Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Programming languages Java

Polymorphism

Kozsik Tamás

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 1 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Polymorphism overview

Polymorphism: using a type/method/object in different ways

Categories
• universal polymorphism (applicable in infinitely many, extensible ways)
⋄ parametric polymorphism: generics
⋄ subtype polymorphism: inheritance
• ad hoc polymorphism (applicable in specific, finite number of ways)
⋄ overloading
⋄ casting: explicit type conversion

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 2 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Motivating example

An earlier example
public class Receptionist {
public Time[] readWakeupTimes(String[] fnames) {
Time[] times = new Time[fnames.length];

for (int i = 0; i < fnames.length; ++i) {

try {
times[i] = readTime(fnames[i]);
} catch (java.io.IOException e) {
times[i] = null; // no-op
System.err.println("Could not read " + fnames[i]);
}
}
return times; // maybe sort times before returning?
}
...
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 3 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Motivating example

Getting rid of null values

public class Receptionist {
public Time[] readWakeupTimes(String[] fnames) {
Time[] times = new Time[fnames.length];
int len = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < fnames.length; ++i) {
try {
times[len] = readTime(fnames[i]);
++len;
} catch (java.io.IOException e) {
System.err.println("Could not read " + fnames[i]);
}
}
return java.util.Arrays.copyOf(times,len); // possibly
} // sorted
...
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 4 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Motivating example

Advantages and drawbacks of arrays

• Efficient access to elements (indexing)

• Syntactic support in the language (indexing, array literals)
• Length is fixed at construction
⋄ Extension with, or removal of, elements is expensive
⋄ Requires the creation of a new array, and copying
• Some methods have unexpected (wrong) implementations
⋄ This makes arrays incompatible with some data structures

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 5 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Alternative: java.util.ArrayList
convenient standard library, similar inner workings

String[] names = { "Tim",

"Jerry" };

names[0] = "Tom";
String mouse = names[1];

String[] trio = new String[3];

trio[0] = names[0];
trio[1] = names[1];
trio[2] = "Spike";
names = trio;

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 6 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Alternative: java.util.ArrayList
convenient standard library, similar inner workings

String[] names = { "Tim", ArrayList<String> names =

"Jerry" }; new ArrayList<>();
names.add("Tim");
names.add("Jerry");
names[0] = "Tom";
String mouse = names[1]; names.set(0, "Tom");
String mouse = names.get(1);
String[] trio = new String[3];
trio[0] = names[0]; names.add("Spike");
trio[1] = names[1];
trio[2] = "Spike";
names = trio;

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 6 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Example updated
public class Receptionist {
...
public ArrayList<Time> readWakeupTimes(String[] fnames) {
ArrayList<Time> times = new ArrayList<Time>();
for (int i = 0; i < fnames.length; ++i) {
try {
times.add(readTime(fnames[i]));
} catch (java.io.IOException e) {
System.err.println("Could not read " + fnames[i]);
}
}
return times; // possibly sort before returning
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 7 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Parametrized type

ArrayList<Time> times

Time[] times
Time times[]

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 8 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Generic class

Not exactly this way, but almost…

package java.util;
public class ArrayList<T> {
public ArrayList() { ... }
public T get(int index) { ... }
public void set(int index, T item) { ... }
public void add(T item) { ... }
public T remove(int index) { ... }
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 9 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Type parameter is provided when used

import java.util.ArrayList;

...

ArrayList<Time> times;
ArrayList<String> names = new ArrayList<String>();
ArrayList<String> namez = new ArrayList<>();

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 10 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Generic method
import java.util.*;
public class Main {
public static <T> void reverse(T[] array) {
int lo = 0, hi = array.length-1;
while (lo < hi) {
T tmp = array[hi];
array[hi] = array[lo];
array[lo] = tmp;
++lo; --hi;
}
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
reverse(args);
System.out.println(Arrays.toString(args));
}
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 11 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Generic method with manually specified type argument

import java.util.*;
public class Main {
public static <T> void reverse(T[] array) {
int lo = 0, hi = array.length-1;
while (lo < hi) {
T tmp = array[hi];
array[hi] = array[lo];
array[lo] = tmp;
++lo; --hi;
}
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
Main.<String>reverse(args);
System.out.println(Arrays.toString(args));
}
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 12 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Parametric polymorphism

• The same code works for many type parameters

⋄ What sort of code can take type parameters?
▶ types (classes)

▶ methods

• Code parametrized with any (reference) type

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 13 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Type parameter
Primitive types not allowed!
ArrayList<int> numbers // compilation error

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 14 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Type parameter
Primitive types not allowed!
ArrayList<int> numbers // compilation error

Reference types are OK!

ArrayList<Integer> numbers = new ArrayList<>();
numbers.add(Integer.valueOf(7));
Integer seven = numbers.get(0);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 14 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Type parameter
Primitive types not allowed!
ArrayList<int> numbers // compilation error

Reference types are OK!

