Define maintenance, reliability, maintainability and availability?

Maintenance:
Maintenance is the routine and recurring process of keeping a particular machine or asset in its
normal operating conditions So that it can deliver the expected performance or service without
any loss or damage.
Reliability:
Reliability is defined as the probability that a component /system, when operating under given
condition, will perform its intended functions adequately for a specified period of time. It refers to
the like hood that equipment will not fail during its operation.

Maintainability:
Maintainability is defined as the probability that a unit or system will be restored to specified
working conditions within a given period when maintenance action is taken in accordance with
the prescribed procedures and resources.
Availability:
Availability is the ratio of the time at which equipment is available for the designated
operation/service to the total time of operation and maintenance of the equipment. It is also
defined as the ratio of equipments uptime to the equipment uptime and downtime over a
specified period of time.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MAINTENANCE SYSTEM IN DETAIL
Classification of Maintenance Approach:

Basically there are two types of maintenance tasks. They are

I. Break Down Maintenance
II. Planned Maintenance
Planned maintenance may further be classified into
A) Preventive Maintenance
B) Corrective Maintenance
C) Predictive Maintenance
D) Condition Based Maintenance
E) Reliability Centered Maintenance

BREAK DOWN MAINTENANCE OR REACTIVE MAINTENANCE:

In this category, less attention is given to the operating condition of critical machinery, equipment or
system. Here the equipment is allowed to function till no failure occurs no long as the equipment is
functioning at a minimum acceptable level, it is assumed to be effective. This means
the people wait till the equipment fails and repair. This approach of maintenance is ineffective and
extremely expensive. The following factors contribute to high maintenance costs.
i) Poor planning
ii) Incomplete repair

Limitations:
a) Most repairs are poorly planned due to time constraint caused by production
and plant management. This will cost three to four times than the same repair when it is well planned.
b) This approach focus only on repair or the symptoms of failure and not on the
root cause of failure. This results only in increase in the frequency of repair
and correspondingly the maintenance costs.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE:
It is a maintenance program which is committed to the elimination or prevention of corrective and
breakdown maintenance. A comprehensive preventive maintenance program involves periodical
evaluation of critical equipment, machinery to detect problem and schedule maintenance task to avoid
degradation in operating conditions.
Benefits of Preventive Maintenance:
In general the cost incurred towards breakdown maintenance is usually higher than the cost incurred on
preventive maintenance. It maintains the equipment in good condition to preventing them from bigger
problems. Prolongs the effective life of the equipments. Detects the problem at earlier stages.
Minimizes / eliminates the rewash/ scrap and help in reducing the process variability. Significantly
reduces unplanned downtime.
CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE:
Corrective Maintenance is the program focused on regular planned tasks that will maintain all critical
machinery and system in optimum operating conditions. The effectiveness of this program is judged on
the cycle cost of critical equipment rather than on how quickly the broken machines are restored to
working conditions. It is proactive approach towards maintenance management.
The main objectives of this program are to
i) Eliminate breakdowns
ii) Eliminate deviations from optimum operating conditions.
iii) Eliminate unnecessary repairs.
iv) Optimize all critical plant systems.
As per this program, all the repairs are well planned and implemented by properly trained people and
the equipment or system is verified and returned to service.
PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE:
Predictive maintenance is a management technique that uses regular evaluation of the actual
operating conditions of plant equipment, production systems and plant management functions to
optimize total plant operation. It is not a solution for all the factors that limit total
plantperformance.
CONDITION BASED MAINTENANCE:
The various techniques are
Vibration Monitoring –determines the actual condition of equipments / machines by studying
the noise or vibration produced during functioning.
Thermography –determines the condition of plant machinery systems etc by studying the
emission of infra red energy ie temperature.
Tribology –determines the dynamic condition of bearing lubrication, rotor support structure of
machinery etc by adopting any one of the techniques like lubricating oil analysis, spectrographic
analysis, ferrography and wear particle analysis.
Electrical Motor Analysis –determines the problem within motors and other electrical
equipments.
Visual inspection -determines the conditions of working elements visually based
on the experience.
REALIBILITY CENTERED MAINTENANCE (RCM)
It is one of the well-established systematic and a step by step
instructional tool for selecting applicable and appropriate maintenance
operation types. It helps in hw to analyze all failure modes in a system
and define how to prevent or find those failures early. The rough process
of a CM is as follows.
Target products or systems of maintenance should be clearly identified,
and necessary data should be collected.
All possible failures and their effect on target produced or systems are
systematically analyzed.
Preventive or corrective maintenance operations are considered selection of operations is
done based on rational calculation of effectiveness of such operations for achieving required
maintenance quality, such as reliability, cost etc.
Applications of RCM:
When designing, selecting and installing new systems in a plant.
When setting up preventive maintenance for complex equipment and systems for
which we are not clear on how they work.
When teaching people the basics of reliability it helps to explain the matters in a
detailed fashion using RCM.
DESCRIBE THE VARIOUS OBJECTIVES AND PRINCIPLES OF MAINTENANCE
PLANNING
The most important objective of the maintenance is the maximization of
availability of equipments and facilities so as to help in achieving the ultimate goals of the
organisation. The following are the objectives of planned maintenance activity:
To achieve minimum breakdown and to keep the plant in good
working condition at the lowest possible cost.
To ensure the availability of the machines and services in an
optimum working condition.
To keep the machines and other facilities in a condition to be used to
achieve the maximum profit without any interruption or hindrance.
To keep the time schedule of delivery to the customers or to the
sections for further processing.
To meet the availability requirements for critical equipments.
To keep the maintenance costs as low as possible for non critical
equipments.
To control the cost of maintenance related activities

To provide effective and trained supervision.

To meet the quality requirements of the product.
To increase the profits of production systems.
Principles:
Maintenance principles are followed in a system to guide the staff to work
efficiently and effectively to achieve the overall objectives of the maintenance system.
(i) Plant Management in Maintenance work
The main role of the maintenance function is to provide safe and effective operation of the equipment
to achieve the desired targets on time with economic usage of resource.
( ii) Production and Maintenance objectives
The plant operation is driven by the production targets. The objective of maintenance function is to
support these targets. The achievement of desired goals of the production system is to be supported by
both the production and maintenance department to ensure smooth and successful operation of the
industry.
(iii) Establishment of Work order and Recording system
The maintenance system should have proper work order and recording system. The work order for the
maintenance function indicates the nature of work to be performed and the series of operations to be
followed to execute a particular job. It is necessary to maintain proper records and entries to
monitor the maintenance functions. This record is useful in formulating the future maintenance plans
and scheduling to meet the desired objectives of the organization.
(iv) Information Based Decision Making
The maintenance objectives are successfully achieved by the use of reliable information system. This
information is used to meet the manpower and spare parts requirements of the industry.
(v) Adherence to Planned Maintenance Strategy
A sound maintenance management should adheere to the planned
maintenance strategy. This also includes the use of manufacturer’s information on the life an
maintenance schedules of the equipment and other materials.
(vi) Planning of Maintenance Functions
All the maintenance functions are to be carefully executed by a way of proper planning to ensure the
effective utilization of manpower and materials.
(vii) Manpower for Maintenance
The manpower requirements of the maintenance system must be carefully evaluated based on the time
and motion study. The requirements should also satisfies the need arising in cases of overhaul
component replacement, emergency and unscheduled repairs.
(viii) Workforce Control
Determination of exact workforce required to meet the maintenance objectives of the system is difficult
task due to the element of uncertainty. Hence the proper control and monitoring of workforce are needs
to be ensured.
(ix) Role of Spare Parts
A good maintenance management system requires appropriate tools. So the system should have good
quality tools and that too available in required quantities to ensure the proper function of the
maintenance works.
(x) Training of the Maintenance Workforce
Training of the workforce must be integral part of any good maintenance management system. Training
helps the workforce to learn about the modern techniques, recent trends in maintenance, knowledge of
sophisticated instruments and to chalk out a strategy to meet the growing demands of the industry.
Write down the objectives of TPM?

The main objectives of TPM are

1. To achieve zero defects
2. Achieve zero accidents and zero break downs in all functional areas of an organization
3. To create different team of people to have active participation.
4. To aim at minimization of defects and
5. To inculcate autonomous policy.

What are the pillars of TPM?

1. 5, S Principle
2. Jishu hozen(JH)
3. Kaizen
4. Planned maintenance
5. Quality maintenance.
6. Training
7. Office TPM
8. Safety, health and environment

State the differences between TQM and TPM?

Dissimilarities between TQM & TPM are as follows:

Category Total quality Management Total Productive

(TQM) Maintenance (TPM)
Objective To have quality To have reliable equipment

Means of achieving Through systematized Through active participation

of management employees
Target Minimized defective Eliminationlosses
a n d Preventive
maintenance
What are the implementations of TPM?

To implement an effective TPM in an organization, the following stages are to be

planned and executed.
STAGE I:
Step-1: Announcement by Management about TPM
Top level management people should attend awareness programs on TPM to have
proper understanding, commitment and active involvement. Then all matters about TPM
should be communicated to others in the company by publishing in the magazine, putting
up in the notice board and by other possible means. In this step a TPM coordinator is
hired or appointed.
Step-2: Initial Education
In this step through educational program is arranged for workforce and is just not
a month program, may even prolong for a year or more.
Step-3: Setting up TPM departmental committees
Since TPM includes improvement, autonomous maintenance and quality
maintenance an action team is formed with people who directly have impact on the
problem being addressed. Operators, maintenance personnel, shift supervisors, schedulers
and top management might be the members of force. This action team should take care of
all those needs.
Step-4: Establishing TPM working system and target
The action team will be assigned with the responsibility of identifying problem
area and detailing course of corrective action and initializing the corrective process. In
this step by observing and comparing TPM in other companies a benchmark is set and the
team starts working towards achieving that.

Stage-I- Intialization

Stage-II- Introduction on TPM

Stage-III-Implementation of TPM

Stage-IV-Institutionalization

Step-5: A plan for institutionalizing a master plan leading to institutionalizing, where in TPM
becomes an organizational culture.
STAGE-II - INTRODUCTION STAGE:
A grand ceremony is to be arranged inviting vendors out customers, affiliated
companies, sister concerns and communicating them all that “We care for Quality”.
STAGE-III-IMPLEMENTATION STAGE:
The following activities which are familiarly called as pillars of TPM are carried
out.
5’S Principle
Autonomous Maintenance (JISHU HOZEN)
Planned Maintenance
Quality Maintenance
Training
Office TPM
Safety, Health and Environment
Stage-I-Intialization
Stage-II-Introduction on TPM
Stage-III-Implementation of TPM
Stage-IV-Institutionalization
STAGE-IV-INSTITUTIONALIZING STAGE:
Once the action teams are familiar with the TPM process and have experienced
success with small level problems and then with high and complicated problems, the
company can apply for PM award.

Write a short on Overall equipment effectiveness:

Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) is a term used to evaluate how efficiently a

manufacturer's operation is being used. In other words, overall equipment effectiveness
helps you notice a problem in your operations, identify which percentage of
manufacturing time is actually productive and fix it while giving you a standardized
gauge for tracking progress. The goal for measuring your OEE is continuous
improvement.

How to Use Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) to Measure Manufacturing Productivity

Overall equipment effectiveness is a powerful figure. It provides a lot of information in

one number, so there are multiple ways OEE is used to measure manufacturing
productivity. When calculated and interpreted correctly, it can significantly maximize
your production. Overall equipment effectiveness is used as a benchmark to compare
any given production to industry standards, in-house equipment or other shifts working
on the same piece of equipment. Standard OEE benchmarks are as follows:
  An OEE score of 100 percent is considered perfect production, meaning
you're only manufacturing quality parts as quickly as possible with no
downtime.

 An OEE score of 85 percent is considered world class for discrete

manufacturers and is a sought-after long-term goal.

 An OEE score of 60 percent is typical for discrete manufacturers and

shows there is considerable room for improvement.

 An OEE score of 40 percent is considered low but not uncommon for

manufacturers just starting to track and improve performance. In most
cases, a low score can easily be improved through easy-to-apply
measures.

Overall Equipment Effectiveness is not only a great tool for managers but can
have a significant impact on employees working the plant floor. Plant floor
metrics can include:

 Target - A real-time production target

 Actual - The actual production count

 Efficiency - The ratio of target to actual; the percentage of how far ahead
or behind production is

 Downtime - This includes all unplanned stoppage time for each shift and
is updated in real-time.

Overall Equipment Effectiveness: Terms to Know

Before we discuss overall equipment effectiveness further, there are some
important terms to be aware of.

