S.

NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

LIST OF FIGURES 3
LIST OF TABLES 5
INTRODUCTION 5
1.1 GENERAL 5
1.1.1 ADVANTAGES 7
1.1.2 DRAWBACKS 8
1.1.3 APPLICATIONS 11
1.3 OBJECTIVE 12
1.4 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT 12
1.5 NOVELTY 13
1.6 SUMMARY 14
LITERATURE REVIEW 15
2.1 GENERAL 15
2.2 STUDIES ON LITERATURE 15
2.3 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE 25
METHODOLOGY 26
3.1 GENERAL 27
3.2 PROCESS TREE FOR RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 27
SECTION CLASSIFICATION 28
4.1 GENERAL 28
4.2 SELECTION OF SECTIONS (CHOOSING DIMENSIONS 29
USING CUFSM SOFTWARE)
4.3 SPECIMEN LABELLING 29
THEOROTICAL STUDY 30
5.1 GENERAL 30
5.2 DIRECT STRENGTH METHOD 31
5.3 COLD FORMED STEEL IN EUROPE 32
5.4 SUMMARY 34
NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION 34
6.1 GENERAL 34
6.2 CUFSM SOFTWARE 34
6.3 SECTION PROPERTIES MEMBER 35
6.4 ABAQUS SOFTWARE 37
6.4.1 MODELLING OF SPECIMEN 37
6.5 DEVELOPMENT OF FINITE ELEMENT MODEL 38
6.6 MATERIAL MODELLING 39
6.7 ELEMENT TYPE AND MESH 39
6.8 LOADING AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 39
6.9 GEOMETRICAL IMPERFECTIONS 39
6.10 LINEAR BUCKLING ANALYSIS 41

1
6.11 LINEAR BUCKLING ANALYSIS 41
6.12 BUCKLING MODE SHAPES 41
6.13 SUMMARY 47
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION 48
7.1 GENERAL 48
7.2 COUPEN TESTING 48
7.2.1 STRESS-STAIN 49
7.2.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES 49
7.3 TEST PROCEDURE 49
7.4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 50
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 51
8.1 GENERAL 51
8.2 NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION 51
8.3 VALIDATION OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS WITH 52
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
8.4 COMPARISON OF BUCKLINH MODE SHAPE 53
REFERENCES 54
ANNEXURE
POSTER
INDUSTRY MENTOR
CONFERENCE DETAILS
MOBILE APPLICATION
PLAGIARISM REPORT
GRAMMARLY REPORT
PUBLICATION
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

2
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO NAME OF FIGURE PAGE NO

1.1 COLD FORMED STEEL FRAME STRUCTURE 6
1.2 TYPES OF COLD FORM SECTIONS 7
1.3 LOCAL BUCKLING MODE OF NON-SYMMETRIC 8
COLD FORMED STEEL ANGULAR SECTION
1.4 GLOBAL BUCKLING MODE OF NON- 9
SYMMETRIC COLD FORMED STEEL ANGULAR
SECTION
1.5 DISTORTIONAL BUCKLING MODE OF NON- 9
SYMMETRIC COLD FORMED STEEL ANGULAR
SECTION
1.6 FLEXURAL BUCKLING 10
1.7 TORSIONAL BUCKLING 10
3.1 METHODOLOGY 27
4.1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN 30
5.1 EUROPEAN CODE METHOD 33

6.1 SECTION PROPERTIES OF BBAS135 36

6.2 SECTION PROPERTIES OF BBA0 36

6.3 SECTION PROPERTIES OF BBAS 37

6.4 SEHEMATIC MESH DIAGRAM 39

6.5 BOUNDARY CONDITION FOR A SECTION 40

6.6 LOADING OF A SECTION 40

6.7 BUCKLING MODE SHAPES 46

6.8 DATA GENERATION OF A SECTIONS 47

7.1 COUPEN TEST SET UP 48

3
7.2 COLD-FORMED STEEL SPECIMEN SETUP 49
7.3 BUCKLING MODE OF SHAPES OF SPECIMEN 52
AFTER FAILURE
8.1 AXIAL LOAD WITH VERUS EFFECTIVE LENGTH 52
8.2 ANALYTICAL VS EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 52
8.3 VAERIFICATION OF BUCKLINH MODE SHAPES 53