ArrayList<Integer> numbers = new ArrayList<>();
numbers.add(Integer.valueOf(7));
Integer seven = numbers.get(0);

Automatic conversion from/to primitive values

ArrayList<Integer> numbers = new ArrayList<>();
numbers.add(42); // auto-boxing: int -> Integer
int n42 = numbers.get(1); // auto-unboxing: Integer -> int

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 14 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Data structures in java.util

Sequence
ArrayList<String> colors = new ArrayList<>();
colors.add("red"); colors.add("white"); colors.add("red");
String third = colors.get(2);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 15 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Data structures in java.util

Sequence
ArrayList<String> colors = new ArrayList<>();
colors.add("red"); colors.add("white"); colors.add("red");
String third = colors.get(2);

Set
HashSet<String> colors = new HashSet<>();
colors.add("red"); colors.add("white"); colors.add("red");
int two = colors.size();

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 15 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Generics: ArrayList

Data structures in java.util

Sequence
ArrayList<String> colors = new ArrayList<>();
colors.add("red"); colors.add("white"); colors.add("red");
String third = colors.get(2);

Set
HashSet<String> colors = new HashSet<>();
colors.add("red"); colors.add("white"); colors.add("red");
int two = colors.size();

Mapping
HashMap<String,String> colors = new HashMap<>();
colors.put("red", "piros"); colors.put("white", "fehér");
String whiteHu = colors.get("white");

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 15 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Implementation of generics

Generic class

public class ArrayList<T> {

public ArrayList() { ... }
public T get(int index) { ... }
public void set(int index, T item) { ... }
public void add(T item) { ... }
public T remove(int index) { ... }
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 16 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Implementation of generics

Implementation of generic class

public class ArrayList<T> {

private T[] data;
private int size = 0;
...
public T get(int index) {
if (index < size) return data[index];
else throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException();
}
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 17 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Implementation of generics

Implementation of generic class

import java.util.Arrays;
public class ArrayList<T> {
private T[] data;
private int size = 0;
...
public void add(T item) {
if (size == data.length) {
data = Arrays.copyOf(data,data.length+1);
}
data[size] = item;
++size;
}
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 18 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type erasure

Allocation attempt: compilation error

public class ArrayList<T> {
private T[] data;
private int size = 0;
...
public ArrayList() { this(256); }
public ArrayList(int initialCapacity) {
data = new T[initialCapacity];
}
...
}
ArrayList.java:6: error: generic array creation
data = new T[initialCapacity];

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 19 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type erasure

Type erasure

• Type parameter: used during static type checking

• Target code: independent of type parameter
⋄ Haskell is similar
⋄ C++ template is different
• Compatibility with generic-less code
• Type parameter cannot be used run-time

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 20 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type erasure

The target code can be considered like this

public class ArrayList {

private Object[] data;
...
public ArrayList() { ... }
public Object get(int index) { ... }
public void set(int index, Object item) { ... }
public void add(Object item) { ... }
public Object remove(int index) { ... }
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 21 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type erasure

Compatibility: raw type

import java.util.ArrayList;
...
ArrayList<String> parametrized = new ArrayList<>();
parametrized.add("Romeo");
parametrized.add(12); // compilation error
String s = parametrized.get(0);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 22 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type erasure

Compatibility: raw type

import java.util.ArrayList;
...
ArrayList<String> parametrized = new ArrayList<>();
parametrized.add("Romeo");
parametrized.add(12); // compilation error
String s = parametrized.get(0);
ArrayList raw = new ArrayList();
raw.add("Romeo");
raw.add(12);
Object o = raw.get(0);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 22 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type erasure

Allocation: still not fixed

public class ArrayList<T> {
private T[] data;
private int size = 0;
...
public ArrayList() { this(256); }
public ArrayList(int initialCapacity) {
data = new Object[initialCapacity];
}
...
}
ArrayList.java:6: error: incompatible types:
Object[] cannot be converted to T[]
data = new Object[initialCapacity];
^
where T is a type-variable:
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 23 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type erasure

Allocation – already valid

public class ArrayList<T> {
private T[] data;
private int size = 0;
...
public ArrayList() { this(256); }
public ArrayList(int initialCapacity) {
data = (T[])new Object[initialCapacity];
}
...
}
javac ArrayList.java
Note: ArrayList.java uses unchecked or unsafe operations.
Note: Recompile with -Xlint:unchecked for details.

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 24 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type erasure

Allocation – already valid, but still not perfect…

public class ArrayList<T> {
private T[] data;
private int size = 0;
...
public ArrayList() { this(256); }
public ArrayList(int initialCapacity) {
data = (T[])new Object[initialCapacity];
}
...
}
javac -Xlint:unchecked ArrayList.java
ArrayList.java:6: warning: [unchecked] unchecked cast
required: T[] found: Object[]

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 25 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type erasure

Casting somewhere else?

public class ArrayList<T> {
private Object[] data;
private int size = 0;
...
public T get(int index) {
if (index < size) return (T)data[index];
else throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException();
}
...
}
javac -Xlint:unchecked ArrayList.java
ArrayList.java:10: warning: [unchecked] unchecked cast
required: T found: Object

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 26 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type erasure

Warning-free

public class ArrayList<T> {

private Object[] data;
private int size = 0;
...
@SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
public T get(int index) {
if (index < size) return (T)data[index];
else throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException();
}
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 27 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

Inheritance

class A extends B { ... }

• A class is defined in terms of another
⋄ Only their difference is to be given: A Δ B
⋄ Reuse of code

