BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY – Civil Engineering Department

OPEN CHANNELS

An open channel is a conduit in which a liquid flows with a free surface. As contrasted with a liquid in a pipe, in which
normally occurs under pressure, the liquid conveyed by an open channel exerts no pressure other than that caused by its
own weight and the pressure of the atmosphere. Natural rivers and man-made canals are open channels.

Fig. 3.1

Fig. 3.2

Choice between Pipes and Open Channels

Channels are very convenient and economical for conveying large quantities of water over relatively flat land such as in large
irrigation systems on river flood plains. In hilly areas the cost of open channels can rise significantly because the alignment
must follow the land contours to create a gentle downward slope for the flow. A more direct route would be too steep
causing erosion and serious damage to channels. Pipes would be more suitable in such conditions. They can be used in any
kind of terrain and can take a more direct route. Water velocities too can be much higher in pipes because there is no risk of
erosion.

Important hydraulic differences between them:

 Open channels have a free or open water surface whereas pipes are enclosed and always flow full.

 Water can only flow downhill in channels but in pipes it can flow both uphill and downhill. Flow in pipes depends on
a pressure difference between the inlet and outlet. As long as the pressure is higher at the inlet than at the outlet
then water will flow even though the pipeline route may be undulating. Channels depend entirely on the force of
gravity to make water move and so they can only flow downhill.

 Man-made channels can have many different shapes (circular, rectangular or trapezoidal)
and sizes (different depths, widths and velocities). Natural river channels are irregular in
shape. Pipes in contrast are circular in section and their shape is characterized by one simple dimension – the
diameter. This fixes the area of the water way and the friction from the pipe circumference.

 Water velocities are usually lower in channels than in pipes. This is because channels are
often in natural soils which erode easily. So channels are usually much larger than pipes for
the same flow.

 Channels need much more attention than pipes. They tend to erode and weeds grow in
waterways and so regular cleaning is required. Water losses from seepage and evaporation
can also be a problem.

Flow In Open Channels | Hydraulics Engineering 1

BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY – Civil Engineering Department

Optimum Hydraulic Design of Channel Cross-Section

- most efficient cross-section

- most economical cross-section
- most advantageous cross-section

Most Efficient Cross Sections (Figures A to D)

The most efficient cross section for an open channel is the one that will have the greatest capacity for a given slope,
area, and roughness coefficient. If these parameters remain constant, velocity (and therefore flow rate) will be greatest when
the wetted perimeter is smallest.

 The most efficient of all cross sections is a semicircle because it has the smallest wetted perimeter for a given
area.
 For a rectangular section, the most efficient one has a depth that is half its width.
 For a triangular section, side slopes of unity give the most efficient section.
 And for a trapezoidal section, the most efficient one is half a regular hexagon.

b b’

d
y
y

Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4

b’
b’

y 1
1 y

Fig. 3.5 Fig. 3.6

Table 3.1 Minimum wetted perimeters for different channel shapes.

Channel Shape Wetted Perimeter Hydraulic Radius
Rectangle 4d 0.5d
Trapezoid (half a hexagon) 3.463d 0.5d
Semi-circle πd 0.5d
Note: d = depth of flow

Factors Affecting Flow

1) Area and Wetted Perimeter

The cross-sectional area of a channel (A) defines the flow area and the wetted perimeter (P) defines the boundary
between the water and the channel. This boundary in contact with the water is the source of frictional resistance to
the flow of water. The greater the wetted perimeter, the greater is the frictional resistance of the channel.

2) Hydraulic Radius
As the wetted perimeter can vary considerably for the same area, some measure of the hydraulic shape of a channel
is needed. This is called the hydraulic radius. (R = A/P)

3) Slope
Water only flows downhill in channels and the steepness of the slope affects the velocity and hence the discharge.
As the slope gets steeper the velocity increases and so does the discharge. Slope is measured as a gradient rather
than an angle in degrees. So a channel slope is expressed as 1 in 1000, that is, 1.0 m drop in 1000 m of channel
length.