4
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO NAME OF TABLE PAGE NO

1 GEOMETRY 29
2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES 49
3 LOCAL BUCKLING MODE OF NON-SYMMETRIC 4
COLD FORMED STEEL ANGULAR SECTION

5
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

The cold-formed steel members are widely used as structural members in modern
are used as primary taming members in buildings up to four or five stories in height and are
used as roof decks, floor decks wall panels, and siding materials in buildings. In tall multi-
storey buildings, the cold-formed steel structural members can be used as secondary members
such as wall studs, joists, decks, and panels. If it is possible to achieve a high load to weight
ratio of cold-formed steel section, it can also be used as primary members in high-rise
buildings.
Cold-formed steel members find their extensive applications in aerospace and
civil engineering structures, especially when light weight members will suffice, thus achieving
substantial economy. They are also used when the requirements of the shape prevent the use
of hot-rolled steel members. In addition, they are most easily fabricated into a greater variety
of sections and can be fabricated even in small machine shops.
The load carrying capacity and structural behaviour of the members can be
improved by providing the edge and intermediate stiffeners in the single and built-up sections.
Compared to single section, the built-up section has more load carrying capacity and higher
torsional stiffness. From the available literature, it is observed that many test data have not been
reported on cold-formed steel built-up closed sections formed by connecting two angle
sections. Cold-formed steel structural members can lead to more economical design than hot-
rolled members because of their high strength to weight ratio, and their easy methods of
fabrication and construction.
Further, their increased yield strength, their post-buckling strength and their
suitability for a wide range of applications are the key 2 advantages of cold-formed sections.
These sections are essentially thin-walled members with moderate to very high flat width to
thickness ratio of the web and flange plate components. Such members are susceptible to local
buckling at relatively low compressive, shear, bending or bearing stresses. However, a
considerable reserve of post-local buckling strength exists due to the possibility of membrane
actions after local buckling.

6
Figure 1.1 Cold form steel frame structure

Figure 1.2 Types of cold form sections

7
1.1.1 ADVANTAGES

i. They are easy to handle and transfer as they weigh less 35% to50% than that of
wooden counterparts.
ii. Due to the cold forming process, they have high strength to weight ratio in any
structural material which results in more design option, better usage of material and
wider spans.
iii. High accuracy can be maintained as they are built in plants and can be assembled
on construction sites thereby increasing the efficiency of erection and quality
assurance.
iv. CFS will not expand or contract when in contact with moisture content. Since it is
dimensionally stable there will be no split or wrap.
v. There will no use of form work in any case. And floor strength and stiffness can be
increased due to the composite action between concrete and the steel deck. They
are durable providing long term resistance to corrosion, termites, and rodents. They
can be reused without any change in proper.

1.1.2 DRAWBACKS
The main drawback of cold formed steel section is buckling.
BUCKLING
Under compression, steel is subjected to buckling. This phenomenon occurs in any
slender structure indifferent of material. Buckling consists of a sudden sideway
deflection of the column. A small increase in the applied load can lead to a sudden and
catastrophic collapse of the structure.
MODES OF BUCKLING
i) Local buckling
ii) Global buckling
a. Distortional buckling
b. Flexural buckling
c. Torsional buckling
d. Flexural-torsional buckling

8
Local buckling: The local buckling is characterized by the instability of the elements
that form the column cross-sections, that is, instability of plates, without translation of
the axis of the column.

Figure 1.3 Local buckling mode of non-symmetric cold formed steel

angular
section

Global buckling: It is a buckling mode where the member deforms with no

deformation in its cross-sectional shape, consistent with classical beam theory. Both the
presented buckled shape and the associated critical load are nearly identical with those
of a similar unlipped channel.

Figure 1.4 Global buckling mode of non-symmetric cold formed steel

angular section

9
a) Distortional buckling: Laterally braced cold-formed steel beams generally fail
due to local and/or distortional buckling in combination with yielding. For many
cold-formed steel (CFS) studs, joists, purlins, or girts, distortional buckling may
be the predominant buckling mode.

Figure 1.5 Distortional buckling mode of non-symmetric cold formed steel

angular section

b) Flexural buckling: The buckling occurs in compression member that subjected

to a deflection caused by bending or flexure. Flexural buckling occurs about the
axis with the largest slenderness ratio, and the smallest radius of gyration.