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 28 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

Inheritance

class A extends B { ... }

• A class is defined in terms of another
⋄ Only their difference is to be given: A Δ B
⋄ Reuse of code
• Class A is the child class of B, the parent class

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 28 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

Inheritance

class A extends B { ... }

• A class is defined in terms of another
⋄ Only their difference is to be given: A Δ B
⋄ Reuse of code
• Class A is the child class of B, the parent class
• Transitively:
⋄ subclass, derived class
⋄ super class, base class

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 28 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

Inheritance

class A extends B { ... }

• A class is defined in terms of another
⋄ Only their difference is to be given: A Δ B
⋄ Reuse of code
• Class A is the child class of B, the parent class
• Transitively:
⋄ subclass, derived class
⋄ super class, base class
• No circularity!

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 28 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

Example
public class Time {
private int hour, min; // initialized to 00:00
public int getHour() { ... }
public int getMin() { ... }
public void setHour(int hour) { ... }
public void setMin(int min) { ... }
public void aMinPassed() { ... }
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 29 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

Example
public class Time {
private int hour, min; // initialized to 00:00
public int getHour() { ... }
public int getMin() { ... }
public void setHour(int hour) { ... }
public void setMin(int min) { ... }
public void aMinPassed() { ... }
}

public class ExactTime extends Time {

private int sec; // initialized to 00
public int getSec() { ... }
public void setSec(int sec) { ... }
public boolean earlierThan(ExactTime that) { ... }
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 29 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

Implicit parent class

public class Time extends java.lang.Object {
private int hour, min; // initialized to 00:00
public int getHour() { ... }
public int getMin() { ... }
public void setHour(int hour) { ... }
public void setMin(int min) { ... }
public void aMinPassed() { ... }
}

public class ExactTime extends Time {

private int sec; // initialized to 00
public int getSec() { ... }
public void setSec(int sec) { ... }
public boolean earlierThan(ExactTime that) { ... }
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 30 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

java.lang.Object

Base class of every class!

package java.lang;
public class Object {
public Object() { ... }

public String toString() { ... }

public int hashCode() { ... }
public boolean equals(Object that) { ... }
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 31 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

Constructors are not inherited

public class Time {
private int hour, min;
public Time(int hour, int min) {
if (hour < 0 || hour > 23 || min < 0 || min > 59)
throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.hour = hour;
this.min = min;
}
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 32 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

Constructors are not inherited

public class Time {
private int hour, min;
public Time(int hour, int min) {
if (hour < 0 || hour > 23 || min < 0 || min > 59)
throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.hour = hour;
this.min = min;
}
...
}

public class ExactTime extends Time {

private int sec;

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 32 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

Constructors are not inherited

public class Time {
private int hour, min;
public Time(int hour, int min) {
if (hour < 0 || hour > 23 || min < 0 || min > 59)
throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.hour = hour;
this.min = min;
}
...
}

public class ExactTime extends Time {

private int sec;
public ExactTime(int hour, int min, int sec) { ? }
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 32 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

The child class needs a constructor!

public class Time {
private int hour, min;
public Time(int hour, int min) { ... }
...
}

public class ExactTime extends Time {

private int sec;
public ExactTime(int hour, int min, int sec) {

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 33 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

The child class needs a constructor!

public class Time {
private int hour, min;
public Time(int hour, int min) { ... }
...
}

public class ExactTime extends Time {

private int sec;
public ExactTime(int hour, int min, int sec) {
super(hour, min); // must call parent's constructor
if (sec < 0 || sec > 59)
throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.sec = sec;
}
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 33 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

Calling the super(...) constructor

• A constructor in the parent class
• For initializing inherited fields
• Must be the first statement!

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 34 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

Calling the super(...) constructor

• A constructor in the parent class
• For initializing inherited fields
• Must be the first statement!
Erroneous!!!
public class ExactTime extends Time {
private int sec;
public ExactTime(int hour, int min, int sec) {
if (sec < 0 || sec > 59)
throw new IllegalArgumentException();
super(hour,min);
this.sec = sec;
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 34 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

Why is this correct? Missing super?!

public class Time extends Object {

private int hour, min;
public Time(int hour, int min) {
if (hour < 0 || hour > 23 || min < 0 || min > 59)
throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.hour = hour;
this.min = min;
}
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 35 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

Implicit super() call

public class Time extends Object { package java.lang;

private int hour, min; public class Object {
public Time(int hour, int min) { public Object() { ... }
super(); ...
if (...) throw ...;
this.hour = hour;
this.min = min;
}
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 36 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

Implicit parent class, implicit constructor, implicit super

class A {}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 37 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

Implicit parent class, implicit constructor, implicit super

class A {}

class A extends java.lang.Object {

A() {
super();
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 37 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

Constructors in a class

• One or more explicit constructors

• Default constructor

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 38 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

Constructor body

1st statement
• Explicit this call
• Explicit super call
• Implicit (automatically generated) super() call (no-arg!)

Rest of the body

No calls using this or super!

