Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Programming languages Java

Code organization

Kozsik Tamás

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 1 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Detecting and signaling errors

Signaling errors by throwing an exception

public class Time {
int hour; // 0 <= hour < 24
int min; // 0 <= min < 60

...

public void setHour(int hour) {

if (0 <= hour && hour <= 23) {
this.hour = hour;
} else {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid hour!");
}
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 2 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Detecting and signaling errors

The assert statement

public class Time {

int hour; // 0 <= hour < 24
int min; // 0 <= min < 60

...

public void setHour(int hour) {

assert 0 <= hour && hour <= 23;
this.hour = hour;
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 3 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Detecting and signaling errors

The assert statement

TestTime.java
Time time = new Time(6,30);
time.setHour(30);

Running the program

$ java TestTime
$ java -enableassertions TestTime
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.AssertionError
at Time.setHour(Time.java:7)
at TestTime.main(TestTime.java:5)
$

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 4 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Detecting and signaling errors

Options to signal errors

Good solutions
• IllegalArgumentException: at module boundaries
• assert: inside a module
• Doc comment

Bad solutions
• Silently not perform the requested operation
• Do not check correct behaviour, let the program go wrong

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 5 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Exceptions

Checked vs unchecked exceptions

Checked exceptions
public Time readTime(String fname) throws java.io.IOException
// this code may throw an IOException
}
• The method's source code must declare that it propagates such an
exception
• The compiler checks consistency
• E.g. java.sql.SQLException, java.security.KeyException

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 6 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Exceptions

Checked vs unchecked exceptions

Checked exceptions
public Time readTime(String fname) throws java.io.IOException
// this code may throw an IOException
}
• The method's source code must declare that it propagates such an
exception
• The compiler checks consistency
• E.g. java.sql.SQLException, java.security.KeyException
Unchecked exceptions
• E.g. NullPointerException, ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
• Violation of a dynamic semantic rule of the language
• May occur (practically) everywhere
• Methods don't declare propagation
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 6 / 80
 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Exceptions

Propagation detection: compilation error

import java.io.IOException;
public class TestTime {
public Time readTime(String fname) throws IOException {
... new java.io.FileReader(fname) ...
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

TestTime tt = new TestTime();
Time wakeUp = tt.readTime("wakeup.txt");
wakeUp.aMinutePassed();
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 7 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Exceptions

Propagation detection: compilation error eliminated

import java.io.IOException;
public class TestTime {
public Time readTime(String fname) throws IOException {
... new java.io.FileReader(fname) ...
}

public static void main(String[] args) throws IOException {

TestTime tt = new TestTime();
Time wakeUp = tt.readTime("wakeup.txt");
wakeUp.aMinutePassed();
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 8 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Exception handling

Exception handling (catch an exception)

import java.io.IOException;
public class TestTime {
public Time readTime(String fname) throws IOException {
... new java.io.FileReader(fname) ...
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
TestTime tt = new TestTime();
try {
Time wakeUp = tt.readTime("wakeup.txt");
wakeUp.aMinutePassed();
} catch (IOException e) {
System.err.println("Could not read wake-up time.");
}
}
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 9 / 80
 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Exception handling

The program can continue in spite of the problem

public class Receptionist {
...
public Time[] readWakeupTimes(String[] fnames) {
Time[] times = new Time[fnames.length];
for (int i = 0; i < fnames.length; ++i) {
try {
times[i] = readTime(fnames[i]);
} catch (java.io.IOException e) {
times[i] = null; // no-op
System.err.println("Could not read " + fnames[i]);
}
}
return times; // maybe sort times before returning?
}
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 10 / 80
 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Exception handling

Multiple catch-clauses
public static Time parse(String str) {
String errorMessage;
try { String[] parts = str.split(":");
int hour = Integer.parseInt(parts[0]);
int minute = Integer.parseInt(parts[1]);
return new Time(hour,minute);
} catch (NullPointerException e) {
errorMessage = "Null parameter is not allowed!";
} catch (ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) {
errorMessage = "String must contain \":\"!";
} catch (NumberFormatException e) {
errorMessage = "String must contain two numbers!";
}
throw new IllegalArgumentException(errorMessage);
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 11 / 80
 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Exception handling

