The Nature and Elements of Communication

Communication is the process of transmitting information and common understanding

from one person to another. An interdependent process of sending, receiving, and
understanding messages

Sender is the encoder or the source of the message. This entity can be a person, a
group of people, or an organization with their own distinct characteristics in terms of age,
race, gender, values, experiences, and other traits.

Message refers to the ideas and feelings encoded. It may be in verbal form (words) or
nonverbal symbols (paralanguage, including pitch, tone, and volume; body language,
including gestures and facial expressions, posture, and eye movement; physical
distance.

Receiver is the decoder or the recipient of the message who, likewise, has his or her
own attributes.

Channel, also called medium, is a vehicle used in message conveyance. It is based on

the form of delivery (verbal or nonverbal) and the means used in delivering (face-to-face
or technology-mediated).

Feedback pertains to the verbal or nonverbal responses to the sender’s encoded

signals. It gives information on how the message is interpreted.

Interference or noise relates to the factors that hinder the recipient’s ability to send or
receive messages. Serving as a barrier to communication, it can be external (physical
environment, e.g., a loud party) or internal (psychological/mental interference, e.g.,
biases and wandering thoughts; physiological, e.g., articulation problem; semantic, e.g.,
jargon and abstract ideas).

Context is the situation and environment in which the communication occurs. Its
dimensions are physical (place, e.g., classroom), social (pertaining to the occasion and
the people involved, e.g., students in a class), and cultural (attitudes, beliefs, and the
practices of the senders and receivers).

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication and Their Functions

Verbal communication is the use of sounds and words to impart one’s thoughts or
feelings. Though the concept encompasses both vocal (spoken words) and nonvocal
(e.g., writing, sign language), the focus is on the former.
Largely associated with oral communication, it has these succeeding five
functions gleaned from several sources

1. Regulation (Control)

The spoken language is used to control one’s or other people’s behavior or activities.
For example, a teacher who gives students instructions on what to do says, “Raise your
hand if you have any questions.”

2. Social Interaction

A person speaks to create relationships, form associations, develop intimacy, and

maintain bonds and connections with other people. A colleague encouraging a fellow
employee by saying, “Don’t worry. You can do this,” can be a case of starting a friendlier
camaraderie.

3. Motivation

This function concerns expressing one’s desires, goals, inclinations, choices,

preferences, likes and dislikes, and needs and wants. Stating “I’d like to become a
teacher” manifests an aspiration.

4. Information

Verbal communication plays a major role in disseminating information whether by

asking for or giving directions, instruction, or ideas.

5. Emotional expression

One communicates orally to show one’s feelings and emotions. A person saying “I’m
hurt” is voicing out what he or she feels.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication, which is as important as verbal communication, is the

conveyance of meaning by means of body language (e.g., gestures, facial expression,
eye contact, posture) or paralanguage (e.g., pitch, volume, speaking rate) instead of
spoken or written words.

Specific classifications of nonverbal

include: proxemics (space), chronemics (time), oculesics (eye
movement), haptics (touch), kinesics (body movements, gestures, facial
expressions), objectics (clothing, ornaments, jewelry, other
artifacts), vocalics (voice), olfactorics (smell), colorics (colors), pictics (pictures),
iconics (signs/symbols).

Nonverbals have seven functions culled from Hahn and Paynton

1. To replace (Replacement)

Actions can replace or substitute speech. For instance, one can shrug shoulders
instead of saying ―I don‘t know‖ and wave hands instead of saying goodbye. It is
foremost then that one employs nonverbal forms of communication with recognizable
and nearly universal meanings to avoid confusion. Access/Watch this video on
'Gestures around the world" (

2. To repeat (Repetition)

Gestures duplicate and reinforce one‘s message. Nonverbal communication can either
occur simultaneously with the verbal or follow and repeat the word said. For example,
the act of nodding while saying yes is a restatement, and so does pointing while giving
directions. Like replacement function, consistency in the meaning of both verbal and
nonverbal is important.

3. To complement (Complementation)

This nonverbal enhances and adds nuance to the meaning of a verbal message. By
way of illustration, one rubs one‘s stomach when feeling hungry or says ―I passed the
test‖ with a sarcastic tone. However, gestures that aim to complement cannot be used
alone or else they may be misinterpreted.