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 39 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Constructors

Interesting error

Seems OK, but… Meaning

class Base { class Base extends Object {
Base(int n) {} Base(int n) {
} super();
}
class Sub extends Base {} }

class Sub extends Base {

Sub() { super(); }
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 40 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Overriding

A class defined with inheritance

• Members of parent class are inherited

• Can be extended with new members (Java: extends)
• Inherited instance methods can be redefined
⋄ … and redeclared

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 41 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Overriding

Overriding instance methods

redefinition, overriding

package java.lang;
public class Object {
...
public String toString() {...} //java.lang.Object@4f324b5c
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 42 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Overriding

Overriding instance methods

redefinition, overriding

package java.lang;
public class Object {
...
public String toString() {...} //java.lang.Object@4f324b5c
}

public class Time {

...
public String toString() {
return hour + ":" + min; // 8:5
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 42 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Overriding

Slightly better
redefinition, overriding

package java.lang;
public class Object {
...
public String toString() {...} //java.lang.Object@4f324b5c
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 43 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Overriding

Slightly better
redefinition, overriding

package java.lang;
public class Object {
...
public String toString() {...} //java.lang.Object@4f324b5c
}

public class Time {

...
public String toString() { // 8:05
return "%1$d:%2$02d".formatted(hour, min);
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 43 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Overriding

With the recommended @Override annotation

redefinition, overriding

package java.lang;
public class Object {
...
public String toString() {...} //java.lang.Object@4f324b5c
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 44 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Overriding

With the recommended @Override annotation

redefinition, overriding

package java.lang;
public class Object {
...
public String toString() {...} //java.lang.Object@4f324b5c
}

public class Time {

...
@Override
public String toString() { // 8:05
return "%1$d:%2$02d".formatted(hour, min);
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 44 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Overriding

Calling super.toString()
package java.lang; // java.lang.Object@4f324b5c
public class Object {... public String toString() {...} ... }

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 45 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Overriding

Calling super.toString()
package java.lang; // java.lang.Object@4f324b5c
public class Object {... public String toString() {...} ... }

public class Time {

...
@Override public String toString() { // 8:05
return "%1$d:%2$02d".formatted(hour, min);
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 45 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Overriding

Calling super.toString()
package java.lang; // java.lang.Object@4f324b5c
public class Object {... public String toString() {...} ... }

public class Time {

...
@Override public String toString() { // 8:05
return "%1$d:%2$02d".formatted(hour, min);
}
}
public class ExactTime extends Time {
...
@Override public String toString() { // 8:05:17
return "%1:%2$02d".formatted(super.toString(), sec);
}
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 45 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Overriding

Overloading versus overriding

package java.lang;
public final class Integer extends Number {
...
public static int parseInt(String str) { ... }
...
public @Override String toString() { ... }
public static String toString(int i) { ... }
public static String toString(int i, int radix) { ... }
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 46 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Overriding

Differences

Overloading
• Methods/ctors with same name but different parameters
• Introduced method may overload inherited one (Java-specific)
• Compiler selects method/ctor based on actual parameters

Overriding
• Override a method defined in a base class
• Same name, same parameters
⋄ Same method
⋄ A method may have multiple implementations
• The most specific implementation is chosen run-time

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 47 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Overriding

Static versus dynamic binding

System.out
public void println( int value) { ... }
public void println(Object value) { ... } //value.toString()
...

System.out.println(7); // 7
System.out.println("Samurai"); // Samurai
System.out.println(new Time(21,30)); // 21:30

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 48 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

protected

protected: designed for inheritance

• Should be easy to subclass from

• Avoid accidental corruption of type invariant in subclasses

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 49 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

protected

protected visibility

package java.util;
public abstract class AbstractList<E> implements List<E> {
...
protected int modCount;
protected AbstractList() { ... }
protected void removeRange(int fromIndex, int toIndex) { ...
...
}
• In the same package
• In subclasses (potentially in different packages)
private ⊆ package-private ⊆ protected ⊆ public

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 50 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

protected

No direct access to private components in subclasses!

class Counter {
private int counter = 0;
public int count() { return ++counter; }
}

class SophisticatedCounter extends Counter {

public int count(int increment) {
return counter += increment; // compilation error
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 51 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

protected

“Fixed”
class Counter {
private int counter = 0;
public int count() { return ++counter; }
}

class SophisticatedCounter extends Counter {

public int count(int increment) {
if (increment < 1) throw new IllegalArgumentException();
while (increment > 1) {
count();
--increment;
}
return count();
}
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 52 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

protected

protected

package my.basic.types;
public class Counter {
protected int counter = 0;
public int count() { return ++counter; }
}

package my.advanced.types;
class SophisticatedCounter extends my.basic.types.Counter {
public int count(int increment) {
return counter += increment;
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 53 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Interface

Abstraction: encapsulation and information hiding

public class Rational {
private final int numerator, denominator;
private static int gcd(int a, int b) { ... }
private void simplify() { ... }
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) { ... }
public Rational(int value) { super(value, 1); }
public int getNumerator() { return numerator; }
public int getDenominator() { return denominator; }
public Rational times(Rational that) { ... }
public Rational times(int that) { ... }
public Rational plus(Rational that) { ... }
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 54 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Interface