 Fully Productive Time - Production time after all losses are subtracted

 Planned Production Time - The total time your equipment or system is

expected to produce

 Ideal Cycle Time - The time it takes to manufacture one part

 Run Time - The time your system is scheduled for production and is
running

 Total Count - The total of all parts produced including those with defects

 Good Count - Parts produced that meet quality-control standards

 Good Parts - Parts produced that meet standards and don't need to be
redone

 Quality - This refers to manufactured parts that don't meet quality-control

standards, including ones that need to be reworked. It is calculated
as Quality = Good Count / Total Count.

 Performance - This takes into account the number of times there are
slowdowns or brief stops in production. A perfect performance score in
OEE terms means your operation is running as quickly as possible. It is
calculated as Performance = (Ideal Cycle Time x Total Count) / Run Time.

 Availability - This takes into account planned and unplanned stoppage

time. A perfect availability score means your operation is constantly
 running during planned production times. It is calculated as Availability =
Run Time / Planned Production Time.

How to Calculate Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)

Before calculating overall equipment effectiveness, it's important to denote the

difference between the terms effectiveness and efficiency when discussing OEE.

Effectiveness is the relationship between what could technically be produced and

what is actually produced at the end of a production period. For example, if your
machinery is capable of making 100 products an hour and it only makes 80, then
it is 80 percent effective.

However, this doesn't tell us how efficient the machinery is because we didn't
consider things like the number of operators, energy and the materials needed to
reach 80 percent effectiveness. For example, if your machinery runs 60 percent
effective with one employee and becomes 75 percent effective with two
employees, the effectiveness increases by 25 percent, but efficiency decreases
to 50 percent based on labor.

There are two main ways to calculate OEE:

 Simple Calculation: The easiest way to calculate OEE is the ratio of fully
productive time to planned production time. It looks like this: OEE = (Good
Count x Ideal Cycle Time) / Planned Production Time.

 Preferred Calculation: This type of OEE calculation is based on the three

OEE factors discussed earlier – availability, performance and quality (good
count). It looks like this: Availability x Performance x Quality = OEE. This is
the preferred calculation method because not only do you get your OEE
 score showing how well you're doing, but you get three numbers
(availability, performance and quality) showing what caused your losses.

What do you understand by lean maintenance?

A lean maintenance approach finds its origins in Total Productive Maintenance (TPM), a
strategy that maximizes effectiveness through organizational involvement. Essentially,
each worker from all levels of the organization supports maintenance and reliability
initiatives. The ideas behind TPM are fundamental to a lean approach, including the 5S
principle, autonomous maintenance, and continuous improvement. Lean maintenance
puts these philosophies into practice to minimize costs while increasing the reliability of
equipment and systems.
To understand the meaning of "lean maintenance," we must first look into the definition
of lean. In simple terms, being lean means eliminating waste. This concept is frequently
used in manufacturing applications. You might have heard of the term "lean
manufacturing," which provides a framework to guide manufacturing and service
operations. In lean manufacturing, the types of waste to look out for include unplanned
downtime, overproduction, waiting time, transportation inefficiencies, and inventory
surplus. Lean maintenance is similar to lean manufacturing in the sense that both
approaches aim to eliminate waste. However, waste can take different forms when
speaking from a maintenance standpoint.

How Does a Lean Maintenance Program Reduce Costs?

By now, you can see how a lean mindset reduces waste and finds opportunities to take
the most value from a situation. To appreciate how such programs reduce costs, consider
the benefits in the following focus areas.
Extend the Life of Assets
Remember that a lean maintenance program is foremost a maintenance approach. It
doesn't only aim to reduce costs, but more importantly, increase the availability and
reliability of your equipment.
Maximize Manpower Effort
A lean maintenance program recognizes the value of work and labor. The time and effort
exerted by maintenance teams focus on value-adding tasks and activities. You can expect
to reduce labor costs by targeting the energy of your workforce on jobs that matter.
Optimizing Spares and Maintenance Materials
Where possible, a lean approach aims to bring in resources according to a just-in-
time system. A reliable schedule of activities allows teams to prepare for a job ahead of
time, and bring in resources just in time. With this system, teams can effectively allocate
resources to stock highly critical materials.
Efficient Planning and Scheduling
A lot of the cost reduction from a lean system is rooted in planning and scheduling. In a
lean approach, maintenance teams can perform activities with control and focus if
efficiently planned.

What If My Lean Maintenance Program Isn't Keeping Costs to a Minimum?

The first thing to keep in mind is that any analysis you do is only as good as your data's
quality. Address any inconsistencies that you notice in your data before they become a
headache in the future. If you have a CMMS or EAM available, make sure to align its
functions with your measures. These tools are already recording a lot of your
maintenance activity. Having that information in a form that is ready for analysis can
save you heaps of manual work.
With full confidence in your data, you can then look at the metrics that evaluate your
execution. If you don't think costs are where they should be, then you can start seeing the
red flags from your measures. See which areas are contributing the most waste. In the
process, identify opportunities to make your scheduling more efficient. Remember that
it's not all about eliminating downtime but making the most of it. Trending towards
increasing scheduled tasks and identifying the right maintenance jobs are examples of
areas that can pay back in sums.
It may take some time to see significant changes to your bottom line when moving to an
entirely new system. What you need to build confidence is the right data and an objective
approach to analysis.
(a) What is equipment health monitoring? (b) List down the factors for increasing the demand
condition monitoring (c) List down the key features of condition monitoring ?

(a) equipment health monitoring:

Conditions monitoring is one of the maintenance methods which are used to assess the health and
condition of equipments machines, systems or process by absorbing checking, measuring and
monitoring several parameters. This technique is also called as equipment health monitoring.
(b) List down the factors for increasing the demand condition monitoring:

1. Increased quality expectations reflected in produces liability legislation

2. Increased automation to improve profitability and maintain competitiveness
3. Increased safety and reliability expectations
4. Increased cost of maintenance due to labour and material cost.

(c) List down the key features of condition monitoring:

1. Links between cause and effect

2. Systems with sufficient response
3. Mechanisms for objective data assessment
4. Benefits outweighing cost
5. Data storage and review facilities.

(a) What are three types of condition monitoring? (b) State the advantages and disadvantages of
condition monitoring ?

(a) Various types of condition monitoring:

a. Subjective condition monitoring

b. Minimized breakdown costs
c. Improved morality of the operating personnel and safety.

(b) Advantages and disadvantages of condition monitoring:

Advantages
1. Improved availability of equipment
2. Minimized breakdown cost
3. Improved reliability

Disadvantages
1. Gives only marginal benefits
2. Increased running cost
3. Sometimes difficult to organize
Define (a) Mean Time to Failure (b) Mean time between failures (c) Mean Time to Repair (MTTR) ?

(a) Mean Time to Failure:

Let t1 is the time to failure for the first specimen, t2 is the time to failure for the second specimen and tn is the
time to failure for the Nth specimen. Hence the mean time to failure for N specimens are
MTTR = (t1+t2+......+t n) /N

(b) Mean Time between Failures (MTBF):

Mean Time between Failures (MTBF) is the mean or average time between successive
failures of a product. Mean time between failures refers tom the average time of breakdown
until the device is beyond repair.
(c) Mean Time to Repair (MTTR):
Mean Time to Repair is the arithmetic mean of the time required to perform maintenance
action. MTTR is defined as the Ratio of total maintenance time and number of maintenance
action.
MTTR = Total maintenance time/ Number of maintenance action.
What you understand by maintenance organization?

The basic objective of the maintenance organization is to ensure that the maintenance
function ae carried out effectively and hence to minimize the production loss due to
maintenance. There has to be a close relationship between the production and maintenance
departments to achieve the desired targets of the industry. Continuous monitoring of planned
preventive maintenance schedules identified for the equipment is required to complete the
maintenance tasks in time.
A maintenance organization can be countered as made up of three basic and necessary components.
o Resources
o Administration
o Work planning and control system.
Resources
Resources include men, spares and tools involved in the task of maintenance.
Administration
It includes a nearby of authority and responsibility for decision making and plans for the
execution of work.
Work planning and control system
This is the mechanism for planning and scheduling the wok. This also includes the
feedback of information to drive the maintenance effort to its defined objective. Maintenance of
modern equipment and industry requires a healthy, balanced and rationalized organization, devoted to
achieve the goals of maintenance task. The organization required for any system can be formed after
study of the existing continuous and also the future demands of the industry. The increasing complexity
of present day equipment maintenance management has brought into focus two other aspects known as
maintainability and availability, both of them are closely related to reliability.

What are tasks of maintenance organization?

The tasks of the maintenance are as follows:

Identification of organization roles pertaining maintenance function.
Determination of maintenance workload.
Uniform distribution of total maintenance work to all the personal in the department.
Identification and assignment of essential works to the various sections of the
maintenance department
Proper knowledge about the technical expertise/ experience of the workers deputed for
the particular part
Proper training of the staff of maintenance to meet the growing demands of the industry
and to catch up with the modern trends in maintenance.
Designing the policies and procedures at an early stage to help the maintenance
department to achieve the goals of the industry.
What are the maintenance functions and activities?

The functions and activities of the maintenance organization are as follows:

Identifying areas for implementation of preventive maintenance program.

Making suitable arrangements for maintenance facilities for carrying out the maintenance
works properly.
Planning and scheduling the total maintenance work
Ensuring proper and timely supply of spare parts.
Managing proper inventory control of materials spares and tools required for
maintenance.
Standardization of maintenance work.
Implementing modifications to the existing equipment wherever possible.
Assisting the purchase department in processing materials.
Identification of obsdate and surplus equipment for replacement and disposals.
Training of maintenance personnel.
Analysis of future demands and forecast the role of maintenance activities.
Implementation of safety norms and procedures
Ensuring safety of personnel and equipment.

Discuss different types of maintenance organizations?

The selections of a type of maintenance system will largely depend on the structure of an
industry. Maintenance organization can be broadly classified into three types as follows.
i) Decentralized

This is suitable for large sized plants where enter unit communication is difficult to get.
In this type of organization the maintenance is difficult to get. In this type of organization, the
maintenance is under the control of chief engineer of production to ensure understanding
between the production and maintenance department.
ii) Centralized

This is suitable for small units where unit communication is feasible. In this type of
organization the maintenance is under the control of chief maintenance engineer. The
responsibilities accountability is with the concerned department heads.
iii) Partially Centralized

This is the modified version of Centralized maintenance organization and suitable for the
industry where the units are located at far away locations. In this type of organization, the
maintenance personal attached with production unit will carry out the routine maintenance
works. Scheduled maintenance works such as overhauls. Planned maintenance work,
procurement of spare parts is under the control of chief maintenance engineer at the control
office.
There are basically atleast two types of organization are followed in most of the industries. They are
Line organization
Line staff organization.
Line Organization
Line organization consists of a general foreman and a number of specialist foremen with
their under them is shown below
The specialist foreman executes maintenance work in their respective areas while the
general foreman supervises the total work under his control and the various maintenance tasks
carried out in the industry. This kind of structure is an old type maintenance organization.

Line Staff Organization

A few more staff members such as storekeeper and clerk are added to the line
organization to form the line organization structure as given below. The advantage lies in
separating the maintenance work from the storekeeping and the role of clerk is to record the
maintenance activities. The recording of maintenance related activities helps the organization to
restructure the strategies adopted to achieve the objectives of maintenance.

Centrally controlled maintenance organization

Area Maintenance Organisation

The area maintenance organization decentralizes the maintenance function. Maintenance crews are
scheduled or assigned to areas within the plant, building or group of plants or buildings. Each area
supervisor is responsible for maintaining uninterrupted production in his area.

What do you understand by manpower planning?

Manpower planning is basically deals with coordinating, motivating and controlling of the
various activities within the organisation.

It is no doubt, planning is the most essential factors for each and every organisations .
Without planning, no organisation can fulfil its goals. Generally, Human Resource planning
is also called manpower planning.

Manpower Planning is the development of strategies to match the supply of manpower to

the availability of jobs at organizational, regional or national level.

Manpower planning involves reviewing current manpower resources, forecasting future

requirements and availability, and taking steps to ensure that the supply of people and skills
meets demand.

What are the objectives of manpower planning?

1. Demonstrate understanding of competency based approach in human resource.

2. Utilise tools in identifying current staff competencies and gaps, vis -a-vis, the
organization’s goal and targets.

3. Demonstrate skills in conducting training needs analysis.

4. Formulate strategies for addressing identified training needs, prepare and design training
modules and develop curriculum for training course and cost estimates.

