UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

LECTURE NOTES ON

CALCULUS (EL/MC/CE/RN 166)

Course Instructors

Dr Lewis Brew, Dr Eric N. Wiah, Dr Paul Boye and K. Agyarko

June, 2022
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE 1
INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS 1
1.0 LIMITS 1
CHAPTER TWO 6
DIFFERENTIATION 6
2.1 DIFFERENTIATION FROM FIRST PRINCIPLE 7
2.1.1 Differentiation of Products from First Principle 8
2.1.2 Differentiation of Quotients from First Principle 10
2.2 CHAIN RULE 15
2.3 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 16
2.4 DIFFERENTIATION OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 17
2.5 PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION 19
2.6 DIFFERENTIATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 21
2.7 DIFFERENTIATION OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 23
2.8 LEIBNITZ’S FORMULA FOR NTH (REPEATED) DIFFERENTIATION OF A
PRODUCT 25
2.9 STATIONARY POINTS 27
2.9.1 Finding the Stationary Points 28
2.9.2 Type of Stationary Points 29
2.10 POWER SERIES AND INDETERMINATE FORMS 32
2.10.1 Limiting Values – Indeterminate Forms 34
2.10.2 Expansion of Functions 38
2.11 ROLLLE’S THEOREM 39
2.12 MEAN VALUE THEOREM 42
CHAPTER THREE 47
INTEGRATION 47
3.1 INTRODUCTION 47
3.2 ALGEBRAIC INTEGRATION 47
3.2.1 Power of x 47
3.2.2 Constant of Integration 47
3.2.3 Standard Integrals 48
3.2.4 Integration of Exponential/Logarithmic 49
3.2.5 Integration of Polynomial Expression 51
3.2.6 Integration of Functions of a Linear Function of x 51
3.3 INTEGRALS OF THE FORM 𝒇′(𝒙)𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 52
I
  f ( x ) f ( x ) dx
/
3.4 INTEGRALS OF THE FORM 54

3.5 INTEGRATION OF PRODUCTS – INTEGRATION BY PARTS 55

3.6 INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS 60
3.7 INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 64
3.7.1 Powers of Sinx and of Cos x 64
3.7.2 Products of Sines and Cosines 67
3.8 REDUCTION FORMULA 72
3.8.1 Integral of the form 𝒙𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒙𝒅𝒙: 72
3.8.2 Integral of the form 𝒙𝒏𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒂𝒙𝒅𝒙 and 𝒙𝒏𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒙𝒅𝒙 74
3.8.3 Integrals of the form 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 and 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 77
CHAPTER FOUR 82
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 82
4.1 FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 82
4.2 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION FROM FIRST PRINCIPLE 82
4.3 HIGHER ORDER PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 87
4.4 TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL 88
4.4.1 The Chain Rule of Functions of Several Variables 89
4.5 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES OF TOTAL AND PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 93
4.6 GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL 97
4.6.1 Gradient 98
4.6.2 Divergence 99
4.6.3 Curl 99
REFERENCE 102

II
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

1.0 LIMITS
In calculus and its applications, we investigate the how the quantities vary, and whether they
approach specific values under certain conditions. The quantities usually involve function values.
The definition of derivative depends on the notion of the limit of a function. The concept of limit
of a function is the one of the fundamental ideas that distinguishes calculus from the areas of
mathematics such as algebra, trigonometry, etc.

Let a function f be defined throughout an open interval containing a real number a, except
possibly at a itself. Let consider a function value f(x) which get closer to some number L when x
gets closer and closer to a but not necessarily equal to a. We say that f(x) approaches L as x
approaches a or f(x) has the limit L as x approaches a and represent by the notation

Lim f (x ) = L
x→a

Definition: Let f (x ) be defined in an open interval about a except possibly a itself. We say
that the limit of f (x ) as x approaches a is L and denote by

Lim f (x ) = L
x→a

If for every   0 there exists   0 such that if 0  x − a   then f ( x ) − L   . The rational

function f defined by f ( x ) =
1
has no limit as x approaches 0.
x

Theorem 1: If m, a and b are any real numbers, then Lim (mx + b ) = ma + b

x→a

3x 2 − 8 x + 3
Example: If f (x ) = what is Lim f ( x ) ?
5x + 1 x→2

1
 3(2) − 8(2) + 3 − 1
2
f (2) = =
5(2) + 1 11

Practice problems

4x2 − 6x + 3
Find 1. (
Lim 4 x + 6 x − 2
2
) 2.
Lim
16 x 3 + 8 x − 7
x→3 x→ 1
2

2 x 2 − 5x + 2 x2 − 4
Lim Lim
3. 5x 2 − 7 x − 6 4. x −2
x→2 x→2

x −2 x −9
Lim Lim
5. x3 − 8 6. x −3
x→2 x →9

If f is a rational function, then the limits as x →  or x → − may be found by first dividing

numerator and denominator of f (x ) by suitable power of x and then applying the limit.

3x 2 − 9
Lim
Example: Find 5x 2 + 2 x − 6
x→

3x 2 9 9
− 2 3− 2
2 3−0
Lim 2x x Lim x Lim
5x 2x 6 = 2
5+ − 2
6 = 5 + 0 − 0 = 3/5
+ 2− 2
x 2
x x x x x→
x→ x→

Practice Problems

Find the limit

7x2 − 4x + 1
Lim
6x2 + 2x − 5
x→

3x 2 − x + 7
Lim
x3 + 2
x→

2
One – Sided Limits

i. Left-hand Limit

Let f (x ) be defined in an open interval. The statement Lim f (x ) = L1 is the left hand limit and x
x → a−
approaches a from the left with x  a .

ii. Right-hand Limit

Let f (x ) be defined in an open interval. The statement Lim f ( x ) = L 2 is the right hand limit and
x → a+
x approaches a from the right with x  a .


5 − x for x  1
Example: If f (x ) =  2 Find Lim f (x ) and Lim f (x )
2 x + 1 for x  1 x →1+ x →1−


Solution: (
Lim f (x ) = Lim 2 x 2 + 1 = 3)
x →1+ x → 1+

Lim f (x ) = Lim (5 − x ) = 4
x →1− x → 1−

show that the Lim f (x ) = exists

x
If f (x ) =
x x→0
x
Lim x
Solution: If x  0 , then x = x =1
x→0
x
−x
If x  0 , then Lim x = = -1
x
x→0
Since the left-hand and right-hand limits are different, it follows that the limit does not exist.
Practice Problems
Find the limit, if it exists

3
 x−4
Lim
1. x−4
x → 4−

x−4
Lim
2. x−4
x → 4+

x−4
Lim
3. x−4
x→4

If Lim f (x ) = L and Lim g ( x ) = M then:

x→a x→a

i. Lim  f (x ) + g (x ) = L+ M
x→a

ii. Lim  f (x )  g (x ) = L M
x→a

 f (x ) L
Lim  = provided M  0
 g (x )  M
iii.

x→a

iv. Lim  f (x ) − g (x ) = L − M
x→a

v. Lim cf (x ) = cL for every real c

x→a

Limits of Trigonometric Functions

1. Lim Sin x = 0
x→0

2. Lim Cos x = 1
x→0

4
 x
= 1 or Lim Sin x = 1
Sin x
3. Lim
x
x→0 x→0

Sin 7 x
Example: Find Lim
3x
x→0

7 7
Sin 7 x 1 Sin 7 x 7 Sin 7 x 7 Sin 7 x x1
Solution: Lim = Lim = Lim = Lim = 3 = 3
3x 3 x 3 7x 3 7x
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0
Practice Problems
Find the limit, if it exists

1 − Cos 3 x
1. Lim
x
x→0

2 + Sin 3 x
2. Lim
3+ x
x→0

Sin 3x
3. Lim Sin 5 x

x→0

2 x + 1 − Cos x
4. Lim
3x
x→0

5
 CHAPTER TWO

DIFFERENTIATION

The process of determining the derivative of a function or how quickly or slowly a function varies
as the quantity on which it depends, the argument changed is known as differentiation.
Specifically, it is the procedure for obtaining an expression (numerical or algebraic) for the rate of
change of the function with respect to its argument. Familiar examples of rates of change include
acceleration (the rate of change of velocity) and the rate of chemical reaction (rate of change
of chemical composition). These two examples give a measure of the change of a quantity with respect
to time. However, differentiation may also be applied to changes with respect to other quantities, for
example change in pressure with respect to a change in temperature. Although it will not be apparent
from what we have said so far, differentiation is in fact a limiting process. That is, it deals only with the
infinitesimal change in one quantity resulting from an infinitesimal change in another.

Definition: If a function f (x) is defined over an interval  a , b  , then taking a point x = x0 in

the interval, the change in value of f (x) at a different point x = x1 with respect to the value at x = x0

divided by the change in x = x1 with respect to x = x0 is called the average rate of change of the

function f (x) with respect to x 0 . That is

f f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 )
=
x x1 − x0

where f = f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 ) = f ( x0 + x) − f ( x0 ) and x = x1 − x0 = ( x0 + x) − x0

The exact rate of change at x = x0 is given by:

df ( x)
f / ( x0 ) =
dx
 f 
= lim it  
x →0
 x 

 f ( x0 + x) − f ( x0 ) 
= lim it  
x →0
 ( x0 + x) − x0 

 f ( x0 + x) − f ( x0 ) 
= lim it  
x →0
 x 
df ( x)
Provided that the limit exists where f / ( x), are the notations for the derivatives.
dx

6
 f
By computation, one may calculate to a given decimal and obtain the values
x
f1 f 2 f 3 f 4 f
, , , ,  ,  ,  , n as x n → 0
x1 x 2 x3 x 4 x n
df
The limiting value to the decimal is at x = x0 . The actual rate of change of f (x) with
dx
respect to x = x0 is called the derivative of f (x) with respect to x = x0 . The use of this process in

determining the derivative is called the first principle.

2.1 DIFFERENTIATION FROM FIRST PRINCIPLE

The derivative of a function f ( x) = x n where n is a real number can be obtained from the first
principle by the following considerations:

f  ( x + x) n − x n 
= 
x  x 
Taking the limits, we obtain

df  f   ( x + x) n − x n 
= lim it   = lim it  
dx x →0
 x  x→0  x 
n(n − 1) n −2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) x n −3 ( x)3 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 1
x n + nx n −1x + x (x)2 + + + (x)n − x n
f 2! 3! n!
=
x x
n(n − 1) n −2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) x n −3 ( x)3 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 1
nx n −1x + x (x)2 + + + (x) n
f 2! 3! n!
=
x x
f n(n − 1) n −2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) x n −3 ( x) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 1
= nx n −1 + x (x) + + + (x) n −1
x 2! 3! n!
Taking the limits, we obtain

 f   n(n − 1) n −2 n(n − 1)(n − 2)    1 

lim it   = lim it nx n −1 + x (x) +    + (x) n −1 
x →0 x
  x → 0
 2! n! 
 f  df
But lim it  =
x →0 x
  dx
df  f  n −1
 = lim it   = nx
dx x → 0
 x 

7
In general, it could be deduced that for a function f ( x) = x n
d n
dx
 
x = nx n −1

For a negative index, thus if n = −m , then the function f ( x) = x − m

f ( x + x) − f ( x)  ( x + x) − x 
−m −m
f
 = = 
x x  x 
Expanding and taking limits as x → 0 , we obtain:
df −m
= −mx − m −1 = m +1
dx x
Note that for f ( x) = kx n where k is a constant, the derivative
d
dx
f ( x) = k
d n
dx
 
x = knx n −1

Example. Find from first principle the derivative with respect to x of f ( x) = x 2 .

 f ( x + x) − f ( x) 
Solution: By definition f / ( x ) = lim it  
x →0
 x

 ( x + x) 2 − x 2   x 2 + 2 xx + (x) 2 − x 2 

= lim it   = lim it  
x →0
 x  x→0  x 
= lim it 2 x + x
x →0

As x tends to zero, 2 x + x tends towards 2x . Hence f / ( x) = 2 x

There are other forms of functions where application from first principle is possible. These include
the product of two or more functions or the quotient of two factors.

2.1.1 Differentiation of Products from First Principle

Theorem: Given the differentiable functions f (x) and g (x) , then

d
 f ( x) g ( x) = g ( x) df ( x) + f ( x) dg ( x)
dx dx dx
Proof: Let h( x) = f ( x) g ( x) then h( x + x) = f ( x + x) g ( x + x)

 h( x + x) − h( x) 
By definition h / ( x ) = lim it  
x →0
 x

8
  f ( x + x) g ( x + x) − f ( x) g ( x) 
= lim it  
x →0
 x

 f ( x + x) g ( x + x) − f ( x + x) g ( x) + f ( x + x) g ( x) − f ( x) g ( x) 

= lim it  
x →0
 x

 f ( x + x) g ( x + x) − f ( x + x) g ( x)   f ( x + x) g ( x) − f ( x) g ( x) 

= lim it   + lim it
x x →0  x 
x →0
 

  g ( x + x) − g ( x)     f ( x + x) − f ( x)  
= lim it  f ( x + x)    + lim it  g ( x)   
x →0
  x  x →0
  x 
 g ( x + x) − g ( x)   f ( x + x) − f ( x) 
= lim it f ( x + x) lim it   + g ( x ) lim it
x x →0  x 
x →0 x →0
 

dg df
In the limit as x → 0 , the factors in the square brackets become and (by the
dx dx
definitions of these quantities) and f ( x + x) simply becomes f (x) . Consequently, we obtain:
dh d df ( x) dg ( x)
=  f ( x) g ( x)  = g ( x) + f ( x) (1)
dx dx dx dx
This is the general results obtained without making any assumptions about the specific forms h, f
and g other than the fact that h( x) = f ( x) g ( x) . In words, the results above could be read as:
The derivative of the product of two functions is equal to the first function multiplied by the
derivative of the second plus the second function multiplied by the derivative of the first.

The product rule may readily be extended to the product of three or more functions.
Considering the function f ( x) = u( x)v( x)w( x) . By equation (1), we obtain

= u ( x) v( x) w( x) + v( x) w( x) u ( x)
df ( x) d d
dx dx dx
Using equation (1) to expand the first term of the right-hand side, we obtain:
df ( x)  d d  d
= u ( x) v( x) w( x) + w( x) v( x) + v( x) w( x) u ( x)
dx  dx dx  dx
d d d
= u ( x )v ( x ) w( x) + u ( x) w( x) v( x) + v( x) w( x) u ( x)
dx dx dx

= u ( x)v( x) w( x) = u ( x)v( x) w( x) + u ( x) w( x) v( x) + v( x) w( x) u ( x)

df ( x) d d d d

dx dx dx dx dx
This method can be extended to products containing any number of factors n and that the expression

9
for the derivative will consist of n terms with the prime appearing in the successive terms on
each of the n -factors in turn.

Example. Find from first principles the derivative with respect to x of the function
f ( x) = ( x 2 + 1) (2 x − 1)

Solution: If f ( x) = ( x 2 + 1) (2 x − 1) , then  
f ( x + x) = ( x + x) 2 + 1 2( x + x) − 1
By definition
 f ( x + x) − f ( x) 
f / ( x ) = lim it  
x →0
 x

 
 (x + x )2 + 1 2(x + x ) − 1 − ( x 2 + 1) (2 x − 1)
= lim it  
x →0
 x 

( )  (
 x 2 + 2 xx + (x) 2 + 1 2 x + 2x − 1 − 2 x 3 − x 2 + 2 x − 1 
= lim it 
)

x →0
 x 


 2 x 2 x + 4 x 2 x + 4 x(x) 2 − 2 xx + 2 x(x) 2 + 2(x) 3 − (x) 2 + 2x 
= lim it 


x →0
 x 

= lim it 2 x 2 + 4 x 2 + 4 xx − 2 x + 2 xx + 2(x) 2 − x + 2
x →0

As x tends to zero, 2x 2
+ 4 x 2 + 4 xx − 2 x + 2 xx + 2(x) 2 − x + 2  tends to

(2x 2
+ 4x 2 − 2x + 2 .)
Hence f / ( x) = 6 x 2 − 2 x + 2 .

This is analogous to the application of

dh d
=  f ( x) g ( x) = g ( x) d  f ( x) + f ( x) d g ( x)
dx dx dx dx

(
= x2 +1 ) dxd (2 x − 1) + (2 x − 1) dxd (x 2
+1 )
( )
= x 2 + 1 (2) + (2 x − 1)(2 x )

= 2 x2 + 2 + 4 x2 − 2 x
= 6 x2 − 2 x + 2

2.1.2 Differentiation of Quotients from First Principle

Theorem: Given the differentiable functions f (x) and g (x) then

10
 d d
g ( x) f ( x) − f ( x) g ( x)
d  f ( x)  dx dx
=
dx  g ( x)  g ( x)2

f ( x) f ( x + x)
Proof: Let h( x) = then h( x + x) =
g ( x) g ( x + x)

 h( x + x) − h( x) 
By definition h / ( x ) = lim it  
x →0
 x

 f ( x + x) f ( x) 
 g ( x + x) − g ( x) 
= lim it  
x →0
 x 
 

 g ( x) f ( x + x) − f ( x) g ( x + x) 
 g ( x + x) g ( x) 
= lim it  
x →0
 x 
 

 g ( x) f ( x + x) − f ( x) g ( x + x) 
= lim it  
x →0
 g ( x + x) g ( x)x 
 g ( x) f ( x + x) − f ( x) g ( x) + f ( x) g ( x) − f ( x) g ( x + x) 
= lim it  
x →0
 g ( x + x) g ( x)x 
 g ( x) f ( x + x) − f ( x) − f ( x)g ( x + x) − g ( x)
= lim it  
x →0
 g ( x + x) g ( x)x 
 g ( x) f ( x + x) − f ( x)  f ( x)g ( x + x) − g ( x)
= lim it   − lim it  
x →0
 g ( x + x) g ( x)x  x → 0
 g ( x + x) g ( x)x 
 g ( x) f ( x + x) − f ( x)  f ( x)g ( x + x) − g ( x)
lim it   lim it  
x →0
 x  − x→0  x
=
lim it g ( x + x) g ( x) lim it g ( x + x) g ( x)
x →0 x →0

  f ( x + x) − f ( x)  g ( x + x) − g ( x)

g ( x) lim it   f ( x) lim it  
x →0
 x  − x →0
 x
=
lim it g ( x + x) g ( x) lim it g ( x + x) g ( x)
x →0 x →0

d d d d
g ( x) f ( x) f ( x) g ( x) g ( x) f ( x) − f ( x) g ( x)
= dx − dx = dx dx
g ( x)2
g ( x)2
g ( x)2

11
 d d
g ( x) f ( x) − f ( x) g ( x)
d d  f ( x)  dx dx
h( x ) = =
dx  g ( x) 
Hence
dx g ( x)2

f ( x) 1
In a situation where f ( x) = 1 then h( x) = =
g ( x) g ( x)

d d
g ( x) (1) − (1) g ( x)
d d  1  dx dx
h( x ) = =
dx  g ( x) 
Hence
dx g ( x)2

