S.G.B.Amravati University.

Cellular Digital Packet Data

1. INTRODUCTION:

Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) systems offer one of the most advanced

means of wireless data transmission technology. Generally used as a tool for business,

CDPD holds promises for improving law enforcement communications and

operations. As technologies improve, CDPD may represent a major step toward

making our nation a wireless information society. While CDPD technology is more

complex than most of us care to understand.

In this age of information, no one needs to be reminded of speed but also accuracy in

the storage, retrieval and transmission of data. The CDPD network is a little one year

old and already is proving to be a hot digital enhancement to the existing phone

network. CDPD transmits digital packet data at 19.2 Kbps, using idle times between

cellular voice calls on the cellular telephone network.

CDPD technology represents a way for law enforcement agencies to improve

how they manage their communications and information systems. For over a decade,

agencies around the world have been experimenting with placing Mobile Data

Terminals(MDT) in their vehicles to enhance officer safety and efficiency.

Early MDT's transmits their information using radio modems. In this case data could

be lost in transmission during bad weather or when mobile units are not properly

located in relation to transmission towers. More recently MDT's have transmitted data

using analog cellular telephone modems. This shift represented an improvement in

mobile data communications, but systems still had flaw which limited their utility.

Since the mid-1990, computer manufacturers and the telecommunication industry

have been experimenting with the use of digital cellular telecommunications as a

wireless means to transmit data. The result of their effort is CDPD systems. These

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systems allow users to transmit data with a higher degree of accuracy, few service

interruptions, and strong security. In addition CDPD technology represents a way for

law enforcement agencies to improve how they manage their communications and

information systems. This results in the capacity for mobile users to enjoy almost

instantaneous access to information.

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2. WHAT IS CDPD?

CDPD is a specification for supporting wireless access to the Internet and

other public packet-switched networks. Data transmitted on the CDPD systems travel

several times faster than data send using analog networks.

Cellular telephones and modem providers that offer CDPD support make it possible

for mobile users to get access to the Internet at up to 19.2 Kbps. Because CDPD is an

open specification that remains to the layered structure of the Open Systems

Interconnection (OSI) model, it has the ability to be extended in the future. CDPD

supports both the Internet's Connectionless Network Protocol (CLNP).

CDPD also supports IP multicast (one-to-many) service. With multicast, a company

can periodically broadcast updates to sales and service people on the road or a news

subscription service can transmit its issues as they are published. It will also support

the next level of IP, IPV6. With CDPD we can assigned our very own address. With

this address, we can virtually always connected to our host without having to keep a

constant connection.

There are currently two methods for sending data over cellular networks:

cellular digital packet data (CDPD) and cellular switched-circuit data (CSCD). Each

has distinct advantages depending on the type of application, amount of data to send

or receive and geographic coverage needs.

CDPD is currently available to roughly 50 percent of the population base. Two

methods to transmit data are used, depending upon the service provider's network

architecture. Some providers have radio channels dedicated to data transmission

installed at existing voice cellular sites. Others use voice cellular channels and

interleave data messages within the unused portion of voice radio signals. To use a

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CDPD data service, users require a laptop computer, a connector cable and a CDPD

radio modem. Radio modems come in a PC-card format or connect to the user device

with a serial cable.

Regardless of the method used, messages are broken up into discrete packets

of data and transmitted continuously over the network. Messages are then

"reassembled" into the original message at the receiving device. This technology

supports roaming and is especially attractive for multicast (e.g., one-to-many) service,

allowing updates to be periodically broadcast to all users. Users log on once per day

to register on the network. Messages and transmissions automatically locate them.

Major CDPD providers generally have roaming agreements to allow users to access

the service when outside their home coverage area. For the mobile users, CDPD's

support for packet switching means that a persistent link isn’t needed. The same

broadcast channel can be shared among a number of users at the same time. The user's

recognizes the packets intended for its user. As data such as e-mail arrives, it is

forwarded immediately to the user without a circuit connection having to be

established. There is circuit switched version, called CS CDPD that can be used

where traffic is expected to be heavy enough to warrant a dedicated connection. As a

tool for transmitting data CDPD utilizes digital networks. Placing data, conversions,

photographs, and multimedia into digital form and transmitting the information

through a network with a large bandwidth permits more information to be sent more

quickly with greater clarity. Thus, data send using CDPD is received in a quick,

secure, and accurate fashion. Data send using CDPD systems is less likely to be lost

between senders and receivers due to the position of mobile units, weather conditions,

or other anomalies.