Abstraction: encapsulation and information hiding

public class Rational {
private final int numerator, denominator;
private static int gcd(int a, int b) { ... }
private void simplify() { ... }
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) { ... }
public Rational(int value) { super(value, 1); }
public int getNumerator() { return numerator; }
public int getDenominator() { return denominator; }
public Rational times(Rational that) { ... }
public Rational times(int that) { ... }
public Rational plus(Rational that) { ... }
}

• The interface of a class: everything public in it

⋄ Usually, all constructors and non-helper methods
▶ Just the headers, e.g. Rational times(Rational)

⋄ Usually, none of the fields

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 54 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Interface

An interface definition

public interface Rational {

int getNumerator();
int getDenominator();

Rational times(Rational that);

Rational times(int that);
Rational plus(Rational that);
...
}
• interface members are abstract and public by default

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 55 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Interface

Contents of an interface definition

Declaration of instance methods: specification terminated with ;

int getNumerator();

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 56 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Interface

Contents of an interface definition

Declaration of instance methods: specification terminated with ;

int getNumerator();
• Declaration of instance methods
⋄ with optional default implementation
• Definition of constants: public static final
• Static methods
• Nested (member) type definitions

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 56 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Interface

Generic interface
java/util/List.java
package java.util;
public interface List<T> {
T get(int index);
void set(int index, T item);
void add(T item);
...
}

java/util/ArrayList.java
package java.util;
public class ArrayList<T> implements List<T> {
public ArrayList() { ... }
@Override public T get(int index) { ... }
...
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 57 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Interface

Linked representation
package java.util;

public class LinkedList<T> implements List<T> {

private T head;
private LinkedList<T> tail;
public LinkedList() { ... }
@Override public T get(int index) { ... }
@Override public void set(int index, T item) { ... }
@Override public void add(T item) { ... }
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 58 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Implementation of an interface

Implementation of an interface
Rational.java
public interface Rational {
int getNumerator();
int getDenominator();
Rational times(Rational that);
}

Fraction.java
public class Fraction implements Rational {
private final int numerator, denominator;
public Fraction(int numerator, int denominator) { ... }
public int getNumerator() { return numerator; }
public int getDenominator() { return denominator; }
public Rational times(Rational that) { ... }
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 59 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Implementation of an interface

Multiple implementations
Fraction.java
public class Fraction implements Rational {
private final int numerator, denominator;
public Fraction(int numerator, int denominator) { ... }
public int getNumerator() { return numerator; }
public int getDenominator() { return denominator; }
public Rational times(Rational that) { ... }
}

Simplified.java
public class Simplified implements Rational {
...
public int getNumerator() { ... }
public int getDenominator() { ... }
Rational times(Rational that) { ... }
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 60 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Implementation of an interface

Subtyping

class Fraction implements Rational { ... }

class ArrayList<T> implements List<T> { ... }
class LinkedList<T> implements List<T> { ... }
• Fraction <: Rational
• Simplified <: Rational
• For all T: ArrayList<T> <: List<T>
• For all T: LinkedList<T> <: List<T>

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 61 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Implementation of an interface

LSP: Liskov's Substitution Principle

LSP: Liskov’s Substitution Principle

Type A is the subtype of (base-)type B, if instances of A can be used
wherever instances of B are used without a problem.

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 62 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Instantiation

An interface is a type

List<String> names;

static List<String> noDups(List<String> names) {

List<String> retval = ...;
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 63 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Instantiation

Not possible to instantiate

An interface cannot be instantiated

• No representation
• No constructor
List<String> names = new List<String>(); // compilation error

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 64 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Instantiation

Not possible to instantiate

An interface cannot be instantiated

• No representation
• No constructor
List<String> names = new List<String>(); // compilation error
A class is a type which is allowed to be instantiated
ArrayList<String> names = new ArrayList<String>();
ArrayList<String> nicks = new ArrayList<>();

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 64 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Instantiation

Not possible to instantiate

An interface cannot be instantiated

• No representation
• No constructor
List<String> names = new List<String>(); // compilation error
A class is a type which is allowed to be instantiated
ArrayList<String> names = new ArrayList<String>();
ArrayList<String> nicks = new ArrayList<>();
Good style: typing with an interface, instantiating with a class
List<String> names = new ArrayList<>();

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 64 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Instantiation

Static and dynamic type

Declared versus actual type of variable / parameter / …

List<String> names = new ArrayList<>();

static List<String> noDups(List<String> names) {

... names ...
}

List<String> shortList = noDups(names);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 65 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Abstract classes

abstract class

• Partially implemented classes

⋄ May contain abstract methods
• Cannot be instantiated
• Subclasses may be concrete
package java.util;
public abstract class AbstractList<E> implements List<E> {
...
public abstract E get(int index); // only declared
public Iterator<E> iterator() { ... } // implemented
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 66 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Abstract classes

Partial implementation
public abstract class AbstractCollection<E> ... {
...
public abstract int size();
public boolean isEmpty() {
return size() == 0;
}
public abstract Iterator<E> iterator();
public boolean contains(Object o) {
Iterator<E> iterator = iterator();
while (iterator.hasNext()) {
E e = iterator.next();
if (o==null ? e==null : o.equals(e)) return true;
}
return false;
}
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 67 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Abstract classes