Multiple exceptions in a single catch-clause

public static Time parse(String str) {

try {
String[] parts = str.split(":");
int hour = Integer.parseInt(parts[0]);
int minute = Integer.parseInt(parts[1]);
return new Time(hour,minute);
} catch (NullPointerException
| ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
| NumberFormatException e) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Can't parse time!");
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 12 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

finally

The try-finally statement

public static Time readTime(String fname) throws IOException {

var in = new BufferedReader(new FileReader(fname));
Time time;
try {
String line = in.readLine();
time = parse(line);
} finally {
in.close();
}
return time;
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 13 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

finally

The finally clause gets executed no matter what

public static Time readTime(String fname) throws IOException {

var in = new BufferedReader(new FileReader(fname));
try {
String line = in.readLine();
return parse(line);
} finally {
in.close();
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 14 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

finally

The try-catch-finally statement

public static Time readTime(String fname) throws IOException {

var in = new BufferedReader(new FileReader(fname));
try {
String line = in.readLine();
return parse(line);
} catch (IllegalArgumentException e) {
System.err.println(e);
System.err.println("Using default value!");
return new Time(0,0);
} finally {
in.close();
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 15 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

finally

Nesting try-statements
public static Time readTimeOrUseDefault(String fn) {
try {
var in = new BufferedReader(new FileReader(fn));
try {
String line = in.readLine();
return parse(line);
} finally {
in.close();
}
} catch (IOException | IllegalArgumentException e) {
System.err.println(e);
System.err.println("Using default value!");
return new Time(0,0);
}
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 16 / 80
 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Try-with-resources

The try-with-resources statement

public static Time readTimeOrUseDefault(String fn) {

try (
var in = new BufferedReader(new FileReader(fn))
) {
String line = in.readLine();
return parse(line);
} catch (IOException | IllegalArgumentException e) {
System.err.println(e);
System.err.println("Using default value!");
return new Time(0,0);
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 17 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Try-with-resources

These are practically equivalent

try-finally try-with-resources
try (
BufferedReader in = ...
BufferedReader in = ...;
) {
try {
String line = in.readLine();
String line = in.readLine();
return parse(line);
return parse(line);
}
} finally {
in.close();
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 18 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Try-with-resources

Using more than one resource

static void copy(String in, String out) throws IOException {

try (
FileInputStream infile = new FileInputStream(in);
FileOutputStream outfile = new FileOutputStream(out)
) {
int b;
while ((b = infile.read()) != -1) { // idiom!
outfile.write(b);
}
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 19 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Documentation comment

Documentation comment

/** May throw AssertionError. */

public void setHour(int hour) {
assert 0 <= hour && hour <= 23;
this.hour = hour;
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 20 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Documentation comment

Documenting potentially erroneous use

/**
Blindly sets the hour property to the given value.
Use it with care: only pass {@code hour} satisfying
{@code 0 <= hour && hour <= 23}.
*/
public void setHour(int hour) {
this.hour = hour;
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 21 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

javadoc

javadoc Time.java

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 22 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

javadoc

javadoc Time.java

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 23 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Details

A typical (and stupidly verbose) doc comment

/**
* Sets the hour property. Only pass an {@code hour}
* satisfying {@code 0 <= hour && hour <= 23}.
* @param hour The value to be set.
* @throws IllegalArgumentException
* If the supplied value is not between 0 and 23,
* inclusively.
*/
public void setHour(int hour) {
if (0 <= hour && hour <= 23) {
this.hour = hour;
} else {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid hour!");
}
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 24 / 80
 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Details

javadoc Time.java

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 25 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Details

Syntax highlighting

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 26 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Imperative Object-Oriented Programming

Implementing rational numbers

package numbers;
public class Rational {
private int numerator, denominator;
/* class invariant: denominator > 0 */

public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) {

if (denominator <= 0) throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.numerator = numerator;
this.denominator = denominator;
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 27 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Imperative Object-Oriented Programming