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CDPD is an overlay to the existing cellular network, which enables users to transmit

packets of data over the cellular network using a portable computing device and a

CDPD modem. CDPD offers a high-speed, high-capacity, low-cost system with the

greatest possible coverage. Additionally data is encrypted for security. CDPD air link

Transmission has a 19,200 bps raw data rate.

The Raven is a rugged, full duplex Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD)

modem that provides wireless transport capabilities for fixed and mobile applications.

The Raven is an efficient and secures wireless packet data technology that is ideal for

un-tethered applications. The CDPD Raven is ideally suited for all fixed and mobile

Industrial and Commercial Applications, including Telemetry, SCADA, Public Safety,

Dispatch, Field Service, Financial Transaction Processing, and Security. The Raven's

embedded TCP/IP stack enables virtually any type of remote device to access

the CDPD network.

The Raven is currently installed with many different types of Remote Terminal

Units (RTUs), which perform remote metering, and monitoring functions in the oil,

gas, and water industries. The CDPD Raven can be a low-cost replacement for

existing landline, private radio and circuit-switched cellular installations.

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3. KEY CDPD CHARACTERISTICS

Fig: 3.1 Key CDPD Characteristics

3.1 AVAILABILITY

CDPD is available in more than half of the geographic United States and in 30

international markets. CDPD carriers use “roaming” agreements to extend their

regional services to other areas outside their region. Therefore, as long as CDPD

services are available, CDPD subscribers can use CDPD as they cross service areas or

if they are on travel to different parts of the US.

3.2 COVERAGE

Carriers will typically deploy networks to provide services in areas with high

population density, such as metropolitan areas and along roadways. Consequently,

carriers may not provide full coverage in rural areas or beyond these major roadways.

This is a key consideration for users that expect and need contiguous service off the

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beaten path. Whether in the carrier’s region or when roaming, CDPD users will often

experience coverage gaps similar to cellular voice services. This often occurs in less

populated areas or away from major roads. Coverage gaps can be caused by

environment or buildings that interfere with the signal. They are also due to “dead

spots” within the region, where the carrier’s signal is too weak or non-existent. Users

should match operational requirements to CDPD coverage considerations to ensure

the service is available when and where they need it.

3.3 RELIABILITY

Users of commercial systems share the airwaves and compete for capacity

with one another. Therefore, users may experience jamming if there is more demand

than network capacity. Overcrowding within CDPD networks will cause delays in

setting up a connection and transmitting information. The possibility and effect of

overcrowding depends, in part, on the type of CDPD network implemented. The two

network types are channel hopping networks and dedicated channel networks.CDPD

channel hopping takes advantage of capacity unused by cellular voice subscribers to

transmit information. This means that the capacity available for CDPD is directly

associated with the level of use by cellular voice calls. During peak periods or

emergencies when voice traffic on cellular networks tends to increase significantly,

the possibility of CDPD users experiencing overcrowding may increase significantly

causing call set-up and transmission delays. The other configuration uses dedicated

channel networks. This technique dedicates capacity on a portion of the cellular

network that is available for CDPD use only. Therefore, CDPD capacity does not vary

as cellular voice calls increase or decrease. CDPD transmissions do not compete with

cellular voice calls. To the CDPD user, this is an important improvement because

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CDPD performance is not affected when the cellular voice system is congested. Users

must still compete with other CDPD users for call setup and channel capacity.

Cellular carriers will often use channel hopping when they first introduce CDPD

service, in smaller cities, or where CDPD usage is low. They will implement

dedicated channels in larger cities where the service has been offered for a number of

years and demand is high. These network implementation strategies have significant

implications for reliability. Users should exercise caution to ensure that service

reliability will not affect critical operational requirements.