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BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY – Civil Engineering Department

4) Roughness
The roughness of the bed and sides of a channel also contribute to friction. The rougher they are the slower will be
the water velocity.

Advantages of Open Channel Lining:

Source: http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/irrigation/canals/top-9-advantages-of-canal-lining/60785/
1. Canal lining controls seepage
2. Canal linings increase capacity of canals
3. Canal lining is an important anti-water-logging measure
4. Canal linings increase available head for power generation
5. Canal linings improve command
6. Canal linings make the canal section stable
7. Canal linings prevent bank erosion and breaches
8. Canal linings reduce maintenance costs
9. Canal linings assure economical water distribution

UNIFORM FLOW

This condition occurs when the flow continues down the channel having constant depth and velocity because the friction
force and gravity force are equal. The water depth is called the normal depth.

Fig. 3.7

Fig. 3.8

Fig. 3.9

The Chezy (Antoine Chezy) Formula (for steady uniform flow)

Note: For steady uniform flow, the EGL, HGL, and the channel bottom are parallel.

V  C RS 3.1
where:
V = average velocity
C = Chezy’s velocity coefficient defining channel roughness
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of the energy gradeline

Coefficient C can be obtained by using one of the following expressions:

1
1 6
C R (Manning) 3.2
n

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BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY – Civil Engineering Department

where:
C = Chezy’s velocity coefficient
g = gravitational constant
f = friction factor
S = slope of energy gradeline
R = hydraulic radius
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient

The Manning (Robert Manning) formula (Discharge Q for steady uniform flow)

2 1
 1.486  3 2 3.3
Q  AV  A R S (Q in ft3/s, A in ft2, R in ft)
 n 

2 1
 1.0  3 2 3.4
Q  AV  A R S (Q in m3/s, A in m2, R in m)
 n 
where:
Q = discharge or flow rate
A = area of flow
V = velocity of flow
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of the energy gradeline

Critical Depth yc

Critical depth for a constant unit flow q in a rectangular channel occurs when the specific energy, E is a minimum.
Specific energy [(introduced by Boris Bakhmateff (1880–1951)]is the energy in a channel measured from the bed of a
channel.
V2
Ey 3.5
2g

q2 2 V2
yc  3  Ec  c
g 3 g

3.6a 3.6b 3.6c

where:
E = specific energy; it is the energy per unit weight relative to the channel bottom
y = depth of flow
V2/2g = velocity head
yc = critical depth of flow
q = unit flow; it is the flow rate per unit of channel width
g = gravitational constant
EC = critical energy (head) at point of critical depth
VC = velocity at point of critical depth

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BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY – Civil Engineering Department

Fig. 3.10

Fig. 3.11

Froude Number, Fr William Froude (1810–1879)

V 3.7
Fr 
gy

Fr = 1.0 (critical flow occurs)

Fr  1.0 (supercritical flow occurs, rapid flow) y < yC and V > VC
Fr  1.0 (subcritical flow occurs, tranquil flow) y > yC and V < VC

where:
Fr = Froude Number
V = velocity of flow
g = gravitational constant
y = depth of flow
yN = normal depth of flow
yC = critical depth of flow
V = velocity at normal depth of flow
VC = velocity at critical depth of flow

upper stage V2/2g

V2/2g
Fig. 3.12
Y
lower stage
YC
Y

V2  1 
If   y then flow is critical
2g  2 

V2  1 
If   y then flow is at lower stage
2g  2 

V2  1 
If   y then flow is at upper stage
2g  2 

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BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY – Civil Engineering Department

Maximum Unit Flow qmax in a rectangular channel for any given specific energy E

3
2 
qmax  gy c3  g E  3.8
3 

V2
Ey 3.9
2g

 
2
 1  q 
E  y     or q  2g y 2E  y 3 3.10
 2g  y 

where:
qmax = maximum unit flow
g = gravitational constant
yC = critical depth of flow
E = specific energy
y = normal depth of flow
V2/2g = velocity head

