion, and art have been
borrowed from French.
Other examples of borrowing in English include words such as "karaoke" from Japanese,
"schadenfreude" from German, and "chutzpah" from Yiddish.
Borrowed words can sometimes undergo changes in pronunciation, spelling, and even meaning
when they are incorporated into the borrowing language. For example, the French word "menu"
is pronounced differently in English, and the Latin word "agenda" has taken on a different
meaning in English. However, borrowed words often retain some of their original characteristics
and can provide insights into the history and culture of the language from which they were
borrowed.
CHAPTER II: LEXICAL MEANING
14. Classification of meaning + 15. Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning
 Lexical meaning is the realization of the concept of emotion. It has 2 components:
 Denotational meaning (denotation) : express the conceptual content of a word. It
includes or points out things, concepts
 Co-notional meaning (connotation): show us how things, concepts are indicated.
It conveys the speaker's attitude, emotion. Ex: father, daddy, dad : same
denotational meaning but different in main types of connotations are stylistic,
emotional, expressive or intensifying
 Classification: Direct/literal meaning (directly denote without comparing or
associating with other things) and Figurative/Indirect meaning (to understand, we
have to compare or associate with other things - need the context)
 Grammatical meaning: is that unites of words with different lexical meanings. It divides
words into group with their own grammatical features, for example:
 table, chair, bed,...-> singular nouns, common case
 walk, run, go,...->verb
16. The motivation of English words
Motivation means the relationship between structure and meaning and between direct and
indirect meaning. There are 3 types of motivation: morphologic, phonetic and semantic
 Morphologic: is the relationship between the morphologic structure of the word and its
meaning. Ex: an employer ( a person employs clothes) - an employee ( a person who
works for sb)
 Phonetic: is the direct relationship between phonetic structure of the word and its
meaning. Ex; re’bel (v) - ‘rebel (n)
 Semantic: the relationship between direct and indirect meaning. There is coexistence of
literal and figurative meanings based on metaphor. Ex: the foot of the mountain
17. Homonymy and polysemy
HOMONYMY: words identical in pronunciation and/or spelling, but different in meaning. They
are not connected semantically and are quite different words
  according to form:
 full/perfect homonymy: identical both in pronunciation and spelling, of same part
of speech (PoS)
 partial homonymy: identical both in pronunciation and/or spelling. They are
homonymy only in some of the forms of their respective paradigms and may be
found both within the same PoS and in different PoS
 according to meaning:
 lexical : the same PoS but different in meaning and there is no semantic relation
between them
 grammatical: different PoS: work (V) - work (N)
 Other ways of classification :
 homophones: identical in pronunciation but different in spelling
 homographs: same spelling, but of different pronunciation
POLYSEMY:  the case in which a word has(Trường hâm hấp cám lợn) more than one meaning.
The 1st meaning of a word is called “the direct of primary” meaning, the other meanings are
called “secondary or derived” meaning
All the meanings of a word form its semantic structure and the more common word is, the more
meaning it has
There are 2 common patterns of polysemic structure:
 radial polysemy: all the transferred meanings are formed on the basis of one literal/direct
meaning
 Chain polysemy: the 2nd meaning is formed on the basis of the 1st, the 3rd on the basis
of 2nd and so on
DISTINGUISH: Homonymy and Polysemy are distinguished based on a number of criteria,
namely: semantic criterion, derivational criterion (H have more), criterion of synonyms (H have
more) and criterion of combination
18. Synonymy
Synonyms are words (two or more) of the same PoS, similar in their denotational meaning, but
different in their phonetic and graphic forms, connotational meaning and combinability.
 absolute synonyms: words having the same denotational and connotational meanings.
Ex: luggage - baggage
 Semantic synonyms: words differing in shades of meaning: beauty, pretty
 Stylistic synonyms: words belonging to different stylistic layers, differing in emotive value,
expressiveness: begin - commence
 Euphemisms: words or expressions synonymous to those denoting unpleasant notion or
processes and sounding pleasant or basing on the desire no to hurt other people’s
feeling
 Semantic-stylistic: words differing both in shades of meaning and stylistic aspect: house -
shack
 Phraseological : words differing in their combinability: do exercise - make money
19. Lexical variants and paronyms
Lexical variants are examples of free variation in language, in so far as they are not conditioned
by contextual environment but are optional with the individual speaker. E.g. northward / norward;
whoever whosoever.
Paronyms are words kindred in origin, sound form and meaning and therefore liable to be mixed
but in fact different in meaning and usage and therefore only mistakenly interchanged.
20. Antonymy
Antonyms are those words of the same PoS, but opposite in meaning.There are 2 types:
 antonyms proper: words of different forms and having completely opposite
meanings: tall- short, beautiful - ugly
 Derivational antonyms: 2 words of the same root, one of which bearing a negative
affix: like - dislike, lock - unlock
21. Full and empty words
Full words express a notion or concept (N, V, adj and Adv)
Empty words do not have the lexical meaning ( article, conjunctions, certain pronouns, prep)
22. The change and development of meaning
Words change when either the denotation and connotation experiences some sort of change
ex: silly once meant happy
Meaning is changed either many causes:
 extra linguistic cause: connected with the development of society, change in social,
political, economic, cultural life
 linguistic cause: factors acting within language, connected with the system of language
 ellipsis: to propose marriage = to propose
 discrimination of synonyms: deer: animal, beast (rats, mice and such small deer),
now it denotes only a certain kind of animal
 attraction of synonyms: catch means to understand, and its synonyms
(get) acquire this meaning too
 psychological reasons: concern the avoidance of expressing explicitly problematic
concepts such as death, sex,..
