1.

4 Geographical Information System (GIS)

In the highly dynamic and complex world 'information' has become a critical resource for
effective and efficient management of organisation. Information Technology in its various forms
is enabling organizations to churn raw data into meaningful information for effective decision
making. One such form of Information Technology (IT) is Geographic Information System (GIS). It
is described as: “An organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data and
personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all
forms of geographically referenced information”. According to this definition and as shown in
Figure.1.3, GIS includes not only computing capability and data, but also manages the users, and
organizations within which they function and institutional relationships that govern their
management and use of information. GIS system design and implementation planning are not a
separate process. They must occur in conjunctions with one another.

1.4.5 Functions of GIS

As stated earlier in the chapter: a GIS is a computerized, integrated system used to compile, store,
manipulate, and output mapped data. This section will examine each of these functions.

1.4.5.1 Data Compilation

Data compilation involves assembling all the spatial and attributes data that are to be stored in a
computerized format within the GIS. Map data with common projections, scales, and coordinate
systems must be pulled together in order to establish the centralized GIS database. Data must
also be examined for compatibility in terms of content and time of data collection. Ultimately, the
data will be stored in a GIS according to the specific format requirements set by both the user and
the chosen GIS software/hardware environment.

When all of the common data requirements are set by the GIS user, a "base map" has been
established. A base map is a set of standard requirements for data. It provides accurate standards
for geographic control, and also defines a model or template that is used to shape all data into a
compatible form. A base map is not necessarily a map; rather, it is a comprehensive set of
standards established and enacted to ensure quality control for the spatial and attribute data
contained in the GIS. Once the data are assembled and base map parameters are set; the user
must translate the map and attribute data into computer-compatible form. This conversion
process referred to as "conversion" or "digitizing" converts paper maps into numerical digits that
can be stored in the computer. Digitizing can be performed using various techniques. Scanning is
one technique. Another technique of digitization uses a tablet and a tracing stylus (Figure 1.7).
Digitizing simplifies map data into sets of points, lines, or cells that can be stored in the GIS
computer. Each GIS software package will impose a specific form and design on the way that these
sets of points, lines, and cells are stored as digital map files.

Digitization is a simplification process that converts all spatial data to a point (e.g., traffic
intersection), a line (e.g., a transport link), a polygon formed by a closed, complex line [e.g., Traffic
Analysis Zone (TAZ)], or a grid cell. Digitization reduces all spatial entities to these simple forms
because they are easy to store in the computer. A GIS database cannot readily recognize features
or entities as human map users do. For example, we cannot enter the entity

"TAZ" into a GIS. Rather, we enter the spatial data coordinates for the TAZ's boundary as a
polygon. Later, the attributes of the TAZ will be entered into the GIS database and will be
associated with the polygon. Following the digitization of map features, the user completes the
compilation phase by relating all spatial features to their respective attributes, and by cleaning up
and correcting errors introduced as a result of the data conversion process. The end result of
compilation is a set of digital files each accurately representing all of the spatial and attributes data
of interest contained on the original map manuscripts. These digital files contain geographic
coordinates for spatial objects (points, lines, polygons, and cells) that represent mapped features.
1.4.5.2 Storage
Once the data have been digitally compiled, digital map files in the GIS are stored on magnetic or
other (e.g., optical) digital media. Again, different GIS software packages will employ different
storage formats. In most cases, however, data storage will be based on a generic data model that is
used to convert map data into a digital form. The two most common types of data models are raster
and vector. Both types are used to simplify the data shown on a map into a more basic form that
can be easily and efficiently stored in the computer.
1.4.5.2.1 Raster Image
The raster approach for storing map data in a GIS is perhaps the most intuitive. Figure 1.8 shows
the essential step involved in converting a map to a raster format. First, a gridded matrix is
registered to and overlaid on the original map manuscript. The row and column coordinates of
each cell define location in the grid. To encode the map data for each cell in the raster format,
three pieces of data are recorded: the row coordinate, the column coordinate, and the attribute.
Thus a triplet of data is recorded for each cell in the array, which is termed a raster. After map
data are stored in a raster format, each cell in the raster corresponds to a location on the map
and each cell's location in the raster is identified by row and column coordinates. By assigning a
value to each cell, the corresponding attribute data for that location are also stored. The end
result of this conversion process is a set of cells, each with a specified location and an attribute
value. These data can then be entered into a computer-compatible file and stored in the GIS
database.