But
d
k  = 0 where k is a constant
dx

g ( x)0 − (1)
d
g ( x)
d d  1  dx
 h( x ) = =
dx dx  g ( x)  g ( x)2

d
g ( x)
=− dx
g ( x)2

Example. Find from first principle the derivative with respect to x of the function
5x 2 − x + 7
h( x ) =
x2 + x +1
f ( x) f ( x + x)
Solution: If h( x) = then h( x + x) =
g ( x) g ( x + x)

 h( x + x) − h( x) 
By definition h / ( x ) = lim it  
x →0
 x

 f ( x + x) f ( x) 
 g ( x + x) − g ( x) 
= lim it  
x →0
 x 
 

 5( x + x) 2 − ( x + x) + 7 5 x 2 − x + 7 
 − 2 
( x + x ) 2
+ ( x + x ) + 1 x + x +1 
= lim it 
x →0  x 
 
 

12
  5( x 2 + 2 xx + (x) 2 ) − ( x + x) + 7 5 x 2 − x + 7 
 2 − 2 
 ( x + 2 xx + (x) 2 ) + ( x + x) + 1 x + x +1 
= lim it
x →0  x 
 
 

 ( x 2 + x + 1)(5 x 2 + 10 xx + 5(x) 2 − x − x + 7) − (5 x 2 − x + 7)( x 2 + 2 xx + (x) 2 + x + x + 1) 

= lim it  
x →0
 ( x 2 + x + 1)( x 2 + 2 xx + (x) 2 + x + x + 1)x 

 6 x 2 x + 6 x(x) 2 − 4 xx − 2(x) 2 − 8x 

= lim it  2 
x →0 ( x + x + 1)( x 2 + 2 xx + ( x ) 2 + x + x + 1) x
 

 6 x 2 + 6 xx − 4 x − 2x − 8 
= lim it  2 
x →0 ( x + x + 1)( x + 2 xx + ( x ) + x + x + 1)
2 2
 

As x tends to zero ( x 2
+ x + 1)( x 2 + 2 xx + (x) 2 + x + x + 1)  tends towards

( x 2
   
+ x + 1)( x 2 + x + 1) and 6 x 2 + 6 xx − 4 x − 2x − 8 tends towards 6 x 2 − 4 x − 8 . Hence, 
6x 2 − 4x − 8
h ( x) = 2
/

( x + x + 1) 2

d d  f ( x) 
h( x ) =
dx  g ( x) 
This is analogous to the application of
dx
d d
g ( x) f ( x) − f ( x) g ( x)
d d  f ( x)  dx dx
h( x ) = =
dx dx  g ( x)  g ( x)2

d d
( x 2 + x + 1) (5 x 2 − x + 7) − (5 x 2 − x + 7) ( x 2 + x + 1)
= dx dx

( x + x + 1)
2 2

( x 2 + x + 1)(10 x − 1) − (5 x 2 − x + 7)(2 x + 1)
= 2
( x 2 + x + 1) 

(6 x 2 − 4 x − 8)
=
( x 2
+ x + 1) 
2

13
Theorem: The derivative of any constant is zero.
Proof:
f (x)
c

Let f ( x) = c then f ( x + x) = c

 f ( x + x) − f ( x) 
By definition f / ( x ) = lim it  
x →0
 x

c − c  0
= lim it   = lim it   = 0
x →0
 x  x→0  x 

Theorem: If f (x) and g (x) are given functions of x then,

d
 f ( x) + g ( x) = d f ( x) + d g ( x)
dx dx dx
Proof: Let h( x) = f ( x) + g ( x) then h( x + x) = f ( x + x) + g ( x + x)
By definition
 h( x + x) − h( x) 
h / ( x ) = lim it  
x →0
 x

{ f ( x + x) + g ( x + x)} − { f ( x) + g ( x)}

= lim it  
x →0
 x

{ f ( x + x) − f ( x)} + {g ( x + x) − g ( x)}

= lim it  
x →0
 x

{ f ( x + x) − f ( x)} {g ( x + x) − g ( x)}

= lim it  + 
x →0
 x x

 f ( x + x) − f ( x)   g ( x + x) − g ( x) 
= lim it   + lim it  
x →0
 x  x →0
 x

14
 d d
In the limit as x → 0 , the expression in the square brackets becomes f (x) and g (x) .
dx dx
Consequently, we obtain:

h / ( x) =
d
 f ( x) + g ( x) = d f ( x) + d g ( x)
dx dx dx

Example. Find the derivative with respect to x of the function h( x) = f ( x) + g ( x) if f ( x) = 3x 4

and g ( x) = 5x 2

h( x ) =  f ( x ) + g ( x ) 
d d
Solution: h( x ) = f ( x ) + g ( x ) 
dx dx
d d
= f ( x) + g ( x)
dx dx
d d
= (3x 4 ) + (5 x 2 )
dx dx
= 12x 3 + 10x

2.2 CHAIN RULE

Theorem: If y = f (u) is a composition on u = u(x) and if y is differentiable with respect to

u and u is differentiable with respect to x , then y is differentiable with respect to x and the
derivative is given by:

y / ( x) = f / u( x)u / ( x) . Thus,

dy dy du
= 
dx du dx
This theorem is called the chain rule.
 y  dy  y  dy
Proof: lim it   = and lim it   =
u →0 u
  du x → 0
 x  dx
y dy
If u is finite, then the difference − = 0 .  is finite positive such that → 0 as
u du
u → 0 .
y dy
− =
u du
y dy
= +
u du
dy
y =  u +  u
du

15
 y dy u u
=  + 
x du x x
dy  y   dy u   u 
= lim it   = lim it    + lim it   
dx u → 0
 x  x → 0
 du x  x → 0
 x 
dy dy  u   u 
=  lim it   +   lim it  
dx du x → 0
 x  x → 0
 x 
dy dy du du
=  + 
dx du dx dx
dy dy du
As → 0 , = 
dx du dx
The chain rule is what must be applied when differentiating a function of a function. It is also
useful for calculating the derivative of a function f with respect to x when both x and f are
written in terms of a variable or parameter say t .

Example. Given that y = 3u 2 + 1 and u = 4 x 2 + 1 . Find the following:

dy du dy
(i). (ii). (iii).
du dx dx

Solution: (i).
dy
du
=3
d 2
du
 
u +
d
du
1 = 32u  + 0 = 6u

(ii).
du
dx
=4
d 2
dx
 
x + 1 = 42 x  + 0 = 8 x
d
dx

= 6u  8 x  = 48 xu = 48 x(4 x 2 + 1)
dy dy du
(iii). = 
dx du dx

2.3 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

Given the mapping y → f (x ) if x and y are independent variables, then f ( x ) is a function of a

single variable. For example, consider the relation y = x 2 + 3 x − 5 ; y is completely defined in

terms of x, therefore y is called an explicit function of x. Where the relationship between x and y
is more involved, it may not be possible to separate y completely on the left hand side, eg.
3 xy + 5 y 3 = 40 . In such a case, this y is called an implicit function of x, because a relationship of

the form y = f (x ) is implied in the given equation. That is, it cannot be made explicit by writing

16
either x in terms of y or y in terms of x . However, by differentiating term by term with respect to

x , we can find the derivative of the implicit function. In differentiating y 2 which is a function of x
(i) f ( y ) = y 2 and this implies
d
dx
( y2 ) = 2 y
dy
dx

Hence, in general, if f ( y) = y n , then

d n
dx
 
y = ny n −1 
dy
dx

dy
Example. Find if x 3 − 3xy + y 3 = 2 ,
dx
Solution: Differentiating each term in the equation with respect to x , we obtain:
d 3
dx
( )
x − (3xy ) +
d
dx
d 3
dx
y =
d
dx
(2) ( )
 d 
 3x 2 − 3 x ( y ) + y (x ) + 3 y 2
d dy
=0
 dx dx  dx
dy dy
 3x 2 − 3x − 3y + 3y 2 =0
dx dx
dy
where the derivative of 3xy has been found using the product rule. Hence, rearranging for , we
dx
dy y − x 2
obtain = .
dx y 2 − x

dy
Note: is a function of both x and y and cannot be expressed as a function of x only.
dx

2.4 DIFFERENTIATION OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Circumstances in which the variable with respect to which we are differentiating is an exponent,
taking the logarithms and differentiating implicitly is the simplest way to find the derivative. The
natural logarithm function is denoted by ln or log e . The expression ln x is called the natural logarithm of

x.
Consider an exponential function y = a x . When this function is put in a logarithmic form, we obtain:
ln y = x ln a

17
 
d
(ln y ) = d (x ln a )
dx dx
1 dy
  = ln a
y dx
dy
 = y ln a = a x ln a
dx
dy
 = a x ln a
dx

dy f ( x )
1

Thus, in general if y = ln  f ( x )  , then =

dx f ( x )

Examples.
dy 10 x + 6 − 32 x 3
(
1. If y = ln 5x + 6 x − 8x , then
2
= 4
)
dx 5 x 2 + 6 x − 8 x 4
.

2. Differentiate with respect to x simplifying your answer as far as possible the function
y = In( x2 + 5x − 3) .
Solution: Let u = x2 + 5x − 3 then y = Inu
du dy 1
 = 2x + 5 and =
dx du u
dy dy du 1
But =  =  (2 x + 5)
dx du dx u
1
=  (2 x + 5)
x + 5x − 3
2

dy 2x + 5
 = 2
dx x + 5 x − 3

3. Differentiate with respect to x of the function y = e x .

Solution: y = e x  Iny = xIne = x

d d
( Iny ) = ( x)
dx dx
1 dy
  =1
y dx

18
 dy
 =y
dx
dy
 = ex
dx
d x
Hence, (e ) = e x
dx

2.5 PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION

Some of the functions whose derivatives are sought are sometimes so complicated that, it is more
convenient to represent a function by expressing x and y separately in terms of a third independent
variable.
For example, if
3 + 2t 2 − 3t
y= and x = except for t = −1 , any value given to t will produce a pair of values for
1+ t 1+ t
x and y which could if necessary be plotted to provide one point of the curve y = f ( x) . This third
variable t is called a parameter and the two expressions for x and y is called parametric
equations. If the derivative of this curve y = f ( x) is to be found with respect to x, then from the
3 + 2t
example y = ;
1+ t
d d
(1 + t ) (3 + 2t ) − (3 + 2t ) (1 + t )
dy dt dt −1
= =
dt (1 + t ) 2
(1 + t ) 2
Similarly,
d d
(1 + t ) (2 − 3t ) − (2 − 3t ) (1 + t )
dx dt dt −5
= =
dt (1 + t ) 2
(1 + t ) 2
Therefore
dy dy dt −1 (1 + t )2 1
=  =  =
dx dt dx (1 + t ) 2 −5 5

Examples.
19
 dy
1. Find in terms of t for the curve whose parametric equations are given by
dx
x = t 2 + t +1 , y = 5t .

Solution: x = t 2 + t +1 and y = 5t
dx dy
 = 2t + 1  =5
dt dt
dy dy dt 1 5
But =  = 5 =
dx dt dx 2t + 1 2t + 1
dy 5
Therefore, = .
dx 2t + 1
3t t2 dy
2. The parametric equations of a curve are x = ,y= . Find the value of at the part for
1+ t 1+ t dx
which t = 2 .
d d
(1 + t ) (3t ) − (3t ) (1 + t )
dx dt dt 3
Solution: = =
dt (1 + t ) 2
(1 + t )2
d 2 d
(1 + t ) (t ) − (t 2 ) (1 + t )
dy dt dt 2t + t 2
= =
dt (1 + t )2 (1 + t )2

dy dy dt 2t + t 2 (1 + t ) 2 2t + t 2
Therefore =  =  =
dx dt dx (1 + t ) 2 3 3

dy 2(2) + 22 8
At t = 2 , we have = =
dx t = 2 3 3

dy
3. If x = 2 − Sin2 and y = 1 − Cos2 . Show that = Cot .
dx
Solution: x = 2 − Sin2 and y = 1 − Cos2

dx dy
 = 2 − 2Cos 2  = 2Sin2
d d
Therefore
dy dy d 1 Sin 2
=  = 2Sin2  =
dx d dx 2(1 − Cos 2 ) 1 − Cos 2
But Sin2 = 2Sin Cos and Cos2 = 1 − 2Sin2 , so we have

20
 dy 2Sin Cos 2Sin Cos Cos
= = = = Cot .
dx 1 − (1 − 2Sin  )
2
2Sin 2 Sin

2.6 DIFFERENTIATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

We differentiate sine, cosine, tangent and other trigonometric functions by adopting the radian
measure for all angles unless otherwise stated.
(i) Let f ( x) = sin x then f ( x + x) = sin( x + x)

 f ( x + x) − f ( x) 
By definition f / ( x ) = lim it  
x →0
 x

{sin( x + x) − sin x}  {sin x cos x + cos x sin x − sin x} 

= lim it   = lim it  
x →0
 x  x→0  x

{sin x(cos x − 1) + cos x sin x} 

= lim it  
x →0
 x

 sin x(cos x − 1)   cos x sin x 

= lim it   + lim it  
x →0
 x  x → 0
 x

 (cos x − 1)   sin x 
= sin x lim it   + cos x lim it 
x →0
 x  x → 0
 x 
 (cos x − 1)   sin x 
By the theorem of calculus on limits, lim it   = 0 and lim it  =1
x →0
 x  x →0
 x 
Hence f / ( x) = sin x • 0 + cos x • 1


d
sin x = cos x
dx

(ii). Let h( x) = cos x then h( x + x) = cos(x + x)

 h( x + x) − h( x) 
By definition h / ( x ) = lim it  
x →0
 x

{cos(x + x) − cos x}  {cos x cos x − sin x sin x − cos x} 

= lim it   = lim it  
x →0
 x  x → 0
 x

{cos x(cos x − 1) − sin x sin x} 

= lim it  
x →0
 x

 cos x(cos x − 1)   − sin x sin x 

= lim it   + lim it  
x →0
 x  x →0
 x

21
  (cos x − 1)   sin x 
= cos x lim it   − sin x lim it 
x →0
 x  x →0
 x 
 (cos x − 1)   sin x 
By the theorem of calculus on limits lim it   = 0 and lim it  =1
x →0
 x  x →0
 x 
Hence h / ( x) = cos x • 0 + − sin x • 1


d
cos x = − sin x
dx

sin( x + x)
(iii) Let g ( x) = tan x then g ( x + x) = tan(x + x) =
cos( x + x)

 g ( x + x) − g ( x) 
By definition g / ( x) = lim it  
x →0
 x

 sin( x + x) sin x 

 tan(x + x) − tan x   cos( x + x) − cos x 
= lim it   = lim it  
x →0
 x x →0
 x 
 

 cos x sin( x + x) − sin x cos( x + x) 

= lim it  
x →0
 x cos x cos( x + x) 
 cos x{sin x cos x + cos x sin x} − sin x{cos x cos x − sin x sin x} 
= lim it  
x →0
 x cos x cos( x + x) 
 cos x sin x cos x + cos x cos x sin x − sin x cos x cos x + sin x sin x sin x 
= lim it  
x →0
 x cos x cos( x + x) 
 cos 2 x sin x + sin 2 x sin x   sin x{cos2 x + sin 2 x 
= lim it  =
 x→0 
lim it 
x →0
 x cos x cos( x + x)   x cos x cos( x + x) 
 sin x  1  1   sin x 
= lim it   = • lim it   • lim it  
x →0 x cos x cos( x + x )
  cos x x→0  cos( x + x)  x→0  x 
1  1  1
= •  •1 = = sec 2 x
cos x  cos x  2
cos x

Hence
d
tan x = sec 2 x
dx

Example. Find the derivative with respect to x of the function f ( x) = sec 2 x

1
Solution: sec 2 x =
cos 2 x

22
 −
d
cos x cos x
d

sec 2 x = 
d  1 
= dx
dx dx  cos 2 x  cos 2 x
2

 
− cos x cos x + cos x cos x
d d

=  
dx dx
cos 2 x) 
2

− cos x− sin x + cos x− sin x 2 sin x cos x
= =
cos x)
2 2
cos x
2 2

2 sin x sin x 1
= 3
= 2• • 2
= 2 sec 2 x tan x
cos x cos x cos x

Hence
d
dx
 
sec 2 x = 2 sec 2 x tan x

Example. Differentiate with respect to x simplifying as far as possible the function

f ( x) = x 2 sin x

Solution:
d
dx dx

 f ( x) = d x 2 sin x 
= x2
d
dx dx
 
sin x + sin x d x 2 = x 2 cos x + sin x2 x
= x 2 cos x + 2 x sin x

2.7 DIFFERENTIATION OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1
The function y = sin −1 x = arcsin x where sin −1 x  is the value of the argument y when
sin x
the variable x is given implying that x = sin y . The function is multiple-value since there
are infinite values of y for each value of x between − 1 and + 1 .

The principal values of this is chosen as those between −  and 

2 2
(i) Now let y = sin −1 x  x = sin y


d
x = d sin y 
dx dx
dy
 1 = cos y
dx
dy 1 1
 = =
dx cos y  1 − x 2

23
The positive part of the function is chosen since cos y  0

Hence
d

sin −1 x = 1
dx 1− x2

(ii) Again, let y = cos −1 x  x = cos y


d
x = d cos y 
dx dx
dy
 1 = − sin y
dx
dy 1 1
 = =
dx − sin y  1 − x 2

The negative part of the function is chosen since sin y  0 where y belongs to the close interval

0,   . That is, y  0 ,   and − sin y  0 .

Hence
d
 
cos −1 x = −
1
dx 1− x2
(iii) Finally, let y = tan −1 x  x = tan y


d
x = d tan y 
dx dx
dy
 1 = sec 2 y
dx
dy 1 1
 = =
dx sec y 1 + x 2
2

To establish other results, we make use of the results in (i) and (ii) as well as (iii).

Example. Find the derivative with respect to x of sec −1 x

Solution: Let y = sec −1 x  x = sec y


d
x = d sec y 
dx dx
dy
sin y
 1= dx
2
cos y

dy cos 2 y 1 1
 = = =
dx sin y  x x −1 x x2 −1
2

24
 2.8 LEIBNITZ’S FORMULA FOR NTH (REPEATED) DIFFERENTIATION OF A
PRODUCT

The first derivatives of functions in the form such as pr oduct, quotient, logarithmic,
implicit and many others have been dealt with in the previous section. Corresponding
results for higher derivatives of the forms stated above could be obtained by the use of
Leibnitz’s Theorem.
Consider the function f ( x) = u( x)v(x) ; from the product rule of differentiation,
df d d
= u ( x) v( x) + v( x) u ( x)
dx dx dx
Applying the rule again on each of the product, we obtain
d  df  d  d  d  d 
  =  u ( x) v( x)  +  v( x) u ( x) 
dx  dx  dx  dx  dx  dx 

d2 f  d2 d d   d2 d d 
 =  u ( x ) v ( x ) +  v ( x ) u ( x ) +
  v ( x ) u ( x) +  u ( x) v( x) 
 dx    dx 
2 2 2
dx  dx dx dx dx

d 2v( x)   dv( x)   du ( x)   d 2u ( x )
= u ( x) +   dx   dx  
2 + v ( x )
dx 2     dx 2
Similarly, differentiating again to its third order, we obtain

d  d2 f  d  d 2v( x)  d  dv( x)   du ( x)   d  d 2u ( x) 
  =   +    +  
dx  dx   dx   dx 
u ( x ) 2 v ( x )
dx  dx 2  dx  dx 2  dx 2 

d3 f  d 2v( x) du ( x)   dv( x) d 
2 2
d3 du ( x) d
 3 = u ( x ) 3 v ( x ) + 2  +2 u ( x) + v( x)  +
dx  dx dx dx   dx dx dx dx 
 d3 d 2 u( x) dv( x) 
 v( x ) u( x ) + 
 dx3 dx 2 dx 

d 3v( x)   d 2v( x)   du ( x)     d 2 u( x)   dv( x)   d 3u ( x)

= u ( x) +  
3  +
  
3   + v ( x )
dx3   dx   dx     dx   dx  
2 2
dx3

Differentiating for the fourth time, we obtain

d4 f d 4v( x)   du ( x)   d 3v( x)     d 2u ( x)   d 2v( x)     d 3u ( x)   dv( x)   d 4u ( x )

= u ( x) + 4   3 
+ 6    + 4     + v( x)
dx 4 dx 4   dx   dx     dx   dx     dx   dx  
2 2 3
dx 4

From the pattern that has emerged, the results generalize to a form given by:

25
 n
n!
f n ( x) =  u ( x )   v ( x ) 
r n−r

r =0 r !( n − r ) !

n
 dr d n−r  n  d r u ( x)  d n −r v( x)  
=  nCr  r u ( x) n− r v( x)  =  nCr  r  n−r 
r =0  dx dx  r =0  dx  dx 
n!
The fraction is the binomial coefficient nCr . This leads to the Leibnitz’s Theorem.
r !( n − r )!