Concrete subclass
public abstract class AbstractCollection<E> implements Collection<E>
...
public abstract int size();
}

public abstract class AbstractList<E> extends AbstractCollection<E>

implements List<E>
...
public abstract E get(int index);
}

public class ArrayList<E> extends AbstractList<E> {

...
public int size() { ... } // implemented
public E get(int index) { ... } // implemented
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 68 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Multiple inheritance

Multiple inheritance

• A type inherits from multiple types directly

• In Java: multiple interfaces
• MI raises problems

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 69 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Multiple inheritance

Examples

OK
package java.util;
public class Scanner implements Closeable, Iterator<String>
{ ... }

OK
interface PoliceCar extends Car, Emergency { ... }

Erroneous
class PoliceCar extends Car, Emergency { ... }

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 70 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Multiple inheritance

Hypothetically
class Base1 {
int x;
void setX(int x) { this.x = x; }
...
}

class Base2 {
int x;
void setX(int x) { this.x = x; }
...
}

class Sub extends Base1, Base2 { ... }

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 71 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Multiple inheritance

Hypothetically: diamond-shaped inheritance

class Base0 {
int x;
void setX(int x) { this.x = x; }
...
}

class Base1 extends Base0 { ... }

class Base2 extends Base0 { ... }

class Sub extends Base1, Base2 { ... }

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 72 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Multiple inheritance

Differences between classes and interfaces

• Classes can be instantiated

⋄ abstract class?
• Classes support only single inheritence
⋄ final class?
• Classes may contain instance fields
⋄ In interfaces: public static final

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 73 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Multiple inheritance

Multiple inheritance from interfaces

interface Base1 {
abstract void setX(int x);
...
}

interface Base2 {
abstract void setX(int x);
...
}

class Sub implements Base1, Base2 {

void setX(int x) { ... }
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 74 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

Two aspects of inheritance

• Code reuse
• Subtyping

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 75 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

Inheritance gives rise to subtyping

𝐴 Δ 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 <∶ 𝐵

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 76 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

Inheritance gives rise to subtyping

𝐴 Δ 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 <∶ 𝐵
public class ExactTime extends Time { ... }
• ExactTime has everything Time has
• Whatever you can do with Time, you can do with ExactTime
• ExactTime <∶ Time

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 76 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

Inheritance gives rise to subtyping

𝐴 Δ 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 <∶ 𝐵
public class ExactTime extends Time { ... }
• ExactTime has everything Time has
• Whatever you can do with Time, you can do with ExactTime
• ExactTime <∶ Time
• ∀𝑇 class ∶ 𝑇 <∶ java.lang.Object

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 76 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

Subtyping
public class Time {
...
public void aMinutePassed() { ... }
public boolean sameHourAs(Time that) { ... }
}

public class ExactTime extends Time {

...
public boolean isEarlierThan(ExactTime that) { ... }
}

ExactTime time = new ExactTime(); // 0:00:00

time.aMinutePassed(); // 0:01:00
time.sameHourAs(new ExactTime()) // true

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 77 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Inheritance

Polymorphic references
public class Time {
...
public void aMinutePassed() { ... }
public boolean sameHourAs(Time that) { ... }
}

public class ExactTime extends Time {

...
public boolean isEarlierThan(ExactTime that) { ... }
}
ExactTime time1 = new ExactTime(); Time
...
Time time2 = new ExactTime(); // upcast
time2.sameHourAs(time1)
ExactTime
...

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 78 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Dynamic binding

Static and dynamic type

Static type: declared type of variable / parameter / return value / …

• Follows from program text
• Does not change during program execution
• Is used by the compiler during static type checking
Time time

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 79 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Dynamic binding

Static and dynamic type

Static type: declared type of variable / parameter / return value / …

• Follows from program text
• Does not change during program execution
• Is used by the compiler during static type checking
Time time

Dynamic type: actual type of variable / parameter / return value / …

• May change during program execution
• Is meaningful only during run time
• Is the subtype of the static type
time = ... ? new ExactTime() : new Time()

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 79 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Dynamic binding

Overriding
package java.lang; // java.lang.Object@4f324b5c
public class Object {... public String toString() {...} ... }

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 80 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Dynamic binding

Overriding
package java.lang; // java.lang.Object@4f324b5c
public class Object {... public String toString() {...} ... }

public class Time {

...
@Override public String toString() { // 8:05
return "%1$d:%2$02d".formatted(hour, min);
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 80 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Dynamic binding

Overriding
package java.lang; // java.lang.Object@4f324b5c
public class Object {... public String toString() {...} ... }

public class Time {

...
@Override public String toString() { // 8:05
return "%1$d:%2$02d".formatted(hour, min);
}
}
public class ExactTime extends Time {
...
@Override public String toString() { // 8:05:17
return "%1:%2$02d".formatted(super.toString(), sec);
}
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 80 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Dynamic binding

Overloading versus overriding

Overloading
• Same name, different formal parameters
• Inherited methods can be overloaded (in Java!)
• Compiler selects method based on actual parameters

Overriding
• An instance method defined in a base class
• Same name, same formal parameters (same signature)
⋄ Same method
⋄ Multiple implementations
• The “most specific” implementation is selected at run time

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 81 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Dynamic binding

Dynamic binding (or late binding)

ExactTime e = new ExactTime();

Time t = e;
Object o = t;

System.out.println(e.toString()); // 0:00:00
System.out.println(t.toString()); // 0:00:00
System.out.println(o.toString()); // 0:00:00
At the invocation of an instance method, the implementation that matches
the dynamic type of the privileged parameter best will be selected.