Perhaps the most critical issue in using a raster GIS is the selection of an appropriate grid cell size.
The user is forced to examine the trade-off between data resolution (how small grid cells are in
the raster array) and storage requirements (increasing the number of rows and columns causes‟
exponential increase in storage requirements). The use of smaller cells records greater detail in
the GIS, so the user would normally attempt to select the smallest practical cell size. The choice
of cell size depends on many factors, including the resolution of the original map data, the degree
of resolution needed in the GIS analysis, the time and money available for data compilation,
available storage space on the GIS computer, and cell sizes already employed for previously
existing raster data that the user may want to incorporate into the GIS database.

1.4.5.2.2 Vector Image

A vector data structure is very different from a raster data model. Whereas the raster data model
uses sets of grid cells to record all data, a vector model stores all spatial data as a point, line, or
polygon. These three types of spatial data are referred to as features, and a vector GIS can be
termed a “feature-based technology”. Figure 1.9 shows an example of a vector data model. When
a vector model represents an entity as a point (e.g., a traffic intersection or a bus stop location),
a single coordinate pair is used to specify its location. A feature represented as a line (e.g., a road
or rail link) uses a linked set of coordinates, and a feature represented as a polygon, which is an
alternative form of a line (e.g., a TAZ), must have the same beginning and ending point
coordinates. In a raster model, a point is a single cell, a line is a linked set of cells, and a polygon
is a group or neighborhood of similarly encoded cells. For all three types of features stored in a
vector GIS, an attribute code is entered into the GIS files to identify the object. For example, a TAZ
would be vectorized (added to the database as a vector map) as a polygon by storing the linked
set of coordinates for the boundary line and the attribute code "TAZ" would be entered in the GIS
files to identify that group of cells.

1.4.5.3 Manipulation
Once data are stored in a GIS, many retrieval, analysis, and output options are available to users.
These functions are often available in the form of "toolkits." A toolkit is a set of generic functions
that a GIS user can employ to manipulate and analyze geographic data. Toolkits provide
processing functions such as data retrieval, measuring area and perimeter, overlaying maps,
performing map algebra, and reclassifying map data. A GIS usually includes a basic set of
computer programs or "tools." The functions provided by the toolkit vary with the software
package. Figures 1.10 and Fig 1.11 provides an overview of various tool functions. Data
manipulation tools include coordinate change, projection, and edge matching, which allow a GIS
to reconcile irregularities between map layers or adjacent map sheets called "tiles." Query and
windowing are spatial retrieval tools. Query provides a wayto retrieve user-specified data from
the database. Windowing allows the user to select a specified area from a map displayed on the
monitor to examine it in greater detail as shown in Figure 1.10.

Data analysis tools shown in Figure 1.11 include aggregation, classification, measurement,
overlay, buffering, networks, and map algebra. Aggregation helps the user in interpreting the
data, classification allows the user to classify areas within a map, and measurement can be used
to determine the size of any area. The overlay function allows the user to "stack" map layers on
one another. Buffering examines an area that surrounds a feature of interest such as a point.
Network functions examine the movement of objects along an interconnected pathway (e.g.,
traffic flow along a map of highway segments). Map algebra utilities allow the user to specify
mathematical relationships between map layers.

1.4.5.4 Output The final functional task of a GIS is to generate output; usually a map. GIS-
generated maps are compiled from the many data sets contained in the digital GIS and match
exact user specifications. Map output may employ several color and symbology schemes, and will
be sized and scaled to meet user needs. These output products resemble hand-drafted maps and
fulfill essentially the same purposes. However, it is incorrect to refer to GIS simply as a mapping
system. Although GIS is able to generate high-quality map output, its ability to perform analysis
and management sets it apart from the more limited computer-mapping packages. Another form
of output from a GIS is tabular or reports information. Data summarized according to user-defined
classes or within user-defined areas can readily be generated in a textual format. This output may
also be routed to another computer application such as a statistical analysis package or a graphing
package for subsequent analysis and display.