Leibnitz Theorem: It states that if f(x) is the product of two functions u(x) and v(x) possessing
derivatives of the nth order such that f(x)=u(x)v(x), then
n  d r u ( x)  d n −r v( x)  
f n ( x) =  nCr  r  n−r 
r =0  dx  dx 
n!
where nCr is the binomial coefficient given by nCr = .
r !( n − r )!

Example. Given that f ( x) = x 4 Sinx , use Leibnitz theorem to find

d2 f d3 f d4 f
(i) (ii) (iii)
dx 2 dx3 dx 4

Solution:
n  d r u ( x)  d n −r v( x)  
By Leibnitz’s theorem, f ( x) = 
n n
Cr  r  n−r 
r =0  dx  dx 
We let u( x) = x 4 and v( x) = Sinx

d2 f 2  d 2v( x)  2  du ( x)   dv( x)   2  d 2u ( x)  
(i) = C0  u ( x ) 2 
+ C1     + C2   v( x) 
 dx   dx  
2 2
dx  dx   dx  

d2  d 4   d   d 4 
2
= x4 ( Sinx ) + 2   ( x )  ( Sinx ) +
   2 ( x )  Sinx
 dx   dx    dx
2
dx 

( )
= x 4 (− Sinx) + 2  4 x3 (Cosx)  + 12 x 2 ( Sinx)

= − x4 Sinx + 8x3Cosx + 12x2 Sinx

(ii)

26
d3 f 3  d 3v( x)  3  du ( x)   d 2v ( x )   3  d 2u ( x )   dv ( x )  
= 0 + C1     + C2     +
dx3 
C u ( x )
dx3  dx   dx    dx   dx  
2 2

3
 d 3u ( x)  
C3  3  v( x) 
 dx  

d3  d 2   d 4    d 2 4   d  d3 4
= x4 ( Sinx ) + 3  2 ( Sinx )  ( x ) +
   2
3 ( x )  ( Sinx )  + Sinx (x )
dx3    
3
  dx  dx    dx  dx  dx

(
= x 4 (−Cosx) + 3 (− Sinx) (4 x3 )  + 3  12 x 2 ) ( Cos x ) + Sinx(24 x)
= − x4Cosx −12 x3Sinx + 36 x2Cosx + 24 xSinx

d4 f 4  d 4v( x)  4  du ( x)   d 3v( x)   4  d 2u ( x)   d 2v( x)  

= C0 u ( x) + C1     + C2     +
dx 4  dx 4   dx   dx  
3 2
 dx   dx  
2

(iii)
 d 3u ( x)   dv( x)   4  d 4u ( x)  
4
C3      + C 4    v ( x ) 
 dx   dx  
3 4
 dx  

d4  d 4   d 3   d 2 4  d 2   d 3 4   d 
= x4 ( Sinx ) + 4  ( x )  3 (Sinx)  + 6  2 ( x )  2 (Sinx)  + 4  3 ( x )   ( Sinx)   +
 dx   dx   dx 
4
dx   dx  dx   dx
d4
Sinx 4 ( x 4 )
dx

(
= x 4 ( Sinx) + 4  4 x3 ) ( −Cosx ) + 6 (12 x ) ( −Sinx ) + 4 ( 24 x )( Cosx ) + Sinx(24)
2

= x4 Sinx −16 x3Cosx − 72x2 Sinx + 96xCosx + 24Sinx

2.9 STATIONARY POINTS

In this section, we show how differentiation can be used to define a stationary point on a curve
and decide whether it is a turning point (maximum or minimum) or a point of inflexion. Because,
the derivative provides information about the gradient or slope of the graph of a function, we can
use it to locate points on a graph where the gradient is zero. We shall see that such points are often
associated with the largest or smallest values of the function, at least in their immediate locality.
In many applications, a scientist, engineer, or economist for example, will be interested in such
points for obvious reasons such as maximizing power, profit or minimizing losses or costs.

27
Looking at the three (3) diagrams above, we see that at each of the points shown, the gradient is
zero (i.e. the curve goes flat). Since differentiation gives us the gradient function, to find any
stationary point, we need to differentiate first, then put the resulting gradient function to zero.

2.9.1 Finding the Stationary Points

dy
When = 0 (i.e. the gradient is zero), we have a stationary point. In short, we find the 1st
dx
differential, put it equal to zero and solve.

Examples.
1. Find the stationary point on the curve y = 3x2 −18x − 7 .
Solution:
dy
Step 1: Differentiate to give: = 6 x − 18
dx
Step 2: Put this equal to zero: 6 x −18 = 0
Step 3: Solve: 6 x = 18
x=3
We now know that the stationary point is when x = 3
If we require the full co-ordinate, we need to find the value of y when x = 3 .
(We are looking for y so we need to use the original equation, y = 3x2 −18x − 7 )

Original equation: y = 3x2 −18x − 7

y = 3 ( 3) − 18 ( 3) − 7
2
Substitute x = 3:

Solve: y = −34
Therefore, the stationary point is at ( 3, −34 ) .

28
 1 3
2. Find the stationary point on the curve y = x + 2 x 2 − 12 x + 5
3
Solution:
dy
Step 1: Differentiate to give: = x 2 + 4 x − 12
dx
Step 2: Put this equal to zero: x2 + 4 x − 12 = 0
Step 3: Solve: ( x + 6)( x − 2) = 0
x = −6 or x = 2
We realize that we have two stationary points; one at x = −6 and the other at x = 2 .
1 3
Next, we find the corresponding y values using the equation y = x + 2 x 2 − 12 x + 5
3
1
When x = −6 : y= ( −6 ) + 2 ( −6 ) − 12 ( −6 ) + 5
3 2

3
y = 77
1 3
When x = 2 : y= ( 2 ) + 2 ( 2 ) − 12 ( 2 ) + 5
2

3
25
y=−
3
 25 
Therefore, the stationary points are at ( −6, 77 ) and  2, − 
 3 

2.9.2 Type of Stationary Points

To find the type of stationary point, we need to differentiate again (i.e. find the 2nd differential,
d2y
denoted by ). This measures the change in gradient and can help to decide whether a stationary
dx 2
point is maximum, minimum or point of inflexion.
After finding where the stationary point is, we find the 2nd differential and if:
d2y
➢  0 , then we have a minimum (thus positive is minimum).
dx 2

d2y
➢  0 , then we have a maximum (thus negative is maximum).
dx 2

d2y
➢ = 0 , then it could be maximum, minimum or point of inflexion.
dx 2

29
So, we differentiate again and if:
d3y
➢  0 , then it is a point of inflexion.
dx 3

Consider the graph below

y
dy d2y
Local Maximum = 0, 2  0
dx dx

f(2) f(4)

dy d2y
Local minimum = 0, 2  0
dx dx
f(3)
1 2 3 4 5 x

The graph indicates that the quantity increased in the interval (1, 2) and decreased in (2, 3).
Considering the interval (1, 5) the quantity had its highest or maximum values at 2 and 4 and its
smallest value or minimum at 3. From the graph, we say that f takes on its maximum value at 2 and
4 and the points (2, f(2)) and (4, f(4)) are the highest or maximum points on the graph. Similarly, the
function f takes on its minimum value at 3 and the point (3, f(3)) is the lowest or minimum point on
the graph.

Examples.
1. Find the stationary point on the curve y = x2 − 4 x + 2 and determine the type.

Solution: We use the 1st differential to find where the stationary point is.
dy
Step 1: Differentiate to give: = 2x − 4
dx

30
Step 2: Put this equal to zero: 2x − 4 = 0
Step 3: Solve: 2x = 4
x=2
We find the corresponding y value using y = x2 − 4 x + 2

Substitute x = 2 : y = ( 2) − 4 ( 2) + 2
2

Solve: y = −2
Therefore, the stationary point is at ( 2, −2 )

We now use the 2nd differential to find the type of stationary point.
d2y
= 2 . This is positive ( 0 ) so the turning point must be a minimum.
dx 2

2. Find the stationary point on the curve f ( x) = x3 − 3x2 + 4 and determine the type.

Solution: We use the 1st differential to find where the stationary point is.
Step 1: Differentiate to give: f / ( x) = 3 x 2 − 6 x

Step 2: Put this equal to zero: 3x 2 − 6 x = 0

Step 3: Solve: 3x( x − 2) = 0
x = 0 or x = 2
We find the corresponding y values using f ( x) = y = x3 − 3x2 + 4

Substitute x = 0 : y = (0) − 3(0) + 4

3 2

y=4

Substitute x = 2 : y = ( 2) − 3( 2) + 4
3 2

y=0
Therefore, the stationary points are at ( 0, 4 ) and ( 2, 0 ) .

We now use the 2nd differential to find the type of stationary points.
f // ( x) = 6 x − 6 .
This looks a bit different from the 1st example since there is an x in the 2nd differential. We now
need to substitute each value of x into the function separately to find the type of stationary point
each one is.
When x = 0 : f / / ( x) = 6 ( 0 ) − 6

31
 f / / ( x ) = −6 . Thus, maximum

When x = 2 : f / / ( x) = 6 ( 2 ) − 6

f / / ( x ) = 6 . Thus, minimum

Therefore, ( 0, 4 ) is a maximum point and ( 2, 0 ) is a minimum point.

3. Find the stationary point on the curve y = x 3 and determine the type.

Solution: We use the 1st differential to find where the stationary point is.
dy
Step 1: Differentiate to give: = 3x 2
dx
Step 2: Put this equal to zero: 3x 2 = 0
Step 3: Solve: x=0
We find the corresponding y value using y = x 3

Substitute x = 0 : y = (0)
3

Solve: y=0
Therefore, the stationary point is at ( 0, 0 )

We now use the 2nd differential to find the type of stationary point.
d2y
= 6x
dx 2
d2y
When x = 0 : = 0 , so it could be a maximum, minimum or point of inflexion.
dx 2
We use the 3rd differential to decide.
d3y
=6
dx 3
Since, the 3rd differential is not 0, then it is a point of inflexion.

2.10 POWER SERIES AND INDETERMINATE FORMS

If a function can be expressed as a series of ascending powers of x, then the series is

called a Power Series. Supposing a function of x is given by f(x), then the function f(x)
can be represented as a power series of the infinite form as:

32
 
f ( x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 + a5 x 5 + + =  an x n (1)
n =0

where a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ,........ , etc. are constant coefficients. To establish this series, we must

find the values of the constant coefficients. This could only be done by an appropriate
substitution of the value of x that will render all the terms zeros except one.
Thus for x=0:
f (0) = a0 + a1 (0) + a2 (0) 2 + a3 (0)3 + +
 f (0) = a0
Since there is no other values of x for which other constants can be found, the only method is to
differentiate both sides of the identity with respect to x to obtain the value of a1 . Thus, from

equation (1), we obtain

f / ( x) = a1 + 2a2 x + 3a3 x 2 + 4a4 x 3 + 5a5 x 4 + +

For x=0:
f / (0) = a1 + 2a2 (0) + 3a3 (0) 2 + 4a4 (0)3 + 5a5 (0) 4 + +
 f (0) = a1  a1 = f (0)
/ /

Similarly, f / / ( x) = 2a2 + 6a3 x + 12a4 x 2 + 20a5 x 3 + +

For x=0:
f / / (0) = 2a2 + 6a3 (0) + 12a4 (0) 2 + 20a5 (0)3 + +
// //
f (0) f (0)
 f / / (0) = 2a2  a2 = =
2 2!
Again, f / / / ( x) = 6a3 + 24a4 x + 60a5 x 2 + +

For x=0:
f / / / (0) = 6a3 + 24a4 (0) + 60a5 (0) 2 + +
/// ///
f (0) f (0)
 f / / / (0) = 6a3  a3 = =
6 3!
In similar vein, f / v ( x) = 24a4 + 120a5 x + +

For x=0:
f / v (0) = 24a4 + 120a5 (0) + +
/v
f (0) f / v (0)
 f / v (0) = 24a4  a4 = =
24 4!
Finally, f v ( x) = 120a5 + +

For x=0:

33
 f v (0) = 120a5 + +
f v (0) f v (0)
 f v (0) = 120a5  a5 = =
120 5!
f / / (0) f / / / (0) f / v (0) f v (0)
Thus, a0 = f (0) , a1 = f / (0) , a2 = , a3 = , a4 = , a5 = ,…….
2! 3! 4! 5!
Substituting the expressions for a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ,........ , etc. into equation (1), we obtain:

x2 / / x3 / / / x4 / v x5 v
f ( x) = f (0) + xf / (0) + f (0) + f (0) + f (0) + f (0) + +
2! 3! 4! 5!
This general series is known as Maclaurin’s Series. Thus, in general, provided we can
differentiate a given function over and over again, and find the values of the derivatives
when x is put to zero, then this method would enable us to express any function as a
series of ascending powers of x.

2.10.1 Limiting Values – Indeterminate Forms

It is sometimes necessary to find the limiting value of a function of x when x → 0 or when x → a

 x 2 + 5 x − 14 
For example if we desire to determine lim it  2 
x →0
 x − 5x + 8 
then,
 x 2 + 5 x − 14  (0) 2 + 5(0) − 14 − 14 7
lim it  2  = = =−
 x − 5 x + 8  (0) − 5(0) + 8
x →0 2
8 4

7
Thus, − is the limiting value of the function as x → 0
4

x 2 + 5 x − 14  x 2 + 5 x − 14 
Similarly, if for the function 2 , we wish to determine lim it  2 
x − 5x + 6 x →2
 x − 5x + 6 
then, putting x = 2 in the function we obtain:
 x 2 + 5 x − 14  (2) 2 + 5(2) − 14 14 − 14 0
lim it  2 = = =
 x − 5 x + 6  (2) − 5(2) + 6 10 − 10 0
x →2 2

Thus, suppose we have two functions f (x) and g (x) such that lim it f ( x) = A and
x → x0

f ( x0 )
lim it g ( x) = B where A and B are either both zero or both infinite, then the ratio is an
x → x0 g ( x0 )

0  f ( x0 )
indeterminate quantity or ; however, the limit of as x → x0 may exist.
0  g ( x0 )

34
The series expansion can facilitate the evaluation of such limits.

 Sinx   Cosx − 1 
Example. Show that (i) lim it  =1 (ii) lim it  =0
x →0
 x  x →0
 x 
Solution:
(i) By the Maclaurin’s series, the expansion of Sin x is given by:

x3 x5 x 7 x9
Sinx = x − + − + − +
3! 5! 7! 9!
Substituting the expansion of Sin x into the given function, we obtain
 x3 x5 x 7 x9 
 x − + − + − + 
 Sinx  3! 5! 7! 9!
lim it   = lim it  
x →0
 x  x →0  x 
 
 

 x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 
= lim it 1 − + − + − + 
x →0
 3! 5! 7! 9! 

 (0) 2 (0) 4 (0)6 (0)8 

= 1 − + − + − + 
 3! 5! 7! 9! 
=1

(ii) By the Maclaurin’s series, the expansion of Cos x is given by:

6
x2 x4 x x8
Cosx = 1 − + − + − +
2! 4! 6! 8!

Substituting the expansion of Cos x into the given function, we obtain

 x 2 x 4 x 6 x8 
1 − + − + − + − 1
 Cosx − 1   2! 4! 6! 8! 
lim it  = lim it
x →0
 x  x→0  x 
 
 

 x x3 x 5 x 7 
= lim it  − + − + − + 
x →0
 2! 4! 6! 8! 

 0 (0)3 (0) 5 (0)7 

= − + − + − + 
 2! 4! 6! 8! 

35
 =0
The use of the series expansion may sometimes be avoided. For instances of such nature, the
following theorems called L'Hospital's rule will facilitate the evaluation of such limits.

Theorem I: If f (x) and g(x) are differentiable in the open interval (a, b) except possibly at
a point x 0 in this interval, and if f ( x0 ) = g ( x0 ) = 0 , g / ( x)  0 for x  x0 then,

 f ( x)   f / ( x) 
lim it   = lim it  / 
x → x0
 g ( x )  x → x0  g ( x ) 
whenever the limit on the right hand side can be found. If f / ( x) and g / ( x) satisfy the same
conditions as f (x) and g(x) in the interval (a, b), then the theorem can be applied to f' (x) and
g' (x) and so on for higher derivatives.