5. Demonstrate the abilities to have the human resources development plan appro ved by the
appropriate decision making body.

6. Design different training programmes to meet specific needs of particular group.

7. Formulate detailed implementation schedule.

8. Design evaluation tool.

9. Implement training and development activities, programmes and plans.

10. Write a professional report.

11. Demonstrate knowledge on using relevant analytical tools for planning.

12. Explain the relationship between the organization strategic plan and the strategic
human resources development planning process.

13. Conduct a comparative study on the current human resources development planning
process.

Discuss about importance of manpower planning?

Importance # 1. Key to Managerial Functions:

The four managerial functions, i.e., planning, organising, directing and controlling are based
upon the manpower. Human resources help in the implementation of all these managerial
activities. Therefore, staffing becomes a key to all managerial functions.

Importance # 2. Efficient Utilization:

Efficient management of personnels becomes an important function in the industrialization
world of today. Setting of large-scale enterprises require management of large-scale
manpower. It can be effectively done through staffing function.

Importance # 3. Motivation:

Staffing function not only includes putting right men on right job, but it also comprises of
motivational programmes, i.e., incentive plans to be framed for further participation and
employment of employees in a concern. Therefore, all types of incentive plans becomes an
integral part of staffing function.

Importance # 4. Better Human Relations:

A concern can stabilize itself if human relations develop and are strong. Human relations
become strong trough effective control, clear communication, effective supervision and
leadership in a concern. Staffing function also looks after training and development of the
work force which leads to co-operation and better human relations.

Importance # 5. Higher Productivity:

Productivity level increases when resources are utilized in best possible manner, higher
productivity is a result of minimum wastage of time, money, efforts and energies. This is
possible through staffing and its related activities (Performance appraisal, training and
development, remuneration).

What are the factors to be considered for working out the manpower planning?

(1) A decision regarding the fields in which the organisation will concentrate its main
effort.

(2) A view should be taken on all share which an organisations can hope to achieve in the
overall market assessed for the line or products or service supplied by the organisation.

(3) The estimate will have to make of the resources and the production / sales capacity
which would be needed by the firm to take full advantage of the market potential.

(4) General production and marketing plans and targets should be prepared for the period
for which planning is proposed to be undertaken.

(5) The area of activity of the firm is one of the potential factor affecting the manpower
planning.
(6) A detailed assessment of the stage of socio-economic development is another important
factor affecting the manpower planning.

(7) A complete survey of Government Policy pertaining to the area of production should be
undertaken which would determine the prospective plans of Manpower.
 What is an Inventory Management System?
Inventory management is a simplified process of sourcing, storing and overseeing a company’s
inventory. Why use spreadsheets or ledgers to manually enter data when you can use an advanced
automated inventory tracking system? The primary goal of investing in an inventory management
system is to discover the balance between over- and under-stocking.

How do you achieve this balance? By analyzing the market supply and demand trends! Conducting
research helps maintain inventory stock levels. You can incorporate an inventory management system
into your business irrespective of its type or size.

Before jumping into the most popular types of inventory management systems, there are a few things to
consider. Different groups, obviously, deal with different types of inventory that inform how their
operations work. Not only that, but once an overarching strategy is chosen, inventory systems within
those strategies require consideration.

Discuss about types of inventory and types of inventory management?

Types of inventory:

While the main focus of this article is the different types of inventory management systems out
there, it can be helpful to think about what type of product needs to be stored first. For example,
a business that operates within the medical sector has vastly different regulations and
compliances to uphold than a company that sells something like clothes. Retail requires its own
set of rules, but nothing to the stringent level of storing and shipping medical supplies or
equipment.

There are a few types of inventory that companies of all shapes and sizes deal with at varying
points:

 Raw Materials: Items used by manufacturers to create components, subassemblies or finished

products.
 Work in Process: All materials or parts waiting to be processed by the system.
 Finished Goods: An item or part ready for a customer to order.
 Transit Inventory: Items you have to transport from one location to another.
 Buffer Inventory: An inventory cushion used to protect against changing demand.
 Anticipation Inventory: Excess inventory kept in anticipation of demand rising for a specific
product.
 Decoupling Inventory: Important parts kept in excess to quickly repair and maintain
production equipment.
 Cycle Inventory: Sometimes called lot-sized inventories. Excess materials held to reach
inventory minimization point to lower costs.
Most businesses will deal with these types of inventory as they grow and attempt to meet
changing demands in the market. Utilizing varying types of inventory management strategies
will involve ordering and keeping stock in accordance with these types of storage practices.

Types of inventory management:

Boiling down the types of inventory management strategies results in two popular methods
many groups use today. In order to remain competitive, organizations need accurate knowledge
of their inventory. Without knowing what is in store, making decisions about
future procurement and distribution tasks can be difficult or even impossible.

An all-encompassing strategy is needed when dealing with how, where and when to place
inventory. The two most popular strategies are the periodic inventory and perpetual
inventory methods:

Periodic Inventory Management:

As the name suggests, periodic inventory management helps evaluate stocks at specified
intervals. It is a physical process that helps estimate the cost of goods sold (COGS). Using
manual methods like pen-and-paper tracking, it is cheap to implement and isn’t complicated to
understand. However, it does come with some disadvantages:

 Does not provide information on costs of goods sold or ending inventory balances during
periods where a count does not occur.
 You have to estimate the cost of goods sold during periods where a count does not occur. This
may require significant adjustments when a complete count happens.
 Obsolete inventory and scrap losses cannot be accounted for during countless periods and will
require a significant adjustment when a count occurs.
While there are a few drawbacks to periodic inventory management, many companies do not
have to spend as much upfront. Again, this strategy is more suited for smaller groups that don’t
 have to worry about large cycle counts in order to stay on top of their inventory management
practices. On the other side of the spectrum, we have the perpetual method.

Perpetual Inventory Management:

When it comes to perpetual inventory management, it continually updates inventory records.
One of the advantages of this management style is that it provides up-to-date inventory level
information and lowers the number of physical counts needed. If inventory records are
continually updated, then employees don’t need to repeatedly check on stock levels, saving time
and money in the process.

However, when considering this method of inventory management, companies must also keep in
mind the technology they have available. An organization needs to have a strong inventory
management system in place, along with a few other subsystems, to make this method efficient.
Requiring these technological inclusions comes with a number of benefits.

However, there are some downsides to consider:

 This type of system relies on specialized software and equipment, which can add a high price
tag to maintaining the business.
 These systems require updates. Depending on the platform’s deployment, this could lead to
costly downtimes when you implement these upgrades.
 Recorded inventory might not reflect actual inventory, and without regular physical inventory
counts, this could lead to discrepancies.
 Improperly scanned items, errors and stolen goods impact inventory records and could cause
inventory counts not to match up.
Now would be a good time to jump into the software side of inventory management and how it
is critical for complex, perpetual-based management operations.

Barcode Systems:
Many inventory management platforms include barcoding systems as a common feature that
helps organize and speed up daily tasks while boosting accuracy and efficiency. When an
employee scans a product in or out, inventory levels are automatically updated.

Mobile scanners are also common features included within these barcode systems, which further
speeds up the scanning process. These systems come with a number of advantages:

 Automatic inventory updates

 Optimized reporting and documentation
 Efficient stock movement within and between warehouses
 Quicker transfers from picking, packing and shipping
 Speedy scanning with mobile tools
 Fewer mistakes related to manual entry

Radio Frequency Identification Systems:

RFID systems are another important facet that many inventory management systems include and
support. From stocktaking capabilities to generating purchase/order history, RFID is digitally
encoded data that help streamline inventory processes. Primarily encrypted in active and passive
RFID smart tags, RFID systems are used for stock control.

You use fixed readers to scan items as they move about the warehouse, and the scanners
automatically add this data to the inventory system. This type of RFID system is known as
active; passive RFID systems require hand-held devices, much like a barcode system. However,
passive technology only has a range of 40 feet for scanning, while active has a range of about
300 feet.

There are a few downsides to RFID tagging systems that are worth mentioning:

 Much more expensive than barcode-based systems.

 RFID tagging suffers from interference issues.
 Transitioning into RFID can be costly as suppliers, customers and transport companies need to
have the equipment available as well.
 RFID tags carry more data than barcodes which can bog down unprepared servers.
Explain the life cost analysis?

The factors to be considered in the purchase of equipment of industries include the

cost, quality, performance and maintenance requirements. Some balance is to be made
between the capital cost and operating cost of the equipment in finding the suitability of
the equipment. The evaluation of any equipment for purchase should be made by keeping
into considerations that total cost incurred by the equipment over a span of time say ten
years. Life cycle costing is the cost analysis for the equipment in an industry that
accounts the total cost of the equipment over a span of time which includes the capital
cost, operating cost and maintenance costs. This analysis is the integration of
engineering, economic and financial strategies in relation to the equipment to be
purchased. The aim of life cycle costing is to ascertain the total cost of equipment over
the span of its entire life period.
Advantages of life cycle costing:
Integration of engineering, economics and financial aspects lead to the way of robust metric for the
selection and purchase equipment required for the industry. Reduced operating and maintenance cost of
equipments due to cost analysis over span of time. It leads to the selection of proper and economically
viable equipment.
Estimation of economic life of equipment:
The economic life of equipment depends on the maintenance and repair costs,
availability and operational efficiency. A plot of cumulative efficiency and maintenance
and repair cost per cumulative hours Vs operating hours of the equipment to find the
economic life of the equipment.
Maintenance Cost:
Budgets are allocated for all the activities in planning stage itself which includes
the maintenance cost. The cost of maintenance is difficult to measure due to random
nature of failures.

The records on maintenance history may be useful in determining the cost. The analysis
of maintenance cost is helpful in taking a decision regarding replacement of a machine or
any of its components.

Discuss about maintenance budget briefly?

The maintenance budget is used to set aside certain amount of money to meet the
expenditures incurred in achieving the objectives of maintenance. The following are the
types of maintenance budget,
(i) Appropriation Budget
Budget used to allocate money for each activity independently.
(ii) Fixed Budget
Fixed used to allocate money for a specified period of time.
(iii) Variable Budget
Dynamic allocation of expendure based on maintenance requirements and
activities.

Which factors should be considered for evaluation of maintenance cost?

The evaluation of maintenance cost should consider the following

factors.
Cost of maintenance from the recorded data.
Level and requirements of maintenance.
Cost of replacement of components and assemblies subjected to wear
and tear.
Accounting the number of break downs with their levels
Downtime of the equipment for want of maintenance repair.
Penalty cost due to loss of production.
Cost of manpower involved.
Cost of additional manpower requirement for emergency breakdown
and maintenance.

Discuss about how to Cost minimization in maintenance organization?

Centralized planning, scheduling and control

Grouping of specialized workforce
Effective labour utilization strategies
Budgetary control and proper check mechanism to implement the cost control
strategies.
Proper and effective use of contract maintenance system to reduce the overhead
costs on equipment and manpower.
Purchase of reliable equipment and spares.
Use of skilled and trained workforce.
Proper selection of suitable type of spares, materials and lubricating.
Proper safety education and formulating the safe practice.
Constant appraisal and education to workforce about the objectives, strategies and
modern techniques adopted in the area of maintenance

State the steps necessary to reduce the maintenance cost in an industry?