4. To accent (Accentuation)

To accent is to emphasize certain parts of the verbal intent or the utterance. It is often
done by increasing voice volume, prolonging a word, moving forward, and even
widening the eyes. If the ―very‖ in the line ―I‘m VERY angry with you‖ is emphasized, it is
likely louder. (Some authors regard repetition, complementation, and accentuation as
part of one function - reinforcement.)

5. To regulate (Regulation)

Nonverbals can be used to control the flow of conversations. For instance, to signal the
beginning of an interaction, one must face the person, move closer, or look at him or her
directly. Conversely, looking at one‘s watch repeatedly is an indication that he/she has
to go, and the other person must stop talking.

6. To contradict (Contradiction)
A contradiction occurs when verbal and nonverbal messages contradict each other.
Saying ―I‘m all right‖ with a frown is an example of nonverbal cues contradicting verbal
statements.

7. To deceive (Deception)

Although this purpose is not encouraged, nonverbal signals can be utilized to mislead
the listener. Gestures and actions supplement the message, therefore making it
believable. Remarks such as ―I like it‖ as a compliment, though not sincere, may sound
convincing if they are said with eagerness and a smile.
Mediated and Ethical Communication

Mediated Communication

-an interaction carried out by the use of information communication technology, such as
mobile phones, computers, or the Internet.

-though not face to face, can be synchronous (happening at the same time, such as
phone calls and chats) or

-asynchronous (not occurring at the same time).

PROS CONS
Instant Misinterpretation of meaning due to the
missing nonverbals
Speedy Issue on confidentiality and trust
Convenient Bullying and ridiculing
Far-reaching

Ethical Communication
-Ethical communication follows certain established principles or rules of conduct

-Ethical communication encompasses being honest in all communications, keeping

confidential information confidential, and not discussing the personal or business
situations of others in public or in front of a third party.

Who is an ethical communicator?

-One who practices truthfulness, honesty, and accuracy in his/her communications.

What is ethics?

- Pertains to a set of principles or rules for correct conduct as to what is right or wrong
and what makes something right or wrong.

- The study of values and morals of what is right and wrong.

Communication is ethical when it follows certain established principles or rules of

conduct. These principles promote respect, harmony, and overall positive well-being of
the communicator’s relationship with others and the society in general.
Basic principles of Ethical communication
1. Strive to understand and respect others’ communications before evaluating and responding
to their messages.

2. Help promote communication atmosphere of caring and mutual understanding that protect
the unique needs and characteristics of individual communicators

3. Condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through distortions,

intolerance, intimidation, coercion, hatred, or violence.

4. Commit yourself to the courageous expression of your personal convictions in pursuit of

fairness and justice.

5. Accept responsibility for the short-term and long-term consequences of your own
communication and expect the same from others.

6. Avoid plagiarism—the presentation of the work of another person in such a way as to give
the impression that the other’s work is your own.

7. Promote honesty, truthfulness, and accuracy as essentials to the integrity of communication

Communication in a Multicultural Setting: Concepts

Globalization and digital technology are two developments that ushered

interconnectedness among countries in terms of economy and communication making
people of different races and cultures move around and interact.
Communicators who fail to realize that people from different cultures may not look, think,
or act as they themselves do may run the risk of being judged as insensitive, ignorant,
or culturally confused (lacking an understanding of cultural difference), who may pay a
high price for cultural misunderstandings that often lead to lost opportunities such as
business transactions, and increased level of tension between people during meetings
and social gatherings. Hence, cultural-difference awareness and effective
communication are necessary knowledge and skills to be able to embrace cultural
diversity.
Intercultural Communication and its Related Concepts
Intercultural communication is the process of interpreting and sharing meanings with
individuals from different cultures. Aside from the language, intercultural communication
gives emphasis on the social attributes, thought patterns, and cultures of different
groups of people.
Intercultural communication has the following forms:
Intracultural Interracial International Interethnic
Communication Communication Communication Communication
Interaction among Communication Interaction between Communication
members of the same with/among persons representing with/among
racial, ethnic, or other individuals of different nations. individuals of
co-culture groups. different races. different ethnic
origins.