Theorem II: If f (x) and g(x) are differentiable in the open interval (a, b) except possibly
at a point x 0 in this interval, and if f ( x0 ) = g ( x0 ) =  , g / ( x)   for x  x0 then,

 f ( x)   f / ( x) 
lim it   = lim it  / 
x → x0
 g ( x )  x → x0  g ( x ) 
Again, provided the limit on the right hand side exists.

 x2 − 9 
Example. Use the algebraic technique of factorization to find the lim it  2 
x →3
 x − x − 6

Solution:
 x2 − 9   (x − 3)(x + 3)   (x + 3) 
lim it  2  = lim it   = lim it  
x →3
 x − x − 6 x →3
 (x − 3)(x + 2) x →3
 (x + 2)
3+3 6
= =
3+ 2 5
Example. Use L'Hospital's rule to show that:
 sin x 
(i) lim it  =1
x →0
 x 
 cos x − 1
(ii) lim it  =0
x →0
 x 
Solution:

36
  d {sin x} 
 sin x   = lim it  cos x  = 1
(i) lim it   = lim it  dx
x →0  d x →0  1 
x →0
 x  {x}   
 dx 
 d {cos x − 1} 
 cos x − 1  = lim it  − sin x  = 0
(ii) lim it   = lim it  dx
x →0 
x →0
 x  x →0  d {x}   1 
 dx 

 x2 − 9 
Example. Use L'Hospital's rule to find the lim it  2 
x →3
 x − x − 6
Solution:
0
The limits have the form so by L'Hospital's rule:
0
 x2 − 9   2x  2 (3) 6
lim it  2  = lim it   = =
x →3
 x − x − 6 x →3
 2 x − 1 2 (3) − 1 5

 tan 2 x 
Example. Find the lim it  
x →0
 ln (1 + x )
Solution:
0
Both numerator and denominator have limits 0 . Thus, the limit has the form so by L'Hospital rule,
0

 d {tan 2 x}   
 tan 2 x   2 sec 2
2 x =2
lim it   = lim it  dx  = lim it
x →0
 ln (1 + x )  x →0  d
{ln(1 + x )}  x →0  1 
 dx   (1 + x ) 

x
Example. Find the lim it  x 
x →
e 
Solution:
Both x and ex tend to  as x →  . Hence by L'Hospital's rule
x 1
lim it  x  = lim it  x  = 0
x →
e  x →
e 

 ln x 
Example. Show that if a is any positive real number, then lim it  a  = 0
x →
x 
Sol ution:
Both ln x and x a tends to  as x →  . Hence by one application of

37
L'Hospital's rule:
 1 
 ln x   1 
lim it  a  = lim it  ax−1  = lim it  a  = 0
x →  ax  x→  ax 
x →
x 
 

2.10.2 Expansion of Functions

Let f(x) be any function of x and let a be a point provided f (a) exists and that successive
derivatives of f(x) all have finite values when x = a . f(x) may be expressed as an infinite series in
ascending powers of n. We assume that it is in order to differentiate finite series term by term.
Let f (x) = c0 + c1 ( x − a ) + c2 ( x − a ) 2 + c3 ( x − a )3 + c4 ( x − a ) 4 +

Then, f / ( x) = c1 + 2c2 ( x − a ) + 3c3 ( x − a ) 2 + 4c4 ( x − a )3 +

f / / ( x) = 2c2 + 3 2c3 ( x − a ) + 4 3c4 ( x − a ) 2 + 5 4c5 ( x − a )3 +

f / / / ( x) = 3 2c3 + 4 3 2c4 ( x − a ) + 5 4 3c5 ( x − a ) 2 +

f / v ( x) = 4 3 2c4 + 5 4 3 2c5 ( x − a) +

f v ( x) = 5 4 3 2c5 +

Putting x = a in each of the functions above, we obtain

f / / (a) f /// (a) f / v (a)

c0 = f (a); c1 = f / (a ); c2 = ; c3 = and c4 =
2! 3! 4!
Thus,
( x − a) 2 / / ( x − a)3 / / / ( x − a) 4 / v
f ( x) = f (a ) + ( x − a ) f (a ) +
/
f (a ) + f (a ) + f (a ) +
2! 3! 4!
The above infinite series is called a Taylor’s Series for f(x) about x = a . If x = a + h , then the
series can be expressed in ascending powers of h, thus,
h2 / / h3 / / / h4 / v
f ( x) = f (a + h) = f (a) + hf / (a) + f (a) + f (a) + f (a) +
2! 3! 4!

f n (a)
 f ( x) =  h n
n =0 n!

 
Example. Use Taylor’s theorem to expand Sin  + h  in ascending powers of h as far as the
6 
term in h 4 .
Solution:

38
  
f ( x) = Sinx = Sin  + h 
6 
   1
f   = Sin =
6 6 2

   3
f / ( x) = Cosx  f /   = Cos =
6 6 2
   1
f / / ( x) = − Sinx  f / /   = − Sin = −
6 6 2

   3
f / / / ( x) = −Cosx  f / / /   = −Cos = −
6 6 2
   1
f / v ( x) = Sinx  f / v   = Sin =
6 6 2
Now using the relation:
h2 / / h3 / / / h4 / v
f ( x) = f (a + h) = f (a) + hf / (a) + f (a) + f (a) + f (a) +
2! 3! 4!
we obtain
  1    h //    h ///    h /v   
2 3 4
Sin  + h  = + hf /   + f  + f  + f  +
6  2  6  2!  6  3!  6  4! 6

1 3 1 3 3 1 4
= + h − h2 − h + h +
2 2 4 12 48

In a special case where a = 0 , the Taylor’s series reduces to the Maclaurin’s Series.

2.11 ROLLLE’S THEOREM

If f(x) is continuous on the closed interval  a, b  and differentiable on the open interval ( a, b ) and

f (a) = f (b) , then there exists a point x in ( a, b ) such that f / ( x ) = 0 .

Extreme Value Theorem: If f , a continuous function has a maximum value f (M ) and a

minimum value f (m) on the closed interval  a,b  , then either f (M ) = f (m) or f (M )  f (m) .

Theorem on Local Extrema: If f ( x* ) is a local extremum, then either f is not differentiable

at x* or f / ( x* ) = 0 .

39
We will use these theorems to prove the Rolle’s theorem.

PROOF OF ROLLE’S THEOREM

Case I
We suppose the maximum value is equal to the minimum value, thus f (M ) = f (m) .

This implies all the values of f on  a,b  are equal and f is constant on  a,b  , therefore

a+b
f / ( x) = 0 for all x  (a, b) . So one may take x* to be anything in (a, b) ; for example x* =
2
would suffice.
Case II
Now, we suppose f (M )  f (m) , so at least one of f (M ) and f (m)
is not equal to the value f (a) = f (b)
a. We first consider the case where the maximum value
f (M )  f (a) = f (b) , that is M is neither a nor b. But M is in

a,b and not at the end points, thus M must be in the open

interval (a, b) . We have the maximum value f (M)  f(x) for all

x   a, b  which contains the open interval (a, b) , so we also

have f (M)  f(x) for every x  (a, b) . Since M is also in the open
interval (a, b) , by definition, f (M ) is a local maximum.
Since, M is in the open interval (a, b) , by hypothesis, we have that f is differentiable at M. Now

by the Theorem on Local Extrema, we have that f / (M ) = 0 , so we take x* = M and that concludes
this case.

b. We now consider the case where the minimum value

f (m)  f (a) = f ( b ) , that is m is neither a nor b. But m is in

a,b and not at the end points, thus m must be in the open

interval (a, b) . We have the minimum value f (m)  f(x) for all

x   a, b  which contains the open interval (a, b) , so we also have

f (m)  f(x) for every x  (a, b) . Since m is also in the open

interval (a, b) , by definition, f (m) is a local minimum.

40
Since, m is in the open interval (a, b) , by hypothesis, we have that f is differentiable at m. Now

by the Theorem on Local Extrema, we have that f / (m) = 0 , so we take x* = m and that concludes
this case.
Hence the proof.

Verify the Rolle’s theorem for f ( x ) = x − 4x on  −2, 2  .

3
Examples. 1.

At x = −2; f ( −2 ) = (−2) − 4 ( −2 ) = 0
3
Solution:

At x = 2; f (2) = (2) − 4 ( −2 ) = 0
3

 f ( 2 ) = f ( −2 ) = 0

Now, f ( x ) = x − 4 x  f ( x ) = 3x − 4
3 / 2

Thus, f ( x ) = 3x − 4 must be zero at least once between -2 and 2

/ 2

2
 f / ( x ) = 3x 2 − 4 = 0  x =  3
3

2 2
Therefore f / ( x ) = 0 at x1* = − 3 and x *2 = 3 each of which is between -2 and 2. Hence,
3 3
the theorem is verified.

Verify the Rolle’s theorem for f ( x ) = x (1 − x) on  0  x  1 .

2 2
2.

At x = 0; f ( 0 ) = ( 0 ) (1 − 0 ) = 0
2 2
Solution:

At x = 1; f (1) = (1) (1 − 1) = 0
2 2

 f (0) = f (1) = 0

Now, f ( x ) = x 2 (1 − x )  f / ( x ) = 2 x (1 − x ) − 2 x 2 (1 − x )
2 2

Thus, f / ( x ) = 2 x (1 − x ) − 2 x 2 (1 − x ) must be zero at least once between 0 and 1

2

 f / ( x ) = 2 x (1 − x ) − 2 x 2 (1 − x ) = 0  2 x (1 − x )(1 − 2 x ) = 0
2

41
 1
 x = 0; x = 1; x =
2
1
Therefore, f / ( x* ) = 0 at x* = which is between 0 and 1. Hence, the theorem is verified.
2

2.12 MEAN VALUE THEOREM

Let a b . If f is continuous on the closed interval  a, b  and differentiable in ( a, b ) , then there

f (b) − f (a)
exists a point x* in ( a, b ) such that f / ( x* ) = .
b−a

Geometrically, the theorem states that a secant line drawn through two points on a smooth graph
is parallel to the tangent line at some intermediate point on the curve. Thus, under appropriate
smoothness conditions, the slope of the curve at some point between a and b is the same as the
slope of the line joining ( a, f ( a ) ) to ( b, f ( b ) ) .

If f satisfies the hypotheses of the Rolle’s theorem, then the Mean Value theorem also applies

and f ( b ) − f ( a ) = 0 . For the x* given by the Mean Value theorem, we have that

f (b) − f (a)
f / ( x* ) = = 0 . So the Mean Value theorem says nothing new in this case but it does
b−a
add information when f ( a )  f ( b ) . The proof of the Mean Value theorem is accomplished by

finding a way to apply Rolle’s theorem. One considers the line joining the points ( a, f ( a ) ) and

( b, f ( b ) ) . The difference between f and that line is a function that turns out to satisfy the

hypotheses of Rolle’s theorem which then yields the desired result.

PROOF

The equation of the secant through ( a, f ( a ) ) and ( b, f ( b ) ) is

f (b ) − f ( a )
y − f (a) = ( x − a)
b−a

f (b ) − f ( a )
which we can rewrite as y = ( x − a) + f (a)
b−a

42
Let g be the difference between f and this line, that is

 f (b) − f ( a ) 
g ( x) = f ( x) −  ( x − a ) + f ( a )
 b−a 

g is the difference between two continuous functions so g is continuous on  a, b  . Also, g is the

difference of two differentiable functions so g is differentiable on ( a, b ) . Moreover, the derivative

of g is the difference between the derivative of f and the derivative (slope) of the line. That is,

f (b ) − f ( a )
g / ( x) = f / ( x) −
b−a
Both f and the line go through the points ( a, f ( a ) ) and ( b, f ( b ) ) so the difference between them

is 0 at a and at b. Indeed,

 f (b ) − f ( a ) 
g (a) = f (a) −  f (a) + ( a − a ) = f ( a ) −  f ( a ) + 0 = 0 and
 b−a 
 f (b) − f ( a ) 
g (b ) = f (b ) −  f ( a ) + (b − a ) = f (b ) −  f ( a ) + f (b ) − f ( a ) = 0
 b−a 

Therefore, Rolle’s theorem applies to g since g ( a ) = g ( b ) = 0 , so there exist a point x* in ( a, b )

such that g / ( x* ) = 0 . Using our calculated g / ( x ) above, we have

f (b ) − f ( a )
( )
g / x* = f / x* −( ) b−a
=0

f (b ) − f ( a )
( )
Hence, f / x* =
b−a
and that ends the proof.

Example. We illustrate the Mean Value theorem by considering f ( x ) = x 3 on the interval

1, 3 .

Solution:

43
 f is a polynomial so continuous everywhere. For any x , f / ( x ) = 3x 2 so f is continuous on the

1, 3 and differentiable on (1,3) . Therefore, the Mean Value theorem applies to f and 1, 3 .

f (b ) − f ( a ) f ( 3) − f (1) 27 − 1
= = = 13
b−a 3 −1 2

( )
f / x* = 3( x* )2 , so we seek a point x* in 1, 3 with 3 x ( )
2
*
= 13 .

3 ( x *) = 13 iff (x ) 13 13
2
=  x* = 
2 *
.
3 3

13 13
− is not in the interval (1,3) but is in the interval since it is a little bigger than 2, thus
3 3
approximately 2.0817.

13
Therefore, x* = is in the interval (1,3) and
3

 13  f ( 3) − f (1) f ( b ) − f ( a )
( )
f / x* = f /   = 13 =
3 −1
=
b−a
 3 

Examples.

1. Verify the theorem of the mean for f ( x ) = 2 x on 1, 4 .

Solution: At x = 1 ; f (1) = 2 1 = 2

At x = 4 ; f ( 4 ) = 2 4 = 4

f (b) − f ( a ) f ( 4 ) − f (1) 4−2 2

 = = =
b−a 4 −1 3 3
Differentiating f ( x ) = 2 x , we get

f / ( x) =
1
( )
 f / x* =
1
x x*
f (b ) − f ( a )
But f / ( x* ) =
1 2
 =
b−a x * 3

9
Therefore, x* = .
4

44
 9
Hence, the theorem is verified since 1  x* =  4.
4
Verify the theorem of the mean for f ( x ) = 2 x − 7 x + 10 on  2,5
2
2.

At x = 2 ; f ( 2 ) = 2 ( 2 ) − 7 ( 2 ) + 10 = 4
2
Solution:

At x = 5 ; f ( 5 ) = 2 ( 5 ) − 7 ( 5 ) + 10 = 25
2

f (b ) − f ( a ) f ( 5) − f ( 2 ) 25 − 4
 = = =7
b−a 5−2 3
Differentiating f ( x ) = 2 x − 7 x + 10 , we get f / ( x ) = 4 x − 7  f / ( x* ) = 4 x* − 7
2

By the theorem of the mean, we have

f (b ) − f ( a )
( )
f / x* =
b−a
 4 x* − 7 = 7

7
 x* =
2
7
Hence, the theorem is verified since 2  x* =  5.
2

Exercise
1. Differentiate from first principle the following functions.

(i) y = 5x2 + 2 (iii) y = 5 x 3 + 2 x 2 + 3x + 4 (iv) y = x2 Sinx

5x2 − x + 7
(ii) h( x ) =
x 2 + x + 10

2. Find from first principle the derivative with respect to x of the function f ( x) = Inx .

3. Differentiate the following with respect to x.

(i) y = In( x2 + 5x − 3) (iii) y = xSin−1 x

3
2
x
(ii) y= 1
1+ x 2

4. If x = a ( Cos +  Sin ) and y = a ( Sin −  Cos ) . Find

dy
in its simplest form.
dx

45
5. Differentiate with respect to x simplifying as far as possible the functions

cos 2 x
(i) f ( x) = tan 2 x cos x (ii) f ( x) =
x2
6. Find the derivative with respect to x of the following
(i) cos ec −1 x (ii) cot −1 x

 x −1  x −2  x
(iii) tan −1   (iv) cos −1   (v) sin −1  
 x +1  2  2
dy
7. Find given that
dx

(i) ( )
y = 1 − x 2 sin −1 x (ii) y = tan −1 (2 x − 1)

8. Determine the following limits:

1 − cos x 
lim it  3
( )
1 − cos x 2 
(i). lim it  2 (ii). 
x →0
 x + 3x  x →0
 x sin x 
 
 cos x  e x −1 − x − x2 − x3 
lim it  lim it  2 6
1 
(iii). (iv).
x →( 1 ) x →0  x4 
2 
x−   
 2 
(v). lim it tan x • ln sin x 
x →
2

9. Use Leibnitz’s theorem to find the following

d4 2 d8  2 d n 4 −2 x
(a)
dx 4
( x Sinx) (b)
dx 8 
x ( 3x + 1) 
12


(c) (
dx n
xe )
10. Find the stationary point on the following curves and determine the type.

( x − 1)
2
1
(i) f ( x ) = x 3 − 2 x 2 + 3x (ii) y = x − 3x + 2
3
(iii) y=
3 x

46
 CHAPTER THREE

INTEGRATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. When we differentiate, we start with an

expression and proceed to find its derivative. When we integrate, we start with the derivative and
find the expression from which it has been derived. Thus, if f(x) is given, then any function F(x)
such that F '(x) = f(x) is called the anti-derivative or integral of f(x) with respect to x. It could be
deduced that if F(x) is the integral of f(x), then F (x) + c , where c is any constant is also an integral

of f(x) since  F ( x) + c  = F ' ( x) = f ( x) . Thus, all indefinite integrals differ by a constant. The
'

symbol  f ( x)dx denotes the integral of f ( x) with respect to the variable x. The expression f ( x)

to be integrated is called the integrand.

𝑑
For example, (𝑥 4 ) = 4𝑥 3 . Therefore the integral of 4𝑥 3 with respect to x is known to be 𝑥 4 .
𝑑𝑥

Comparing the example with the information above implies 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 .

3.2 ALGEBRAIC INTEGRATION

3.2.1 Power of x
𝑑
Consider 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 .

Replacing n by (𝑛 + 1), we obtain

𝑑
(𝑥 𝑛+1 ) = (𝑛 + 1)𝑥 𝑛
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 𝑛+1
⇒ ( ) = 𝑥𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1

𝑥 𝑛+1
∴ ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 , 𝑛 ≠ −1. This is known as the Power Rule
𝑛+1

3.2.2 Constant of Integration

Let us consider the following
𝑑
(𝑥 4 ) = 4𝑥 3 ∴ ∫ 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 4
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(𝑥 4 + 2) = 4𝑥 3 ∴ ∫ 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 2
𝑑𝑥

47
𝑑
(𝑥 4 − 5) = 4𝑥 3 ∴ ∫ 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 5
𝑑𝑥

In the three examples, we happen to know the expressions from which the derivative 4𝑥 3 was
derived. But any constant term in the original expression becomes zero in the derivative and all
trace of it is lost. This means that if the History of the derivative 4𝑥 3 is not known, then no
evidence of the value of the constant term will be 0 , +2 , −2 or any other value could be detected.
It is therefore necessary to acknowledge the presence of such a constant term of some value by
adding a symbol c to the results of the integration. That is,
∫ 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑐
c is called the constant of integration and must always be included. Such an integral is called an
indefinite integral. Thus, if 𝑓(𝑥) is given, then any function 𝐹(𝑥) such that 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) is
called an indefinite integral of 𝑓(𝑥). In certain circumstances, however, the value of c might be
found if further information about the integral is available.

Example. Determine I = ∫ 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 , given that 𝐼 = 3 when 𝑥 = 2.

Solution: I = ∫ 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑐
But when 𝑥 = 2 , 𝐼 = 3 .
⇒ I = 𝑥 4 + 𝑐 = 24 + 𝑐 = 3
⟹ 𝑐 = 3 − 24 = 3 − 16 = −13
I = 𝑥 4 − 13.

 2 1 
x  x − 2  dx
2
Example. Solve
 x 

 2 1   4 1 2
x  x − 2  dx =   x − 2 x  dx =  x dx −  1dx
2 4
Soluton:
 x   x 
x5
= + c1 − x + c2
5
Let c = c1 + c2 , so we have
2 2 1  x5
  x2 
x x − dx =
5
−x+c

3.2.3 Standard Integrals

Every derivative written in the reverse gives an integral.

𝑑
Example: (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑥 ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥

48
 d
( Cos x ) = −Sin x   Sin x dx = −Cos x + c
dx
It therefore follows that the list of standard derivatives provides a source of standard integrals.
Sin x
 tan x dx =  Cos x dx
1
Let u = Cos x  du = − Sin x dx  dx = − du
Sin x

Sin x Sin x 1 1
 dx =  − du = −  du
Cos x u Sin x u

= −Inu + c = −InCos x + c

= In ( Cos x ) + c = In Sec x + c
−1

3.2.4 Integration of Exponential/Logarithmic

 e dx = e +c
x x

PROOF
d x
Since we know that the derivative e = e x . We can use the Fundamental Theorem of
dx
Calculus

 e dx =  dx ( e ) dx = e
d
x x x
+c
Hence proved.