For Critical Flow In Non-Rectangular Channels (Cross-sections are shown in Figs. 3.4 to 3.7)

Q 2 A c3
 3.11
g b'

Vc2 Ac gAc
 or Vc   gy m 3.12
g b' b'

where:
b' = the width of the water surface
Q = flow rate
AC = area at point of critical flow
VC = velocity at point of critical flow
g = gravitational constant
ym = mean depth of flow

NON-UNIFORM FLOW (Varied Flow)

In most channels this balance of forces rarely occurs and so the depth and velocity are usually changing gradually even
though the discharge is constant. Even in long channels where uniform flow has a chance of occurring there is usually
some variation in channel shape or slope or a hydraulic structure which changes the depth and the velocity. So most
channels have non-uniform flow. It is also called gradually varied flow because the changes take place gradually along the
channel.

Types of Non-Uniform Flow

1) Gradually Varied Flow

It occurs when there are gradual changes taking place in the depth and velocity due to an imbalance of the force
of gravity trying to make the flow go faster down a slope and the channel friction slowing it down. The gradual
changes in depth take place over long distances and the water surface follows a gradual curve.

2) Rapidly Varied Flow

Sudden changes in depth and velocity occur and this is the result of sudden changes in either the shape or size of
channels. The change usually takes place over a few metres, unlike gradually varied flow where changes take
place slowly over many kilometres. Hydraulic structures are often the cause of rapidly varied flow.

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BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY – Civil Engineering Department

Fig. 3.13 V12/2g SL

EGL

HGL/ water surface V22/2g

y1

1 y2
Channel bed
SoL 2

 V22   V12 
   
 2g y 2   2g  y 1  E  E E  E2
L     2 1
 1
So  S So  S S  So
3.13

where:
L = length of reach
So = slope of the channel bottom
S = slope of the energy grade line
y1 and y2 = depths of flow at points 1 and 2, respectively
V12/2g and V22/2g = velocity heads at points 1 and 2, respectively
E1 and E2 = energies at points 1 and 2, respectively

For successive reaches where changes in depth are about the same, S can be written as

2
 
 nVmean 
S  3.14
 1.486R 2 3 
 mean 

Wave Celerity
- the velocity at which an infinitesimally small wave travels relative to the velocity of the fluid in which it is
travelling.

c  gy 3.15
where:
c = wave celerity
g = gravitational constant
y = depth of flow

FLOW TRANSITIONS (Figures 3.14 to 3.18)

Changes in a channel which result in changes in flow from sub-critical to super-critical and viceversa are referred to as
transitions.

1) Sub- to Super-critical Flow

When flow goes from sub- to super-critical it does so smoothly. The channel gradient is increased which changes
the flow from sub- to super-critical. The water surface curves rapidly but smoothly as the flow goes through the
critical point. There is no energy loss as the flow is contracting.

2) Super- to Sub-critical Flow

The change from super- to sub-critical is not so smooth. In fact a vigorous turbulent mixing action occurs as the
flow jumps abruptly from super- to sub-critical flow. It is aptly called a hydraulic jump and as the flow expands
there is a significant loss of energy due to the turbulence.

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Hydraulic Jump
- occurs when a supercritical flow changes to a subcritical flow. In such cases, the elevation of the liquid surface
increases suddenly in the direction of flow.

Hydraulic Jump in Rectangular Channels

hL
Energy grade line
V22/2g
Fig. 3.14 Hydraulic jump V12/2g

V2 y2

y1 V1
Channel bed

y2 1 
  1  8Fr12  1  3.16
y1 2  

where:
y1 and y2 = depths of flow at the upstream and downstream sides, respectively, of the hydraulic jump
Fr = Froude Number
V12/2g and V22/2g = velocity heads at points 1 and 2, respectively

Head Loss in a Hydraulic Jump

hL 
y 2  y 1 3
4y 1 y 2 3.17

Hydraulic jumps are very useful for many purposes:

1) Getting rid of unwanted energy, such as at the base of dam spillways.