Maintenance should be one of the key strategies to keeping the plant's assets
healthy. While equipment upkeep and parts replacements are necessary, there are
steps that can reduce maintenance costs without decreasing industry processing
facility's operational efficiencies.
a) Examine the necessary things to do and not:
When first purchasing the equipment in an industry, ensure the review
its maintenance requirements with the manufacturers and the subject
matter experts, whether those are engineers or senior maintenance
professionals.
It should confirm that all of the suggested maintenance is actually
needed, as unnecessary maintenance can actually induce equipment
failure.
For example, at one of the plant, pumps were undergoing preventive
maintenance every quarter to prevent pump failures. This maintenance
was actually inducing premature failure.
After engineering performed a detailed root-cause analysis, a different
pump was specified and preventive maintenance was moved to a yearly
event, leading to better system performance and reduced maintenance
costs.
Benefits: Decreased labour costs, Reduced parts purchases, Increased
the efficiency and overall uptime of the system
b) Select a suitable measurement system:
Take a compressor, for example. Some companies may think they need
to rebuild a compressor every three years. But what if that compressor
runs only one month out of every four months? You're basing your
preventive maintenance on a calendar year, not on the compressor's
running hours.
Preventive maintenance should be performed based on the most
applicable measurement system for the equipment.
c) Pick the optimal time to perform maintenance:
Preventive maintenance should be scheduled maintenance, tuned to the
specific needs of the production schedule.
This way, processing plant can take assets out of service at a time that
allows maximizing the uptime or efficiency.
Most companies complete their preventive maintenance in the cooler
months of the year.
Compressor and evaporator rebuilds are easier to perform in the winter
because the temperatures are not as hot, requiring less of a refrigeration
load. This offsets labour costs, too.
d) Maximize the efficiency of the industry staff :
By training production workers to provide preventive maintenance
assistance on a daily or weekly basis, have to maximize the efficiency of
processing plant staff and take the preventive maintenance burden off of
the senior professionals.
Preventive maintenance tasks that production workers can complete
include:
Cleaning up the equipment
Inspecting specific items
Watching particular equipment characteristics
However, once a monitored characteristic is showing signs of needing
preventive maintenance, you need to bring in a subject matter expert to
complete the work or provide additional planning.
e) Develop an overall maintenance strategy:
Preventive maintenance is only one type of maintenance that should be
part of the overall strategy, including: Preventive maintenance,
Predictive maintenance, Reactive maintenance.
If preventive maintenance in conjunction with a predictive and reactive
maintenance strategy, maintenance costs can control while managing
downtime and maximizing uptime.

Write down a brief view on estimation economic life of equipment?

Estimation economic life of equipment:

The economic life of equipment depends on the maintenance of repair costs, availability
and operational efficiency. A plot of cumulative efficiency and maintenance and repair cost per
cumulative hours vs operating hours of the equipment to find the economic life of the
equipment.
Maintenance Cost
Budgets are allocated for all the activities in planning stage itself which includes the
 maintenance cost. The cost of maintenance is difficult to measure due to random nature of
failures. The words on maintenance history may be useful in determining the cost.
Component of Maintenance Cost
o Fixed cost
o Variable cost
Fixed Cost
This includes the cost of support facilities including the maintenance staff.
Variable Cost
This includes the consumption of spare parts, replacement of components and cost other
facilities
required to meet the requirements of maintenance.
The evaluation of maintenance cost should consider the following factors
Cost of maintenance from the recorded data.
Level and requirements of maintenance.
Cost of replacement of components and assemblies subjected to wear and tear.
Accounting the number of break downs with their levels
Downtime of the equipment for want of maintenance repair.
Penalty cost due to loss of production.
Cost of manpower involved.
Cost of additional manpower requirement for emergency breakdown and
maintenance.

What do you understand by maintenance audit?

A maintenance audit is a comprehensive and systematic review of an organization’s

maintenance, inventory, and processes. It evaluates how activities and standards are maintained, such
as in-house facilities and repair processes. Audits help you ensure quality, health, and safety at your
facilities.

Auditing firms inspect a variety of maintenance functions, including:

 Safety
 Training
 Planning
 Scheduling
 Equipment maintenance
 Maintenance practices and organization
 Management of documents, inventory, and purchasing
Although they can be stressful, audits protect both you and your
organization. The primary purpose of any audit is to see how well you’re following your SOPs, check
for problems or shortcomings, and, if there are any problems, create a plan of action that addresses
them.

Audits are a way to ensure your procedures meet every requirement and that everything is working as
effectively as possible.

What are the importance of maintenance audit?

Maintenance audits give managers a clear view of what’s happening in the organization, which helps
them more easily set benchmarks. By comparing the baseline data to correct procedures, managers can
more easily define problems and implement solutions.

Audits also protect you and the organization from liability because generally audits focus on safety
standards and procedures, helping to lower the risk of workplace incidents. With regular audits, you
ensure your organization is meeting requirements and that you are covered in the event of accidents or
injuries.

You must include audits to ensure you provide safe working conditions for your employees and safe
products for your consumers. Audits help hold you accountable, as they are often done by third-party
companies. This

means they view your organization through an objective lens to provide integrity for their audits.

What are the types of maintenance audits?

There are three types of maintenance audits.

Mandatory audits
This type of audit is required by law. They are a comprehensive inspection of processes carried out by
governmental agencies and include maintenance processes. For example, the U.S Food and Drug
Administration conducts regular audits to ensure practices follow the proper manufacturing processes.
 Voluntary audits
A voluntary audit is a way for a company to have the freedom to complete audits that are not mandated
or compelled by law and are used to obtain certification that gives organizations an edge over the
competition.

For example, some food safety certifications in the food and beverage

industry are voluntary, as well as some playground safety audits. By submitting to the audit, the
organization proves its commitment to meeting the industry’s current best practices.

Maintenance audit

A maintenance audit is an internal audit that organizations include in their plans for improvement.
They are important to do regularly as they help organizations evaluate if their current processes and
systems are effective, giving them a chance to correct any problems they find.

Maintenance audits foster continuous improvements, especially when their results are compared
against company codes, policies, and other indicators.

Knowing the types of audits to expect helps you improve over time and be better prepared.

State the different types of maintenance cost?

There are many types of maintenance costs that correlate with a company's property and equipment.
Some types of maintenance costs include:

Property:

Property maintenance costs help a company keep its facilities operational. Regardless if a facility is a
production facility or office building, companies gain property maintenance costs. Property
maintenance costs companies incur include:

 Changing facility air filters

 Roofing inspection and repair
 Testing smoke and carbon monoxide detectors
 Vehicles:

Vehicles also require regular maintenance to remain functional and safe. Recurring maintenance, such
as oil changes and tire rotations, can help vehicles extend their useful life to a company. Some common
items mechanics replace or maintain on a vehicle include:

 Vehicle fluids
 Oil filter
 Wiper blades
 Tires
 Engine belts
 Brakes

Technology and electronics:

Many companies also incur technology or electronic maintenance costs. These costs can change based
on how much technology or electronic items a company uses regularly. Some technology or electronic
costs a company might allocate for maintenance expenses include:

 System patches
 Upgrades
 Security updates
 Screen repair
 Keyboard replacement

Office equipment:

Companies also maintain office equipment to enhance the feel and productivity of employee
workspaces. Some companies may repair or replace outdated office equipment, which can improve
office efficiency and ergonomics. Office equipment that many companies maintain, repair or replace
includes:

 Standing desks
 Office chairs
 Storage lockers

Employee costs:

Companies also invest in maintaining employee loyalty. Some companies incur these maintenance
costs as overtime hours, benefits programs or company events. Employee maintenance costs can
include:

 Company meals or refreshments

 Tuition reimbursement programs
 Quarterly or annual bonuses
 Insurance:

Companies also invest in maintaining insurance coverage for their operations. Insurance costs are
typically a fixed rate that can help a company budget for these expenses. Insurance programs that
companies often allocate maintenance expenses for include:

 General liability insurance

 Commercial property insurance
 Business income insurance

Production equipment:

Companies in manufacturing industries also incur maintenance costs for their production equipment.
These costs can vary based on preventative maintenance programs and emergency maintenance needs.
Companies often establish robust maintenance programs to maximize productivity and reduce
equipment downtime
 What is NDT (Non-Destructive Testing) ?

NDT refers to an array of inspection techniques that allow inspectors to collect data about a
material without damaging it.

NDT stands for Non-Destructive Testing. It refers to an array of inspection methods that
allow inspectors to evaluate and collect data about a material, system, or component without
permanently altering it.

In the field, NDT is often used as an umbrella term to refer to non-destructive inspection
methods, inspection tools, or even the entire field of non-destructive inspections.

For commercial applications, the goal of NDT is to ensure that critical infrastructure is
properly maintained in order to avoid catastrophic accidents.

While NDT methods are typically associated with industrial use cases, like inspecting weak
points in a boiler at an oil refinery, uses in medicine are actually some of the most common.

For example, an expecting mother getting an ultrasound to check on the health of her baby
would be considered an NDT use case, as would getting an X-ray or MRI to learn more
about an injury.

But it’s important to note that NDT does not necessarily require the use of special tools, or
any tools at all.

For instance, when inspectors in industrial settings review the outside of a pressure vessel
with their naked eye, that would fall under the NDT designation, since they are collecting
data on the status of the boiler without damaging it. On the other hand, using a sophisticated
tool like an ultrasonic sensor to look for defects in a certain material or asset would also be
called NDT.

What is the importance of NDT (Non-Destructive Testing)?

When it comes to ensuring that assets are properly maintained, the importance of non-
destructive testing cannot be over emphasized.

Here are the top reasons NDT is used by so many companies throughout the world:

 Savings. The most obvious answer to this question is that NDT is more appealing than
destructive testing because it allows the material or object being examined to survive the
examination unharmed, thus saving money and resources.
 Safety. NDT is also appealing because almost all NDT techniques (except radiographic
testing) are harmless to people.
 Efficiency. NDT methods allow for the thorough and relatively quick evaluation of assets,
which can be crucial for ensuring continued safety and performance on a job site.
 Accuracy. NDT methods have been proven accurate and predictable, both qualities you
want when it comes to maintenance procedures meant to ensure the safety of personnel and
the longevity of equipment.

"NDT is the life blood of a well-run facility, and the high importance of NDT is known by
any trained inspector. NDT techniques and repeatable results depend on highly trained
technicians with experience and integrity. Not only does the technician need to be certified
in a specific NDT method, but they also need to know how to operate the equipment being
used to gather data. Understanding equipment capabilities and limitations is the difference
between making an accept or reject determination."

Discuss different types of NDT methods?

1. Thermal/Infrared Testing

Flash Thermography for Battery Inspection

Infrared Non-Destructive Testing has been around for more than 30 years, but has recently
gained more momentum. Infrared non-destructive testing is based on the principle of
thermal wave imaging. It is considered an active thermography method, as opposed to a
passive method.
The active part comes from using an external heat source to warm up the part. Whereas in
standard thermography, the camera is usually capturing heat, inherent to the process.

Examples of Thermal/Infrared Inspections:

Finding disbonds in aluminum structures like on an aircraft fuselage or seeing corrosion

behind painted surfaces. Other examples include: identifying failure points in
microelectronics, evaluating laser weld penetration, and visualizing wheel cracks.

2. Radiography Testing

Radiographic testing (RT) uses X-radiation or gamma radiation to find imperfections in a

component or system. An X-ray generator or radioactive isotope is used to send radiation
into the material being tested. The radiations are then caught by a detector. The resulting
shadowgraph is then used by inspectors to look for potential issues.

Example of Radiography Inspections:

X-rays and CT scans can be used in industrial radiography to see detailed images of the
tested material.

3. Visual Inspections

Visual testing is a way of checking the condition of a material by looking at it. This is the
most basic form of testing, and you can do it just by looking at the material. For more
detailed visual inspections, you can use a Remote Visual Inspection device to get a closer
look.

Example of Visual Testing:

Maintenance professionals use the visual testing method on a daily basis to check for
common signs of wear and tear on industrial machinery.
4. Leak Testing

Leak testing is used to study leaks and identify defects in structures or vessels. Inspectors
often use soap-bubble examinations, pressure gauges, and listening devices to conduct leak
testing.

Example of Leak Testing:

A good example of leak testing is using it to find leaks in sealed packaging or devices that
do not include an opening for filling.

5. Acoustic Emission Testing

Accoustic Emission Testing (Image Source)

Acoustic emission (AE) testing uses acoustic emissions to identify potential defects in an
asset. This testing involves looking for acoustic energy bursts, as these bursts indicate
defects. The arrival time, location and intensity of a burst are also examined to identify
potential issues.

Example of Acoustic Emission Testing:

AE testing is commonly used to inspect structures such as pressure vessels, pipelines,

storage tanks, aircraft structures and steel cables for any defects.

6. Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing uses high-frequency sound waves to detect and evaluate flaws, measure
dimensions, and characterize materials. It is performed with an ultrasonic receiver and
transmitter.

Example of Ultrasonic Inspections:

Ultrasonic testing can be used to identify defects and deformation in the wheels and axles of
railway carriages.

7. Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle testing is a process of detecting flaws in a material by observing

disruptions in the flow of the material’s magnetic field. To carry out these tests, an inspector
first induces a magnetic field in a magnetically susceptible asset. They then sprinkle iron
particles over the surface of the material. These particles will reveal any disruptions,
providing a visual indication of where the imperfections are located.

Examples of Magnetic Particle Testing:

A good example for magnetic particle testing is using it to inspect internal and external
surfaces of boiler and pressure vessels.