Getter-setter
package numbers;
public class Rational {
private int numerator, denominator;

public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) { ... }

public void setDenominator(int denominator) {

if (denominator <= 0) throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.denominator = denominator;
}

public int getDenominator() { return denominator; }

...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 28 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Imperative Object-Oriented Programming

How to use this class

import numbers.Rational;
public class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Rational p = new Rational(1,3);
Rational q = new Rational(1,2);
p.multiplyWith(q);
println(p); // 1/6
println(q); // 1/2
}
private static void println(Rational r) {
System.out.println(r.getNumerator()+"/"+r.getDenominator());
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 29 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Imperative Object-Oriented Programming

Arithmetics
package numbers;
public class Rational {
private int numerator, denominator;
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) { ... }
public int getNumerator() { return numerator; }
public int getDenominator() { return denominator; }
public void setNumerator(int numerator) { ... }
public void setDenominator(int denominator) { ... }

public void multiplyWith(Rational that) {

this.numerator *= that.numerator;
this.denominator *= that.denominator;
}
...
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 30 / 80
 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Imperative Object-Oriented Programming

Doc comment
package numbers;
public class Rational {
...
/**
* Set {@code this} to {@code this} * {@code that}.
* @param that Non-null reference to a rational number,
* it will not be changed in the method.
* @throws NullPointerException When {@code that} is null.
*/
public void multiplyWith(Rational that) {
this.numerator *= that.numerator;
this.denominator *= that.denominator;
}
...
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 31 / 80
 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Imperative Object-Oriented Programming

Sequencing operations
package numbers;
public class Rational {
...
public Rational multiplyWith(Rational that) {
this.numerator *= that.numerator;
this.denominator *= that.denominator;
return this;
}
...
}

Rational p = new Rational(1,3);

Rational q = new Rational(1,2);
p.multiplyWith(q).multiplyWith(q).divideBy(q);
println(p);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 32 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Procedural/modular style

Class-wide method (function)

public class Rational {
private final int numerator, denominator;
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) { ... }
public int numerator() { return numerator; }
public int denominator() { return denominator; }

public static Rational times(Rational left, Rational right)

return new Rational(left.numerator * right.numerator,
left.denominator * right.denominator);
}
}

Rational p = new Rational(1,3), q = new Rational(1,2);

Rational r = Rational.times(p,q);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 33 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Procedural/modular style

Class-wide method (procedure)

public class Rational {

private int numerator, denominator;
...
public static void multiplyInPlace(Rational left,
Rational right) {
left.numerator *= right.numerator;
left.denominator *= right.denominator;
}
}

Rational p = new Rational(1,3), q = new Rational(1,2);

Rational.multiplyLeftWithRight(p,q);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 34 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Functional Object-Oriented Programming

A different approach
package numbers;
public class Rational {
...
public void multiplyWith(Rational that) { ... }
public Rational times(Rational that) { ... }
}

Rational p = new Rational(1,3);

Rational q = new Rational(1,2);
p.multiplyWith(q);
println(p); // 1/6
Rational r = p.times(q);
println(r); // 1/12
println(p); // 1/6

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 35 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Functional Object-Oriented Programming

Implementations
package numbers;
public class Rational {
private int numerator;
private int denominator;
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) { ... }
...
public Rational times(Rational that) {
return new Rational(this.numerator * that.numerator,
this.denominator * that.denominator);
}
public void multiplyWith(Rational that) {
this.numerator *= that.numerator;
this.denominator *= that.denominator;
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 36 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Functional Object-Oriented Programming

Implementations
package numbers;
public class Rational {
private int numerator;
private int denominator;
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) { ... }
...
public Rational times(Rational that) {
return new Rational(this.numerator * that.numerator,
this.denominator * that.denominator);
}
public Rational multiplyWith(Rational that) {
this.numerator *= that.numerator;
this.denominator *= that.denominator;
return this;
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 37 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Functional Object-Oriented Programming

There is no operator overloading in Java!

package numbers;
public class Rational {
private int numerator;
private int denominator;
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) { ... }
...
public Rational operator*(Rational that) { // compilation error
return new Rational(this.numerator * that.numerator,
this.denominator * that.denominator);
}
public Rational operator*=(Rational that) { // compilation error
this.numerator *= that.numerator;
this.denominator *= that.denominator;
return this;
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 38 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Functional Object-Oriented Programming