 In x dx
We solve this using integration by parts.
1
Let u = In x  du = dx dv = dx  v = x
x
 u dv = uv −  v du
1
= ( In x ) x −  x  dx
x
= xIn x −  1 dx
= xIn x − x + c

 b dx
x

We use  e x dx = e x + c
Since eInb = b , we have

49
 b dx =  ( e ) dx
x Inb x

=  e( ) dx Inb x

Let u = ( In b ) x  du = In b dx
By substitution, we have
du 1
 b dx =  e  In b = In b  e du
x u u

1 u
= e +c
In b
Substituting u = ( In b ) x yields
1 ( Inb ) x
 b dx = In b e +c
x

1
( e Inb ) + c
x
=
In b
1 x bx
= b +c= +c
In b In b
bx
  b x dx = +c
In b

 2 dx
x
Example.
We know that eIn 2 = 2
 2 dx =  ( e ) dx
x In 2 x

=  e( ) dx In 2 x

Let u = ( In 2 ) x  du = In 2 dx
By substitution, we get
du 1
 2 dx =  e  In 2 = In 2  e du
x u u

1 u
= e +c
In 2
Substituting u = ( In 2 ) x yields
1 ( In 2 ) x
 2 dx = In 2 e +c
x

1
( e In 2 ) + c
x
=
In 2
1 x 2x
= 2 +c = +c
In 2 In 2
2x
  2 x dx = +c
In 2

50
3.2.5 Integration of Polynomial Expression

Differentiation of polynomial expressions are done term by term and hence polynomial
expressions are also integrated term by term. The integral of any polynomial is the sum of the
integrals of its terms. A general term of a polynomial can be written as axn and the indefinite
integral of that term is
x n +1
 ax dx = a +c
n

n +1

where a and c are constants.

The expression applies to both positive and negative values of n except for the special case of
n = −1 .

5𝑥 3
Example. 1. ∫(4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 3
− 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 𝑐

x6 x −1
 ( x − 2 x + 1) dx =
−2
2. 5
−2 + x+c
6 −1

3.2.6 Integration of Functions of a Linear Function of x

When the variable x of a function is replaced by a linear expression in x which is of the form
+b , then the example 𝑦 = ∫(3𝑥 + 2)4 dx is of the same structure as 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 except that x
is replaced by a linear expression 3𝑥 + 2. Integration of such forms is done by simple substitution.

Example. Find I = ∫(3𝑥 + 2)4 dx

𝑑𝑢 1
Solution: Let u = 3𝑥 + 2 ⟹ = 3 ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 3

1
⟹ 𝐼 = ∫(3𝑥 + 2)4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢4 ∙ 3 𝑑𝑢

1 1
∙ 𝑢5 + 𝑐
3 5
1 1
⟹ 𝐼 = ∫(3𝑥 + 2)4 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∙ 5 (3𝑥 + 2)5 + 𝑐
1
= (3𝑥 + 2)5 + 𝑐
15

51
Thus, to integrate a “function of a linear function of x ”; simply replace x in the corresponding
standard result by the linear expression and divide by the coefficient of x in the linear expression.

Example. Integrate the following functions:

(i) (4𝑥 − 3)2 (ii)Cos 3𝑥 (iii) 𝑒 5𝑥+2
Solution:

𝑑𝑢 1
(i) Let 𝑢 = 4𝑥 − 3 ⟹ =4 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 4
1 1
∫(4𝑥 − 3)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢2 ∙ 4 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 4 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢

1 1 1
= ∙ 𝑢3 + 𝑐 = 𝑢3 + 𝑐
4 3 12

1
= (4𝑥 − 3)3 + 𝑐
12

du 1
(ii) Let u = 3x  = 3  dx = du
dx 3

1 1
 Cos3xdx =  Cosu. 3 du = 3  Cosudu
1 1
= Sinu + c = Sin3x + c
3 3

du 1
(iii) Let u = 5 x + 2  =5  dx = du
dx 5
1 1
e dx =  eu du =  eu du
5 x+2

5 5

1 1
= eu + c = e 5 x + 2 + c
5 5

𝒇′ (𝒙)
3.3 INTEGRALS OF THE FORM ∫ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

From our previous lessons on differentiation, we observed that

d f / ( x) f / ( x)
 Inf ( x )  =  dx = In  f ( x )  + c
dx  f ( x) f ( x)

52
 2x + 3
Consider the integral x 2
+ 3x − 5
dx . It could be noticed that if the denominator is differentiated,

the expression in the numerator is obtained. Now, let u be the denominator, i.e. u = x2 + 3x − 5 .
du
Then, = 2 x + 3  du = ( 2 x + 3) dx .
dx
The integral can then be written in terms of u as below;
2x + 3 1 du
x 2
+ 3x − 5
dx =  du = 
u u

(
= Inu + c = In x 2 + 3x − 5 + c )
Hence, any integral in which the numerator is the derivative of the denominator will be of this
f / ( x)
kind:  f ( x ) dx = In  f ( x ) + c

3𝑥 2
Example. Find ∫ 𝑥 3−4 𝑑𝑥.
𝑑
3𝑥 2 [𝑥 3 −4]
Solution: ∫ 𝑥 3 −4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥𝑥 3 −4 𝑑𝑥

= ln (𝑥 3 − 4) + 𝑐

Example. Find the integral of the following functions:

6𝑥 2 2𝑥 2
(i) (ii) (iii) tan x
𝑥 3 −4 𝑥 3 −4

Solution:

6𝑥 2 3𝑥 2
(i) ∫ 𝑥 3 −4 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑥 3 −4 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
[𝑥 3 −4]
𝑑𝑥
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3 −4

= 2[ln(𝑥 3 − 4)] + 𝑐
2𝑥 2 2 3𝑥 2
(ii) ∫ 𝑥 3 −4 𝑑𝑥 = 3
∫ 𝑥 3 −4 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
2 [𝑥 3 −4]
= 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥𝑥 3 −4 𝑑𝑥

=
2
3  (
In x3 − 4  + c )
Sinx (− Sinx)
(iii)  tan xdx =  Cosx dx = − Cosx
dx

53
 = − InCosx + c
= InSecx + c

 f ( x ) f ( x ) dx
/
3.4 INTEGRALS OF THE FORM

We shall consider situations in which the function to be integrated is a product of two functions in
which one function is the derivative of the other function. Let us consider the example
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. The function to be integrated is a function of product of two functions of which
the function (𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥) of the product is the derivative of the other function (tanx).
Let u = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 , then du = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. Thus

∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 . 𝑑𝑢

𝑢2
= + 𝑐
2

1
= (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥)2 + 𝑐
2

1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐
2

Similarly, this can be represented as below:

𝑑
∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 [tan 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥

1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐
2

Example. Find ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
Solution: ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin 𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 [sin 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥

1
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐
2

Example. Find the following:

ln 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥
(i) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (ii) ∫ √1−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

Solution:

54
 ln 𝑥 1
(i) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑙𝑛𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

𝑑
= ∫ 𝑙𝑛𝑥 ∙ [ln 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

1
= [ln 𝑥]2 + 𝑐 .
2

1
Alternatively, let 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

1
⟹ ∫ ln 𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 ∙ 𝑑𝑢
𝑥

u2
= +c
2

1
=  Inx  + c
2

sin−1 𝑥 1
(ii) ∫ √1−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin−1 𝑥 ∙ √1−𝑥2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
= ∫ sin−1 𝑥 ∙ [sin−1 𝑥]𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1
= (sin−1 𝑥)2 + 𝑐
2
1
Alternatively, let 𝑢 = sin−1 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = √1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
1
= ∫ sin−1 𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 ∙ 𝑑𝑢
√1 − 𝑥 2

1 2
= 𝑢 + 𝑐
2

1
= (sin−1 𝑥)2 + 𝑐
2

3.5 INTEGRATION OF PRODUCTS – INTEGRATION BY PARTS

There are instances where we need to integrate a function which is a product of two functions
where either function is not the derivative of the other. For example, in ∫ 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , ln 𝑥 is not

55
the derivative of 𝑥 2 and 𝑥 2 is also not the derivative of ln x. There is therefore the need to find
some other method of dealing with the integral.

Assuming u and v are functions of x, then from our knowledge in derivatives, we obtain the
equation below:

𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
[𝑢𝑣] = 𝑢 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Integrating both sides of the above with respect to x, we obtain:

𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
∫ 𝑑𝑥 [𝑢𝑣]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
⟹ 𝑢𝑣 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 ……………… (i)

It would be noted that on the left hand side, there are two factors to integrate in which one factor
is chosen as a function 𝑢 and the other as the derivative of the function v. To find the function v
𝑑𝑣
from its derivative, one must integrate the factor 𝑑𝑥 separately for v. The functions u and v obtained

can be substituted in the right hand side of the equation to complete the routine.

For convenience, the equation (1) is written in the form: ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

Example. Find ∫ 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

1 𝑑𝑣 𝑥3
Solution: Let 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥. = 𝑥2 ⟹ 𝑣 =
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3

1 1 1
⟹ ∫ 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 (3 𝑥 3 ) − ∫ 3 𝑥 3 ∙ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 1
= 𝑥 3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 3 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
3

1 1 1
= 3 𝑥 3 ln 𝑥 − 3 [3 𝑥 3 ] + 𝑐

1 1
= 3 𝑥 3 ln 𝑥 − 9 𝑥 3 + 𝑐

Example. Evaluate the following integrals:

(𝑖) ∫ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑖𝑖) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑖𝑖𝑖) ∫ 𝑥 3 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑖𝑣) ∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥

56
Solution:
𝑑𝑣 1
(i) Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 ; = sin 3𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = − 3 cos 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1 1
∫ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 3
𝑥 cos 3𝑥 − ∫ − 3 cos 3𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥

1 1
= − 𝑥 cos 3𝑥 + ∫ cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 3

1 1 1
= − 𝑥 cos 3𝑥 + [ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 3𝑥] + 𝑐
3 3 3

1 1
= − 𝑥 cos 3𝑥 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 + 𝑐
3 9

𝑑𝑣 1 2𝑥
(ii) Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 ; = 𝑒 2𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑒
𝑑𝑥 2
1 1
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 . 2𝑥𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 2 2𝑥
= 𝑥 𝑒 − ∫ 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2

𝑑𝑣 1 2𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 ; = 𝑒 2𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑒
𝑑𝑥 2

1 2 2x  1 2x 1 
  x 2e2 x dx = x e −  xe −  e 2 x dx 
2 2 2 
1 2 2𝑥 1 2𝑥 1
= 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥𝑒 + ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2 2

1 2 2𝑥 1 2𝑥 1 1 2𝑥
= 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥𝑒 + ∙ 𝑒 + 𝑐
2 2 2 2

1 2 2𝑥 1 2𝑥 1 2𝑥
= 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑐
2 2 4

1 1 1
= ( 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + ) 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 2 4

𝑑𝑣 1
(iii) Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 ; = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
1 1
∫ 𝑥 3 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − ∫ ∙ 3𝑥 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝑑𝑥
2 2

57
 1 3 3
= 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝑑𝑥
2 2

𝑑𝑣 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 ; = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = − 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1 3 3 1 1
⟹ ∫ 𝑥 3 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − [− 𝑥 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − ∫ − ∙ 2𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑑𝑥 ]
2 2 2 2

1 3 3 3
= 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 4 2

𝑑𝑣 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 ; = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 2

1 3 3 3 1 1
⟹ ∫ 𝑥 3 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − [ 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 − ∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝑑𝑥 ]
2 4 2 2 2
1 3 3 3 3 1
= 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + [− 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥] + 𝑐
2 4 4 4 2
1 3 3 3
= 𝑥 3 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 4 4 8

𝑑𝑣 1
(iv) Let u = 𝑥 2 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥; = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑎
1 2 1 1
∫ 𝑥 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎 [− 𝑎 ∙ 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 − ∫ − 𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥]

1 2 2
= 𝑥 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎2 ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

1 2 2 2 1
= 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 + 2 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 − 2 [ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥] + 𝑐
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

1 2 2 2
= 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 + 2 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 − 3 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

There are other instances where the two functions are neither a log factor nor a power of x, but of
the form eax Sin bx or eaxCosbx . Part of the result in course of the evaluation appears as though
we are back to where we started.

Example. Evaluate  eax Sinbx dx .

dv 1
Solution: Let u = Sinbx  du = bCosbx and = e ax  v = e ax .
dx a

e Sinbx dx = uv −  vdu
ax

58
 1 ax b
  eax Sinbxdx = e Sinbx −  e axCosbx dx
a a
1 ax b
= e Sinbx −  e axCosbx dx
a a
dv 1
Let u = Cosbx  du = −bSinbx dx and = e ax  v = e ax
dx a
1 ax b 1 b 
  eax Sinbxdx = e Sinbx −  e axCosbx −  − e ax Sinbxdx 
a a a a 
1 ax b ax b2 ax
  e Sinbxdx = e Sinbx − 2 e Cosbx − 2  e Sinbx dx
ax

a a a
b 2 ax 1 b
  eax Sinbxdx + 2 
e Sinbxdx = eax Sinbx − 2 eax Cosbx
a a a
 b2  1 b
 1 + 2   eax Sinbxdx = eax Sinbx − 2 e axCosbx
 a  a a

 a 2 + b 2  ax 1
   e Sinbxdx = 2  ae Sinbx − be Cosbx 
ax ax
2
 a  a

a2 1
  e Sinbxdx = 2 2 2  aeax Sinbx − beax Cosbx 
ax

a +b a
1
  e ax Sinbx dx =  aSinbx − bCosbx  eax + c
a + b2
2

Example. Evaluate  e3x Sinx dx

dv
Solution: Let u = e3 x  du = 3e3 x dx and = Sinx  v = −Cosx .
dx

e Sinx dx = uv −  vdu
3x

  e3 x Sinxdx = −e3 xCosx −  −3e3 xCosx dx

= −e3 x Cosx + 3 e3 xCosx dx

dv
Let u = e3 x  du = 3e3 x dx and = Cosx  v = Sinx .
dx

  e3 x Sinxdx = −e3 x Cosx + 3 e3 x Sinx −  3e3 x Sinxdx 

 

  e3 x Sinxdx = −e3 xCosx + 3e3 x Sinx − 9  e3 x Sinx dx

  e3 x Sinxdx + 9 e3 x Sinxdx = −e3 xCosx + 3e3 x Sinx

59
 10 e3 x Sinxdx = ( 3Sinx − Cosx ) e3 x + c

1
  e3 x Sinxdx = ( 3Sinx − Cosx ) e3 x + c
10

The examples considered provides us with priority order for u in functions involving In x , x n and
ekx . Thus if:
(i) One factor is a log function, that must be taken as “u”.
(ii) There is no log function but a power of x, then the power of x must be taken as “u”.
(iii) There is neither a log function nor a power of x, then the exponential function is taken
as “u”.

Remembering this priority order will save a lot of false starts.

3.6 INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

x +1
Suppose one has x 2
− 3x + 2
dx to evaluate, it would be noted that, this does not fall under the

standard types that exist and at the same time, the numerator is not the derivative of the
denominator.
In a case of this nature, one must first of all express the algebraic fraction in terms of its partial
fractions which in most cases provide a number of simpler algebraic fractions which one would
most likely be able to integrate separately without difficulty. The rules for consideration are as
follows:
a. The numerator of the given function must be of lower degree than that of the
denominator. If it is not, then first of all, divide out by long division.

b. Factorize the denominator into its prime factors since the factors obtained determine the
shape of the partial fractions.

A
c. A linear factor ax + b gives a partial fraction of the form .
ax + b

d. Factors of the form ( ax + b ) give a partial fraction of the form

n

A B Z
+ + +
ax + b ( ax + b )2 ( ax + b )
n

60
 Ax + B
e. A quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c gives a partial fraction of the form
ax + bx + c
2

Factors of the form ( ax 2 + bx + c ) give a partial fraction of the form

n
f.

Ax + B Cx + D Yx + Z
+ + +
ax + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c( ) ( ax )
2 2 n
2
+ bx + c

Examples.
x +1
1. Evaluate  dx .
x − 3x + 2
2

x +1 x +1 A B
Solution: = = +
x − 3x + 2 ( x − 1)( x − 2 ) x − 1 x − 2
2

 x + 1 = A ( x − 2 ) + B ( x − 1)

Substituting x = 1 , we get
2 = A ( −1) + B ( 0 )  A = −2

Substituting x = 2 , we get
3 = A ( 0 ) + B (1) B = 3
x +1 −2 3
 dx =  dx +  dx
x − 3x + 2
2
x −1 x−2
1 1
= −2 dx + 3 dx
x −1 x−2
= −2 In ( x − 1) + 3In ( x − 2 ) + c

4 x 2 + 26 x + 5
2. Evaluate  2 x2 + 9 x + 4 dx
2
Solution: 2 x 2 + 9 x + 4 4 x 2 + 26 x + 5

−4 x 2 + 18 x + 8
8x − 3
4 x 2 + 26 x + 5 8x − 3
 = 2+ 2
2x + 9x + 4
2
2x + 9x + 4
8x − 3 8x − 3 A B
Now, = = +
2 x + 9 x + 4 ( x + 4 )( 2 x + 1) x + 4 2 x + 1
2

61
 8 x − 3 = A ( 2 x + 1) + B ( x + 4 )

Substituting x = −4 , we get
−35 = A ( −7 ) + B ( 0 ) A = 5
1
Substituting x = − , we get
2
7
−7 = A ( 0 ) + B    B = −2
2
4 x 2 + 26 x + 5  5 2 
 dx =   2 + − dx
2x + 9x + 4
2
 x + 4 2 x + 1 
1 1
=  2dx + 5 dx − 2 dx
x+4 2x +1
1 2
=  2dx + 5 dx −  dx
x+4 2x +1
= 2 x + 5In ( x + 4 ) − In ( 2 x + 1) + c

x2
3. Evaluate  ( x + 1)( x − 1) 2
dx .

x2 A B C
Solution: = + +
( x + 1)( x − 1) x + 1 x − 1 ( x − 1)2
2

 x 2 = A ( x − 1) + B ( x − 1)( x + 1) + C ( x + 1)
2

Substituting x = 1 , we get
1
1 = A (0) + B (0) + C ( 2) C =
2
Substituting x = −1 , we get
1
1 = A ( −2 )( −2 ) + B ( −2 )( 0 ) + C ( 0 ) A=
4
Expanding our expression above, grouping like terms and setting coefficients equal yields
A+ B =1
Substituting A into the equation, we get
1 1 3
+ B = 1  B = 1− B =
4 4 4

62
 x2  1 3 1 
 dx =   x + 1 x − 1 ( x − 1)2 
 4 + 4 + 2 dx
( x + 1)( x − 1)
2
 
1 1 3 1 1 1
= 
4 x +1
dx + 
4 x −1
dx + 
2 ( x − 1)2
dx

1 3 1 1
= In ( x + 1) + In ( x − 1) − +c
4 4 2 x −1
1 3 1
= In ( x + 1) + In ( x − 1) − +c
4 4 2 ( x − 1)

We now consider a quadratic factor which will not factorize any further.

x2
Example. Evaluate  ( x − 2) ( x 2
+1 )
dx

x2 A Bx + C
Solution: = + 2
( x − 2) ( x 2
)
+1 x − 2 x +1

( )
 x 2 = A x 2 + 1 + ( Bx + C )( x − 2 )

Substituting x = 2 , we get
4
4 = A ( 5 ) + ( 2 B + C )( 0 ) A=
5
Expanding our expression above, grouping like terms and setting coefficients equal yields
A+ B =1 A − 2C = 0
Substituting A into the equation A + B = 1 , we get
4 4 1
+ B = 1  B = 1− B =
5 5 5
Substituting A into the equation A − 2C = 0 , we get
4 4 2
− 2C = 0  2C = C =
5 5 5

x2  4 1 x+2 
 dx =   5 + 52 5  dx
2
(
( x − 2) x + 1 ) x−2

x +1 

1 x 2
4 1
= 
5 x−2
dx +  5 dx +
x +1
2  5 dx
x +1
2

63
 4 1 1 x 2 1
= 
5 x−2
dx +  2
5 x +1
dx +  2
5 x +1
dx

4 1 1 2x 2 1
= In ( x − 2 ) +  dx +  2 dx
5 5 2 x +1
2
5 x +1

=
4
5
1
( 2
)
In ( x − 2 ) + In x 2 + 1 + tan −1 x + c
10 5

3.7 INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

3.7.1 Powers of Sinx and of Cos x

d
From ( Sinx ) = Cosx , we have that  Cosxdx = Sinx + c .
dx
d
Similarly, ( Cosx ) = −Sinx , so we have
dx

 Sinxdx = −Cosx + c

To integrate Sin2 x and Cos 2 x , one must express the function in terms of the Cosine of the
double angle:
1
Cos 2 x = 1 − 2Sin 2 x  Sin 2 x = (1 − Cos 2 x ) and
2
1
Cos 2 x = 2Cos 2 x − 1  Cos 2 x = (1 + Cos 2 x )
2
1 
  Sin 2 xdx =   (1 − Cos 2 x )  dx
2 
1
(1 − C os 2 x ) dx
2
=

1 1 
=  x − Sin2 x  + c
2 2 
1 1
= x − Sin 2 x + c
2 4
1
Similarly,  Cos 2 xdx = (1 + Cos 2 x ) dx
2
1 1
= x + Sin2 x + c
2 4

64
To integrate Sin3 x and Cos3 x , one of the factors must be released from the power and the
remaining converted using the identity Sin2 x + Cos 2 x = 1 .