2) Mixing chemicals in water. The vigorous turbulence ensures that any added chemical is thoroughly dispersed
throughout the flow.
3) Converting super-critical flow downstream of hydraulic structures into sub-critical flow to avoid erosion damage
in unprotected channels.

Fig. 3.15 Fig. 3.17

Fig. 3.18

Fig. 3.16

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BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY – Civil Engineering Department

SAMPLE PROBLEMS (OPEN CHANNELS)

PROBLEM 1 (Critical Depth for rectangular channel)

Water is released from a sluice gate in a rectangular channel 5 ft wide such that the depth is 2 ft and the velocity is 15 fps.
Find
(a) the critical depth for this rate of discharge, and
(b) the type of flow and the alternate depth.

PROBLEM 2* (Critical Depth for rectangular channel)

A flow of 100 cfs is carried in a rectangular channel 10 ft wide at a depth of 1.2 ft. If the channel is made of smooth concrete
(n = 0.012), find the slope necessary to sustain uniform flow at this depth. What roughness coefficient would be required
to produce uniform critical flow for the given rate of discharge on this slope?

PROBLEM 3 (Critical Depth for rectangular channel)

A rectangular channel 2 m wide carries 2 m3/s of water in subcritical uniform flow at a depth of 0.80 m. A frictionless hump
is to be installed across the bed. Find the critical hump height (i.e., the minimum hump that cause y C on it).

PROBLEM 4 (Non-rectangular channel)

The triangular channel (n = 0.012) is to carry water at a flow rate of 10 m3/s. Find the critical depth, critical velocity, and the
critical slope of the channel.
b

1 1
3 3

PROBLEM 5* (Non-rectangular channel)

A concrete pipe (n = 0.013) must carry water at a slope of 0.0075, at a velocity of 0.76 m/s, and at a depth of flow equal to
one-tenth its diameter. What is the required pipe diameter?

PROBLEM 6 (Hydraulic jump)

A hydraulic jump occurs downstream from a 15-m-wide sluice gate. The depth is 1.5 m, and the velocity is 20 m/s. Determine
(a) the Froude number corresponding to the conjugate depth,
(b) the velocity after the jump, and
(c) the power dissipated by the jump.

PROBLEM 7 (Non-uniform Flow)

Water flows at 8.5 m3/s in a 3-m-wide open channel of rectangular cross section. The bottom slope is adverse, i.e., it rises
0.2 m per 100 m in the direction of flow. If the water depth increases from 2.10 m to 1.65 m in a 150 m length of channel,
determine Manning’s ‘n’.

PROBLEM 8* (Non-uniform Flow)

A rectangular flume (n = 0.013) is 6 ft wide and carries 66 cfs of water. At a certain section, the depth is 2.70 ft. If the slope
of the channel bed is constant at 0.00040, determine the distance from that section where the depth is 3.20 ft.

PROBLEM 9 (Non-uniform Flow)

Uniform flow occurs in a 40-ft wide rectangular channel having a bed slope of 0.002 and n = 0.013 at a depth of 3 ft. If a
partial closure of the gate near the exit raises the water level at the gate by 1.5 ft, find the distance upstream to the point
where the water surface is at a depth of 4 ft.

PROBLEM 10* (Non-uniform Flow)

A rectangular channel 12 m wide is laid on a slope of 0.0028. The depth of flow at one section is 1.5 m, while the depth of
flow at another section 500 m downstream is 1.8 m. Determine the probable rate of flow if n = 0.026.

PROBLEM 11* (Froude Number)

When the flow in a wide, finished-concrete, rectangular channel has a Froude number of unity, the depth is 1 m. What is
the Froude number when the depth is 1.5 m for the same mass flow?

Flow In Open Channels | Hydraulics Engineering 9