Object state never modified

package numbers;
public class Rational {
private int numerator;
private int denominator;
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) {
if (denominator <= 0) throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.numerator = numerator;
this.denominator = denominator;
}
public int getNumerator() { return numerator; }
public int getDenominator() { return denominator; }
public Rational times(Rational that) { ... }
public Rational plus(Rational that) { ... }
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 39 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Functional Object-Oriented Programming

Using unmodifiable fields

package numbers;
public class Rational {
private final int numerator, denominator;
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) {
if (denominator <= 0) throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.numerator = numerator;
this.denominator = denominator;
}
public int getNumerator() { return numerator; }
public int getDenominator() { return denominator; }
public Rational times(Rational that) { ... }
public Rational plus(Rational that) { ... }
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 40 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Similar methods

Multiple methods with the same name

public class Rational {
...
public void multiplyWith(Rational that) {
this.numerator *= that.numerator;
this.denominator *= that.denominator;
}

public void multiplyWith(int that) {

this.numerator *= that;
}
}

Rational p = new Rational(1,3), q = new Rational(1,2);

p.multiplyWith(q);
p.multiplyWith(2);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 41 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Similar methods

Tricky rules: “matching more precisely”

static void m(long n) { ... }

static void m(float n) { ... }
public static void main(String[] args) {
m(3);
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 42 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Similar methods

Matching “equally precisely”

static void m(long n, float m) { ... }

static void m(float m, long n) { ... }
public static void main(String[] args) {
m(4,2);
}
Foo.java:5: error: reference to m is ambiguous
m(4,2);
^
both method m(long,float) in Foo
and method m(float,long) in Foo match
1 error

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 43 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Similar methods

Multiple constructors in a class

public class Rational {
...
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) {
if (denominator <= 0) throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.numerator = numerator;
this.denominator = denominator;
}

public Rational(int value) {

numerator = value;
denominator = 1;
}
}

Rational p = new Rational(1,3), q = new Rational(3);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 44 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Overloading

Overloading

• Class has multiple constructors or methods with the same name

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 45 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Overloading

Overloading

• Class has multiple constructors or methods with the same name

• Formal parameter list must be different
⋄ Number of parameters
⋄ Declared type of parameters

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 45 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Overloading

Overloading

• Class has multiple constructors or methods with the same name

• Formal parameter list must be different
⋄ Number of parameters
⋄ Declared type of parameters
• The compiler decides which method/constructor to call based on
⋄ number of actual parameters
⋄ declared (static) type of actual parameters

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 45 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Overloading

Overloading

• Class has multiple constructors or methods with the same name

• Formal parameter list must be different
⋄ Number of parameters
⋄ Declared type of parameters
• The compiler decides which method/constructor to call based on
⋄ number of actual parameters
⋄ declared (static) type of actual parameters
• Compilation error:
⋄ If no overloaded variant matches the call
⋄ If multiple overloaded variant equally matches the call

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 45 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Overloading

Overloading

• Class has multiple constructors or methods with the same name

• Formal parameter list must be different
⋄ Number of parameters
⋄ Declared type of parameters
• The compiler decides which method/constructor to call based on
⋄ number of actual parameters
⋄ declared (static) type of actual parameters
• Compilation error:
⋄ If no overloaded variant matches the call
⋄ If multiple overloaded variant equally matches the call
• Note: overriding is different from overloading

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 45 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Overloading

Is this correct?
public class Rational {
...

public void multiplyWith(Rational that) {

this.numerator *= that.numerator;
this.denominator *= that.denominator;
}

public Rational multiplyWith(Rational that) {

this.numerator *= that.numerator;
this.denominator *= that.denominator;
return this;
}
...
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 46 / 80
 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Overloading

Meaningful overloading
public class Rational {
...
public void set(int numerator, int denominator) {
if (denominator <= 0) throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.numerator = numerator;
this.denominator = denominator;
}

public void set(Rational that) {

if (that == null) throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.numerator = that.numerator;
this.denominator = that.denominator;
}
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 47 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Overloading