 Sin x dx
3
Example. Evaluate

 Sin xdx =  Sin xSinx dx

3 2
Solution:

(
=  1 − Cos 2 x Sinx dx )
du
Let u = Cosx  = − Sinx  − du = Sinxdx
dx

( )
  Sin3 xdx =  1 − u 2 −du = −  1 − u 2 du ( )
 1  1
= −  u − u3  + c = u3 − u + c
 3  3
1
  Sin3 xdx = Cos 3 x − Cosx + c
3

Similarly,  Cos 3 xdx =  Cos 2 xCosx dx

( )
=  1 − Sin 2 x Cosx dx

du
Let u = Sinx  = Cosx  du = Cosxdx
dx

( ) 1
  Cos 3 xdx =  1 − u 2 du = u − u 3 + c
3
1
  Cos 3 xdx = Sinx − Sin3 x + c
3

We now consider the integration of Sin4 x and Cos 4 x .

 Sin x dx
4
Example. Evaluate

 Sin xdx =  ( Sin x )

2
4 2
Solution: dx

1
Using the sine half angle, we know that Sin 2 x = (1 − Cos 2 x )
2
2 2
1  1 1 
  Sin xdx =   (1 − Cos 2 x )  dx =   − Cos 2 x  dx
4

2  2 2 

65
 =
1
4
( )
1 − 2Cos 2 x + Cos 2 2 x dx

1 1 1
=
4  dx −  2Cos 2 xdx +  Cos 2 2 xdx
4 4
1
Again, using the cosine half angle, Cos 2 x = (1 + Cos 2 x )
2
1 1 1 1 
  Sin 4 xdx =  dx −  2Cos 2 xdx +   (1 + Cos 4 x )  dx
4 4 4 2 
1 1 1
=  dx −  2Cos 2 xdx +  (1 + Cos 4 x ) dx
4 4 8
1 1 1 1
= x − Sin2 x +  x + Sin 4 x  + c
4 4 8 4
1 1 1 1
= x − Sin2 x + x + Sin 4 x + c
4 4 8 32
3 1 1
  Sin 4 xdx = x − Sin 2 x + Sin 4 x + c
8 4 32
NOTE: The  Cos 4 xdx is left as Exercise.

We consider the integration of Sin5 x and Cos5 x .

 Sin x dx
5
Example. Evaluate

 Sin xdx =  Sin xSinx dx

4 4
Solution:

( )
=  1 − Cos 2 x Sinx dx
2

( )
=  1 − 2Cos 2 x + Cos 4 x Sinx dx

=  Sinxdx − 2 Cos 2 xSinxdx +  Cos 4 xSinx dx

2 1
  Sin 4 xdx = −Cosx + Cos 3 x − Cos 5 x + c
3 5
NOTE: The  Cos 5 xdx is left as Exercise.

66
3.7.2 Products of Sines and Cosines

A. The integral of trigonometric functions of the form Sinn axCosax or SinaxCos n ax can be

 Sin axCosax dx , the

n
dealt with by the use of substitution. For instance, in dealing with

following substitution could be made:

1
Let u = Sinax  du = aCosaxdx  Cosaxdx = du
a
1 1
  Sin n axCosaxdx =  u n . du =  u n du
a a
1 1 
=  u n +1  + c
a  n +1 
1 1
( Sinax ) + c
n +1
=
a n +1
1
= Sin n +1ax + c ; n  −1
a ( n + 1)

Example. Evaluate the following

 Sin 3xCos3x dx  Sin2 xCos

2 3
(i) (ii) 2 x dx

Solution:
1
(i) Let u = Sin3x  du = 3Cos3xdx  du = Cos3xdx
3
1
  Sin 2 3xCos3xdx =  u 2 du dx
3
1 2
3
= u du

1 1 3
= u +c
3 3
1
  Sin 2 3xCos3xdx = Sin3 3x + c
9

1
(ii) Let u = Cos 2 x  du = −2Sin2 xdx  − du = Sin2 xdx
2
1
  Sin2 xCos 3 2 xdx =  u 3 − du
2

67
 1 3
2
=− u du

1 1 4
=− u +c
2 4
1 1
=− ( Cos 2 x ) + c
4

2 4
1
  Sin2 xCos 3 2 xdx = − Cos 4 2 x + c
8
B. The integral of trigonometric functions of the form Sinm axCos n ax is easily performed if
one or both m and n is odd. If m for example is odd, Sinm−1ax is even power of Sinax and by
the relationship Sin2ax = 1 − Cos 2ax , the integrand can be expressed as a polynomial in Cosax .
The other Sinax is taken with dx to make the derivative of Cosax , and the integral is
expressed as the sum powers of Cosax .

Example. Evaluate the following

 Sin xCos x dx  Sin xCos  Sin

2 3 3 4 3
(i) (ii) x dx (iii) x Cos5 x dx

Solution:

 Sin xCos xdx =  Sin xCos

2 3 2 2
(i) xCosxdx

( )
=  Sin 2 x 1 − Sin 2 x Cosx dx

( )
=  Sin 2 x − Sin 4 x Cosx dx

=  Sin 2 xCosxdx −  Sin 4 xCosx dx

1 1
  Sin 2 xCos 3 xdx = Sin3 x − Sin5 x + c
3 5

 Sin xCos xdx =  Sin 2 xCos 4 xSinx dx

3 4
(ii)

( )
=  1 − Cos 2 x Cos 4 xSinx dx

=  Cos 4 xSinxdx −  Cos 6 xSinx dx

1 1
  Sin 2 xCos 3 xdx = − Cos 5 x + Cos 7 x + c
5 7

68
  Sin x Cos5 x dx =  Sin 2 x Sin x Cos 5 x dx
3
(iii)

=  (1 − Cos 2 x ) Sin x Cos5 x dx

=  Sin x Cos5 x dx −  Sin x Cos 7 x dx

Using the substitution method, let u = Cos x

du
= − Sin x  du = − Sin x dx
dx

  Sin 3 x Cos5 x dx =  u 5  −du −  u 7  −du

= −  ( u 5 − u 7 ) du
1 1 
= −  u 6 − u8  + c
6 8 
1 1
= − u 6 + u8 + c
6 8
1 1
= − Cos 6 x + Cos8 x + c
6 8

If the trigonometric functions under consideration is such that both m and n are even, then the
integration is performed by expressing the integrand in terms of multiple angles.

Example. Evaluate the following integrals

 Cos  Sin xCos

2
(i) xSin 4 x dx (ii) 2 4
x dx

Solution:

 Cos xSin 4 xdx =  Cos 2 xSin 2 xSin 2 x dx

2

1
We know that Sin2 x = 2SinxCosx  SinxCosx = Sin 2 x
2
2
1  1
 ( SinxCosx ) =  Sin2 x   Sin 2 xCos 2 x = Sin 2 2 x
2

2  4

1 
Thus,  Cos 2 xSin 4 xdx =   Sin 2 2 x  Sin 2 x dx
4 
1 1 
=  Sin 2 2 x  (1 − Cos 2 x )  dx
4 2 
1
=  Sin 2 2 x (1 − Cos 2 x ) dx
8

69
 1 1
=
8  Sin 2 2 xdx −  Sin 2 2 xCos 2 x dx
8
1 1 1
=  (1 − Cos 4 x ) dx −  Sin2 2 xCos 2 x dx
8 2 8
1 1
=  (1 − Cos 4 x ) dx −  Sin2 2 xCos 2 x dx
16 8
1 1  11 1 
=  x − Sin4 x  −  Sin3 2 x  + c
16  4  83 2 
1 1 1
= x − Sin4 x − Sin3 2 x + c
16 64 48
1  4 
  Cos 2 xSin 4 xdx =  4 x − Sin4 x − Sin3 2 x  + c
64  3 

 Sin xCos xdx =  Sin 2 xCos 2 xCos 2 x dx

2 4
(ii)

1 
=   Sin 2 2 x  Cos 2 x dx
4 
1
4
= Sin 2 2 xCos 2 x dx

1 1 
=  Sin 2 2 x  (1 + Cos 2 x )  dx
4 2 
1
=  Sin 2 2 x (1 + Cos 2 x ) dx
8
1 1
=
8  Sin 2 2 xdx +  Sin 2 2 xCos 2 x dx
8
1 1
(1 − Cos 4 x ) dx +  Sin 2 2 xCos 2 x dx
1
=  
8 2  8
1 1
=  (1 − Cos 4 x ) dx +  Sin2 2 xCos 2 x
16 8
1 1  11 1 
=  x − Sin4 x  +  Sin3 2 x  + c
16  4  83 2 
1 1 1
= x − Sin4 x + Sin3 2 x + c
16 64 48
1  4 
  Sin 2 xCos 4 xdx =  4 x − Sin4 x + Sin 2 x  + c
3

64  3 

70
C. The integral of trigonometric functions of the form SinaxCosbx are easily performed by
the use of the factor formulae to transform the integrand into a sum or difference of Sine and
Cosine. The factor formulae are as follows:

➢ 2SinACosB = Sin ( A + B ) + Sin ( A − B )

➢ 2CosASinB = Sin ( A + B ) − Sin ( A − B )

➢ 2CosACosB = Cos ( A + B ) + Cos ( A − B )

➢ 2SinASinB = −Cos ( A + B ) + Cos ( A − B )

Example. Evaluate the following integrals

(i)  Sin3xCos5x dx (ii)  2 Sin6 xCos 2 x dx

Solution:
1
(i)  Sin3xCos5xdx = 2  2Sin3xCos5x dx
1
 Sin ( 3x + 5 x ) + Sin ( 3x − 5 x ) dx
2
=

1
 Sin8 x + Sin ( −2 x ) dx
2
=

1
 Sin8x − Sin2 x dx
2
=

1 1
=
2  Sin8 xdx −  Sin 2 xdx
2
1 1  1 1 
=  − Cos8 x  −  − Cos 2 x  + c
2 8  2 2 
1 1
=− Cos8 x + Cos 2 x + c
16 4
1
  Sin3xCos5 xdx = ( 4Cos 2 x − Cos8x ) + c
16

(ii)  2Sin6 xCos 2 xdx =   Sin ( 6 x + 2 x ) + Sin ( 6 x − 2 x ) dx

=  ( Sin8 x + Sin 4 x ) dx

=  Sin8 xdx +  Sin 4 xdx

71
 1 1
= − Cos8 x − Cos 4 x + c
8 4
1
  2Sin6 xCos 2 xdx = − ( Cos8 x + 2Cos 4 x ) + c
8

3.8 REDUCTION FORMULA

Many integrals which are impossible to integrate may be found by means of a reduction formula.
In a situation where the integrand involves a constant integer n, it may be possible to find a
connection between this integral and the corresponding integral for the value ( n − 1) or ( n − 2 ) .

Reduction formula stems from the idea of integration by parts. If an integral ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is

denoted by I n , by the application of integration by parts, in the first stage the result below is
obtained.

∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 … … … … … … … … … . . (1)

It will be noticed that, the integral on the right is of exactly the same form as the one we started
with except for the fact that n has now been replaced with ( n − 1) . Since the original integral is

denoted by 𝐼𝑛 , the integral ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 can be denoted by 𝐼𝑛−1 and hence equation (1) can
be written as:

I𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑛In−1 … … … … … … (2)

The relation (2) is called a reduction formula since it expresses an integral in n in terms of the
same integral in ( n − 1) .

3.8.1 Integral of the form ∫ 𝒙𝒏 𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙:

By the application of integration by parts to the integral above, if we let

𝑑𝑣 1
𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥; = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑎

1 𝑛 𝑎𝑥 1
⟹ ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑒 − ∫ ∙ 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

72
 1 n ax 1
= x e − n  x n −1e ax dx
a a
Since the integral on the right is of exactly the same form as the one we started with except for the
fact that n has now been replaced with ( n − 1) , then if we denote ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 by I𝒏 , then we

can denote ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 by 𝐼𝑛−1 and so the result obtained can be written in the form:

1 𝑛 𝑎𝑥 1
I𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑛 𝐼𝑛−1
𝑎 𝑎

Example. Use the reduction formula to determine the integral ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution: The reduction formula for the integral type above is given by:
1 1
I𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑛 𝐼𝑛−1
𝑎 𝑎

1 3 2𝑥 1
𝑛 = 3, 𝑎 = 2 ∶ I𝟑 = 𝑥 𝑒 − ∙ 3I𝟐
2 2
1 1
n = 2, a = 2 : I𝟐 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥 − ∙ 2I𝟏
2 2

1 1
𝑛 = 1, 𝑎 = 2: I𝟏 = 𝑥 1 𝑒 2𝑥 − ∙ 1 ∙ I𝟎
2 2

1
𝑛 = 0, 𝑎 = 2: I𝟎 = ∫ 𝑥 0 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2

1
= 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2

1 1
∴ I3 = 𝑥 3 𝑒 2𝑥 − ∙ 3 ∙ I𝟐
2 2

1 3 2𝑥 3 1 2 2𝑥 1
= 𝑥 𝑒 − [ 𝑥 𝑒 − ∙ 2I𝟏 ]
2 2 2 2

1 3 2𝑥 3 2 2𝑥 3
= 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥 𝑒 + 2 ∙ I𝟏
2 4 4

1 3 2𝑥 3 2 2𝑥 3 1 2𝑥 1
= 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥 𝑒 + [ 𝑥𝑒 − I0 ]
2 4 2 2 2

73
 1 3 3 3
= 𝑥 3 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 − I0
2 4 4 4

1 3 3 3 1
= 𝑥 3 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 − [ 𝑒 2𝑥 ] + 𝑐
2 4 4 4 2

1 3 2𝑥 3 2 2𝑥 3 2𝑥 3 2𝑥
= 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑥𝑒 − 𝑒 + 𝑐
2 4 4 8

1
= [4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3]𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑐
8

3.8.2 Integral of the form ∫ 𝒙𝒏 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒂𝒙𝒅𝒙 and ∫ 𝒙𝒏 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒙𝒅𝒙

A. In determining the reduction formula for ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥, the application of integration
by parts will lead to the following:

𝑑𝑣 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥; = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = + 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑎

1 1
⟹ ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑥 𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 − ∫ ∙ 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

1 𝑛 1
= 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 − ∙ 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

𝑑𝑣 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛−1 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑥; = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑎

1 𝑛 1
⟹ ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 − ∙ 𝑛
𝑎 𝑎

1 𝑛−1 1
[− 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 + ∫ ∙ (𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥]]
𝑎 𝑎

1 𝑛 1 1
= 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 + 2 ∙ 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 − 2 ∙ 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

Since the integral on the right is of exactly the same form as the one we started with except for the
fact that n has now been replaced with ( n − 2 ) , then if we denote ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 by 𝐼𝑛 , then

we can denote ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 by 𝐼𝑛−2 and so the results obtained can be written in the form:

74
 1 𝑛 1 1
I𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 + 2 ∙ 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 − 2 ∙ 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝐼𝑛−2 … … … … … (1)
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

So equation (1) above is the reduction formula for the integral I𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥

In a case where a = 1, then the integral becomes ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 and the reduction formula reduces
to the form below:

I𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝐼𝑛−2

Example. Use the reduction formula to determine the integral ∫ 𝑥 3 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution: The reduction formula for the integral type above is given by:

1 1 1
I𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 + ∙ 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 − ∙ 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)I𝑛−2.
𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎2

1 1 1
n = 3, a = 2 : I3 = 𝑥 3 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + ∙ 3𝑥 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − ∙ 3 ∙ 2I1.
2 4 4

1 3 3
= 𝑥 3 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + ∙ 𝑥 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − I1.
2 4 2

1 1
n = 1, a = 2 : I1 = 𝑥𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + ∙ 1 ∙ 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 4

1 3 3 3 1 1
∴ I3 = 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − [ 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥] + 𝑐
2 4 2 2 4
1 3 3 3
= 𝑥 3 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑥𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − Cos 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 4 4 8

B. In determining the reduction formula for ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 , the procedure is the same as
that applied in the (A) part of this section.