Culture is defined as the system of knowledge, beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and
artifacts that are acquired, shared, and used by its members during their daily living.
Within a culture, there are co-cultures composed of members of the same general
culture who differ in certain ethnic or sociological ways from the parent culture. It is used
to imply that no culture is superior and that some may coexist within a culture or a
place. It is a group that shares values, norms, etc. but not defined by the place one lives,
grows up, or one’s nationality. African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Japanese
Americans, the disabled, gays and lesbians, cyberpunks, and the elderly (who are also
Americans) are just some of the co-cultures belonging to the same culture.
In interacting with a dominant culture, co-culture members who may feel like outsiders
may use one of these strategies: assimilation, accommodation, and separation.
Accomodation Assimillation Separation
Co-culture members Co-culture members Co-culture
attempt to maintain their attempt to fit in or join with members resist interacting
cultural identity while members of the dominant with members of the
striving to establish culture – they give up their dominant culture
relationships with members own ways in an effort to
of the dominant culture – assume the modes of
they may take on values behavior of the dominant
and beliefs of the culture.
host culture and
accommodate them in
the public sphere while
maintaining the
parent culture in
the private sphere.
Ideally, individuals must accept diversity to be able to process other cultures’ influences
and communicate with each other in a meaningful way. If they are able to do so, then it
is safe to say that they hold the view called cultural relativism referring to
the acceptance of other cultural groups as equal in value as that of their own. On the
other hand, the tendency to see their culture and its practices as superior compared to
others is ethnocentrism.
There are four (4) variables to distinguish cultures.
1. Individualism vs. Collectivism - reveals how people define themselves in their
relationship with others
2. High Context vs. Low Context - reveals a culture’s communication style
3. High Power Distance vs. Low Power Distance - measures the extent to which
individuals are willing to accept power differences
4. Masculine vs. Feminine - reveals attitudes toward gender roles; the value placed
by members on something, e.g. material possession

High Context Low Context

Polite and indirect in relating to others Generally exhibit a more direct
communication style
Indirect and implicit messages Direct simple and clear message
Less verbal communication More verbal communication
Relies on nonverbal signs such as facial Less nonverbal communication
expressions gestures, tone of voice, and body
language
Polychronic Monochronic
Collectivist Individualist
Primary role of commucation is to build The primary role of commucation is exchange
relationships information
Saudi Arabia, China. Mexico, Japan, and the United Kingdom, United States, Germany, and
Middle East Switzerland

High Power Distance Low Power Distance

View power as a fact of life View power should be used only when
legitimate
Apt to stress coercive or referent nature of Superiors and subordinates emphasize their
power interdepence
Subodinates are quick to difer Subordinates will even contradict their bosses
whenever necessary
Saudi Arabia, India, Malaysia Israel, Sweden, and the United States

Masculine Feminine
Members value make aggressiveness Members value relationship tenderness
Confront conflict head-on Apt to compromise and negotiate to resolve
conflict
Likely to use a win-lose conflict strategy Seeking win-win situations
Japan, Italy, Germany, Mexico and Great Sweden, Norway, Netherlands, Thailand, Chile
Britain
Cultural Diversity
1Cultural Diversity is the existence of a variety of cultural groups within a society. The diversity
ranges from ethnicity, race, religion, language, values, traditions, beliefs, behaviors, rules of
conduct, and others.
2 ―Culturally diverse‖ is often used interchangeably with the concept of ―multiculturalism.
According to Shah (2017), people can have better interpersonal dialogue and
communicate more on a personal level when they know about the different cultural
backgrounds of others. Knowing cultural differences is helpful in understanding other
culture's uniqueness (Bovee & Thill, 2013). These differences include, among others,
contextual differences.
A. Contextual Differences
This relates to communication styles usually evident in the way business people
approach decision-making, problem-solving, negotiations, interactions within an
organization, and socializing outside the workplace. For example, people in low-context
cultures tend to be more direct and focus on results, while those from high-context may be more
indirect and emphasize building and protecting relationships.
B. Social Differences
1. Concept of Time
Americans are time conscious; Indians and Filipinos have this norm of arriving late.
2. Future Orientation (preference towards past, present, or future)
Future-oriented cultures, such as the US are more invested in long-term goals,
compared to present-oriented cultures like India and China.
3. Manners
Winking and whistling in public are normal in the Philippines but inappropriate in India.
4. Roles and Status
People in China are addressed according to their official titles, e.g. Manager, but in
the US respect towards top managers is shown by addressing them as Mr/Ms. Roberts
5. Attitudes towards Work
East Asian workers are happier and more successful when they have a good
relationship with colleagues and supervisors, while North Americans thrive when
they enjoy gratifying job assignments and organizational policies.
6. Openness and Inclusiveness
Filipinos, known for their hospitality, welcome foreigners while some Hong Kongers tend
to show biases and racial discrimination against other cultures.
C. Nonverbal Differences
More explicit differences can also be seen in nonverbal communication. Here are some examples:

 Greeting of friends in France, Spain, Italy, and Portugal is by kissing on both cheeks.
 A person who makes an eye contact in the United States is viewed as interested in
the other person and what the other person is saying
 On the other hand, the same gesture is considered impolite and disrespectful in
Japan.
 Placing hands in pocket is disrespectful in Turkey while bowing shows rank in Japan.
 Many Asian cultures hide facial expressions while many Mediterranean cultures
exaggerate grief or sadness.
 Islamic cultures such as Muslims do not allow touching between different genders
but consider hugging and holding hands appropriate between same sex.
 In Latino culture, touching is encouraged.
 In Spain, people tend to maintain small personal distance.
 Distant cultures such as Northern Europe, US, and other western cultures tend to
keep more personal space
 Warm cultures such as Middle East and South American welcome and accept close
proximity.

E. Age Differences
Some countries like the United States support their youth which signifies vibrance,
strength, energy, potential, and innovative ideas. Other cultures such
as Singapore value age and seniority which earns more respect and freedom.
F. Language Differences
Different varieties of English are used in various parts of the world. American English
(AmE) is spoken by about two-thirds of Americans who live in the United States. British
English (BrE) is spoken mainly in the United Kingdom. Australian English (AuE) is used
in Australia. Also, Philippine English (PE) is a variety of English ―nativized legitimately‖
in the Philippines. It is used by Filipinos in different fields, such as science and
technology, judiciary and legislature, bureaucracy, and scholarly discourse (Dayag,
2012). Each variety has a distinct vocabulary, grammar, and registers
1. Registers / Level of Formality
Registers refer to the level and style of speaking and writing appropriate for different
situations. Registers are determined by social occasion, relationships,
context, context, purpose, and audience. For the English language, there
are five registers
a. Frozen/Static
The language does not change, e.g. National Anthem
b. Formal
The language follows an accepted & prescribed format, e.g. business meetings,
academic papers, lectures.
c. Consultative
The language is less formal and the context involves one with specialized knowledge or
an expert who is consulted or can give advice.
d. Casual
The language is conversational – maybe informal with slang and contractions, e.g. chit-
chat & text messages between friends.
e. Intimate
The language is for private communication used between lovers or very close family
and friends, e.g. inside pet names, inside jokes, terms of endearment.
Not all languages in different cultures may have these five registers. For instance, the
Korean language seems to have four speech levels: Formal and Polite, Formal and
Casual, Informal and Polite, Informal and
Casual (https://www.sayjack.com/korean/learn-korean/honorific-speech-and-speech-
levels-in-korean/)

Registers in writing discourse are more challenging since feedback is not immediate.
The writer must use appropriate phrases and rules suitable for particular situations and
target readers.
The British linguist Michael Halliday (1925–2018) proposed three situation
variables that aid in analyzing registers.
1. Field identifies the subject matter in which language is used, such as an academic
discussion of disaster risk reduction management.
2. Tenor refers to the role relationships between the interlocutors (e.g., persons who
take part in a dialogue or conversation), such as a specialist-to- specialist
communication.
3. Mode identifies the way language is used in speech interaction, spoken or written.
The three facets of registers have an impact on the manner and content of
communication. In one study (Taboada, 2004), online bulletin board messages reveal
that in the discussion about stocks and company performance (field) using computer-
mediated communication (mode), the communication between specialists and even
novice to specialist (tenor) is described as informal and has low affective involvement
among participants.