3.4 TRANSMISSION SPEED

CDPD can provide a maximum link data rate of 19.2 kilobits per second

(kbps). The actual user transmission speeds are less typically from 10 to 12 kbps 

when the application overhead is Included . The exact transmission speed varies

among vendors and is affected by the level of traffic on the network. This can mean a

10 kilobyte file (which contains approximately 1500 words, or 3 text pages) will take

up to 15 seconds to transmit. Times to send files of different sizes are provided in the

fig 3.4

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Fig: 3.4 Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD)

3.5 CALL SET-UP TIMES

Call set-up time is the time it takes to begin transmitting information after the

user pushes the transmit button. CDPD call set-up times range from less than 1 second

to 3 or 4 seconds. Differences in call set-up times may depend on the user terminal

processing speed and the users’ ability to access the network from the user’s point of

view, the overall time to transmit data is equal to the call set-up time plus the

transmission duration. Using the example from above, the overall time needed to

transmit a 10 kilobyte file is 18 seconds (3 seconds for set up and 15 seconds for

transmission).

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3.6 PRIVACY AND SECURITY

CDPD privacy features include automatic identification and authentication, to

limit unauthorized, fake access and data interception. Channel-hopping transmissions

are more difficult to intercept than dedicated channel transmissions, since they often

change channels between transmissions of packets. However, intercepting channel-

hopped communications is possible. CDPD does use a standard form of encryption to

protect information sent over the air. For users with more robust security

requirements, end-to-end encryption schemes should be considered. Users should also

consider the security practices of the service provider, with the respect to physical,

operational, and information security.

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4. FEATURES

• Data network overlay on analog cellular telephone system

• Uses same 30 KHz channels @ 800 MHz; potentially same coverage as

cellular system

• Schedule data packets to unused voice channels

• CDPD uses strong encryption between the modem and its service provider, so

you can feel reasonably confident that no one will be able to intercept your

employees' signals and read confidential data.

• CDPD supports the full range of TCP/IP applications, including telnet, HTTP,

FTP.

• Provides IP packet service

1) 19.2 kbps raw data transfer rate.

2) Full duplex transreceiver.

3) 600 mw transmit power.

4) Integrated TCP/IP protocol stack.

5) Compact size modem.

6) strong aluminum case.

7) LEDs show status of CDPD operation.

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5. WORKING OF CDPD

To effectively integrate voice and data traffic on the cellular system without

degrading the level of service provided to the voice customer, the CDPD network

implements a technique called channel hopping. The way this works is that when a

CDPD mobile data unit desires to initiate data transmission, it will check for

availability of a cellular channel. Once an available channel is located, the data link is

established. As long as the assigned cellular channel is not needed for voice

communications, the mobile data unit can continue to transmit data packet bursts on

it. However, if a cellular voice customer initiates voice communication, it will take

priority over the data transmission. At such time, the mobile data unit will be advised

by the Mobile Data Base Station (which is the CDPD serving entity in the cell and

constantly checks for potential voice communication on the channel) to "jump" to

another available channel. In the event that there are no other available channels, then

data transmission will be temporarily discontinued. It is important to note that these

channel hops are completely transparent to the mobile data user. As far as the user can

see, there is only one data stream being used to complete the entire transmission.

CDPD and current cellular voice network are essentially two separate networks that

happen to share cellular airspace.

During transmission across cellular telephone channels, there are moments

when the channel is idle. In fact, industry research indicates that over 30 percent of

the air time, even during heavy traffic times is unused. CDPD technology is able to

detect and use these otherwise wasted moments, by packaging data in small packets

and sending it in short bursts or chunks during the idle time. As a result, the cellular

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channel operates more efficiently while remaining transparent to the cellular voice

network. Thus voice and data transmissions are unaffected. CDPD is based on the

same communications protocol as the Internet; so mobile users have access to the

broadest range of information.

CDPD accomplishes this amazing feat by transmitting the data in small chunks or

packets. Then the chunks can be sent separately on whatever channel is available at

the time of transmission. Here is an analogy to help visualize this:

Instead of channels or lines we now have pipes. The pipes can be open in the

traditional way. Now no one can use the pipe while you have open it. You send your

data down the pipe. Now you wait for a response. Nothing is going through the pipe

but still no one else can use it. Majority of your data transmission using this method is

idle time that some else could utilize. CDPD is the new way. You have little bundles

of data. You find a pipe that is available and you open it. You send your data and shut

the pipe again. If that pipe is available when you send more data, you use it. If not,

you find a new pipe. You get a response through which ever pipe is unused when the

host sends you the data. With CDPD you are assigned an IP address. This is better

than a phone number. This allows you to change channels or pipes and still send and

receive data as if you were directly connected to your host.