Default value for parameters?

public class Rational {
...
public void set(int numerator, int denominator) {
if (denominator <= 0) throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.numerator = numerator;
this.denominator = denominator;
}
public void set(int value) {
set(value,1);
}
public void set() {
set(0);
}
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 48 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Overloading

Default parameter values – Java does not have this

public class Rational {
...
public Rational(int numerator = 0, int denominator = 1) {
if (denominator <= 0) throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.numerator = numerator;
this.denominator = denominator;
}

public void set(int numerator = 0, int denominator = 1) {

if (denominator <= 0) throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.numerator = numerator;
this.denominator = denominator;
}
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 49 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Overloading

Constructors may call each other

public class Rational {
...
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) {
if (denominator <= 0) throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.numerator = numerator;
this.denominator = denominator;
}

public Rational(int value) {

this(value, 1); // this must be the first statement!
}

public Rational() {
this(0);
}
...
}
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 50 / 80
 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Overloading

Replacing constructors with factory methods

e.g. Rational.zero() instead of new Rational(0)

public class Rational {

...
private Rational(int numerator, int denominator) {
this.numerator = numerator;
this.denominator = denominator;
}
public static Rational make(int numerator, int denominator) {
return new Rational(numerator,denominator);
}
public static Rational valueOf(int val) {return make(val, 1);}
public static Rational oneOver(int den) {return make(1, den);}
public static Rational zero() { return make(0, 1); }
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 51 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Parameter passing

Parameter passing techniques

• Textual substitution
• Call-by-value
• Call-by-value-result
• Call-by-result
• Call-by-reference
• Call-by-sharing
• Call-by-name
• Call-by-need

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 52 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Parameter passing

Parameter passing in Java

Call-by-value
parameters of primitive types
public void setNumerator(int numerator) {
this.numerator = numerator;
}

Call-by-sharing
parameters of reference types (the reference is passed by value)
public static void multiplyLeftWithRight(Rational left,
Rational right) {
left.numerator *= right.numerator;
left.denominator *= right.denominator;
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 53 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Parameter passing

Call-by-value

public void setNumerator(int numerator) {

this.numerator = numerator;
numerator = 0;
}

Rational p = new Rational(1,3);

int two = 2;
p.setNumerator(two);
println(p);
System.out.println(two);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 54 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Parameter passing

Call-by-sharing

public static void multiplyLeftWithRight(Rational left,

Rational right) {
left.numerator *= right.numerator;
left.denominator *= right.denominator;
left = new Rational(9,7);
}

Rational p = new Rational(1,3), q = new Rational(1,2);

Rational.multiplyLeftWithRight(p,q);
println(p);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 55 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Parameter passing

Variable number of arguments

static int sum(int[] nums) {
int sum = 0;
for (int num: nums) { sum += num; }
return sum;
}
sum(new int[]{1,2,3,4,5,6})

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 56 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Parameter passing

Variable number of arguments

static int sum(int[] nums) {
int sum = 0;
for (int num: nums) { sum += num; }
return sum;
}
sum(new int[]{1,2,3,4,5,6})

static int sum(int... nums) {

int sum = 0;
for (int num: nums) { sum += num; }
return sum;
}
sum(new int[]{1,2,3,4,5,6})

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 56 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

final variables

Global constants

public static final int WIDTH = 80;

• static (class-wide) field
• bit similar to #define in C
• similar to const in C (not completely the same)
• convention: ALL_CAPS identifier

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 57 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

final variables

Final field

• E.g. global constant WIDTH

• Or instance fields of Rational
• Once assigned, never re-assigned
• Must be assigned during object initialisation
⋄ “blank final” is allowed
public class Rational {
private final int numerator, denominator;
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) {
this.numerator = numerator;
this.denominator = denominator;
}
...