2. Language Variety
Language varieties include vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling, and even grammatical
structures. The following are some differences in terms of vocabulary and spelling.

 Vocabulary

Examples:
estafa (Phil. English) - criminal deception intended to result in financial or personal gain
swindle or fraud (American English)
booze (Australian English)
alcohol (British English)
line (American English)
queue (British English)

 Spelling

Examples
centre, mould (British English)
center, mold (American English)
Best Practices for Virtual Presentations

1. Get the Lighting Right: As a presenter, it is essential that people can see you well.
Make sure you have good front light—meaning the light shines brightly on your face.
If your back is to a window, close the shades. While natural light is often the best
choice, if your home office doesn‘t have natural light and you do a lot of virtual
presentations, consider purchasing supplemental lighting to enhance your image.
2. Choose the Right Background: Try to use a background that enhances your
professional image and is aligned with your message. Avoid a cluttered background
or anything that can be distracting. Learn whether your presentation platform
enables you to use virtual backgrounds (like Zoom) or whether you can blur your
background (like Microsoft Teams). Your background can either add to your
professional presence or detract from it.
3. Know the Technology: Nothing kills a presentation faster than a presenter who
fumbles with the technology. This is a performance, so make sure you know how to
make it work. A dry run is essential so that you‘re comfortable with the platform
features. It‘s best to have a co-host (or producer or moderator) assist you with the
technology so that you can focus on your presentation. Make sure you practice with
the same technical set up (computer and internet connection) that you will use when
you deliver the presentation.
4. Play to the Camera: When you are the one speaking, look directly into your
computer’s camera, not on the screen or at the other participants. This takes some
practice, but it makes the viewer feel as if you are looking right at them. Some
presenters turn off their self-view so that they aren‘t distracted by their own
image. Put the camera at eye level. Try not to have your camera too far above or
below you. If it‘s too low, then you run the risk of creating a double chin. A camera
too high makes it difficult to maintain eye contact, as you may find your gaze
dropping as you speak. If you are part of a panel or a team of presenters, make sure
you are aware of when your camera is on. If you are not speaking but your camera
is on, make sure you look like you are paying attention! Powerful presenters
understand the importance of making eye contact with their audience, so this means
you have to simulate the same effect virtually.
5. Get Close (But Not Too Close). You want the camera to frame your face, neck,
and shoulders. People are drawn to faces, so you don‘t want to lose that connection
by being too far away, but you also don‘t want your face to take over the whole
screen like a dismembered head because, well, that looks weird. Practice your
positioning and distance.
6. Stand Up: If possible, use a standing desk or position your laptop so you can stand
at eye level with your computer. Standing up provides a higher energy level and
forces us to put our body in a more presentation-like mode. If you have to sit, lean
forward as you would if you were presenting at a real meeting or as if you were a TV
news anchor. Avoid slouching away from the camera, as that sends a signal that
you are disconnected from the audience.