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 82 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Dynamic binding

The role of static and dynamic type

Static type
What can we do with an expression?
• Static type checking
Object o = new Time();
o.setHour(8); // compilation error

Dynamic type
• Which implementation of an instance method?
Object o = new Time();
System.out.println(o); // select toString()
// implementation
• Dynamic type checking

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 83 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Example: dynamic binding

Inheritance example
package company.hr;
public class Employee {
String name;
int basicSalary;
java.time.ZonedDateTime startDate;
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 84 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Example: dynamic binding

Inheritance example
package company.hr;
public class Employee {
String name;
int basicSalary;
java.time.ZonedDateTime startDate;
...
}

package company.hr;
import java.util.*;
public class Manager extends Employee {
final HashSet<Employee> workers = new HashSet<>();
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 84 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Example: dynamic binding

Parent class
package company.hr;
import java.time.ZonedDateTime;
import static java.time.temporal.ChronoUnit.YEARS;
public class Employee {
...
private ZonedDateTime startDate;
public int yearsInService() {
return (int) startDate.until(ZonedDateTime.now(), YEARS);
}
private static int bonusPerYearInService = 0;
public int bonus() {
return yearsInService() * bonusPerYearInService;
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 85 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Example: dynamic binding

Child class
package company.hr;
import java.util.*;
public class Manager extends Employee {
// inherited: startDate, yearsInService() ...
...
private final Set<Employee> workers = new HashSet<>();
public void addWorker(Employee worker) {
workers.add(worker);
}
private static int bonusPerWorker = 0;
@Override public int bonus() {
return workers.size() * bonusPerWorker + super.bonus();
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 86 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Example: dynamic binding

Dynamic binding also in inherited methods

public class Employee {
...
private int basicSalary;
public int bonus() {
return yearsInService() * bonusPerYearInService;
}
public int salary() { return basicSalary + bonus(); }
}

public class Manager extends Employee {

...
@Override public int bonus() {
return workers.size()*bonusPerWorker + super.bonus();
}
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 87 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Example: dynamic binding

Dynamic binding also in inherited methods

Employee jack = new Employee("Jack", 10000);
Employee pete = new Employee("Pete", 12000);
Manager eve = new Manager("Eve", 12000);
Manager joe = new Manager("Joe", 12000);
eve.addWorker(jack);
joe.addWorker(eve); // polymorphic formal parameter
joe.addWorker(pete);

Employee[] company = {joe, eve, jack, pete};//<-heterogeneous

// data structure
int totalSalaryCosts = 0;
for (Employee e: company) {
totalSalaryCosts += e.salary();
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 88 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Example: dynamic binding

Dynamic binding

At the invocation of an instance method, the implementation that matches

the dynamic type of the privileged parameter best will be selected.

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 89 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Example: dynamic binding

Fields and static methods cannot be overriden

class Base {
int field = 3;
int iMethod() { return field; }
static int sMethod() { return 3; }
}

class Sub extends Base {

int field = 33; // hiding
static int sMethod() { return 33; } // hiding
}

Sub sub = new Sub(); Base base = sub;

sub.sMethod() == 33 base.sMethod() == 3
sub.field == 33 base.field == 3
sub.iMethod() == 3 base.iMethod() == 3
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 90 / 108
 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type conversions

Type conversions between primitive types

Automatic type conversion (transitive)

• byte → short → int → long
• long → float
• float → double
• char → int
• byte b = 42; and short s = 42; and char c = 42;

Explicit type cast

int i = 42;
short s = (short)i;

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 91 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type conversions

Wrapper classes

Implicitly imported (java.lang), immutable classes

• java.lang.Boolean – boolean
• java.lang.Character – char
• java.lang.Byte – byte
• java.lang.Short – short
• java.lang.Integer – int
• java.lang.Long – long
• java.lang.Float – float
• java.lang.Double – double

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 92 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type conversions

The interface of java.lang.Integer (fragment)

static int MAX_VALUE // 2^31-1

static int MIN_VALUE // -2^31

static int compare(int x, int y) // 3-way comparison

static int max(int x, int y)
static int min(int x, int y)
static int parseInt(String str [, int radix])
static String toString(int i [, int radix])
static Integer valueOf(int i)

int compareTo(Integer that) // 3-way comparison

int intValue()

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 93 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type conversions

Auto-(un)boxing

• Automatic two-way conversion

• Between primitive type and its wrapper class

Integer ref = 42; Integer ref = Integer.valueOf(42);

int pri = ref; int pri = ref.intValue();
Integer sum = Integer.valueOf(
Integer sum = ref + pri; ref.intValue()
+ pri );

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 94 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type conversions

Auto-(un)boxing

• Automatic two-way conversion

• Between primitive type and its wrapper class

Integer ref = 42; Integer ref = Integer.valueOf(42);

int pri = ref; int pri = ref.intValue();
Integer sum = Integer.valueOf(
Integer sum = ref + pri; ref.intValue()
+ pri );