5.1 USER EQUIPMENT

Users typically require two pieces of equipment to use CDPD services: a

CDPD modem and a user terminal. Key factors to consider when purchasing CDPD

modems and user terminals for mobile users include functionality, device roughness,

ease of use, battery life, computational power, display quality, warranty, and cost.

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5.2 CDPD MODEM

The CDPD modem includes the wireless antenna and the modem that provides

compatibility with the CDPD network. CDPD modems can either be internal to the

user terminal (built-in or removable, such as a PCMIA card) or external through a

standard port. Because CDPD modems are based on personal computer standards,

they are not specific to a particular carrier or manufacturer. CDPD modems typically

range from $450 to $1000, depending on functionality and performance. Users can

buy standard CDPD modems from a number of manufacturers and use them on any

CDPD network.

5.3 USER TERMINAL

Any device that supports IP-based data communication can use CDPD. Business

users employ different types of user terminals, which vary in terms of size and utility

such as notebook or laptop Personal Computers (PCs), handheld computers or PCs,

pen-based computers, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), and wireless handsets. User

terminal costs vary significantly based on the level of functionality, processing power,

display characteristics, and vendor.

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6. INTERFACES AND COMPONENTS OF CDPD

NETWORKS

The CDPD network consists of three interfaces and five network components. They

are as follows

6.1 INTERFACES

6.1.1 A INTERFACE:

A Interface is the abbreviated form of Air Interface. It is the interface between

the mobile end station (M-ES) and the cell site equipment. It consists of a new media

access and control (MAC) protocol unique to CDPD, IP protocols used for routing,

existing RF equipment and mobility management features

Such as RF sniffing and the channel hopping.

6.1.2 I INTERFACE:

I Interface is the abbreviated form of Intermediate system Interface. It is the

interface between routing functions within the network, or between the routing

functions on a network-to-network interface. It is the interface between the shelf

routers. It consists of the shelf router equipment, such as Wellfleet, employing the IP

or ISO 8473 profiles. Use of other profiles X.25 and Frame relay is considered to be

optional.

6.1.3 E INTERFACE:

E Interface is the abbreviated form of External Interface. It is the interface

connecting a non-CDPD network with a CDPD network. It is typically a leased line

connecting a Users fixed end system (F-ES) to a CDPD network provider.

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6.2 COMPONENTS

6.2.1 MOBILE END SYSTEM (M-ES):

The M-ES can be any mobile computing device which has a CDPD modem

built in or attached. It supports the MAC functionality required over the A interface

and IP protocols that are compulsory for addressing and mobility management. The

M-ES transmits data over the air link to the Mobile Data Base Station (MDBS)

located in the cell site. The M-ES is also concerned with radio resource management

such as discovering and keeping synchronization with RF data streams from an

MDBS. The M-ES should provide a transparent interface to the users applications.

The CDPD modem is a very good example.

6.2.2 MOBILE DATA BASE STATION (MDBS):

MDBS is located at the cell site. It acts as a relay station between M-ES and

MD-IS systems. The MDBS relays packets of data to the MD-IS (Mobile Data

Intermediate System) located at the MTSO (Mobile Telephone Switching Office). The

MDBS is primarily responsible for radio frequency management; such as making sure

that M-ES does not transmit on a frequency that is currently being used by the cellular

voice, channel hopping, and aiding the M-ES to transfer from one cell to another by

assisting in the location of a new channel. It provides a hop-to-hop control over the air

interface. It controls the hop and RF segment between the M-ES and the CDPD

network. Each cellular geographic service area (CGSA) is controlled by MBDS.

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6.2.3 MOBILE DATA INTERMEDIATE SYSTEM (MD-IS):

The MD-IS keeps track of an M-ESs location and routes data packets to and

from the CDPD Network and the M-ES appropriately. In addition, the MD-IS is

responsible for validating an M-ES on the network, and exchanging the encryption

keys with the M-ES that allows for secure transmission of data over the air link. It is

responsible for IP routing. MD-ISs are the only routers that are aware of mobility of

the M-ESs. These devices support a CDPD specific mobility network location

protocol (MNLP) which allows the exchange of mobility information. An MD-IS may

serve single or multiple CGSAs (cells). MD-IS will also determine where an M-ES is

and routes between the F-ES and M-ES. An MD-IS can provides mobile home and

serving functions.