7. Be Animated: Just like in a live presentation, you want to present with a little energy
and animation. Too slow or too monotone in your voice makes it easy for folks to
 disengage and tune out. Keeping people engaged virtually requires you to actually
be engaging.
8. Pace Yourself: Without real-time visual audience feedback cues, getting the pacing
right can be difficult. Even though you want to infuse some animation and energy
into your presentation don‘t pump up the speed too much. If you tend to be a fast
talker in real life, practice slowing down just a bit. If you‘re a slow talker, you may
want to speed up just a bit.
9. Do A Sound Check: If your sound is garbled, people will tune out. While people
may forgive less than perfect video, if they can‘t clearly hear you, they will leave.
Practice with someone on the other end of the presentation platform. Make sure
your sound emits clearly. Sometimes headphones or external microphones work
better than the computer audio, sometimes not. Every platform is different, so make
sure your sound quality is excellent every time. And again, you should practice with
the same technical configurations and location that you will use for your presentation.
10. Plug into Your Modem: If possible, plug your computer directly into your modem
using an Ethernet cable. This will give you the strongest signal and most stable
internet connection. The last thing you want to happen during your presentation is to
have a weak or unstable internet signal.
11. Incorporate Redundant Systems. If using slides, make sure someone else
(another webinar co-host or producer) also has a copy of the slides just in case your
internet goes wonky and you have to present by calling in. If you are using slides,
make them visually appealing. Use high-quality graphics and limit the amount of text
on each slide. It‘s your job as a presenter to deliver the content. The slides are
meant to enhance your spoken words, not replace them.
12. Engage Your Participants. Just as if you were doing an in-person presentation,
craft your presentation to engage the audience. Incorporate chats, polls, raised hand
features, etc. Try not to speak for more than ten minutes without some sort of
audience engagement. Use the participant list to interact with your participants by
name. Have people chat or raise a hand if they want to speak. Keep track of the
order of people and then call on them to invite them to turn on their mics or
cameras.
13. Let Someone Else Check the Chats. Don‘t get sidetracked by the chats during
your presentation. You‘ll be shocked at how distracting it is to your train of thought if
you attempt to read the chats while speaking. Instead, have your co-host or
producer monitor the chats. If you ask people to chat you answers or comments to a
question you‘ve posed, then pause your talking and engage directly with the chats
by acknowledging them, reading them out loud, and commenting on them.
14. Evaluate and Enhance: If possible, record the session and take the time to
playback and look for areas that worked well and areas that you might want to
improve upon. Great presenters, whether virtual or in person, understand the value
of continually honing their craft. Be sure to acknowledge your strengths as well as
your areas of improvement.
15. Be Yourself and Have Fun: Again, just like in face-to-face presentations,
audiences connect to authenticity, so be yourself! Let your personality show through.
Have fun. If you look like you‘re enjoying the presentation so will others. Research
 shows that happy people retain information better than bored or disinterested people,
so model the energy that you want to create. The audience takes its cue from you.

Letter Parts, Spacing and Formats-2

PARTS OF THE BUSINESS LETTERS

1. Letterhead

-The official paper on which the company business letters are written and certain
important information about the company is printed.

 complete name, mailing address, email address, fax numbers and contact numbers,
official cell number of the company

-Letterhead is normally printed at the top of the page. However, it is now common to see
the information split: one part at the top of the paper while the rest of the information can be
found at the bottom of the paper.

 design should not detract or draw attention from the important issue- message of
the letter
 preferably white paper, high quality, short size bond paper; easiest to read; most
professional looking

-If you are just encoding the letterhead, place this in the middle of the paper. if it‘s a
personal letter (you‘re not representing a company), write your complete address to
the left side (full block and modified block formats).

2. Dateline

-The date the letter is written (use the date the letter was finished) with the following
formats.

 Natural order: Month-Day-Year - March 18, 2008

 Military & British: Day-Month-Year - 18 March 2008

-The month should be spelled out.

3. Inside Address

 The full name of the addressee with a title of respect

 Miss, Ms. (if marital status is not determined), Mrs. Mesdames/Mmes. (for women),
Messieurs/ Messrs. (men)
 Engr., Prof., Atty.
 Roderick C. Salazar, SVD/ The Reverend Roderick. Salazar, SVD
 Honorable Tomas V. Osmena / Hon. Tomas V. Osmena
o The position of the addressee
o Complete name and address of the company that the addressee represents
o Information should be exactly the same as the address on the envelope (three of
more lines).

e.g.,
Mr. Matthew A. Cruz
Chief Executive Officer
Lego Enterprises, Inc.
19 Ramos Street, Cebu City 6000 (Have 2-3 spaces between ‗City‘ and the
Zipcode)

4. Salutation

- The name in the salutation is the same with the name in the inside address

 In formal letters (standardized ones), Dear Customer and Dear Subscriber can be
used.
 Use colon : (American); (comma , - British)
 Formal

My dear Mr. Smith: My dear Mrs. Ramos:

My dear Sir: My dear Madam:
Gentlemen: Ladies:

 Less Formal (Usually used)

Dear Mr. Smith: Dear Ms. Ramos:

Dear Sir: Dear Madam:
Dear Prof. Lim: Dear Dr. Lim:
Engr. Tejada:

 Informal / Casual

Dear Sarah, Dear Customer,

Hello Ms. Sarah / Greetings, Mr. Conception (unusual salutation in sales promotion
and advertising)
5. Body of the Letter

 Typed below the salutation or subject the subject line, if there is.
 Use single spacing in the paragraph and in between paragraphs.
 One-page length - If another page is really needed, use plain sheet (no letterhead)
have 2 – 3 line spaces from the top, and type the name or initial of the addressee,
page number and date all in one line.
 Sarah A. Ramos -2- July 28, 2016
 SAA -2- July 28, 2016

6. Complimentary Closing
- Serves to close the letter with a cordial expression

 Align with the dateline, regardless of the letter style

 Capitalize only the first letter of the first word.
 Put a comma at the end.
 Match the formality of the salutation and the complimentary closing.
 Formal

My dear Madam: Very respectfully yours,

Gentlemen: Yours very cordially,

 Less formal

Dear Mr. Gonzales: Yours truly,

Dear Madam: Sincerely yours, / Sincerely, (most preferred)
Dear Fr. Salazar: Respectfully yours,

7. Signature Block

- Contains the writer‘s full name and position/title and his/her signature

 Affix your signature always above your name

 Positioned two or four spaces below the complimentary close

8. Reference Initials

- Contains the initials of the dictator and the typist

- Upper case (all caps) for the dictator‘s initial, and lower case for the typist‘s. e.g.
C.F.A./lau
- If you are the writer/dictator and the signatory, then just have the typist‘s/encoder‘s
initials, e.g. lau
- Typed at the lower left margin of the letter; two spaces below the signature line
SPECIAL PARTS OF THE BUSINESS LETTERS

1. Attention Line

 Considered addressed to the whole organization rather than to the person named on
the attention line
 Some write a name (but not in the inside address)
 Placed between inside address (addressed to the organization) and salutation
 When used, the salutation used is usually ―Gentlemen‖.
 Attention: Human Resource Manager
o Attention: Sales Department
o Attention: Ms. Rannie Salem

Gentlemen:

2. Subject Line

 Used to immediately inform the reader what the letter is about

 Placed between the salutation and the body of the letter

- Use all capital letters or initial caps and small letters

 Subject: Goodwill

3. Enclosure

- Used when enclosing something in the letter

- Typed under the signature line or reference initials
- If there is more than one enclosure, number them.
Example:
E.G.A.
Enclosures: Check for PhP5,000.00
Copy of Invoice 123

 At times, ―Attachment‖ is used.

4. Carbon copy notation

- Used if copies of the letter are to be sent to others aside from the reader/addressee.
- Placed after the enclosure or reference initials
 E.G.A.

cc: Director, Kids‘

Center

 c. Mr. Alexander Santos

 Copy to: Mr. Allan Aquino
 Cf: (copy furnished) is now used since carbon paper is no longer used as almost all
letters now are computerized

Blind carbon copy notation

- Used if the writer doesn‘t want his reader/addressee to know that the former is
sending a copy of the letter to another person

 bcc: Mrs. Carmela Alvarez

5. Postscript Notation

- P.S. or N.B. (nota bene, ‗note well‘), used to emphasize a point made elsewhere in
the letter.
- Emphasizes an important message that has been intentionally withheld from the
message
- Has an attention getting quality and may be used only for important occasions
- Placed two spaces below the last line of the letter

LETTER SIZE, NUMBER OF WORDS, SPACING AND MARGINS

1. Short letter
100 words
2.0 spacing (body of the letter)
2‖ margin
2. Average-long letter
101-200 words
1.5 spacing (body of the letter)
1.5‖ margin
3. Long Letter
201 or 300 words
1.0 spacing (body of the letter)
1‖ margin
Spacing between parts
Fixed Spaces

 Inside Address to Salutation =1 (single space)

 Salutation to Body =1
 In between paragraphs =1
 Last Paragraph to Complimentary Close =1
 Signature to Reference Initial =1

Flexible Spaces

 Company Letterhead to Date =2-4 spaces; (If personal sender‘s address to

Date =1)

 Dateline to Inside Address =2-3 spaces

 Complimentary Close to Signature Block/Line =2-4 spaces

LETTER FORMATS

1. Full block format

 All letter parts are typed and aligned at the left margin.
 There are no indentions in the paragraphs.
 Commonly used format.

