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3 - Braking Performance

This document discusses braking performance and related concepts. It covers deceleration forces, braking forces, brake types, tire-road friction, anti-lock braking systems, and braking efficiency. Braking involves decelerating a vehicle using friction between the tires and road surface. Factors like vehicle weight, speed, road conditions, and brake design affect braking distance and forces. Anti-lock braking systems help maintain traction during braking to shorten stopping distances.

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Sumran Shahid
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
102 views28 pages

3 - Braking Performance

This document discusses braking performance and related concepts. It covers deceleration forces, braking forces, brake types, tire-road friction, anti-lock braking systems, and braking efficiency. Braking involves decelerating a vehicle using friction between the tires and road surface. Factors like vehicle weight, speed, road conditions, and brake design affect braking distance and forces. Anti-lock braking systems help maintain traction during braking to shorten stopping distances.

Uploaded by

Sumran Shahid
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Braking Performance

Chapter – 03
Topics to discuss :

 Decelerating Forces
 Braking Forces, Brakes, Brake proportioning and braking efficiency
 Tire-Road Friction
 Rear Wheel Lockup
 Pedal Force Gain
 Example Problems
Constant Deceleration

 As discussed in chap 2 Newton Second Law can be modified as:


___--- 3-1
 Where as:
Constant Deceleration

 From Previous Equation;


 Dx = 𝐹𝑥𝑡/𝑀 = -dv/dt
 Where: Fxt = The total of all Longitudinal Deceleration forces on the Vehicle
 V = Forward Velocity

 This Equation can be integrated for a deceleration from Initial Velocity


Vo to final velocity, Vf

 Ts = Time for the Velocity Change


Constant Deceleration

 If deceleration is a full stop, then the Stopping distance (SD) is

 Time to stop (ts) is


Deceleration with Wind Resistance:

 Aerodynamic drag on a vehicle is dependent on vehicle drag factors and the square of the speed.
Stopping distance in such cases can be a more complicated expression but can still be integrated

𝛆𝑭𝒙 = 𝑭𝒃 + 𝑪𝑽²
 Thus, the SD becomes
𝟎
𝑺𝑫
𝑽𝒅𝑽
න 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑴 න
𝟎 𝑭𝒃 + 𝑪𝑽𝟐
𝑽°

 After careful integration for Stopping Distance :


Energy and Power:
 Energy absorbed during the braking is of substantial amount which
can be calculated through:

 Power absorption will very with speed:

A 3000lb car in a maximum effort stop from 80 mph requires


absorption of nearly 650,000 ft/lb of energy and if stopped in 8
seconds the average power absorption of the brakes during this
interval is 145 HP.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nZPqSdwLDzo
Braking Forces

 Rolling Resistance:
 This always opposes the Vehicle motion and aids in brakes. The
rolling resistance forces will be :
𝑅𝑥𝑓 + 𝑅𝑥𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑊𝑓 + 𝑊𝑟 = 𝑓𝑟 𝑾
Equiavalent to about 0.01g of deceleration
 Aerodynamic Drag:
 Drag from air resistance depends on the dynamic pressure and is
proportional to the square of speed. At low speeds it is negligible
 Equiavalent to about 0.03g of deceleration

Driveline Drag:
 The engine, transmission and final drive and final drive contribute both drag
and inertia effects to the braking action. The drag arises from bearing and
gear friction in the transmission, differential and engine braking.
 Engine braking is equivalent to the motoring torque arising from internal
friction and air pumping losses which can disappear with over-revs
excessively.
 On manual transmission with clutch engaged during braking, the engine
braking is multiplied by the gears selected
 Automatic gear, torque converter is not effective in reverse direction, no
engine drag in these design.
 If the vehicle is slowing down faster than the driveline components would
slow down under their own friction, the drive wheel must pick up the extra
load of decelerating the driveline during the braking manuever.
Grade:

 Road grade will contribute directly to the braking effort, either in a


positive sense (uphill) or negative (downhill). The additional force on the
vehicle arising from grade (𝑅𝑔 ) is given by:
𝑹𝒈=𝑾𝒔𝒊𝒏Ɵ
 For small angles typical of most grades :
Brakes
 Automotive today uses drum and disc type of brakes.

Drum brake Disc brake


 Common usage of Drum brakes is because of their high braking factor
and ease in parking brake feature.
 Disc brakes are more consistent in torque performance than drum
brakes but they require more actuation effort.
 Keeping in view of pros and cons of both braking systems it has become
a common practice to use both types at different position in a vehicle.
Brake Factor
 Brake factor is a Mechanical advantage to minimize actuation effort.
 In drum brakes application of actuation force 𝑷𝒂 pushes the lining against the drum
generating a friction force developed by each brake shoe which is given by:

Forces acting on Simple drum brake


Brake Factor
 Due to excess of torque variations it is difficult to maintain the balance between front
and rear braking effort during a max-effort stop.
 The torque from the brake can be modeled from the curves shown but it is difficult to
predict accurately over all conditions of operation.

 Torque and brake forces are related by equation:


𝑇𝑏
𝐹𝑏 =
𝑟
Tire-Road Friction:
 As long as all wheels as rolling, the braking forces on a
vehicle can be predicted however the brake force can
only increase to the limit of the frictional coupling between
the tire and road.
 The two primary mechanisms responsible for friction
coupling
1. Surface adhesion 2. Bulk Hysteresis
 Both adhesive and hysteretic friction depend on some
amount of slip occurring at the tire-road interface
 Slip of the tire is defined by the ratio of slip velocity in the
contact patch
𝑉 − 𝜔𝑟
𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑝 =
𝑉
Where:
V = Vehicle forward velocity
𝜔 = Tire rotational Speed
Velocity:
 On dry roads both peak and slide friction decreases with velocity. Under wet conditions
even greater speed sensitivity prevails because of displacing water in contact.
 When the speed and water film thickness are sufficient the tire tread will lift from the
road creating a condition known as Hydroplaning.