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 58 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

final variables

Final local variable

public class Rational {

...
public void simplify() {
final int gcd = gcd(numerator, denominator);
numerator /= gcd;
denominator /= gcd;
}
...
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 59 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

final variables

Final formal parameter

Erroneous
static java.math.BigInteger factorial(final int n) {
assert n > 0;
java.math.BigInteger result = java.math.BigInteger.ONE;
while (n > 1) {
result = result.multiply(java.math.BigInteger.valueOf(n));
--n;
}
return result;
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 60 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

final variables

Final formal parameter

Correct
static java.math.BigInteger factorial(final int n) {
assert n > 0;
java.math.BigInteger result = java.math.BigInteger.ONE;
for (int i=n; i>1; --i) {
result = result.multiply(java.math.BigInteger.valueOf(i));

}
return result;
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 61 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Immutability

Mutable versus Immutable

Mutable object state
public class Rational {
private int numerator, denominator;
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) { ... }
public int getNumerator() { return numerator; } ...
public void setNumerator(int numerator) { ... } ...
public void multiplyWith(Rational that) { ... }

Immutable object state

public class Rational {
private final int numerator, denominator;
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) { ... }
public int getNumerator() { return numerator; }
public int getDenominator() { return denominator; }
public Rational times(Rational that) { ... }
Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 62 / 80
 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Immutability

Public immutable object state

public class Rational {

public final int numerator, denominator;
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) { ... }
public Rational times(Rational that) { ... }
...
}
Hard to change the representation!

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 63 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Immutability

Changing the representation

public class Rational {

private final int[] data;
public Rational(int numerator, int denominator) {
if (denominator <= 0) throw new IllegalArgumentExcepti
data = new int[]{ numerator, denominator };
}
public int numerator() { return data[0]; }
public int denominator() { return data[1]; }
public Rational times(Rational that) { ... }
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 64 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Immutability

Side note

int[] t = new int[3];

t = new int[4];

int[] s = {1,2,3};
s = {1,2,3,4}; // compilation error
s = new int[]{1,2,3,4};

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 65 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

final reference

final reference

final Rational p = new Rational(1,2);

p.setNumerator(3);
p = new Rational(1,4); // compilation error

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 66 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

final reference

final reference

final Rational p = new Rational(1,2);

p.setNumerator(3);
p = new Rational(1,4); // compilation error
final int[] data = new int[2];
data[0] = 3;
data[1] = 4;
data = new int[3]; // compilation error

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 66 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

final reference

Representing character sequences

• java.lang.String: immutable
String num42 = "42";
String num24 = num42.reverse();
String num4224 = num42 + num24;

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 67 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

final reference

Representing character sequences

• java.lang.String: immutable
String num42 = "42";
String num24 = num42.reverse();
String num4224 = num42 + num24;
• java.lang.StringBuilder (and StringBuffer): mutable
StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder("");
for (char c = 'a'; c <= 'z'; ++c) {
sb.append(c).append(',');
}
sb.deleteCharAt(sb.length()-1); // cut last comma
String letters = sb.toString();

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 67 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

final reference

Representing character sequences

• java.lang.String: immutable
String num42 = "42";
String num24 = num42.reverse();
String num4224 = num42 + num24;
• java.lang.StringBuilder (and StringBuffer): mutable
StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder("");
for (char c = 'a'; c <= 'z'; ++c) {
sb.append(c).append(',');
}
sb.deleteCharAt(sb.length()-1); // cut last comma
String letters = sb.toString();
• char[]: mutable

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 67 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

final reference

Performance?

StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder("");

for (char c = 'a'; c <= 'z'; ++c) {
sb.append(c).append(',');
}
sb.deleteCharAt(sb.length()-1);
String letters = sb.toString();

String letters = "";

for (char c = 'a'; c <= 'z'; ++c) {
letters += (c + ",");
}
letters = letters.substring(0, letters.length()-1);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 68 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Aliasing

A class definition that looks good, but…

package numbers;
public class Rational {
...
public void multiplyWith(Rational that) {
this.numerator *= that.numerator;
this.denominator *= that.denominator;
}
public void divideBy(Rational that) {
if (that.numerator == 0)
throw new ArithmeticException("Division by zero!");
this.numerator *= that.denominator;
this.denominator *= that.numerator;
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 69 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Aliasing

What about not completely disjoint parameters?