6.2.4 INTERMEDIATE SYSTEM (IS):

The Intermediate System is a router and an off-the-shelf device. The

Intermediate System routes the data through the IP and the CLNP network. The

Intermediate System is a standard IP router with the primary responsibility of relaying

data packets. It consists of the off-the-shelf commercially available router equipment,

such as manufactured by Wellfleet. Most ISs are unaware of mobility. The IS

components are the backbone of the CDPD mesh.

6.2.5 FIXED-END SYSTEM (F-ES):

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The F-ES is whatever network environment/resource the User is attempting to

make available to mobile access via CDPD. The F-ES is the final destination of the

message sent from an M-ES. The Fixed-End System receives the data and processes it

appropriately. The F-ES can be one of many stationary-computing devices, such as a

host computer, a UNIX workstation, an online information service, or another

Mobile-End System. CDPD subscribers administrate external F-ES. The CDPD

operator such as Ameritech or US West administrates internal F-ES. The F-ES could

be the directory services database. It is important to realize that the F-ES is not

required to be aware of mobility issues in anyway whatsoever. As such, an F-ES

should be able to connect to a CDPD network with absolutely no modifications. This

is probably be a router connected to a token ring or Other LAN.

6.3 MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL (MAC):

In computer networking a Media Access Control address (MAC address) or

Ethernet Hardware Address (EHA) or hardware address or adapter address is a quasi-

unique identifier attached to most network adapters (NIC or Network Interface Card).

It is a number that serves as an identifier for a particular network adapter. Thus

network cards (or built-in network adapters) in two different computers will have

different MAC addresses.The MAC function used over the air interface is unique to

CDPD.

6.3 CDPD NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

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Fig: 6.3 CDPD Network Architecture

7. CDPD ENTITIES

7.1 M-ES

• CDPD network tracks location of ES’ and routes them network datagram’s

ES’ address does not imply location; current sub network “point of

attachment” determines this.

• ES’ are associated with the CDPD network’s routing domain, not the user’s

corporate home network.

7.2 FIXED END SYSTEMS (F-ES)

• Fixed location, traditional routing can be used.

• Internal F-ES provided by service provider, considered to be inside the

security firewall.

• For authentication, authorization, network mgmt, accounting

• For domain name services, location services, etc.

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• External F-ES: external to CDPD, must operate over the external network

interface

7.3 INTERMEDIATE SYSTEMS (IS, MD-IS)

• Intermediate System provides routing

• MD-IS provides mobile routing: MNLP (Mobile Network Location Protocol)

• Mobile Home Function: like home agent processing in Mobile IP or HLR

function in cellular networks; uses encapsulation to forward packets to MD-IS

in the visited region » Mobile Serving Function: like foreign agent processing

in Mobile IP or VLR function in cellular networks;

Registration/authentication/authorization/accounting.

7.4 MOBILE DATA BASE STATION (MD-BS)

• Controls radio interface, responsible for radio channel allocation, radio media

access

• RF Channel Pair: Forward link from BS to multiple ESs Reverse link from

multiple ESs to BS

• Collocated with cellular voice equipment

• CDPD channels must be able to jump to new frequencies as demanded by the

voice services

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8. CDPD PROTOCOLS

8.1 MOBILE DATA LINK PROTOCOL (MDLP)

The Mobile Data Link Protocol (MDLP) is a protocol that operates

within the data link layer of the OSI model to provide logical link control

services between Mobile End Systems (M-ESs) and Mobile Data Intermediate

Systems (MD-ISs). The purpose of MDLP is to transmit information between

network layer entities across the CDPD Air link interface. It supports multiple

M-ESs sharing access to a single channel stream. The channel stream

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topology is that of a point-to-multipoint subnetwork. In such a subnetwork, direct

communication is possible only between the user side and the network side of the

channel stream. Direct communication between two M-ESs on the same channel

stream is not possible. Point (MDIS) to multipoint (M-ES), connection-oriented, fully

sequenced, acknowledged transfers.

