Chapter Six
Chapter Six
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Lecture outlines
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
Token ring (IEEE 802.5)
FDDI, DQDB
Frame relay: SMDS: Internet working with SMDS,
Internet protocol
TCP and VDP, performance of TCP /IP networks
DWDM, Fiber to home
Intelligent networks
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Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
• History
– Developed by Bob Metcalfe and others at Xerox PARC in mid-1970s
– Standardized by Xerox, DEC, and Intel in 1978
– LAN standards define MAC and physical layer connectivity
• IEEE 802.3 (CSMA/CD - Ethernet) standard – originally 2Mbps
• IEEE 802.3u standard for 100Mbps Ethernet
• IEEE 802.3z standard for 1,000Mbps Ethernet
• CSMA/CD: Ethernet’s Media Access Control (MAC) policy
– CS = carrier sense
• Send only if medium is idle
– MA = multiple access
– CD = collision detection
• Stop sending immediately if collision is detected
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Ethernet Overview
• Most popular packet-switched LAN technology
• Bandwidths: 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps
• Max bus length: 2500m
– 500m segments with 4 repeaters
• Bus and Star topologies are used to connect hosts
– Hosts attach to network via Ethernet transceiver or hub or
switch
• Detects line state and sends/receives signals
– Hubs are used to facilitate shared connections
– All hosts on an Ethernet are competing for access to the
medium
• Switches break this model
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Ethernet Frame Format
64 48 48 16 32
Dest Src
Preamble Type Body CRC
addr addr
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• Preamble: Repeating Flag that ID’s the sequence as an Ethernet
datagram . which is used in synchronizing and alerting the NIC.
• Destination Address: Unique identifier found on the Network
Interface Card that identifies the recipient.
• Source Address: Unique identifier found on the Network Interface
Card that identifies the sender.
• Length/Type Field: Tells the recipient what kind of datagram is
being received (IP, UDP, etc) and the length of the data.
• Data: What sort of data is being sent:46 to 1500 bytes (text, JPEG,
MP3, etc).
• Frame Check Sequence: Error detecting codes (If an error is
detected, the frame is discarded).
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Fast Ethernet
The Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) has been established
for Ethernet networks that need higher transmission speeds.
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• 100BaseT4
– to use voice grade cat 3 cables
– 3 pairs in each direction with 33.3 Mbps on each using a ternary
signaling scheme.
• total 4 pairs (2 of them bidirectional)
– Can be used with cat 5 cables (but waste of resources)
• 100Base-X
– Unidirectional data rate of 100 Mbps
– Uses two links (one for transmit, one for receive)
– Two types: 100Base-TX and 100Base-FX
• 100Base-TX
– cat5 UTP (one pair in each direction)
– at 125 Mhz with special encoding that has 20% overhead.
• 100Base-FX
– Optical fiber (one at each direction)
– Similar encoding
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Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet was developed to meet the need for faster
communication networks with applications such as multimedia
and Voice over IP (VoIP).
Existing Ethernet LANs with 10 and 100 Mbps cards can feed
into a Gigabit Ethernet backbone to interconnect high
performance switches, routers and servers.
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Gigabit Ethernet . . .
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10 Gigabit Ethernet
10 Gigabit Ethernet is the fastest and most recent of the Ethernet
standards.
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Access Method :Token Passing
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Access Method :Token Passing . . .
• This token is passed from NIC (yellow box) to NIC in sequence
until it encounters a station with data to send.
• That station (a,b,c,d) waits for the token to enter its network
board
• If the token is free, the station may then send a data frame
• It keeps the token and sets a bit inside its NIC as a reminder
that it has done so, then sends its one data frame.
• The sender then discards the used data frame and release
the token back to the ring
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FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
• FDDI is a standard developed by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) for transmitting data on optical fibers
• Supports transmission rates of up to 200 Mbps
• Uses a dual ring
– First ring used to carry data at 100 Mbps
– Second ring used for primary backup in case first ring fails
– If no backup is needed, second ring can also carry data,
increasing the data rate up to 200 Mbps
• Supports up to 1000 nodes
• Has a range of up to 200 km
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COMPARISON
FEATURES FDDI ETHERNET TOKEN RING
TRANSMISSION 125 Mbaud 20 Mbaud 8 & 32 Mbaud
RATE
DATA RATE 100 MBPS 10 MBPS 4 & 16 MBPS
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Distributed-Queue Dual-Bus network (DQDB)
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Characteristics of DQDB
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DQDB Architecture . . .
• The DQDB is composed of a two bus lines with stations attached to both
and a cell (Empty slots) generator at the start of each bus.