8. Liquid Penetrant Testing

When conducting liquid penetrant testing, an inspector will apply a coating of liquid with a
fluorescent or visible dye to an asset. They will then remove any excess solution from the
surface of the asset. The remaining solution is left in any breaks or defects in the surface.
These defects will be revealed by the dye, which can then be removed using ultraviolet
light. With regular dyes, inspectors will study defects by the contrast between the developer
and penetrant.

Example of Liquid Penetrant Inspection:

 A good example for penetrant testing can be used for inspecting weld metal build-up on
plates.

9. Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing is a form of electromagnetic testing where inspectors measure the
strength of eddy currents (electrical currents) in a material’s magnetic field. By looking for
interruptions in the current, inspectors can often spot defects in the asset or material.

Examples of Eddy Current Testing:

This type of test method can be used for surface scanning, subsurface inspection, weld
inspection, fastener hole inspection, tube inspection, heat treatment verification, and metal
grade sorting.

Make a list of different types of wrenches and discuss about any five type of wrenches
which are mostly used?

Following are the 31 types of wrenches and their uses:

1. According to the Standard Types of Wrenches

1. Pipe wrench
2. Chain wrench
3. Socket wrench
4. Torque wrench
5. Ratcheting Wrench
6. Oil Filter Wrench
7. Combination wrench
 8. Adjustable wrench
9. Impact Wrench
10. Crowfoot Wrench
2. According to the Special Types of Wrenches
1. Pedal Wrench
2. Monkey wrench
3. Pliers Wrench
4. Strap wrench
5. Plumber’s Wrench
6. Tap Wrench
7. Spud Wrench
8. Alligator Wrench
9. Basin Wrench
10. Armorer’s Wrench
11. Dog Bone Wrench
12. Drum Key
13. Bung Wrench
14. Fan Clutch Wrench
15. Hammer Wrench
16. Torx Key
17. Cone Wrench
18. Garbage Disposal Wrench
19. Tension Wrench
20. Spoke Wrench
21. Spanner Wrench

#1 Pipe Wrench

Pipe Wrench
As per its name, this spanner is used to fasten or dismantle pipes and their units. Its jaw is
made of forging tough steel. On its movable jaw flat threads are cut and on its fixed jaw, a
plate is joined with a groove In it.

A knurled round nut is fitted in this groove. On revolving this nut, the movable jaw
increases or reduces the size by moving up or down. A spring is fixed between the fixed and
movable jaw, which helps in the proper grip of the job. Pipe wrenches are made of 6”, 9”,
and 18”.

#2 Chain Wrench

Chain Wrench
In order to fasten or dismantle pipes or round jobs of larger diameter, a chain wrench is
used. When the job is held in the wrench it is revolved. A plate having cuts in its mouth is
fitted, which is joined with a rivet. Chain drips the job very strongly.
 #3 Socket Wrench

Socket Wrench
Theloosen
or socketthe
wrench
nuts or(or
bolts
ratchet)
without
usesremoving
a ratcheting
the mechanism
wrench fromtothe
allow
fastener.
you to quickly tighten

This type of wrench is available with 1/4″, 3/8″ (most common), 1/2″, and 1″ drives, you fit
just the right size socket you will need at the top of the drive. If an obstacle is found while
turning the handle, You can reverse the course just to give yourself room and then continue
working.

#4 Torque Wrench

Torque Wrench
These types of wrenches are made to provide a certain amount of torque without overtaking
or tightening. There can be different types available (involving manual, digital, and other
variations).

It is commonly used for automotive work for tightening wheel lug nuts. A torque wrench
may be used on bicycles, farming equipment, or any situation where tightening the nut or
bolt to a particular torque specification is usually determined by the manufacturer.

#5 Ratcheting Wrench

Ratcheting Wrench
The ratcheting
least one end inside
wrench
which
is similar
is a ratcheting
to the combination
device. wrench, the ratcheting wrench has at

This wrench permits you to turn the wrench to tighten or loosen without removing and
readjusting the position of the wrench handle hitting an obstacle after each turn. This makes
it very easy to work in tight areas.

Write short notes on Vibration monitor, compressor and chain pulley block?

Vibration monitor:

It is a device which analyse or monitor vibration caused by mainly unbalancing. ibration analysis
is a process of looking for anomalies and monitoring change from the established vibration
signature of a system. The vibration of any object in motion is characterized by variations of
amplitude, intensity, and frequency. These vibration signatures can be correlated to physical
 phenomena, making it possible to use vibration data to gain insights into the health of equipment.
Vibration analysis can be used to:

 Find a developing problem that can be repaired to increase machine lifetime

 Detect and monitor a chronic problem that cannot be repaired and will only get worse
 Establish acceptance testing criteria to ensure that installation/repairs are properly conducted
 24/7 continuous vibration monitoring can be use to predict failures as part of a

Motor Vibration Monitoring

Motors will likely experience high vibration levels at some point during their lifetime.
Performing predictive maintenance through motor vibration monitoring can prevent issues
resulting from a variety of motor faults, including those often found in motor bearings, gearboxes
and rotors:

Bearing Condition Monitoring

Bearing defects are often the source of vibration in machinery, but bearing condition monitoring
can help keep identify these defects and determine when repairs or replacements are needed.
Bearing defects can include excessive loads, true or false brinelling, over heating, reverse
loading, normal fatigue failure, corrosion, loose or tight fits, and misalignment, among other
potential problems.

Gearbox Vibration Monitoring

Another application for machine condition monitoring includes gearbox vibration monitoring. In
gearboxes, impacting and friction can occur, and a single crack in a gear could cause a slight
change in speed once the defective teeth are inside of the load zone. This will result in impacting,
and if there is insufficient lubrication for the gear teeth, friction will also occur. Machine
vibration monitoring can detect these instances of impacting and friction in predictive
maintenance.

Rotor Vibration Monitoring

There are several causes of lateral vibrations in rotors, including instability and unbalance, along
with other types of forces impacting the rotor. Cracks are often formed, frequently leading to
reduced natural frequencies as a result of reduced rigidness. Rotor vibration analysis can monitor
the rotor’s behavior to help locate a developed crack.

Compressor:

compressor, device for increasing the pressure of a gas by mechanically decreasing its volume.
Air is the most frequently compressed gas but natural gas, oxygen, nitrogen, and other
industrially important gases are also compressed. The three general types of compressors are
positive displacement, centrifugal, and axial. Positive displacement compressors are usually of
the reciprocating piston type, in which the gas is drawn in during the suction stroke of the piston,
compressed by decreasing the volume of the gas by moving the piston in the opposite direction,
and, lastly, discharged when the gas pressure exceeds the pressure acting on the outlet
valve. Reciprocating compressors are useful for supplying small amounts of a gas at relatively
high pressures.

Centrifugal compressors increase the kinetic energy of the gas with a high-speed impeller and
then convert this energy into increased pressure in a divergent outlet passage called the diffuser.
Centrifugal compressors are particularly suited for compressing large volumes of gas
to moderate pressures. In axial compressors the gas flows parallel to the axis of rotation of the
rotor, which has many rows of aerodynamically shaped blades extending radially outward. The
rotor is surrounded by a stationary casing that contains a similar number of rows of blades
extending inward and fitting between the rows of rotor blades. As gas passes through the
compressor, its velocity is alternately increased and decreased. During each increase in velocity
the kinetic energy of the gas is increased, and during each decrease in velocity this kinetic energy
is converted into an increase in pressure. This type of compressor is used for jet aircraft engines
and gas turbines.

Chain pulley block:

A Chain Block is a lifting and lowering device that uses a chain to raise and lower large items.
Chain blocks are made up of two wheels around which a chain is coiled.
Whenever you pull on the Hand chain, it wraps around the wheels and starts to hoist the object. It
has been secured to the rope or chain using a hook and chain. Additionally, lifting slings or chain
bags might have chain blocks connected to them to distribute the weight equally.
Chain blocks are a very adaptable method of lifting heavy weights, and they are often controlled
by hand. Lifting chain, hand chain, and base hook are components of a typical Chain Block.
The base hook of the Chain Pulley Block connects it to the object’s weight. Consider utilizing
slings to help you keep track of bigger items. Tension builds when the hand chain is pulled,
which causes the weight to rise from the ground and creates tension in the internal chain.
A Chain Block comprises three major components: a load chain, a hand chain, and a hook. Chain
blocks are also powered by electricity, although manual chain blocks may also be utilized in
many situations.
The grasping hook must be used to link the chain block to the load before using it.
Chain Blocks are often employed in garages because of their lifting capabilities, which allow
them to quickly and efficiently remove engines from automobiles. Because a single person can
control them, Chain Blocks are an incredibly efficient method to execute operations that would
otherwise need more than two personnel.
Installation and maintenance of machinery may be done using chain block lifting equipment.
They are also ideal for overhead work and small places. You can choose also an alternative of a
Chain Pully Block is Electric Chain Hoist.

Discuss about usage of lubrication in industry and lubricants?

Lubrication:

Lubrication can be defined as the application of some materials between two objects moving
relative to each other to allow smooth operation as much as necessary. Either oil or grease is used
for rolling bearings to prevent noise, wear and tear, and heat from being generated from their
rolling and sliding movements, and in some special cases, solid lubricants are occasionally used.
The amounts and kinds of lubricants for rolling bearings are determined depending on operation
speed, temperature, and surrounding condition, and so on. Because lubricants have spent their
service-life or polluted with foreign materials, they cannot serve their function well hence they
have to be periodically replaced or oiled.

Purpose of Lubrication:
The main purposes of lubrication are as follows: i. To prevent wear and premature fatigue by
forming the lubrication film on the surface of load transferring parts to prevent contacts between
metals. ii. To enhance the favorable driving characteristics, such as low noise or friction. iii. To
prevent overheating of bearings and to prevent lubricants deterioration by radiating the generated
heat to outside. It works particularly well if the circulation lubrication method is adopted. iv. To
prevent foreign material penetration, rust, and corrosion.

Lubricants:
In all types of machines, the surfaces of moving or sliding or rolling parts rub against each other.
Due to the mutual rubbing of one part against another, a resistance is offered to their movement.
This resistance is known as friction. It causes a lot of wear and tear of surfaces of moving parts.
Any substance introduced between two moving/sliding surfaces with a view to reduce the friction
(or frictional resistance) between them, is known as a lubricants. The main purpose of a lubricant
is to keep the moving/sliding surfaces apart, so that friction and consequent destruction of
material is minimized. The process of reducing friction between moving/sliding surfaces, by the
introduction of lubricants in between them, is called lubrication.

Function of Lubricants:
(1) It reduces wear and tear of the surfaces by avoiding direct metal to metal contact between the
rubbing surfaces, i.e. by introducing lubricants between the two surfaces (2) It reduces expansion
of metal due to frictional heat and destruction of material (3) It acts as coolant of metal due to
heat transfer media (4) It avoids unsmooth relative motion (5) It reduces maintenance cost (6) It
also reduces power loss in internal combustion engines

Classification of Lubricants:
Lubricants are classified on the basis of their physical state, as follows; (a) Liquid lubricants or
Lubricating Oils, (b) Semi-solid lubricants or Greases and (c) Solid lubricants. (a) Liquid
lubricants or Lubricating oils: Lubricating oils also known as liquid lubricants and further
classified into three categories; (i) Animal and Vegetables oils, (ii) Mineral or Petroleum oils and
(iii) blended oils.
 What are the methods available for the detection of cracks in cast or weld components?

There are several methods for component testing. A distinction is made between two
classical approaches:

 Destructive testing
 Non-Destructive testing

Components from batches that are later resold and installed can only be tested in a
random and destructive manner. As the need for testing increases, the cost of the scrap
caused by the test rises. As a result, a complete test is methodologically impossible.

On this note, the field of non-destructive testing has been developed. Based upon this,
different methods are available depending on the testing task:

1. Visual Inspection (VT)

2. Dye penetrantion testing (PT)
3. Eddy current testing (ET)
4. Thermographic tests (TT)
5. Magnetic particle testing (MT)
6. Ultrasonic testing (UT)

Different test methods are used depending on the application. Essential influencing
factors are the test material, the size, the defect pattern, and the test task, as well as the
required cycle time and the available budget.

Write a short note on feeler gauge?