2. Modified block format

 The dateline and complimentary closing are typed and aligned at the right side of the
page.
 Paragraphs are not indented.

3. Semi block format

 The so called indented letter; dateline and complimentary closing are typed at the
right portion of the page.
 The first sentence of each paragraph has five-space indention.

4. Simplified block format

 Salutation and complimentary closing are not used; hence it is considered an
impersonal format.
 Other letter parts are typed at the left margin

Types of Business Letters, Memorandum and E-mail-2

TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS

1. Inquiry/Request Letter

- Asks or requests for information about the services, product, the price, payment or
delivery arrangements

2. Reply Letter

- Provides specific and complete information in response to the inquiry or request

letter

3. Complaint and Claims Letter

- Informs the company of the concerns, problems or issues on dissatisfaction about

the product, delivery or services encountered by the sender

4. Adjustment Letter

- Acknowledges the concerns or problems, offers an apology and provides

possible solutions in response to the complaint letter

5. Sales Letter

- Persuades the reader or the prospective clients or customers to try or avail the
services or buy a product

6. Cover/Application Letter

- Conveys interest in the position and convinces the addressee of his/her

qualifications, e.g. educational background, work experience
- Accompany resumes (e.g. application letter), CVS, personal portfolios

7. Resignation

- States the reason for resigning, effectivity date of the resignation and appreciation
and gratitude
The Five Flows of Organizational Communication-4

The size, nature, and structure of an organization usually dictate which direction most of
the information flows. For more established and traditional organizations, the
information mostly flows upward and downward. For informal firms such as start-up
companies, information can flow horizontally and diagonally.
1. Downward Flow of Communication- is through the organization‘s formal chain of
command; it is from the higher levels to the lower levels.
The managers or superiors disseminate information to subordinates such as:

 providing feedback on employees‘ performance,

 giving instructions regarding tasks,
 highlighting areas of attention in the workflow or in job performance.

2. Upward Flow of Communication- also called vertical flow, the information comes
from the frontline employees who pass it on to managers, supervisors, and directors of
an organization to:

 provide feedback on how effective the operation of the organization is,

 clarify any unclear information that they have received, and
 participate in the decision-making process.

The common contents of the communication following this flow

include proposals, progress reports, budget estimates, complaints and
grievances. Consequently, those from the higher ranks can take appropriate action
based on the employees‘ concerns.

3. Horizontal Flow of Communication- is a kind of information transmission between

employees, divisions, departments, or units within the same level of hierarchy in an
organization. This is often referred to as lateral communication.
Three categories of information transmitted through this kind of flow:

 Information regarding coordination of activities across various parts of an

organization;
 Information about work activities at the same level; and
 Information regarding colleagues‘ feeling on work and work-related issues

4. Diagonal Flow of Communication- is an informal way (yet still accepted and

recognized) of passing on information managers and employees of other workgroups
or workers located in different functional divisions based on the objective of the
communications, e.g. a finance department manager may communicate with
the production supervisor to increase the efficiency of a particular decision-making
process. This flow has existed due to the changing structure of some workplaces
nowadays in the form of project-based tasks and groups and temporary divisions which
do not appear in the official organizational chart.

5. External Flow of Communication- this occurs between a manager of a

particular company and other sectors outside the company, such as banks, suppliers,
vendors, and financial institutions, to:

 conduct profitable business transactions;

 promote sales and publicity; to generate sponsorship; to launch events, products, or
services; and to support branding.

Marketing professionals can employ external communication strategies, such as

the use of emails, posters, advertisements, brochures, and other forms of multimedia
marketing (Study.com,n.d.).

The 6 C‘s in Business Writing

1. Courtesy - Be polite. Consider the ‗you‘ attitude . Try to use positive words

2. Clarity - Avoid vagueness by using words with only one meaning

3. Conciseness - Be brief and direct . Avoid roundabout / meandering words and ideas
4. Concreteness - Use specific terms/words
5. Correctness - Use correct grammar, punctuation, facts, and letter parts
6. Completeness - Write all information needed