• The buses run in parallel in such a fashion as to allow the cells generated
to travel across the stations in opposite directions.
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Fame Relay
• Frame Relay (FR) is a high-performance WAN protocol that
operates at the physical and data link layers of the OSI
reference model.
• FR originally was designed for use across Integrated Service
Digital Network (ISDN) interfaces.
• Today, it is used over a variety of other network interfaces
as well.
• FR is an example of a packet-switched technology.
• Packet-switched networks enable end stations to
dynamically share the network medium and the available
bandwidth.
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Frame Relay Devices
• Devices attached to a Frame Relay WAN fall into the
following two general categories:
– Data terminal equipment (DTE)
• DTEs generally are considered to be terminating equipment for a
specific network and typically are located on the premises of a
customer.
• Example of DTE devices are terminals, personal computers, routers,
and bridges.
– Data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE)
• DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking devices.
• The purpose of DCE equipment's is to provide clocking and switching
services in a network, which are the devices that actually transmit
data through the WAN.
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Switched Multimegabit Data Service(SMDS)
Is the first high speed broadband service offered to the public.
It is designed to connect multiple LANs together.
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SMDS Network Components
SMDS networks consist of several underlying devices to provide
high-speed data service. These include
customer premises equipment (CPE),
carrier equipment, and the
subscriber network interface (SNI).
CPE is terminal equipment typically owned and maintained by
the customer. CPE includes end devices, such as
Terminals
personal computers,
Intermediate nodes, such as routers, modems, and
multiplexers. Intermediate. 28
The SNI is the interface between CPE and carrier equipment. This
interface is the point at which the customer network ends and
the carrier network begins.
The function of the SNI is to render the technology and operation
of the carrier SMDS network transparent to the customer.
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Internet Protocol
The Internet Protocol (IP) is a network-layer (Layer 3) protocol that
contains addressing information and some control information that
enables packets to be routed.
Packets are delivered from the source to the destination using IP
address
IP by itself is something like the postal system. It allows you to
address a package and drop it in the system, but there's no direct
link between you and the recipient.
IP includes a set of rules that process the idea of unreliable packet
delivery.
◦ How hosts and routers should process packets
◦ How & when error messages should be generated
◦ The Conditions under which packets can be discarded
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Internet Protocol . . .
IP provides an unreliable connectionless best effort service (also
called: “datagram service”).
Unreliable: IP does not make an attempt to recover lost packets
Connectionless: Each packet (“datagram”) is handled
independently. IP is not aware that packets between hosts may
be sent in a logical sequence
Best effort: It only gives best effort delivery. (packets can be delayed,
corrupted, lost or out of order)
Consequences:
•Higher layer protocols have to deal with losses or with
duplicate packets
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IP Services
• IP supports the following services:
• one-to-one (unicast)
• one-to-all (broadcast)
• one-to-several (multicast)
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IP Orientation
IP (Internet Protocol) is a Network Layer Protocol.
Network
ICMP IP IGMP
Layer
Network
ARP Link Layer
Access
Media
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Packet Propagation
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Journey to IP Versions . . .
IPV(1-3) : were not formally assigned.
IPV4 : TCP/IP , 32bit IP address currently used.
IPV5 : Internet Stream Protocol (SP)
Experimental Protocol
Never Introduced for public use.
IPV6 : Designed to replace IPV4 , 128bit IP address
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Features of IPV4 . . .
Connectionless protocol and best effort based.
Simplicity
It is simpler and easy to remember
Require less memory
Familiarity
Millions of devices are already knowing it
Existing infrastructure already support it
Benefits of IPV4
Widely support
Shorter & Sweeter (header)
Support of all Operating Systems
All commonly used protocols are supported
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Shortcoming of IPV4 . . .
IPV4 specification didn’t identify any security
mechanism.
Millions of class A addresses are wasted.
Many class B addresses also wasted.
Not so many organizations are so small to
have a class C block.
Class E addresses were reserved for future
purposes.
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IPV4 Supporting devices
PCs
Servers
Modems
Routers
Printers
Cameras
Smart Phones
Tablets & Gaming Systems
Just about anything else connecting to the Internet
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IPV6 provides a platform on new internet
functionality that will be needed in the
immediate future and provide flexibility for
future growth and expansion.
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Benefits of IPV6
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TCP and UDP
TCP
The TCP provides reliable transmission of data in an IP
environment.
TCP corresponds to the transport layer (Layer 4) of the
OSI reference model.
The services TCP provides are :
stream data transfer
reliability
efficient flow control
full-duplex operation, and
multiplexing.