𝑑𝑣 1
Thus if 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 ; = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑎

1 1
⇒ ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥 𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 − ∫ − ∙ 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

1 1
= − 𝑥 𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 + ∙ 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

75
 𝑑𝑣 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑛−1 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑥 ; = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑎

1 1 1 1
⟹ ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = = − 𝑥 𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 + 𝑛 [ 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 − ∫ ∙ (𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

1 1 1
⟹ ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥 𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 + 2 𝑛 𝑥𝑛−1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 − 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑥𝑛−2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

As was observed in the (A) part of this section, if ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛 , then

∫ 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛−2

1 1 1
⟹ 𝐼𝑛 = − 𝑥 𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 + 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 − 𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)𝐼𝑛−2 … … . . (1)
𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎2

Hence the equation (1) above is the reduction formula for the integral 𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥

In the case where a = 1 , the integral becomes ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 and the reduction formula reduces to
the form below:

⟹ 𝐼𝑛 = −𝑥 𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)𝐼𝑛−2

Example. Use the reduction formula to determine the integral ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution: The reduction formula for the integral type above is given by:

1 1 1
𝐼𝑛 = − 𝑥 𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 + 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 − 𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)𝐼𝑛−2
𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎2

1 1 1
n = 3, a = 2 : I3 = − 𝑥 3 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + ∙ 3𝑥 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − ∙ 3 ∙ 2I1.
2 4 4

1 3 3
= − 𝑥 3 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − I1.
2 4 2

1 1
n = 1, a = 2 : I1 = − 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥
2 4

1 3 3 1 1
∴ I3 = − 𝑥 3 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + ∙ 𝑥 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 − [− 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥] + 𝑐
2 4 2 2 4

1 3 3 3
= − 𝑥 3 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + ∙ 𝑥 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 4 4 8

76
It should be noted that a reduction fomula can be repeated until the value of n decreases to n = 1
or n = 0 when the final integral is determined by normal methods.

3.8.3 Integrals of the form ∫ 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒏 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 and ∫ 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙

Since reduction formulas are based on integration by parts, reduction formulas for integrals of the
form above are taken care of by writing the functions as product of two functions. For instance,
for the integral ∫ 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒏 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙, we write the integral as below:

∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑢 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑎(𝑛 − 1)𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 1
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑎

𝑛 𝑛−1
⟹ ∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 1
= − 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 − ∫ − ∙ 𝑎(𝑛 − 1)𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

1
= − 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠2 𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

1
= − 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫[1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝑎𝑥] 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

1
= − 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − (𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Since the integral on the left is of exacly the same form as the two other integrals on the right
except for the fact that for one of the integrals on the right n has been replaced by n − 2 . Denoting
𝑛
∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 by I𝑛 and ∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 by I𝑛−2 , the result obtained can be written as:

1
I𝑛 = − 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1)I𝑛−2 − (𝑛 − 1)I𝑛
𝑎

1
⟹ I𝑛 + (𝑛 − 1)I𝑛 = − 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1)I𝑛−2
𝑎

1
⟹ nIn = − 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1)I𝑛−2
𝑎

77
 1 (𝑛−1)
∴ In = − 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 + I𝑛−2
𝑎𝑛 𝑛

The relation above is the reduction formula for an integral of the form ∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥

In a case when a = 1 , then the reduction above reduces to the form:

1 (𝑛−1)
⟹ In = − 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + I𝑛−2
𝑛 𝑛

Example. Use the reduction formula to determine the integral ∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛6 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution: The reduction formula for the integral type above is given by:

1 (𝑛−1)
∴ In = − 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥 + I𝑛−2
𝑎𝑛 𝑛

1 5
𝑛 =6, a = 2 I6 = − 𝑆𝑖𝑛5 2𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + I4
2.6 6

1 3
n = 4, a = 2 : I4 = − 𝑆𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + I2
2.4 4

1 1
n = 2, a = 2 : I2 = − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + I0
2.2 2

n = 0, a = 2: I0 = ∫(Sin2x)0 dx = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑐k

1 1 1 3
∴ I6 = − 𝑆𝑖𝑛5 2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + [− 𝑆𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + I2 ]
12 5 8 4

1 5 5
= − 𝑆𝑖𝑛5 2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + I2
12 48 8

1 5 5 1 1
= − 𝑆𝑖𝑛5 2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + [− 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + I ]
12 48 8 4 2 0

1 5 5 5
= − 𝑆𝑖𝑛5 2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + I0
12 48 32 16

1 5 5 5
= − 𝑆𝑖𝑛5 2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛3 2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑥+𝑐
12 48 32 16

The reduction formula for ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is also obtained in the same manner as was done in

∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥. Thus,

78
 ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑙 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Let u = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = −(𝑛 − 1)𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥 ∙ 𝑎 Sin 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑎 (𝑛 − 1)𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥 ∙ Sin 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 1
= Cos 𝑎𝑥 ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑎

⟹ ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 Cos 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 1
= 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 Sin 𝑎𝑥 − ∫ − ∙ 𝑎(𝑛 − 1)𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

1
= 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 Sin 𝑎𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

1
= 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 Sin 𝑎𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫(1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝑎𝑥 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

1
⟹ ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑛 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 Sin 𝑎𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 −
𝑎

(𝑛 − 1) ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥

As was observed in the earlier situations, if

∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛−2 and hence

1
𝐼𝑛 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 Sin 𝑎𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1)𝐼𝑛−2 − (𝑛 − 1)𝐼𝑛
𝑎

1
⟹ 𝐼𝑛 + (𝑛 − 1)𝐼𝑛 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 Sin𝑎𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1)𝐼𝑛−2
𝑎

1
⟹ 𝑛𝐼𝑛 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 Sin𝑎𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1)𝐼𝑛−2
𝑎

1 (𝑛−1)
∴ 𝐼𝑛 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 Sin𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛−2
𝑎𝑛 𝑛

79
The relation above is the reduction formula for an integral of the form ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑎𝑥𝑑𝑥

In a case when a = 1 , the relation above reduces to the form:

1 (𝑛−1)
𝐼𝑛 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑥 Sin𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛−2
𝑛 𝑛

Example. Use the reduction formula to determine the integral ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 2𝑥𝑑𝑥

Solution: The reduction formula for the integral type above is given by:

1 (𝑛−1)
𝐼𝑛 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥 Sin𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝑛−2
𝑎𝑛 𝑛

1 4
𝑛 = 5 , 𝑎 = 2 ∶ 𝐼5 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 4 2𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝐼3
10 5

1 2
𝑛 = 3, 𝑎 = 2: I3 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + I1
6 3

1
𝑛 = 1, 𝑎 = 2: I1 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑐
2

1 4 1 2
∴ I5 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 4 2𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + [ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + I1 ]
10 5 6 3

1 2 8
= 𝐶𝑜𝑠 4 2𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + I
10 15 15 1

1 2 8 1
= 𝐶𝑜𝑠 4 2𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + [ 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥] + 𝐶
10 15 15 2

1 2 4
= 𝐶𝑜𝑠 4 2𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑐
10 15 15

80
Exercise
Evaluate the following:

(x + 5 x 2 − 7 x ) dx
3
1.

 (6x + 10 ) dx
3 8
2.

 x2 −1 
3.   x − 1  dx

4.  (1 − cos 4x ) dx

 ( 5Sin x ) dx
4
5.

Find the integral of the following functions:

Sec 2 x
6.
tan x
x −3
7.
x − 6x + 2
2

8. Cot x

Evaluate

 Cos
4
9. x dx

10.  Cos 5 x dx

Evaluate the following integrals

11.  Cos 6 x Cos 4 x dx

12.  Sin 5x Sin x dx

81
 CHAPTER FOUR

PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION

4.1 FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Functions of the explicit form y = f ( x ) or implicit form f ( x, y ) = 0 are functions of one variable.

Such functions express relationships between two variables (x and y) and assume that the process
being studied can be represented adequately in terms of only two variables. There are many cases
in which such a representation is so inadequate and it becomes necessary to express a relationship
in terms of several variables or to express one variable as a function of more other variables. Such
representations give functions of several variables. The functions
w = f ( x, y, z ) ; z = f ( x, y ) ; z = f ( x1, x 2 ,..., x n ) , p 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 are examples of functions of

several variables.

4.2 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION FROM FIRST PRINCIPLE

A situation where the function is in the explicit form y = f ( x ) or implicit form f ( x, y ) = 0, then

the derivative of one of the variables with respect to the other can be sought. We wish to consider
here what the situation would be if the function is of several variables.

Consider the function z = f ( x, y ) . If y is held constant , then z is a function of only x and the

derivative of z with respect to x can be found. The derivative obtained in this way is the partial
derivative of z with respect to x. Partial derivatives of the function z = f ( x, y ) with respect to x

z f 
is denoted by , , f ( x, y ) , f x ( x, y ) , f x and z x
x x x

Similarly, if x is held constant, the partial derivative of z with respect to y can be computed and
z f 
denoted by , , f ( x, y ) , f y ( x, y ) , f y and z y . Thus, the partial derivative of a function
y y y

f ( x, y ) can be defined as the ordinary derivative of a function of several variables with respect to

82
one of the independent variables. Holding all other independent variables constant is called the
partial derivative of the function with respect to that variable.

f  f ( x + x, y ) − f ( x, y ) 
By definition = lim it  
x x →0  x 

f  f ( x, y + y ) − f ( x, y ) 
Similarly, = lim it  
y y→0  y 

The derivatives evaluated at a particular point ( x o , y o ) are often indicated by

f f
= f x ( x o , yo ) and = f y ( x o , yo ) respectively.
x ( xo ,yo ) y ( x )
o ,yo

Example. Using the definition of partial derivative, determine the partial derivative with
respect to y and x given that f ( x, y ) = 3xy − 2y + 5x y and evaluate your answer when x = −1
2 2 2

and y = 2.

Solution:

f  f ( x + x, y ) − f ( x, y ) 
By definition = lim it  
x x →0  x 


f   
 3 ( x + x ) y 2 − 2y + 5 ( x + x )2 y 2 − 3xy 2 − 2y + 5x 2 y 2
= lim it 
 
x x →0  x 
 

= limit 
 ( ) 
 3xy 2 + 3xy 2 − 2y + 5 x 2 + 2xx + ( x )2 y 2 − 3xy 2 + 2y − 5x 2 y 2 
 
x →0 x 
 

 3xy 2 + 3xy 2 − 2y + 5x 2 y 2 + 10xxy 2 + 5(x) 2 y 2 − 3xy 2 + 2y − 5x 2 y 2 

= lim it  
x →0
 x 

 3xy 2 + 10xxy 2 + 5 ( x ) 2 y 2 
= lim it  
x →0
 x 

83
 = lim it 3 y 2 + 10 xy 2 + 5xy 2 
x →0

f
 = 3y 2 + 10xy 2
x

f
= 3 ( 2 ) + 10 ( −1)( 2 ) = 12 − 40 = −28
2 2
Now
x ( −1,2)

f  f ( x, y + y ) − f ( x, y ) 
By definition = lim it  
y y→0  y 


f   
 3x ( y + y )2 − 2 ( y + y ) + 5x 2 ( y + y )2 − 3xy 2 − 2y 2 − 5x 2 y 2
= lim it 
 
y y→0  y 
 

 ( ) ( ) 
 3x y2 + 2yy + (y)2 − 2(y + y) + 5x 2 y 2 + 2yy + ( y )2 − 3xy 2 − 2y 2 + 5x 2 y 2

= limit 
 
y→0 y 
 

 3xy 2 + 6 xyy + 3x ( y )2 − 2 y − 2y + 5 x 2 y 2 + 10 x 2 yy + 5 x 2 ( y )2 − 3xy 2 + 2 y 2 − 5x 2 y 2 

= lim it  
y →0
 y 

 6xyy + 3x ( y )2 − 2y + 10x 2 yy + 5x 2 (y) 2 

= limit  
y →0
 y 

= lim it 
 6xy + 3xy − 2 + 10x y + 5x y 
2 2

y →0

f
 = 6xy − 2 + 10x 2 y
y

f
= 6 ( −1)( 2 ) − 2 + 10 ( −1) ( 2 ) = −12 − 2 + 20 = 6
2
Now
y ( −1,2)

z z
Example. Find and given that z = 2x 2 + 3xy − 6y2
x y

84
 z
Solution: z = 2x 2 + 3xy − 6y 2  = 4x + 3y
x

z
z = 2x 2 + 3xy − 6y 2  = 3x − 12y
y

z z
Example. Find and given that z = xy + In x
x y

z 1 xy + 1
Solution: z = xy + In x  = y+ =
x x x

z
z = xy + In x  =x
y

x 3 − y3 z z
Example. Given that z = , show that x + y = z
xy x y

 3 3 
z
xy
x
(
x − y − x 3 − y3 ) (
x
( xy ) )
Solution: =
x x 2 y2

=
(
3x 2 ( xy ) − y x 3 − y3 )
2 2
x y

3x 3 y − x 3 y + y 4
=
x 2 y2

2x 3 y + y 4 y(2x 3 + y3 )
= =
x 2 y2 x 2 y2

z 2 x3 + y 3
 =
x x2 y

 3 
z
xy
y
(
x − y3 − x 3 − y3 ) (
y
( xy ) )
Again, =
y x 2 y2

=
( ) (
xy −3y 2 − x 3 − y3 x )
2 2
x y

85
 −3xy3 − x 4 − xy3
=
x 2 y2

−2xy3 − x 4 x(−2y3 − x 3 )
= =
x 2 y2 x 2 y2

z −2 y 3 − x3
 =
y xy 2

z z  2x 3 + y3   −2y3 − x 3 
Now x +y = x  + y  
x y 2
 x y   xy 2 

2x 3 + y3 −2y3 − x 3
= +
xy xy

2x 3 + y3 − 2y3 − x 3
=
xy

x 3 − y3
= =z
xy
z z
Hence, x +y = z as proved.
x y

w ( x, y, z ) = xz + e y z + xy 2 z 3 .
2
Example. If Calculate the partial derivatives of

w w w
, and
x y z

w   
( xz ) + e y z +  xy2 z3 ( ) ( ) 
1
=
2
2
Solution: 
x x x x 

( )
1 −1
=z+ xy 2 z3 2
y2 z3
2

y 2 z3
=z+
( )
1
2 xy 2 z3 2

w   y2 z 
( )
e +  xy 2 z3 ( ) 
1
Again, = ( xz ) + 2

y y y y 

86
 ( )
1 −1
= 2yze y z +
2
xy 2 z3 2
2xyz3
2

2xyz3
= 2yze y z +
2

( )
1
2 xy 2 z3 2

w xyz3
 = 2yze y z +
2

y
( )
1
xy 2 z3 2

w   y2 z 
( )
+  xy 2 z3 ( ) 
1
Also, = ( xz ) + e 2

z z z z 

( )
1 −1
= x + y2e y z +
2
xy 2 z3 2
.3xy 2 z 2
2

w 3xy2 z 2
 = x + y2e y z +
2

z
( )
1
2 xy 2 z3 2

4.3 HIGHER ORDER PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

f f
If f ( x, y ) has partial derivatives at each point (x, y) in a region, then and are themselves
x y
functions of x and y which may also have partial derivatives. These second derivatives are denoted
by

  f   2f   f   2 f
  = = f ,  = = f yy
x  x  x 2 y  y  y 2
xx

  f   2f   f   2f
 = = f yx ,  = = f xy
x  y  xy y  x  yx

x
Example. Find the four partial derivatives of the function f ( x, y ) = xe y − Sin   + x 3 y 2
y

f 1 x
Solution: f x ( x, y ) = = e y − Cos   + 3x 2 y 2
x y y

87
 f x x
f y ( x, y ) = = xe y + 2 cos   + 2x 3 y
y y y

  f    y 1 x  1 x
f xx ( x, y ) =  = e − Cos   + 3x y  = 2 Sin   + 6xy
2 2 2

x  x  x  y y  y y

  f    y x x  x2  x  2x x
f yy ( x, y ) =   =  xe + Cos   + 2x 3
y  = xe y
+ Sin   − 3 Cos   + 2x 3
y  y  y  y 2
y  y 4
y y y

  f    y 1 x  x x 1 x

f xy =   = e − Cos   + 3x y  = e − 3 Sin   + 2 Cos   + 6x y
2 2 y 2

y  x  y  y  
y  y  
y y  
y

  f    y x x  x x 1 x

f yx =  =  xe + 2 Cos   + 2x y  = e − 3 Sin   + 2 Cos   + 6x y
3 y 2

x  y  x  y y  y  y y  y

4.4 TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL

Suppose we simultaneously make the small changes, x in x and yin y and as a result the
function f changes to f + f , then we must have

f + f = f ( x + x, y + y )
 f = f ( x + x, y + y ) − f ( x, y )
= f ( x + x, y + y ) − f ( x, y + y ) + f ( x, y + y ) − f ( x, y )

 f ( x + x, y+ y ) − f ( x, y+ y )   f ( x, y+ y ) − f ( x, y ) 
=  x +   y...........(1)
 x   y 

It could be noted that the quantities in brackets are very similar to those involved in the
definitions of partial derivatives. For them to be strictly equal to the partial derivatives,
x and y would need to be infinitesimally small. It will be noticed that the first bracket in

f f ( x, y )
equation (1) approximates to ( x, y + y ) and could be replaced by and similarly, the
x x
f ( x, y )
second bracket by and hence the whole equation becomes
y

88
 f ( x, y ) f ( x, y )
f  x + y.................... ( 2 )
x y
Letting the small changes x and y in equation (2) become infinitesimal, one can define the

total differential df of the function f ( x, y ) without any approximation as

f f
df = .dx + .dy........................ ( 3)
x y

Equation (3) can easily be extended to the case of a function of n variables f ( x1 , x 2, x 3 xn )

f f f f
in which case df = dx1 + dx 2 + dx 3 + + dx n .............. ( 4 )
x1 x 2 x 3 x n

Example. Find the total differential of the function f ( x, y ) = y exp ( x + y )

Solution: Evaluating the first partial derivatives, we obtain

f f
= y exp ( x + y ) ; = exp ( x + y ) + y exp(x + y)
x y
f f
Using df = dx + dy , the total differential is obtained as
x y

df =  y exp ( x + y )  dx + (1 + y ) exp ( x + y )  dy

4.4.1 The Chain Rule of Functions of Several Variables

If y = f ( x ) and x = x ( t ) where both f and x are differentiable functions, then by Chain

Rule for composite functions of one variable

dy dy dx
=
dt dx dt

Our aim in this section is to obtain generalization for functions of several variables.

FIRST VERSION: If z = f ( x, y ) where x and y are functions of t , then by the definition of

total differential, we obtain

z z
dz = dx + dy
x y

89
 dz z dx z dy
 = +
dt x dt y dt

dz
Example. Suppose z = x 3 y where x=2t and y = t 2 . Find
dt

z z
Solution: = 3x 2 y and = x3
x y

dz z dx z dy dx dy
= . + . = 3x 2 y + x3
dt x dt y dt dt dt

dz
= 3x 2 y ( 2 ) + x 3 ( 2t ) = 6x 2 y + 2x 3 t
dt
2
( )
= 6 ( 2t ) t 2 + 2 ( 2t ) t = 24t 4 + 16t 4
3

dz
 = 40t 4
dt
Example. For a solid right circular cylinder, its surface area S increases as a result of its radius
increment and an increase in height h. Suppose at the instant when r = 10 cm and h =100 cm, r is
increasing at 0.2cm /hr and h is increasing at 0.5 cm/hr. How fast is S increasing?