8.2 SUBNETWORK DEPENDENT CONVERGENCE PROTOCOL

(SNDCP)

• The Subnetwork Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) provides a

number of services to the network layer:

• Connectionless-mode subnetwork service.

• Transparent transfer of a minimum number of octets of user data.

• User data confidentiality.

• Encryption/decryption

• Compression/elimination of redundant protocol control information

8.3 MOBILE NETWORK REGISTRATION PROTOCOL (MNRP)

• The Mobile Network Registration Protocol (MNRP) provides the following:

• Exchange of routing and registration information between the M-ES and a

serving MD-IS.

• Delivery of authentication information about an M-ES.

• Registration and Authentication of multicast NEI.

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• Cell selection - allows an M-ES to discover, select and maintain the most

channel optimal available.

Redirection and forwarding - messages which are destined for the M-ES are

redirected from the home MD-IS to the serving MD-IS.

8.4 RADIO RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Radio resource management (RRM) is the system level control of co-channel

interference and other radio transmission characteristics in wireless communication

systems, for example cellular networks, wireless networks and broadcasting systems.

RRM involves strategies and algorithms for controlling parameters such as transmit

power, channel allocation, handover criteria, modulation scheme, error coding

scheme, etc.

RRM concerns multi-user and multi-cell network capacity issues, rather than point-to-

point channel capacity. The cost for deploying a wireless network is normally

dominated by base station sites (real estate costs, planning, maintenance, distribution

network, energy, etc) and sometimes also by frequency license fees. The objective of

radio resource management is therefore typically to maximize the system spectral

efficiency in bit/s/Hz/base station site or Erlang/MHz/site.

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9. APPLICATIONS OF CDPD

Since, CDPD is an integrated technology; it can be used in variety of applications.

9.1 CREDIT CARD VERIFICATION

A credit card number is entered at the point of sale and an enquiry is sent to

authorize the purchase.

E.g. Yellow cab, located in San Francisco, California, is a customer who has started

outfitting cabs with small terminals, which allow the customers to automatically pay

by credit card. The terminals use the CDPD technology to validate credit card

information and receive payment verification. It takes less than five seconds, which is

a significant savings than the traditional approach they had previously employed of

validating customer credit card information through radio dispatch.

9.2 ATM NETWORK

The benefits of CDPD in ATM’s are, Fast Transaction Customers won’t have

to wait for their money. More people can use the ATM during busy times. Less time in

front of the ATM means more security of customers.

9.3 SECURE DATA TRANSFER

Data is transmitted in digital form (unlike most cellular phones, which send

information in analog form) and is encrypted automatically by the CDPD modem.

It uses private data networks to route the transactions to the host.

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9.4 COST EFFECTIVE

CDPD is priced by the amount of data sent through the system, not by the time

it takes to send it. Easy to Install Since CDPD is wireless, it works almost anywhere

there is cellular coverage.

No installation is required just turn it on. On power up, the CDPD modem

automatically registers itself.

9.5 EMERGENCY SERVICES

Ability to receive information on the move is vital, where the emergency

services are involved. Information regarding the address, type and other details of an

incident can be dispatched quickly via a CDPD system using mobile computers. It is

also used in wide area wireless network data systems.

E.g. package pick up delivery and electronic mail notifications

9.6 FLEET MANAGEMENT

Fleet Management is a function which allows companies which rely on

transportation in their business to remove or minimize the risks associated with

vehicle investment, improving efficiency, productivity and reducing their overall

transportation costs, providing 100% compliance with government legislation (duty of

care) and many more. Messages could be sent to specific mobile computing devices in

to a vehicle to direct it toward destination for a pick up or next job. The technology

allows the officers to communicate car to dispatch through e-mail messages. It is

more secure than the traditional voice communication.

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10. CONCLUSION

The CDPD technology is used for the verification of credit

cards. It is also used in various types of ATM networks of

various organizations. It has lot of advantages over voice

communication network. So user can use this technology rather

than traditional data network and must consider how these

applications can be used effectively as business tools.

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10. REFERENCE

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_resource_management

2. http://www.protocols.com/pbook/cdpd.htm

3. http://www.amycsizmardalal.com/research/CDPD/intro.html

4. http://www.webtechniques.com/archives/2001/11/jepson/

5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet_management

6. http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/8-29-2004-58574.asp

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