TCP offers reliability by providing connection-oriented,
end-to-end reliable packet delivery through an
internetwork 41
Establishing a TCP Connection
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TCP Packet Field Descriptions
Source Port and Destination Port—Identifies points at which upper-layer source and
destination processes receive TCP services.
• Sequence Number—Usually specifies the number assigned to the first byte of data in the
current message. In the connection-establishment phase, this field also can be used to
identify an initial sequence number to be used in an upcoming transmission.
• Acknowledgment Number—Contains the sequence number of the next byte of data the
sender of the packet expects to receive.
• Data Offset—Indicates the number of 32-bit words in the TCP header.
• Reserved—Remains reserved for future use.
• Flags—Carries a variety of control information, including the SYN and ACK bits used for
connection establishment, and the FIN bit used for connection termination.
• Window—Specifies the size of the sender’s receive window (that is, the buffer space
available for incoming data).
• Checksum—Indicates whether the header was damaged in transit.
• Urgent Pointer—Points to the first urgent data byte in the packet.
• Options—Specifies various TCP options.
• Data—Contains upper-layer information.
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TCP application examples
When to use TCP:
When an application need a reliable transport
Examples
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UDP Header Format
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UDP Properties
UDP provides an unreliable datagram service
Packets may be lost or delivered out of order
Message split into datagrams, user sends datagrams
as packets on network layer
No buffer at either sending or receiving side
Unreliable but fast
Full duplex
Application must deal with lost packets
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UDP Application Examples
When to use UDP
Reduce the requirement of computer resources
The checking scheme has provided completely by the
application program
When using the Multicast or Broadcast to transfer
The transmission of Real-time packets
Examples
Trivial File Transfer Protocol, TFTP
Simple Network Management Protocol, SNMP
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, DHCP
Domain Name System, DNS
Routing Information Protocol, RIP
Real-Time Transport Protocol, RTP
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TCP vs. UDP
TCP UDP
connection-oriented connectionless
confirmed service unconfirmed service
high overhead low overhead
(header 20 bytes) (header 8 bytes)
flow control no flow control
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TCP/IP Networks
TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to
share resources across a network.
TCP/IP is a layered protocol but does not use all of the OSI layers.
Though the layers are equivalent in operation and function.
The network access layer is equivalent to OSI layers 1 and 2.
The Internet Protocol layer is comparable to layer 3 in the OSI model.
The host-to-host layer is equivalent to OSI layer 4.
These are the TCP and UDP (user datagram protocol) functions.
The application layer is similar to OSI layers 5, 6, and 7 combined.
The most well known network that adopted TCP/IP is --> Internet.
( The Biggest WAN).
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Application Layer
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Transport Layer
End to End data transfer……
Examples :
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
Connection oriented (connection established before
data exchanged)
Reliable delivery of data
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Connectionless service
Delivery is not guaranteed (unreliable)
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Internet Layer
Internet layer protocols define the rules of how to find the routers
for a packet to the destination.
It only gives best effort delivery. (packets can be delayed,
corrupted, lost or out of order)
Examples :
IP – Internet Protocol (Provide packet delivery)
ARP – Address Resolution Protocol (Defined the procedure of
network address / mac address translation)
ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol (Defined the procedure
of error message transfer)
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Network Accesse Layer
Also known as Network Interface Layer.
The Network Access Layer is the layer in the TCP/IP model at
which data is transmitted and received across the physical
network.
Mostly in hardware
A well known example is Ethernet
Examples :
Ethernet
Token Ring
Frame Relay
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
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DWDM
• Definition
– Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is a fiber-
optic transmission technique that employs light
wavelengths to transmit data parallel-by-bit or serial-by-
character.
• It transmits multiple data signals using different wavelengths of
light through a single fiber.
• Incoming optical signals are assigned to specific frequencies
within a designated frequency band.
• The capacity of fiber is increased when these signals are
multiplexed onto one fiber
• Transmission capabilities is 4-8 times of TDM Systems with the
help of Erbium doped optical amplifier.
• It lengthens the distances of transmission to more than 300 km
before regeneration .
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Why DWDM?
Transparency—Because DWDM is a physical layer architecture, it
can transparently support both TDM and data formats such as
ATM, Gigabit Ethernet, ESCON, and Fiber Channel with open
interfaces over a common physical layer.
Scalability—DWDM can leverage the abundance of dark fiber in
many metropolitan area and enterprise networks to quickly meet
demand for capacity on point-to-point links and on spans of
existing SONET/SDH rings.
Dynamic provisioning—Fast, simple, and dynamic provisioning
of network connections give providers the ability to provide high-
bandwidth services in days rather than months.
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DWDM Functional Schematic
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Reading Assignment
Fiber To Home (FTTH)
Intelligent Network
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End
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