ArrayList<Integer> numbers = new ArrayList<>();

numbers.add(7);
int seven = numbers.get(0);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 94 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Casting caveats: be careful

Puzzle 3: Long Division (Bloch & Gafter: Java Puzzlers)

public class LongDivision {

public static void main(String[] args) {
final long MICROS_PER_DAY = 24 * 60 * 60 * 1000 * 1000;
final long MILLIS_PER_DAY = 24 * 60 * 60 * 1000;
System.out.println(MICROS_PER_DAY / MILLIS_PER_DAY);
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 95 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Casting caveats: be careful

Unboxing with null

Boxing always works

int val = 42;
Integer value = val;

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 96 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Casting caveats: be careful

Unboxing with null

Boxing always works

int val = 42;
Integer value = val;
Unboxing almost always works
Integer value = 42;
int val = value;

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 96 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Casting caveats: be careful

Unboxing with null

Boxing always works

int val = 42;
Integer value = val;
Unboxing almost always works
Integer value = 42;
int val = value;
… except when it doesn’t
Integer value = null;
int val = value; // NullPointerException

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 96 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Casting caveats: be careful

Auto-(un)boxing costs more

int n = 10; Integer n = 10;
int fact = 1; Integer fact = 1;
while (n > 1) { while (n > 1) {
fact *= n; fact *= n;
--n; --n;
} }

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 97 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Casting caveats: be careful

Auto-(un)boxing costs more

int n = 10; Integer n = 10;
int fact = 1; Integer fact = 1;
while (n > 1) { while (n > 1) {
fact *= n; fact *= n;
--n; --n;
} }
Meaning:
Integer n = Integer.valueOf(10);
Integer fact = Integer.valueOf(1);
while (n.intValue() > 1) {
fact = Integer.valueOf(fact.intValue() * n.intValue());
n = Integer.valueOf(n.intValue() - 1);
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 97 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type casting

Conversions on reference types

• Automatic (upcast) – subtyping

• Explicit (downcast) – type-cast operator

Object
...
upcast downcast

Time
...

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 98 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type casting

Type cast (downcast)

• The static type of the expression “(Time)o” is Time

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 99 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type casting

Type cast (downcast)

• The static type of the expression “(Time)o” is Time

• If the dynamic type of o is Time:
Object o = new Time(3,20);
o.aMinPassed(); // compilation error
((Time)o).aMinPassed(); // compiles. works.

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 99 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type casting

Type cast (downcast)

• The static type of the expression “(Time)o” is Time

• If the dynamic type of o is Time:
Object o = new Time(3,20);
o.aMinPassed(); // compilation error
((Time)o).aMinPassed(); // compiles. works.
• If not, ClassCastException is thrown
Object o = "Twenty past three";
o.aMinPassed(); // compilation error
((Time)o).aMinPassed(); // run-time error

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 99 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type casting

Dynamic type checking

• During run-time, based on dynamic type

• More precise than static type checking
⋄ Dynamic types can be subtypes
• Flexibility
• Safety: only when explicitly requested (type cast)

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 100 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type casting

instanceof operator

Object o = new ExactTime(3,20,0);

...
if (o instanceof Time t) {
t.aMinPassed();
}
• Dynamic type of given expression is a subtype of given type

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 101 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type casting

instanceof operator

Object o = new ExactTime(3,20,0);

...
if (o instanceof Time t) {
t.aMinPassed();
}
• Dynamic type of given expression is a subtype of given type
• Static type and given type have to be related
"apple" instanceof Integer // compilation error

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 101 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type casting

instanceof operator

Object o = new ExactTime(3,20,0);

...
if (o instanceof Time t) {
t.aMinPassed();
}
• Dynamic type of given expression is a subtype of given type
• Static type and given type have to be related
"apple" instanceof Integer // compilation error
• null yields false

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 101 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Type casting

Representation of dynamic types during runtime

• objects of class java.lang.Class

• can be accessed run-time
Object o = new Time(17,25);
Class c = o.getClass(); // Time.class
Class cc = c.getClass(); // Class.class

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 102 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Between reference types

Inheritance – subtyping

• class A extends B …
• 𝐴 <∶ 𝐵
• ∀𝑇 ∶ 𝑇 <∶ java.lang.Object

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 103 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Between reference types

Automatic “conversion” to base type (upcast)

String str = "Java";

Object o = str; // OK
str = o; // compilation error

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 104 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Between reference types

Type case to subtype (downcast)

String str = "Java";

Object o = str; // OK
str = (String)o; // OK, dynamic type checking

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 105 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Between reference types

ClassCastException

String str = "Java";

Object o = str;
Integer i = (Integer)o;

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 106 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Between reference types

A value belongs to a type (subtyping allowed)

String str = "Java";

Object o = str;
Integer i = (o instanceof Integer) ? (Integer)o : null;

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 107 / 108

 Generics Inheritance Interface Subtyping Cast

Between reference types

Exact match of dynamic types

String str = "Java";

Object o = str;
Integer i = o.getClass().equals(Integer.class) ?
(Integer)o : null;

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 108 / 108