Solution: The total surface area of a cylinder is given as S = 2  r h + 2  r 2 .

ds s dr s dh
Thus, = +
dt r dt h dt

= ( 2h + 4r )( 0.2 ) + 2r ( 0.5 )

At r = 10 and h =100;

ds
=  2  100 + 4  10 ( 0.2 ) + ( 2  10 )( 0.5 )
dt
= 240 ( 0.2 ) + 20 ( 0.5 )

= 48 + 10 = 58

= 58 sq cm / hr

90
Example. Suppose W = x 2 y + y + xz where x = Cos , y = Sin  and z = 2 .
dw 
Find and evaluate at  =
d 3

w w w
Solution: = 2xy + z, = x2 +1 and = x.
x y z

dy
y = Sin   = C os 
d
dx
x = C os   = −Sin 
d
dz
z = 2  = 2
d

dw w dx w dy w dz
By chain rule, = . + . + .
d x d y d z d

dw
 =  2xy + z  ( −Sin  ) +  x 2 + 1 ( Cos  ) +  x  ( 2 )
d
= −2 xySin − zSin + x 2Cos + Cos + 2x

dw
 = −2C os Sin 2  − 2 Sin  + C os3  + C os  + 2C os 
d


At  = ;
3

          

2
dw
= −2C os   Sin 2   −   Sin   + C os3   + C os   + 2   Cos  
d 3 3  9  3 3 3 3 3

1 3 2 3 1 1 2 1
= −2 − + + +
2 4 9 2 8 2 3 2

1 2 3 
= − − +
8 18 3

SECOND VERSION: Again suppose that z = f ( x, y ) where x = x ( s, t ) and y = y ( s, t ) ,

then it would not be possible to talk about total derivative with respect to s or t, but rather it will

91
 z z
make sense to ask for the partial derivatives and . This could be supported by the
s t
theorem below:

Theorem: Let x = x ( s, t ) and y = y ( s, t ) have first partial derivatives and let z = f ( x, y ) be

differentiable at ( x ( s, t ) , y ( s, t ) ) . Then, z = f ( x ( s, t ) , y ( s, t ) ) has first partial derivatives given

by:
z z x z y
= + ........................(I)
s x s y s
z z x z y
= + ..........................(II)
t x t y t

We note that if s is held fixed, then x ( s, t ) and y ( s, t ) become functions of t alone which means

that the total derivative applies. When the theorem above is used, then  replaces d to indicate
z
that s is fixed and in this case, the formula (II) above is obtained. Thus, is obtained by
t
z
holding s fixed and similarly, is obtained by holding t fixed.
s

This can be generalized to a function of any number of variables; the variables themselves also
being function of other variables. Thus, if

z = f ( x1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) x r = g r ( t1 , t 2 ,..., t n ) , ( r = 1, 2,3,...n )

then one can obtain the generalized partial derivative as:

z z x1 z x 2 z x n
= + + + ( s = 1, 2, 3, n)
t s x1 t s x 2 t s x n t s

These results are called the chain rules for transforming derivatives from one set of variables to
another.

z
Example. Given that z = 3x 2 − y 2 where x = 2s + 7t and y = 5st . Find and express it in
t
terms of s and t.

92
 z z x y
Solution: = 6x, = −2y, =7 and = 5s
x y t t

z z x z y
Using = +
t x t y t

= ( 6x )( 7 ) + ( −2y )( 5s )
= 42 ( 2s + 7t ) + −10s ( 5st )
= 84s + 294t − 50s 2 t

w
Example. If w = x 2 + y2 + z2 + xy where x = st, y = s − t and z = s + 2t . Find and
t
express the answer in terms of s and t.

w w w
Solution: = 2x + y, = 2y + x, = 2z and
x y z
x y z
= s, = −1, =2
t t t
w w x w y w z
Now, = + +
t x t y t z t

= ( 2x + y )( s ) + ( 2y + x )( −1) + ( 2z )( 2 )
= 2xs + ys − 2y − x + 4z
= 2 ( st ) s + ( s − t ) s − 2 ( s − t ) − st + 4 ( s + 2t )
= 2s 2 t + s 2 − st − 2s + 2t − st + 4s + 8t
= 2s 2 t + s 2 − 2st + 2s + 10t

4.5 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES OF TOTAL AND PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

Higher order derivatives of total and partial derivatives of functions of several variables are
obtained by repeated application of the chain rules. If z = f (x, y) and x and y are functions of the
single variable t, then by differentiating (the function) total derivative

dz z dx z dy
= + , we obtain
dt x dt y dt

93
 d  dz  d  z dx  d  z dy 
 = +  y dt 
dt  dt  dt  x dt  dt  
d 2 z d  z  dx z d 2 x d  z  dy z d 2 y
 =   + +   + .............. (1)
dt 2 dt  x  dt x dt 2 dt  y  dt y dt 2

d  z  d  z  dx d  z  dy
But,  =   +  
dt  x  dx  x  dt dy  x  dt

d  z   2 z dx  2 z dy
   = + ................................................. ( 2 )
dt  x  x 2 dt yx dt

d  z  d  z  dx d  z  dy
 =  . +  .
dt  y  dx  y  dt dy  y  dt
d  z   2 z dx  2 z dy
   = . + . ....................................... ( 3)
dt  y  xy dt y 2 dt

Substituting equations (2) and (3) into equation (1), we obtain.

d 2 z   2 z dx  2 z dy  dx z d 2 x   2 z dx  2 z dy  dy z d 2 y
= +  + + +  +
dt 2  x 2 dt yx dt  dt x dt 2  xy dt y 2 dt  dt y dt 2

 2 z  dx   2 z dy dx z d 2 x  2 z dx dy  2 z  dy  z d 2 y
2 2

= 2  + + + +   +
x  dt  yx dt dt x dt 2 xy dt dt y 2  dt  y dt 2

 2 z  dx   2 z dx dy  2 z  dy  z d 2 x z d 2 y
2 2

=   + 2 +   + + ........... ( 4 )
x 2  dt  xy dt dt y 2  dt  x dt 2 y dt 2

Equation (4) above is the derivative of the function with respect to the variable t in its second
order.

Similarly, if x and y are functions of s and t and z is a function of x and y, then from the first
order partial derivatives in the second version, we obtain the following.

 2 z  2 z  x   2 z x y  2 z  y  z  2 x z  2 y
2 2

=   +2 +   + +
s 2 x 2  s  xy s s y 2  s  x s 2 y s 2

 2 z  2 z  x   2 z x y  2 z  y  z  2 x z  2 y
2 2

=   + 2 +   + +
t 2 x 2  t  xy t t y 2  t  x t 2 y t 2

94
2z  2 z x x  2 z  x y x y   2 z x y z  2 x z  2 y
= +  + + + +
st x 2 s t xy  s t t s  y 2 s t x st y st

In similar manner, expression for third and higher order derivatives may be found.

dz  d2z
If z = e xy , x = tC os t and y = tSin t find at t = and 2
2
Example.
dt 2 dt

z z
z = e xy  = y 2e xy = 2xye xy
2 2 2
Solution: and
x y
dx dy
= − tSin t + C os t and = tC os t + Sin t
dt dt

dz z dx z dy
Now = . + .
dt x dt y dt

= y 2e xy  − tSin t + Cos t  + 2xye xy  tCos t + Sin t 

2 2

= ( tSin t ) e( tCos t )( tSin t )  − tSin t + Cos t  + 2 ( tCos t )( tSin t ) e( tCos t )( tSin t )  tCos t + Sin t 
2 2
2

= t 2 Sin 2 te t  −tSin t + C os t  + 2t 2 Cos tSin te t Cos tSin t  tC os t + Sin t 

3
Cos tSin 2 t 3 2

= t 2 Sin 2 te t  − tSin t + C os t  + t 2 Sin 2te t  tC os t + Sin t 

3
Cos tSin 2 t 3
Cos tSin 2 t

= et  − t 3 Sin 3 t + t 2 Sin 2 tC os t + t 3 Sin 2tC os t + t 2 Sin 2tSin t 

3
Cos tSin 2 t

= t 2 Sin te t  − tSin 2 t + Sint Cost + 2tCos 2 t + Sin 2 t 

3
Cos tSin 2 t

= t 2 sin t 3Sint Cost − tSin 2 t + 2tCos 2 t  e t

3
Cos t sin 2 t

3
  
           8 
2
dz Cos Sin 2
=   Sin   3Sin Cos − Sin 2 + 2 Cos 2 e 2 2

dt t =   2   2  2 2 2 2 2 2 
2

2
  
= 1 3 (1)( 0 ) − (1) + (0)  e0
4 2 
2   
= − 
4  2
3
=−
8

95
d 2 z  2 z  dx   2 z dx dy  2 z  dy  z d 2 x z d 2 y
2 2

=   + 2 +   + +
dt 2 x 2  dt  xy dt dt y 2  dt  x dt 2 y dt 2

z 2z
= y 2e xy  2 = y 4e xy
2 2

x x
z 2z
= 2xye xy  2 = 4x 2 y 2e xy + 2xe xy = 2x 2xy 2 + 1 e xy ( )
2 2 2 2

y y

2 z
=
xy x

( )
2 xye xy = 2 ye xy + 2 xy 3e xy = 2 y 1 + xy 2 e xy
2 2 2 2

( )
dx d2x
= − tSin t + C os t  2 = − tCost − Sint − Sint = − tCost − 2Sint
dt dt
dy d2 y
= tC os t + Sin t  2 = − tSint + Cost + Cost = − tSint + 2Cost
dt dt

Therefore
d 2z
( )
= y 4 e xy  −tS int + Cost  + 2  2 y 1 + xy 2 e xy ( −tS int + Cost )( tCost + S int ) 
2
2 2

dt 2  
( )
+2 x 2 xy 2 + 1 e xy ( tCost + S int ) + y 2 e xy ( −tCos t − 2Sin t ) + 2 xye xy ( −tSin t + 2Cost )
2
2 2 2

( ) ( )
= y 4e xy t 2 Sin 2t − 2tS int Cost + Cos 2t + 4 y 1 + xy 2 e xy −t 2 S int Cost − tSin 2t + tCos 2t + S int Cost +( )
2 2

( 4x y e
2 2 xy 2
+ 2 xe xy
2

) (t Cos t + 2tS int Cost + Sin t ) − y e

2 2 2 2 xy 2
tCost − 2 y 2e xy S int − 2 xye xy tS int + 8 xye xy Cost
2 2 2

= y 4 e xy t 2 Sin 2t − 2 y 4e xy tS int Cost + y 4e xy Cos 2t − 4 ye xy t 2 S int Cost − 4 ye xy tSin 2t + 4 ye xy tCos 2t +

2 2 2 2 2 2

4 ye xy S int Cost − 4 xy 3e xy t 2 S intCost − 4 xy3 e xy tSin 2t + 4 xy 3e xy tCos 2t + 4 xy 3e xy S int Cost +

2 2 2 2 2

4 x 2 y 2e xy t 2Cos 2t + 8 x 2 y 2e xy tS int Cost + 4 x 2 y 2e xy Sin 2t + 2 xe xy t 2Cos 2t + 4 xe xy tS int Cost +

2 2 2 2 2

2 xe xy Sin 2t − y 2e xy tCost − 2 y 2e xy S int − 2 xye xy tS int + 8 xye xy Cost

2 2 2 2 2

 y 4tSin 2t − 2 y 4tS int Cost + y 4Cos 2t − 4 yt 2 S int Cost − 4 ytSin 2t + 4 ytCos 2t + 4 yS int Cost − 
  2
=  4 xy t S int Cost − 4 xy tSin t + 4 xy tCos t + 4 xy S int Cost + 4 x y t Cos t + 8 x y tS int Cost +  e xy
3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2

 4 x 2 y 2 Sin 2t + 2 xt 2Cos 2t + 4 xtS int Cost + 2 xSin 2t − y 2tCost − 2 y 2 S int − 2 xytS int + 8 xyCost 
 

t 6 Sin6t − 2t 5 Sin5tCost + t 4 Sin 4tCos 2t − 4t 3 Sin 2tCost − 4t 2 Sin3t + 4t 2 S int Cos 2t + 

 
 4tSin 2tCost − 4t 6 Sin 4tCos 2t − 4t 5 Sin5tCost + 4t 5 Sin3tCos 3t + 4t 4 Sin 4tCos 2t +  t 3Sin2tCost
= 6 2 e
4t Sin tCos 4t + 8t 5 Sin3tCos 3t + 4t 4 Sin 4tCos 2t + 2t 3Cos 3t + 4t 2 S int Cos 2t +
 
 2tSin 2tCost − t 3 Sin 2tCost − 2t 2 Sin3t − 2t 3 Sin 2tCost + 8t 2 S int Cos 2t 

96
 d 2 z t Sin t − 6t Sin tCost + 9t Sin tCos t − 7t Sin tCost − 6t Sin t + 16t S int Cos t +  t 3Sin2tCost
6 6 5 5 4 4 2 3 2 2 3 2 2

 2 = e
6tSin tCost − 4t Sin tCos t + 4t Sin tCos t + 12t Sin tCos t + 2t Cos t 
2 6 4 2 6 2 4 5 3 3 3 3
dt

   6 6 
5
5  
4
4 2

  Sin   − 6   Sin   Cos   + 9   Sin   Cos   − 
 2  2 2 2 2 2 2 2 
  3 
7   Sin 2    Cos    − 6    Sin 3    + 16    Sin    Cos 2    +
2 2
 3
d2z  2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2  8 Sin 2 2 Cos 2
= e
dt 2 t =     
6
  
6
6   Sin 2   Cos   − 4   Sin 4   Cos 2   + 4   Sin 2   Cos 4   +   
  2                  
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 
  5
3 3 
3
3 
12   Sin   Cos   + 2   Cos   
 2 2 2 2 2 
6 2   6 3 2
= − 6  e0 = −
 64 4  64 2

 6 − 96 2
=
64

4.6 GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL

A vector field F is a function that takes any point in space and assigns a vector to it:

F : From points in the space → To vectors in the space

( x, y, z ) →  F1 ( x, y, z ) , F2 ( x, y, z ) , F3 ( x, y, z ) 

A scalar field f is a function that takes a point in space and assigns a number to it:

f : From points in the space → To real numbers

( x, y , z ) → f ( x , y , z )
The gradient, divergence and curl are first order differential operators acting on fields. The

easiest way to describe them is via a vector del or nabla whose components are partial

derivatives with respect to the three principal directions in space:

  
= i+ j+ k
x x z

97
If  ( x, y, z ) and A ( x, y, z ) are a scalar and vector functions respectively and these functions

have continuous first partial derivatives in a region; a condition which is not only necessary but

sufficient, then we can define the following;

4.6.1 Gradient
The gradient of a scalar function  ( x, y, z ) denoted by  is defined by

    
grad  =  =  i + j+ k 
 x y z 

  
= i+ j+ k
x y z

For a given surface with equation f ( x, y, z ) , the normal to the surface is given by  . Thus,

 is the normal to the curve with equation  ( x, y, z ) .

If  ( x, y, z ) = 3x y − y z , find  at the point (1, −2, −1) .

2 3 2
Example.

Solution: By definition

    
grad  =  =  i+ j+ k  ( 3x 2 y − y3z 2 )
 x y z 

    
= ( 3x 2 y − y3 z 2 ) i + ( 3x 2 y − y3z 2 ) j + ( 3x 2 y − y3z 2 ) k 
 x y z 

( ) (
= 6xy i + 3x 2 − 3y 2 z 2 j + −2y 3z k )
( )
 = 6xy i + 3 x 2 − y 2 z 2 j − 2y3z k

Now,  (1,−2,−1) = 6 (1)( −2 )  i + 3 (1) − ( −2 ) ( −1)  j −  2 ( −2 ) ( −1) k

2 2 2 3
   

= −12i − 9j + −16k

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4.6.2 Divergence
The divergence of a vector function A ( x, y, z ) denoted by  A is defined by:

    
div A =  A =  i+ j+ k  ( A1i + A 2 j + A 3k )
 x y z 
A1 A 2 A 3
= + +
x y z

Example. If A = x 2 z i − 2y3z 2 j + xy2z k , find div A at the point (1, −1,1)

Solution: By definition:

     2
div A =  A =  i+ j+ k  ( x z i − 2y3z 2 j + xy 2 z k )
 x y z 

  
=
x
(
x 2z +
y
) (
−2y3 z 2 +
z
)
xy 2 z ( )

 A = 2xz − 6y2 z2 + xy2

Now  A (1,−1,1) = 2 (1)(1) − 6 ( −1) (1) + (1)( −1)

2 2 2

= 2 − 6 +1

= −3

4.6.3 Curl
The curl of a vector function A ( x, y, z ) denoted by  A is defined by:

    
Curl A =  A =  i + j + k   ( A1i + A 2 j + A 3k )
 x y z 

i j k
  
=
x y z
A1 A2 A3

99
      
= y z i − x z j + x y k
A2 A3 A1 A3 A1 A2

 A A 2   A1 A3   A 2 A1 

= 3 − i +  − j+  − k
 y z   z x   x y 

Example. If A = xz3 i − 2x 2 yz j + 2yz 2 k, find  Aat the point (1, −1,1)

Solution: By definition

    
Curl A =  A =  i + j + k   ( xz 3 i − 2x 2 yz j + 2yz 2 k )
 x y z 

i j k
  
=
x y z
xz3 −2x yz 2yz 2
2

     
= y z i − x z j + x y k
−2x 2 yz 2yz 2 xz3 2yz 2 xz3 −2x 2 yz

           
=  ( 2yz 2 ) − ( −2x 2 yz )  i +  ( xz 3 ) − ( 2yz 2 )  j +  ( −2x 2 yz ) − ( xz 3 )  k
 y z   z x   x y 

( ) ( )
= 2z 2 + 2x 2 y i + 3xz 2 − 0 j + ( −4xyz − 0 ) k

( )
= 2z 2 + 2x 2 y i + 3xz 2 j − 4xyz k

Now   A (1,−1,1) =  2 (1) + 2 (1) ( −1)  i + 3 (1)(1)  j − 4 (1)( −1)(1)  k

2 2 2
   
= ( 2 − 2 ) i + 3j + 4k
= 3j + 4k

Exercise

If f ( x, y ) = x 3 y + e xy , find
2
1.

f 2 f 2 f
(i) (iii) (v)
x x 2 yx

100
 f 2 f 2 f
(ii) (iv) (vi)
y xy y 2

f f f
2. If f ( x, y, z ) = xC os ( y − z ) , find , and . Find also all the second partial
x y z
derivatives of the function.

 y d 2z
3. If z = x 2 tan −1   , find at the point (1, 2).
x dxdy

x df df
4. If F ( x, y ) = x 4 y 2 Sin −1   . Show that x + y = 6F
 y dx dy

2 z 3z 2 + x
5. If z − xz − y = 0 , show that
3
=−
xy ( )
3
3z 2 − x

 2u 1   2u  2u  2u 
6. If x = 2r − s and y = r + 2s . Show that = 2 2 + 3 −2 2 
xy 25  r rs s 

7. If  ( x, y, z ) = 2 x 2 + 3 y 2 + z 2 , find  at the point (1, 0, -2)

8. If A = ( x 3 + y 3 ) i + 3 x 2 j + 3 y 2 zk , find div A

9. If A = e xCosyi + e x Sinyj + 2k , find Curl A

101
REFERENCE
Bird, J. (2007), Engineering Mathematics, 5th edition, Elsevier Ltd, pp. 591

Kreyszig, E. (2011), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10th edition, John Wiley and Sons Inc.
pp. 1283

Stroud, K. A. (1995), Engineering Mathematics, 6th Edition, Palgrave Macmillan LTD, United
Kingdom, pp. 1057.

102