Ways of development of word meaning:
 denotation
 extension: to arrive (cap ben) -> do anywhere
 narrowing: meat (all kind of food) -> a kind of food
 connotation
 degradation
 elevation: knight
23. Transference of meaning
  Transference from literal meaning to figurative meaning, expressed by the figures of speech.
The most popular figures of speech are: metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, litotes, irony and
euphemisms
CHAPTER IV. PHRASEOLOGY
24. Structural features of set expressions
Set expression are characterized by stability of its lexical components and grammatical structure
Ex: red flower/hair/… Free word group
Red-tape: set expression
25. Semantic features of set expressions
The meaning of a set expression is not a mere sum of the meanings of it components - Set
expressions are said to be completely or partially idiomatic.
e.g:
 to pull smb's leg (to tease him)- completely idiomatic
 to be in high feather (to be in good spirits) -Ibid-
 to break the ice (to overcome formality or reserve in conversation)
 to get people on friendly terms - partially idiomatic, transferred meaning
 to show one's teeth (to take up a threatening attitude) -ibid-
26. Proverbs and idioms
A proverb is a short saying expressing popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise
and imaginary way.
 Two heads are better than one.
 No pains no gains.
Characteristic features of proverbs:
Their lexical components are stable, or constant;
Their meaning is mostly figurative;
They are ready-made units.
Idioms are set expressions, short sayings usually characterized by the fact that their
meaning cannot easily be deduced from their components -like a cat on hot bricks.
 jump the lights
  get in sb's hair
 catch sb red-handed
C.PHẦN NGỮ ÂM – ÂM VỊ HỌC
CHAPTER I: ENGLISH PHONEMES
27. English Consonants and Vowels: definitions, classifications and rules
VOWEL:
 a vowel is a speech sound in which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in anyway
in the mouth or throat and which is usually pronounced with vibration of the vocal cord
 5 standard: tongue height, tongue position, lip rounding, muscle tension and vowel length


CONSONANT:
 Consonants are the sounds in the production of which one articulator moves toward
another or two articulators come together, obstructing the air-stream and the airstream
cannot get out roughly
 E consonants can be classified according to :
 the place of articulation (where the airstream is obstructed)
 the manner of articulation (the way in which the airstream is obstructed)
 the voicing (voiced/voiceless)
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN VOWEL AND CONSONANTS
 a vowel is produced without any stoppage of the airstream in the oral cavity meanwhile
there is an obstruction in the production of a consonant
 a vowel is syllabic, it form the center or nucleus of a syllable meanwhile a consonant is
not except some syllabic consonants
28. Phonemes and Allophones
Phoneme is a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language
An allophone is any of the different forms of a phoneme
 eg: In E, when the phoneme /p/ occurs bit the beginning of a word like put and pen /
its said with a little puff of air.. That's aspirated
  But when /p/ occurs at in words like spend and spell its unaspirated
 Both the aspirated in pen and unaspirated in spell have the same phoneme function,
that's, they are both heard and identify as /p/ . They are both Allophones in the
phonemes
The difference between phoneme and allophones:
 A phoneme is a meaning that distinguishes sound in  a language. If we substitute
one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, the 2nd sounds
represent different phoneme
eg: tie and die they are not allophone
 Otherwise, if we should substitute allphone, we have different pronunciation of the
same word
 phonemes are transcribed phonemically in slant bars | | and allophones are
transcribed phonetically in square [ ]
 As a result of this, we have 2 kind of transcription
  narrow transcription (phonetic transcription)
 broad transcription ( phonemic transcription)
CHAPTER III. ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH
29. Assimilations
The influence/change of one phoneme upon another neighboring phoneme so that they become
more alike
Assimilation may occur across word boundaries oe between words, across morpheme
boundaries or within a morpheme or a word
 In term of direction of change
 regressive assimilation: Cf (final consonant) - Ci (initial consonant)
 progressive assimilation: Ci - Cf
 in term of the way in which phonemes changes
 assimilation of place
 assimilation of manner
 assimilation of voicing
ex: light blue , good girl
30. Elisions
The disappearance of sound in speech. Under circumstances, sounds disappear, in other
words in certain circumstances a phoneme may be realized as zero realization or be
deleted. As with assimilation, elision is a typically rapid, casual speech.
31. Linking
Linking is the way that individual words are connected or linked together in spoken English, often
resulting in changes to the pronunciation of words and the rhythm of the speech.
In connected speech, the final consonant sound of one word is often linked to the initial vowel
sound of the following word. For example, the phrase "I have a cat" can be pronounced as "I-
hav-a-cat" with the final "v" sound in "have" linking to the initial "a" sound in "a cat". This linking
helps to create a smooth and natural flow of speech.
1. Linking final consonant to initial vowel
drink a cup of tea
2. Liking identical consonants
bad dog
3. Linking /r/ and intrusive/r/
Media events [mi:diarivents]
4. Intrusive /j/: when a word ending in /i i: et al 31/ is followed by a word
the other my aunt [maila:nt]
5. Intrusive/w/: when a word ending in /u:, u, au, au / is followed by a word
go in [gau"in]