Feeler gauges, sometimes called thickness gauges or feeler gages, are mechanical
measurement instruments that are used to provide a precise reading of the gap that exists
between two parallel surfaces, such as the clearance between two machine parts or
elements. Feeler gauges are typically sold as what is termed a set, with each set
consisting of a series of dimensionally accurate pieces of shim stock that are joined using
a common shaft and nut or riveted connection. The individual pieces, which are called
blades, leaves, or plates, have very precisely calibrated thicknesses and can fold or fan
out as needed when a measurement is to be taken, and can be recessed back on top of one
another to fit into the gauge handle, which serves to protect the individual blades from
damage when the tool is not in use. The blades are typically produced from a high carbon
steel material. The use of high carbon steel is designed to ensure that the blade material
will not compress during the measurement process, thus assuring that the gap
measurements are accurate. Some models have a locking nut that can be tightened to
maintain the blade position during use.

Each blade is annotated with its thickness designation. Different feeler gauge sets are sold
with varying numbers of blades in them, which then corresponds to the overall gap range
for which the gauge can be utilized.

Types of Feeler Gauges:

The most common type of feeler gauge, called a straight leaf or straight blade gauge,
consists of straight blades of uniform width constructed of high carbon steel sold in a set
to cover specific dimensional values. However, there are variations on this standard that
serve specific purposes.

Go/no-go feeler gauges utilize blades that have a precision step between two specific
thicknesses, rather than having blades that have a uniform thickness across their entire
length. Go/no-go feeler gauges are designed to simplify the interpretation of the clearance
or gap value by reducing the need to rely on the user’s “feel” of the gauge, instead
bracketing the clearance or gap value with a greater than/less than tolerance window.

Write a short note on scrapper used as a maintenance equipment?

The scraper machine in engineering is a device that moves the earth over short distances
and relatively level terrain. It consists of a wagon with a gate with a bladed bottom that
can either be self-propelled or towed. As the wagon advances and pulls the dug material
into the cart, the blade scratches the dirt. The material is transported to the disposal site
after filling the wagon and closing the gate. In the construction of highways, the scraper
is the most used tool.
A scraper machine is one of the biggest pieces of machinery you’ll encounter on a
building site. This device’s function is to scrape the earth’s surface to ready a location for
construction. For road work, it is frequently employed. The scraper does exactly what it
says on the tin: it smooths down the top layer of the ground. These devices can either be
towed or self-propelled. But each scraper has a wagon with a gate with a bottom blade.
While the wagon moves forward, this blade scrapes the ground, propelling the excavated
dirt and debris into the wagon. Once the wagon is loaded and transported to a location
where it can be disposed of, the gate closes.

Over a sizable region of land, scraper machines remove layers of soil. The operator drops
a sharp, horizontal blade from the trailer, also known as the bowl, into the ground below
as the scraper machine and its attached trailer pass over a section of dirt that must be
removed. Dirt is gathered or scraped as the scraper machine advances into the bowl,
which is later collected when it is full.

Components of Scraper Machine

 Bowl
 Apron
 Ejector
1. Bowl
The bowl is a box with inflexible sides, a movable front in the form of the apron, and a
movable back in the form of the ejector. Cutting edges are attached to the bowl’s forward
edge. The cutting edges are fastened to the bowl’s base and made of steel that resists
wear. The following are the three primary cutting edges:

1. The straight cutting edge is the most effective for grading with a smooth finish.

2. The curved cutting edge penetrates more deeply than a straight edge.

3. The centrepiece of the three-piece cutting edge is placed in front of the two sides for
deeper penetration. The stinger is the name for the centrepiece.

Typically, side cutters are bolted-on wear plates attached to the bowl’s bottom front
sides. Typically, the side cutters deteriorate slower than the cutting edges.

2. Apron
The forward portion and a portion of the bottom of the bowl assembly are formed by the
apron. It rests at the cutting edges when closed. An operator’s cab lever controls the
hydraulics for the apron. The entire front of the bowl is left open when the apron is
elevated high and far enough forward.

3. Ejector
The back wall of the bowl serves as the ejector. The most typical ejector goes forward
horizontally while being hydraulically regulated, forcing the load out of the bowl. It is
supported by tracks welded to the bowl’s walls and rollers running along the floor.
Explain the principle of lubrication in detail?

In industrial equipments, the surface of the mechanical parts will have physical
contact on the neighbouring parts to establish a relative motion between them.
During operation of the equipments, those contacting surfaces are subjected to
friction which depends on the area of material, properties of material etc which is
undesirable.
This leads to progressive damage resulting in material loss which is defined as
wear. Friction and wear also generate heat and responsible for the overall loss in
system efficiency. All these contribute to significant economic costs due to
equipment failure, cost for replacement and down time.
The primary objective of lubrication is to reduce wear and heat between
contacting surfaces in relative motion. By means of lubrication coefficient of
friction could be reduced and in turn heat and wear of the surfaces. Lubrication
also aids to
(i) reduce oxidation and rust formation
(ii) provide insulation in transformer application
(iii) transmit mechanical power in hydro fluid power systems
(iv) seal against dust, dirt and water.
Selecting the right lubricant, the right amount of lubricant and the correct
application of the lubricant are essential to the successful performance of
any bearing because bearing lubricants serve three purposes:
(i) To reduce friction by separating mating surfaces.
(ii) To transfer heat (with oil lubrication)
(iii) To product from corrosion and with grease lubrication, dirt ingress
The success of these three factors depends heavily on the film thickness on
the raceway and at the rib/roller end contact.

State the methods of lubrication in detail?

Methods of Lubrication:
The following are the various methods of lubrication normally used for industrial
applications
a) Hydrostatic Lubrication
b) Hydrodynamic or Fluid film lubrication
c) Boundary lubrication
d) Elastic hydrodynamic lubrication (EHD)
e) Extreme pressure (EP) Lubrication
In general, the method of lubrication is characterized by the friction and
wears characteristics of wearing surface. Based on the value of ‘R’ which is
defined as follows, the method of lubrication is chosen.
R = Mean fluid film thickness / Surface Roughness (CLA)
Where, R is less than or equal to 1 for boundary lubrication
R is in between 5 and less than or equal to 100 for fluid film lubrication
R is between 1 and 5 for mixed lubrication.
1. Hydrostatic Lubrication:
In hydrostatic lubrication systems, a thin film of lubrication is created
between the journal and the bearing by supplying lubricant under pressure
with an external source like pump. Since the lubricant is supplied under
pressure, this type of bearing is called externally pressurized bearing.
Compared to hydrostatic bearing, hydrodynamic bearings are simple in
construction, easy to maintain and lower in initial as well as maintenance.
2. Hydrodynamic or Fluid Film Lubrication:
In heavily loaded bearings such a thrust bearings and horizontal journal
bearings apart from viscosity of fluid, higher fluid pressure is also required
to support the load until the film is established.
If the pressure is generated externally it is called as hydrostatic lubrication
and if generated internally within the bearing by dynamic action, it is
referred to as hydrodynamic lubrication. In hydrodynamic lubrication, a
fluid wedge is formed by the relative surface motion of the journals or the
thrust runners over their bearing surfaces.
(a) Thrust bearings:
In hydrodynamic lubrication, the wearing surfaces are completely separated
by a film of oil. This type of lubrication is similar to motorized speed
moving on water.
When not moving the boat begins to move, it experiences a resistance due
to the viscosity of water. This causes a slight lift of leading edge of the boat
and allows a small amount of water between it and supporting water film
increases until a constant velocity is reached.
When the velocity is constant the amount of water entering the leading edge
equals the amount passing outward from the trailing edge. For the boat to
remain above the supporting surface there should exist a upward pressure
equals to the load. The same principle can be applied to sliding surface.
The operation of thrust bearing is an example of hydrodynamic lubrication.
Thrust bearing assembly used in hydropower industries are also called tilt
pad bearings. The pads of these bearings are designed to lift and to tilt to
provide enough area for lifting the load of generator.
As the thrust runner moves over the thrust shoe, fluid adhering to the runner
is drawn between the runner and shoe forming a wedge of oil. As the
velocity of thrust runner increases, the pressure of oil wedge and the runner
is lifted as full fluid film lubrication takes place. When the load is high the
pressure pumps are used to provide initial oil film.
(b) Journal Bearing:
The operation of a journal or sleeve bearing is also an example of
hydrodynamic lubrication. When the journal is at rest its weight squeezes
out the oil film so that the journal directly rests on the bearing surface
.
During operation, the journal has the tendency is drawn into contact area
and when the speed increase an oil wedge increase until the journal is lifted
up vertically but also pushed to the side by pressure of oil wedge. When the
journal is rotating at a constant velocity, film thickness will exist only at the
left centre and not at the bottom of the bearing.
3. Boundary Lubrication
When a full fluid film is not developed between rubbing surfaces, the
thickness of film may be reduced so that dry contact is formed at high
points or asperities of mating surfaces. This condition is a characteristic of
boundary lubrication.
This situation arises when anyone of the full film thickness forming factors
are missing. The common examples of this type we experience during
starting and stopping of bearings in equipments. E.g. reciprocating
equipments-compressor pistons, turbine wicket gates, gear teeth contact
etc.
4. Extreme Pressure Lubrication
Anti wear agents which are normally used in boundary lubrication will not
be effective beyond certain temperature (250 degree Celsius). In heavy
loading applications, oil temperature raises beyond the anti wear protection.

Under this situation lubricants containing additives that protect against

extreme pressure called EP lubricants are used.
EP lubrication can be achieved by chemical compounds of boron,
phosphorus, sulphur, chloride or combination of these. These are activated
by high temperature resulting from extreme pressure. At these temperatures
EP molecules become reactive and release derivatives of phosphorous
chloride or sulphur. These derivatives form a solid protective coating that
fills the asperities of the exposed surfaces.
5. Elasto-hydrodynamic (EHD) Lubrication
The lubrication principle is applicable to rolling bodies such as ball or roller
bearings, is known as Elasto-hydrodynamic (EHD) Lubrication. The
formation of the lubricant film between the mating bearing surfaces is
called the elasto-hydrodynamic (EHD) mechanism of lubrication.
The two major considerations in EHD lubrication are the elastic
deformation of the contacting bodies under load and the hydrodynamic
effects forcing the lubricant to separate the contacting surfaces while the
pressure of the load is deforming them.
The contact between the large end of the roller and the inner race rib is
called elasto-hydrodynamic contact or a hydrodynamic contact. As the rib
loads are much lower than the roller loads, the film at the rib end contact is
usually twice as thick as on the roller contact.
However, scoring and welding may still occur in severe conditions,
including high speeds, viscosity, load or inadequate lubrication. In these
conditions, a lubricant with EP additives is to be used to prevent bearing
damage. Even though the lubrication principle of rolling object is different
from sliding objects, the principle of hydrodynamic lubrication can be
applied up to certain limits. An oil wedge similar to hydrodynamic
lubrication exists at lower leading edge of bearings.
Adhesion of oil to the sliding element and supporting surface increases
pressure and creates an oil film between two surfaces. Since the area of
contact is extremely small in a roller bearing or ball bearing, the force per
unit area will be extremely high. Under this pressure, it would appear that
the oil could be squeezed from between the surfaces. However, the
viscosity increase and prevents the oil from being entirely squeezed out.

What are the purposes of using lubrication?

1. To reduce friction. 4. To cool moving elements.

2. To reduce wear. 5. To prevent corrosion.

3. To help dampen shock. 6. To seal out dirt, other contaminants.

The table lists six reasons for lubricating machines. You have examined the first reason, to reduce
friction in some detail. Now consider each of the other five reasons.

2- Reducing Wear

The wearing down of machine parts is caused by friction. If you reduce friction through
lubrication, you also reduce wear. The thickness of the lubricant film is important. If the film is
thick enough, the two surfaces will never actually contact each other. If the film is no quite thick
enough to separate the two pieces, then some of the high points will break off. In many industrial
applications, the film is not thick enough to separate the moving parts completely. This is one
reason why even lubricated parts do wear out.

3- Dampening Shock

The way a lubricant dampens shock is by making use of its ability to distribute pressure. A
practical example of this property is found in gear lubrication. Lubricant is squeezed by the gear
teeth as they mesh together. The squeezing action forces the lubricant to squirt out between
clearance points in the meshed teeth.

Refer to Fig. 1-8 According to logic. If the left-handgear in Fig. 8 is the driving gear. The
pressure on the lubricant should be much greater at point A than at point B. Since fluids quickly
equalised any pressure differences, however, the excessive pressure is instantly drawn from A
and added to B. This reduces the shock at point A.

4- Cooling Action of lubricants

By itself, a lubricant does not have much cooling action; it prevents excessive friction so that less
heat will be generated. But lubricants also carry away some heat from the points where it is
generated to coolers areas, where it is then dispelled into the air.