Inflation Pressure:
 On dry roads peak and slide coefficients are only mildly affected by inflation pressure.
 On wet surfaces, inflation pressure increases are significant to improve both coefficients

Vertical Loads:
 Increased vertical load is known to reduce normalized traction levels under both dry
and wet conditions.
Federal requirements for braking performance
 Among the many standard that have been imposed are Federal Motor
Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS)105 , Establishing braking performance
requirements for vehicles with hydraulic brakes system and FMVSS 121
establishing braking performance requirements for vehicles with air brake
systems.
 The requirements for stopping distance performance can be summarized
into five tests:
1. First effectiveness.
2. Second effectiveness.
3. Third effectiveness.
4. Forth effectiveness.
5. Partial Failure.
Brake Proportioning:
 During braking a dynamic load transfer from rear to the front axle occurs such that
the load on a axle is static plus the dynamic load transfer contributions. Thus for a
deceleration Dx:

 Thus on each axle the maximum braking force is given by:

Where 𝜇𝑝 = 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛


Brake Proportioning:
 The maximum brake force is dependent on the deceleration, varying differently at each
axle.

 For an explicit solution for the maximum braking forces on an axle we need to recognize
deceleration as a function of the total braking force imposed on the vehicle.

And for 𝐹𝑥𝑚𝑟


Brake Proportioning:
 From previous equations of 𝐹𝑥𝑚𝑓 and 𝐹𝑥𝑚𝑟 we can
find out that:

 The relationship between front brake force and


rear brake force can be easily visualized through
graph
 The intersection point for front and rear axle
brake boundaries can be determined by
equations:
Brake Proportioning:
 The primary factor determining brake
proportioning is the gain of the brakes used on
the front and rear wheels.
 The brake force on individual wheels can be
measured by the equation :

 Achieving good performance over the full


range of conditions under which a vehicle
operates can be difficult.
 A range of variations that arise from vehicle
loading and surface friction can be observed in
the graph.
 A straight line can never achieve all
performance goals so vehicles use pressure
proportioning which provide equal pressure to
both front and rear brakes up to a certain
pressure level and then, reduce the pressure
increase rate accordingly.
Anti-lock Braking System:
 Instead of adjusting the proportioning
valve anti-lock braking systems (ABS)
sense when wheels lockup occurs,
ABS release the brakes momentarily
on locked wheels and reapply them
when the wheel spins up again.
 An ABS consists of an electronic
control unit (ECU), a solenoid for
releasing and reapplying pressure to
a brake and a wheel speed sensor.
 The objective of the ABS is to keep
each tire on the vehicle operating
near the peak of the 𝜇 – Slip curve for
that tire.
Anti-lock Braking System:
 When the brakes are first applied
wheel speeds diminish more or less in
accordance with the vehicle speed in
region 1 in the plot.
 If the brakes are applied to a high level
or road is slippery, the speed of one or
more wheels begins to drop rapidly
(point 2)which means the tires is
heading towards lockup.
 To avoid wheel lockup ABS intervenes
and releases the brakes on those
wheels before lockup occurs (point 3)
Braking efficiency

▪ The concept of braking efficiency has


been developed as a measure of
performance
▪ The braking performance of a vehicle
will vary according to the friction of
the road surface on which it is
attempted
▪ Braking efficiency may be defined as
the ratio of actual deceleration
achieved to the “best” performance
possible on the given road surface
Braking efficiency

▪ Braking efficiency is determined by calculating


▪ Brake forces
▪ Deceleration
▪ Axle loads
▪ Braking coefficient on each axle as a function of application pressure

▪ The braking coefficient is defined as the ratio of brake force to load on a wheel or axle
▪ The braking efficiency at any level of application pressure is the deceleration divided by
the highest braking coefficient of any axle
Braking efficiency
▪ The main problem in measuring
braking performance has been
the difficulty of defining an
effective friction level for a tire-
road surface pair Because of the
variations in friction with velocity,
wheel load, tire type and other
factors
▪ Contributions to braking from
individual axles are better
assessed by examining the
braking coefficient developed by
each
▪ Five curves representing the five
axles of the combination
Rear Wheel Lockup
 Wheels lockup has a great impact on handling behavior of the vehicle, As
once a wheel locks up it loses its ability to generate the cornering forces
needed to keep the vehicle oriented on the road.
 Front wheel lockup causes loss of ability to steer the vehicle, whereas, rear
wheel lockup places a motor vehicle in an unstable condition and vehicle
will have a Yaw disturbance which initiates rotation of vehicle.
 The comparison of deceleration demands in normal driving to the available
friction level of roads can be observed in the graph.
 There is a philosophy among automotive designers that a front brake bias
constitutes the prefered design.
Rear Wheel Lockup
 Driver behavior of brake application
occur on the average 1.5 times per
mile.
 Though most of the brake
applications are executed at
moderate level, high decelerations
are required in certain %age of times.

 20% of all brake application exceed


0.2g
 Only 1% exceed 0.35 g
 Less than 0.1% go up to 0.5 g
Pedal Force Gain
 Ergonomics in the design of a brake
system can play an important role
in the ease with which the driving
public can optimally use the
braking capabilities built into a
vehicle
 Aside form positioning of the brake
pedal, the effort and displacement
properties of the pedal during
braking are recognized as
influential design variables.
 The research identified an optimum
range for pedal force gain and the
relationship between pedal force
and deceleration.

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