package numbers;
public class Rational {
...
public void divideBy(Rational that) {
if (that.numerator == 0)
throw new ArithmeticException("Division by zero!");
this.numerator *= that.denominator;
this.denominator *= that.numerator;
}
}

Rational p = new Rational(1,2);

p.divideBy(p);

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 70 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Aliasing

Escaping of object state

public class Rational {
private int[] data;
...
public int getNumerator() { return data[0]; }
public int getDenominator() { return data[1]; }
public void set(int[] data) {
if (data == null || data.length != 2 || data[1] <= 0)
throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.data = data;
}
}

int[] cheat = {3,4};

Rational p = new Rational(1,2); p.set(cheat);
cheat[1] = 0; // p.getDenominator() == 0 :-(

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 71 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Aliasing

Escaping object state because of clumsy construction

public class Rational {
private final int[] data;
public int getNumerator() { return data[0]; }
public int getDenominator() { return data[1]; }
public Rational(int[] data) {
if (data == null || data.length != 2 || data[1] <= 0)
throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.data = data;
}
}

int[] cheat = {3,4};

Rational p = new Rational(cheat);
cheat[1] = 0; // p.getDenominator() == 0 :-(

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 72 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Aliasing

Escaping object state because of clumsy getter

public class Rational {

private final int[] data;
...
public int getNumerator() { return data[0]; }
public int getDenominator() { return data[1]; }
public int[] get() { return data; }
}

Rational p = new Rational(1,2);

int[] cheat = p.get();
cheat[1] = 0; // p.getDenominator() == 0 :-(

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 73 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Defensive copy

Defensive copy

public class Rational {

private final int[] data;
public Rational(int[] data) {
if (data == null || data.length != 2 || data[1] <= 0)
throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.data = new int[]{ data[0], data[1] };
}
public void set(int[] data) { /* similarly */ }
public int[] get() {
return new int[]{ data[0], data[1] };
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 74 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Defensive copy

Immutable objects need not be copied

public class Person {
private String name;
private int age;
public Person(String name, int age) {
if (name == null || name.trim().isEmpty() || age < 0)
throw new IllegalArgumentException();
this.name = name;
this.age = age;
}
public String getName() { return name; }
public int getAge() { return age; }
public void setName(String name) { ... this.name = name; }
public void setAge(int age) { ... this.age = age; }
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 75 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Arrays

Aliasing in an array

Rational rats[2]; // compilation error

Rational rats[] = new Rational[2]; // = {null,null};

Rational[] rats = new Rational[2]; // preferred

rats[0] = new Rational(1,2);
rats[1] = rats[0];
rats[1].setDenominator(3);
System.out.println(rats[0].getDenominator());
• mutable versus immutable

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 76 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Arrays

Array may contain the same object multiple times

/**
...
PRE: rats != null
...
*/
public static void increaseAllByOne(Rational[] rats) {
for (Rational r: rats) {
r.setNumerator(r.getNumerator() + r.getDenominator());
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 77 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Arrays

Doc comment

/**
...
PRE: rats != null and (i!=j => rats[ i] != rats[ j])
...
*/
public static void increaseAllByOne(Rational[] rats) {
for (Rational r: rats) {
r.setNumerator(r.getNumerator() + r.getDenominator());
}
}

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 78 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Arrays

Arrays of arrays

• Java does not support multi-dimensional arrays (row- or column-first)

• Array of arrays (array of references)
int[][] matrix = {{1,0,0},{0,1,0},{0,0,1}};

int[][] matrix = new int[3][3];

for (int i=0; i<matrix.length; ++i) matrix[i][i] = 1;

int[][] matrix = new int[5][];

for (int i=0; i<matrix.length; ++i) matrix[i] = new int[i];

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 79 / 80

 Exception ~ handling Doc Paradigm Param final Aliasing

Arrays

Aliasing again – seems like a bug

Rational[][] matrix =
{ {new Rational(1,2), new Rational(1,2)},
{new Rational(1,2), new Rational(1,2)},
{new Rational(1,2), new Rational(1,2)} };

Rational half = new Rational(1,2);

Rational[] halves = {half, half};
Rational[][] matrix = {halves, halves, halves};

Kozsik Tamás Programming languages Java 80 / 80