In many systems, hot oil circulates through an oil cooler the oil cooler may simply have metal
fins to radiate heat into the air, The Figure shows the path of heat flow in a pressurised lubrication
system

5- Corrosion Prevention

Another useful function of lubricants is to prevent or retard rust and corrosion. A lubricant does
this when it forms a protective film on metallic machine parts. The film blocks the direct contact
of metal with oxygen in the air, so that the metal cannot oxidise.

6- Sealing Action of Lubricants

Lubricants serve as seals in machines in two ways. First, a lubricant can seal itself into the place
where it is needed. Second, a lubricant can also seal out dirt and other contaminants from the
contact areas.

A very small amount of grease at the end of the shaft is exposed to the air. It oxidises just a bit,
and becomes a little stiffer than the rest of the grease. The result is a very thin skin or “scab” that
forms on the exposed grease.This scab seals the grease in place and keeps dirt from entering the
bearing.
What Are the Different Types of Lubricants and What Are Their Applications?

Overall, the most common application of a lubricant is to reduce interference between two
surfaces, but keep in mind that each lubricant is unique.

Lubricating machines is frequently assigned to new employees in the industry because it is

thought to be a job for newer workers or apprentices. Although lubrication is a relatively simple
task, it is still beneficial to have a thorough understanding of the various types of lubricants. This
ensures that the incorrect type is never used for the incorrect application. This will undoubtedly
reduce machine downtime and failure.

Let’s start with the fundamentals. Lubricants are classified into four types: oil, grease, penetrating
lubricants, and dry lubricants. The two most common lubricants you’ll encounter on a daily basis
are oil and grease, but your facility will still use dry and penetrating lubricants. It is critical to
understand when and when not to use these various types of lubricants.

The following are some common lubricants and their applications:

Greases

Greases are created by combining oil (typically mineral oil) with thickeners (such as lithium-
based soaps). Lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide, graphite, and others may be combined
with additional particles.

Greases have the ability to mix well with the lubricants in the oil, adding stickiness and allowing
the lubricants to collect on the surfaces. Grease can also act as a barrier, protecting surfaces from
contaminants that can damage the surface.

Several greases and oils, for example, came in a variety of consistencies. Grease has a
disadvantage in fast running devices due to its extreme thickness and sticky nature, which can
easily cause resistance.

When Should You Use Grease?

 As for gears, bearings, chains, and linkages

 You require the lubricant to adhere to the surface for an extended period of time.
 You want to keep dust and water droplets out.
 You may forget to oil the machine because you use it so infrequently.

Grease should not be used in the following situations:

 Your machine contains fast-moving or fine parts, and grease may cause it to slow
down or create too much resistance.
 Moving parts can fling grease around, making it difficult to keep the area clean.
 You have fine or fast-moving mechanisms where thick grease would be too much of
a barrier.

Oils

These thin liquids are made up of long polymer chains with additional additives. Such as
antioxidants, which prevent the oil from oxidising, corrosion inhibitors, which prevent corrosion,
and detergents, which prevent the formation of deposits. They are difficult to squeeze out
between the surfaces of the long chains, but with the application of oil, you can create a slippery
barrier between them. Oils have different weights based on their viscosity. Lower numbers
indicate an easy flow.

When Should You Use Oil:

 Hinges, bearings, tool maintenance, and blade sharpening

 You want to lubricate something without encountering the resistance that is typical
when using grease.
 You require lubrication but do not want to disassemble everything, so you wick the
oil into a small space.

Oil should not be used in the following situations:

The machine or part that requires lubrication appears dirty or dusty. Adding oil to a dirty or
compromised area will increase friction or cause the oil to “gum up.” Furthermore, if the surface
is not clean, oils with a lower viscosity will drip or run.

If the surface is wet or will become wet, the oil will be washed away. This is a common
misconception because oil does make things waterproof. However, as the oil absorbs the water,
its adhesion decreases and the parts that required lubrication in the first place are washed away.

Penetrating Lubricants

If you’re a shade-tree mechanic, you’ll understand why these lubricants deserve their own
section. These lubricants serve as shields for a variety of stuck-bolt combatants. These covered
elements, penetrating lubricants, on the other hand, are not designed for long-term lubrication.
Because of their low viscosity, these oils are specifically designed for one purpose: to infiltrate
the small cracks on the surfaces, increase lubrication, and split up the rust. There are many
different types of penetrating oils, but you must know how to make low-cost penetrating oils.

When Should You Use Penetrating Lubricant:

 Unstucking seized nuts or bolts. This will set them free, whether they are covered in
rust or years of debris.
 Removing chewing gum (it happens), removing adhesive stickers, and performing
warehouse repair tasks
Penetrating Lubricant should not be used in the following situations:

 This product should never be used in place of other lubricants, and it should never be
used on bearings or other parts. It is short-lived and will cause damage to your machine.

Dry Lubricants

Specific types of lubricants, such as silicon, molybdenum, graphite, and PTFE, are present in dry
lubricants. These particles have a very slippery molecular nature, which reduces friction between
these surfaces. They are also available in spray form, where they are mixed with alcohol, water,
or other volatile solvents that evaporate after application.

When Should You Use Dry Lubricant:

 Threaded rods, locks, and hinges

 Tiny parts that cannot be clogged with grease or surrounding surfaces that must be
kept clean
 You should not use a lubricant that attracts dust or dirt.
 Surfaces may be subjected to extremely high temperatures or pressures. Oils will
begin to oxidise if this occurs.

Dry Lubricant should not be used in the following situations:

Any remaining lubricant will be washed away by exposing the application surface to liquids or
solvents.

What are the properties of lubricants?

Lubricants have a wide range of properties that impact their physical and chemical
properties. Knowing about these properties is important in determining which lubricant is best
for which situation. While there are many properties, the most important are:

1. Viscosity: A lubricant’s “internal resistance to flow.” Higher viscosity lubricants are thick and
don’t flow, while lower viscosity lubricants have a closer consistency to water and do flow. The
image below demonstrates the viscosity of four different oils. The ball sinks faster in the thinner,
low viscosity oil while it sinks slower in the higher viscosity blends.

2. Viscosity Index: The rate of change in viscosity with changes in temperature. In other words,
how much viscosity changes as temperature changes.
3. Oxidation Stability: Oxidation is a reaction that occurs when oxygen is combined with
lubricating oil. Variables such as high temperatures, water and acids will accelerate the rate of
oxidation. The life of a lubricant is reduced as temperatures increase, leading to varnish and
sludge.
4. Pour Point: The lowest temperature at which a lubricant will flow or pour like a liquid. This
can differ depending on test conditions.
5. Demulsibility: The ability of a lubricant to separate from water.
6. Flash Point: The temperature at which a lubricant will ignite when heated and mixed with air,
but a flame is not sustained.

While there are other properties to consider when choosing a lubricant, these are often considered
the most important.

What do you understand by centralized lubrication system?

Centralized grease lubrication systems are widely used in industrial and heavy-duty mobile
equipment applications to lubricate multiple points on a machine.
These systems range from a simple single-port lubricator to complex dual-line, reversing units
employing timers and alarms to deliver grease reliably to hundreds of grease points.
The design parameters of centralized grease systems include the volume and frequency of grease
required at each point, the number of points requiring grease, operating conditions, pump
pressure, line diameter and distance to the grease points.
When used and maintained properly, centralized grease systems can help enhance technician
productivity and simplify equipment maintenance processes. The following is a comprehensive
overview of centralized grease systems and the benefits they offer, the various types, concerns to
watch out for and tips on how to maintain them properly.

What are the Advantages of Centralized Grease Lubrication Systems?

Centralized grease systems are designed principally to make the work environment safer for
maintenance personnel by simplifying the process of accessing remote grease points, especially in
confined spaces, when equipment is in operation. However, the primary benefit is derived from
the continuous application of small amounts of grease resulting in improved equipment life, due
to the uniform supply of grease.
Hand application is typically performed infrequently and may result in uneven amounts of grease
being applied, which can lead to overgreasing resulting in damaged seals and elevated bearing
temperatures caused by grease churn.
It is important for maintenance professionals to realize that many centralized grease systems have
long lines, precise metering valves, fittings and numerous connections that can malfunction due
to vibration, air entrainment and other environmental impacts. Thus, carefully monitoring and
maintaining the systems on a consistent basis is critical.

Illustrate the types of Centralized Grease Systems?

Centralized grease lubrication systems are designed to lubricate the broadest range of stationary
and mobile equipment. As the lubrication application becomes more complex, the design of the
system also becomes more complex as additional features are added.
Most centralized grease systems fall into two categories. The first is a direct system in which a
pump is used to pressurize the grease and meter it out to the application point. The second and
more complex type is an indirect system in which a pump pressurizes the grease. Valves built into
the distribution line are then utilized to meter the grease into the bearings.
Indirect systems are further broken down into two basic types, parallel and nonparallel. In parallel
systems, also known as nonprogressive, the system is pressurized and the metering valves operate
simultaneously.
The disadvantage of a parallel system is that it can be difficult to identify a failed (blocked) valve,
as grease will continue to be dispensed through the remaining valves. Pump pressure will not
increase and there will be no outward sign of a valve failure (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Single-line Parallel System

Courtesy of Lincoln Industrial
In nonparallel systems, also known as progressive, the metering valves are installed in-line. After
the system is brought up to pressure, the first valve operates. Grease then flows through it to the
next valve in line.
In this setup, if one valve fails, the entire system fails resulting in increased pressure at the pump
and no grease consumption. No other obvious problems can be used to quickly identify the exact
point of failure (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Single-line Progressive System

Courtesy of Lincoln Industrial
Parallel and nonparallel systems can be further broken down into single- and dual-line systems.
Today, the most common type of centralized grease system is the indirect single-line system,
accounting for more than 50 percent of the market.
For single-line machines, injectors represent the key to quality performance. In single-line
systems, injectors are responsible for metering the correct amount of grease to the bearing or
other surfaces requiring grease lubrication. When advancing to a new cycle, one must always
vent the injectors.
The other type of system, the dual- or two-line system, uses two supply lines to provide grease to
the injectors. A four-way valve is used to direct grease alternately to each of the grease lines
while relieving pressure on the other line. The second line provides a safety margin but involves
additional cost and complexity related to installation.
There are a number of ways to control both the single- and dual-line systems. The valves can be
operated manually, cycled by a timer or controlled by a counter that measures grease flow.
Various strainers, filters, alarms and monitoring devices may also be included in the system.
These systems are set up in one, two or three stages, depending on the number of lubrication
points.
Besides injector valves, all centralized grease lubrication systems incorporate a reservoir of
grease, pump, controller, lines and metering blocks as shown in Figure 1 above.
Each part functions as follows:
 Reservoir: Provides a bulk quantity of grease that can be kept clean and readily
available to the system.
 Pump: Produces the flow of grease and builds up pressure in the line(s). Pump size
will vary depending on the distance between the pump and the farthest injector.
 Controller: Manages the pressure on the system by turning pressure supply valves on
and off on the basis of either time or cycle. It can also receive signals indicating restricted or
failed grease flow to the bearing.

state the difference between a Gasket & a Seal?

Gasket:

A gasket is a ring or sheet composed of a supple material used in static applications to seal joints,
flanges, and other mating surfaces to prevent leakage.

Depending on the material and application, gaskets can be produced using a broad range of
manufacturing techniques, including:
 Rubber extrusion
 Hot vulcanized and cold bond splicing
 Compression, injection and transfer molding
 Precision slitting
 Custom die cutting
 Waterjet cutting
Both gaskets and seals can be found in nearly every application and industry, including oil and
gas, manufacturing and industrial applications, pulp and paper production, and agricultural
equipment.

Worn or broken gaskets are easy to replace. It is typically recommended to change gaskets any
time the equipment is disassembled and reassembled.

Seal:

Seals are a broader category that includes o-rings, valve stem seals, rotary seals, and mechanical
seals. Unlike gaskets, which are typically used for static applications, seals are found in more
active environments in motors, engines, pumps, and rotary shafts. Seals tend to be flat and round,
with a tilted inner ring of rubber surrounded by a metal outer ring. The tilted angle of the seal’s
inner layer helps to prevent leakage in dynamic applications. Seals are typically used to prevent
leaks between two moving parts, and to prevent the intrusion of particles and contaminants into
the system.
The process for replacing a broken or damaged seal can be very involved. Not only the seal, but
the entire assembly may need to be dis-assembled to get access to the seal and allow for
replacement.
Discuss the all repair methods of bearing?

Failure Condition Cause Solution

Rolling fatigue, Avoid installation error

Raceway surface is
overload, poor shaft or increasing viscosity of
Flaking flaked and look
housing accuracy, lubricant and adequate
very rough
installation error, lubrication.
rusting
Occur in roller Controlling surface
Is a cluster of small
Peeling bearings, if mating roughness and dust,
spalls
surface is rough and proper selection of
poor lubrication. lubricant
Adopting improved
Scratches in Poor mounting and
mounting and
spinning direction removing practice,
removing procedures,
Spalling on raceway surface slippage of rolling
correction of preload,
and rolling contact elements, oil film
proper selection of
surfaces discontinuation
lubricant and
lubricating systems
By making sound oil
Smearing Slippage of rolling film, using extreme
Surface is
elements due to poor pressure lubricant,
roughened an tiny
lubricant precautious on radial
particles adhere
characteristics clearance and preload
to avoid slippage
Worn surfaces and Selecting optimum
Ingress of solid
reduced dimensions lubricant and
Stepped wear foreign objects, poor
compared to other lubrication
. lubrication and
portions, mostly system filtering
skewing of rollers.
roughed and lubricating oil avoiding
scored misalignment.
Speckles: Improving
sealing efficiency,
Poor lubrication,
filtration of oil,
Clusters of tiny dents deposition of
Speckles and effective lubrication
and surface deteriorated oil on
discolouration system discolouration:
colour change surface, ingress of
wiping out oil
solid foreign objects
deposition by organic
solvents, polishing with
sandpaper
 Partial chipping of Impact of excessive Improved sealing
inner, outer ring load poor handling characteristics, better
Chipping
and rolling trapping of large solid handling, avoiding
elements foreign objects. impact
or excessive loading.
Preventing creep.
Splits, and cracks
Excessive load and Correction of fit
in bearing rings and
Craking impacts very loose avoiding
rolling elements
fitting large flaking impact and heavy load

Way in for water and Effective sealing,

corrosive materials periodic
Rusting and (acid) condensation of lubrication of
Rust and corrosion
corrosion of moisture in air, poor lubricating
bearing surfaces packaging and storing oil, carefully handling
conditions. bearing.

Effective heat
Due to heat, Low heat dissipation,
dissipation
disabled spinning, poor lubrication,
selecting suitable
discolouration, improper lubricant,
lubricant and optimal
Seizing softening and very small clearance,
lubricating feed rate,
welding of raceway excessive load and
avoiding mis-
surfaces ad rib roller skewing and
alignment,
surface. installation error.
enhanced operating
conditions.

What are the causes of failures in an electromechanical system like compressor,

pumps and elevators.

Causes of failures in compressors:

Lack of lubrication due to low oil level
Overheating of components due to poor air flow/poor heat transfer and poor
ventilation
Improper mounting of compressor due to incorrect levelling of floor during
installation or loose floor mountings
Filter damage due to bad atmospheric condition
Loose pulley, flywheel, belt, belt guard, cooler, clamps or accessories
which may cause excessive noise.
Water entering in oil reservoir due to compressor operating in high
humidity environment
Wrong fuse size.
Causes of failures in pump:
Using low-quality fluids and poor contamination control
Failure of seals and hence leakage of fluid
Cracked or bent pulleys due to improper handling or installation
Shaft breakage due to bearing overload
Improper mounting of pumps due to incorrect levelling of floor during
installation or loose floor mountings.
Pump housing or casting breakage due to excessive vibration
Undersized shaft in an end suction pump
Causes of failures in elevators:
Sudden stops & abrupt landings
Poor scheduled maintenance
High fluctuation in electrical power supply
Overloading the elevators frequently
Poor system circuit design
Malfunctioning of electronic circuits and sensors due to high moisture
Overheating of the drive and control system
RELIABILITY = SAFETY
Many accidents occur without any component “failure” – Caused by equipment
operation outside parameters and time limits upon which reliability analyses are
based. – Caused by interactions of components all operating according to
specification. – Highly reliable components are not necessarily safe. For relatively
simple, electro-mechanical systems with primarily component failure accidents,
reliability engineering can increase safety. But this is untrue for complex,
software-intensive or human-intensive systems

Explain the repair methods for crane hydraulic lift and belt conveyor?

The proper maintenance of material handling equipment is extremely essential for

preventing the occurrence of bottle neck or points of congestions production line
flow can be maintained only if the material handling equipments is in proper
working order.
Out of money maintenance techniques available preventive maintenance is one of
the best maintenance techniques suggested in case of material handling
equipments.
Preventive maintenance helps to keep the material handling equipments always
running conditions there by minimizing the interruption during operation. A
periodic inspection and minor alignments may be adequate to prevent the
equipment breakdown.
Preventive maintenance also includes lubrication adjustment and repair. There are
three stages of preventive maintenance and they are
Inspection
Repair and
Overhaul Maintenance strategies for hoists and cranes.
1. Portable cranes:
The major issues covered in maintenance of portable cranes and cranes are,
It is necessary to keep loads within design limits on portable cranes
that are mounted on wheels or wheeled platforms
Frequent inspection of brakes, load hoisting and lowering
mechanism.
Inspection of boom, base and platform for any sign of stress e.g.,
cracks, bends, breaks.
2. Overhead cranes:
The major issues covered in maintenance of overhead cranes are,
Keep the attachments in overhead cranes loaded within the rating
capacity.
Maintain safety factors for replacement parts according to
manufacturer’s specification.
Keep rail level grounded, properly aligned, properly spaced, and
securely attached to the supporting structure, free of beading and
bends.
Examine over speed sensing mechanisms, brakes and clutch,
sheaves, pins, gears, cables, hooks, rails, etc,. For wear and
maladjustment
Check welded connections for cracks, bends, abrasion and corrosion.

Discuss about how to maximize friction clutch and brakes?

“How long will it last?” It’s often the first question we’re asked when helping our customers specify a
friction clutch or brake. And the answer is always, “It depends.” We’ve seen severe applications where
clutches and brakes require replacement wear parts after a few weeks and other applications where they
last decades with no maintenance at all.

If you want to maximize the service life of friction clutches and brakes in your industrial machines,
here’s an overview of the design, installation and maintenance factors you should keep in mind:

Start with the application details. The most important factor in assuring the maximum service life of a
clutch or brake is choosing the right unit for the job based on application details such as cycle rates,
revolutions per minute and the torque needed to drive or stop the load. For selection assistance, it’s a
good idea to ask for a review by an application engineer at your clutch or brake manufacturer.

Factor in safety. When sizing a friction clutch or brake, add torque service factor to ensure the clutch or
brake will have the required torque to drive or stop the load. A service factor of 1.5 to 2 — or 50 to 100
percent more torque than required — is recommended by most clutch and brake manufacturers.

Follow the speed limits. Adhere to the manufacturer’s maximum RPM rating, because excessively high
RPM can significantly reduce the life of clutch and brake components such as bearings and linings. The
wear effects of rotational speed are particularly pronounced in high-cycle applications. Larger clutches
may need precision balancing.

Get some clean air. The quality of compressed air affects the service life of clutches and brakes. It’s
important to use only filtered air to eliminate particulate contamination, which can result in worn sealing
components and hinder proper cycling of cylinder-piston assemblies. And air needs to be regulated to
match supply and demand. If a clutch or brake does its job at 50 psi, don’t operate it at 80 psi. Using the
lowest workable pressure will maximize bearing life. Also, if a clutch is transmitting more torque than
necessary, the unit may overdrive the system further down the drive train, leading to the breakage or
wear of other machine components.

Install it right. Following installation instructions is a critical factor in assuring maximum wear life.
Common mistakes include mounting the clutch or brake in the wrong orientation and incorrectly
installing anti-rotational restraints so that they apply axial force to a clutch, inducing bearing or lining
wear. Misalignment in shaft-to-shaft applications can impair clutch or brake function and cause
premature wear. If both angular and offset alignment of the shafts cannot be achieved, a flexible
coupling is recommended.

Keep chains and belts in order. Chains and belts that are poorly aligned or tensioned are another source
of wear and service-life reduction. Chain misalignment, for example, can cause bearing and bushing
wear in the pilot of a clutch or clutch-brake. It can also cause sprocket wear. And some misalignment
scenarios can result in the clutch moving axially, potentially allowing it to walk off the shaft. Excessive
chain or belt tension likewise causes pilot-bearing and sprocket wear — and can allow clutches to
continue to be driven when disengaged.

Environment matters. Friction clutches and brakes run best when free from contamination — whose
sources include lubricants, brake cleaners, solid particulate and moisture. All of these contaminants can
contribute to premature wear or even reduced functionality. For example, contaminants on a clutch drive
surface may prevent the unit from full engagement, which can lead to wear and inconsistent torque
output. Contact your clutch or brake manufacturer for advice on units that must run in particulate or
moisture rich environments. Covered and sealed units that will shield against these contaminants are
often available.
Discuss about different types of pipe fittings?

Pipe fittings are used to attach pipes together, and the type of fitting is determined by its function.
Since every system is different, the fittings and accessories you need may vary in material, size or
usage requirements. Consider your needs to help select the correct fitting. Are you extending a pipe,
changing directions or trying to reduce water flow?
Explore the most common pipe fittings and their uses:

Type Use Example

Extends or changes connection

Adapter
type at the end of a pipe

Bushing Joins pipes of various sizes

Cap Covers the end of a pipe

Straight fitting used to make

Coupling
permanent pipe connection

Elbow Changes direction of flow

 Fits inside pipes to extend the
Extender
length

Plug Fits inside to seal pipes

Reducer Changes pipe size

Combines fluid flow from

Tee
multiple branches

Helps easily connect and

Union
disconnect pipes

Valve Stops or regulates the flow

What are the steps for installation of a machine of equipment?

PLANNING AND PREPARATION

The first step to equipment installation is planning and preparation.

This stage includes site evaluation, assessment of equipment needs, and obtaining necessary permits
and approvals.

During site evaluation, millwrights should thoroughly assess the job site to ensure it is suitable for the
equipment to be installed. This includes looking at the foundation where the equipment will be placed.

They also assess the client's equipment needs to ensure that the right equipment is selected and will
function properly in the intended environment.

After the site evaluation and assessment of equipment needs, the millwright will create a detailed
installation plan outlining the steps to take during the installation process.

This plan includes a schedule of when the equipment will be delivered and installed, who will be
responsible for each task, and how long the installation will take.

Finally, the necessary permits and approvals must be secured to ensure the installation complies with
all local regulations and safety standards.

By thoroughly planning and preparing for the installation process, millwrights can ensure the
installation is completed safely, efficiently, and to the highest standards.

EQUIPMENT ARRIVAL AND UNLOADING

The second step is the equipment arrival and unloading.

This process includes coordinating equipment delivery, unloading, and inspecting equipment for
damage or defects.

Millwrights will work with clients and equipment suppliers to coordinate the delivery of the equipment
to the job site.

This helps ensure that the equipment arrives on time.

After the equipment is unloaded, it is thoroughly inspected for signs of damage like dents, scratches, or
other issues that may have occurred during transportation.

If any issues are found, the millwright will work with the supplier to resolve them before proceeding
with the installation process.
 EQUIPMENT ASSEMBLY AND TESTING

The next phase is the equipment assembly and testing phase.

This step includes assembling equipment according to the installation plan, testing it to ensure proper
function, and identifying and resolving issues that arise during testing.

Once the assembly is complete, millwrights will run tests to check the equipment's performance,
including electrical, mechanical, and pneumatic systems.

They will also make sure the equipment is properly aligned and calibrated.

Any issues that arise during testing are identified and resolved.

EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING

The installation and commissioning step is the final phase in the equipment installation process.

This phase includes physically installing equipment at the job site, commissioning equipment to ensure
proper operation, and training personnel on the appropriate use and maintenance of the equipment.

They also ensure that the heavy machinery is aligned correctly and calibrated for optimal performance.

After installing the equipment, the millwrights commission it to ensure it operates correctly.

A series of tests are done to check for proper alignment and calibration of equipment.

Finally, the personnel is trained on the proper use and maintenance of the equipment.

FOLLOW-UP AND MAINTENANCE

After successfully installing equipment, ensuring it continues functioning properly in the long term is
essential.

The follow-up and maintenance step includes the following:

 ongoing maintenance and support of the equipment

 scheduled check-ins to ensure equipment is functioning properly
 identification and resolution of any issues that arise in the future
Completing regular check-ups, cleaning, and replacing worn or damaged parts is important to make
sure your equipment runs optimally for as long as possible.