Figure 1.6 Flexural buckling

10
 c) Torsional buckling: The buckling occurs only in compression members that
are doubly symmetric and have very slender cross-sectional elements. It is
caused by a turning about the longitudinal axis. Torsional buckling occurs
mostly in built-up sections, and almost never in rolled sections.

Figure 1.7 Torsional buckling

1.1.3 APPLICATIONS

i. Cold-formed steel members find their extensive applications in aerospace and

civil engineering structures, especially when light weight members will suffice,
thus achieving substantial economy.
ii. Cold-formed steel is widely used in the construction of commercial and
institutional buildings.
iii. They are also used when the requirements of the shape prevent the use of hot-
rolled steel members.
iv. CFS members are used in bridges, storage racks, car bodies, grain bins railway
coaches, transmission towers, drainage facilities, highway products.

11
1.2 NEED FOR THE PRESENT INVESTIGATION

The wider use of thin-walled cold-formed steel structural components in many areas
of applications have emerged considerable interest in the local instability of these
members. A problem of particular interest is to investigate their post-buckling behaviour
and ultimate load carrying capacity. The other difficulty noticed in the analysis is the type
of end connections assumed, which will govern the effective length. It is customary to
assume the joints either as frictionless pins or as fully rigid connections. The actual
behaviour generally falls between the two extremes of perfectly pinned and fully rigid
connections. Buckling and post-buckling behaviour of structures depend much on the
boundary conditions. It has been shown by several investigators, both experimentally and
analytically, that the load carrying capacity of a member can be influenced greatly by a
variety of end support conditions. Simulation of semi-rigid end connections in the case of
members with open channels are quite complex. In the present study, experiments are
conducted with fixed end conditions and their effects on the load carrying capacity of the
members were studied.
The increased use of cold-formed steel sections of varied shapes as compression
members has resulted in the development of many design specifications. Most of the
countries have formulated their own codes of practice for the design of cold-formed steel
structures. The ultimate strength predicted by using these codes may largely vary from
the experimental values. The other obvious limitation of the codes of practice is the
ambiguity involved when dealing with complicated cross-sections. Hence the Finite 5
Element Analysis Software ABAQUS is used as an alternative to predict the actual
behaviour.

12
1.3 OBJECTIVE

➢ To study the behaviour of cold-formed steel plain channel sections as short and as
intermediate columns under fixed end condition subjected to axial and eccentric
loading.

➢ To study the load versus axial shortening behaviour, the effect of change in flat width
to thickness ratio and the slenderness ratio on the load carrying capacity, and their
initial stiffness characteristics.

➢ To compare the various provisions including the load carrying capacity calculated
based on various codal provisions which include North American, British and Indian
Standards.

➢ To develop a non-linear finite element model incorporating the geometrical

imperfections for predicting the ultimate load carrying capacity.

➢ To study the effect of eccentrically applied loads on the load carrying capacity.

➢ To compare the experimental, theoretical, and analytical load carrying capacity of the
short and intermediate channel columns and also their stiffness characteristics.

1.4 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

i. To predict the axial strength by using American, er 3 (direct stiffness method)

design guidelines.
ii. To predict the axial strength using finite element software (ABAQUS).
iii. To predict the axial strength by conducting experimental tests.

1.5 NOVELTY
➢ To determine the axial compression by changing the angle section, edge stiffeners and
summations.
➢ The European code procedure to arrive at cross section of materials is completed.
➢ This process is followed by applying the cross section in Abaqus Software.

13
1.6 SUMMARY

➢ In this chapter different load carrying capacity of the Back-to-back equal angle with
complex edge stiffener for various orientation is studied.
➢ And software to be used for Back-to-Back is identified.

14
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GENERAL

A brief review of the research related to the behaviour of cold formed steel single and
compound open sections subjected to compression carried out during the last 15 years is
presented in this chapter. Literature pertaining to experimental investigations, analytical and
numerical investigations and studies on theoretical investigation are presented in the part.

2.2 STUDIES ON LITERATURE

Young, Ben (2004), The edge stiffeners of the channel sections consisted of simple lips
that inclined at different angles both outwards and inwards. Finite element analysis was
used in the numerical investigation Geometric and material non-linearities were included
in the finite element model. The column strengths predicted by the finite element analysis
were compared with the design column strengths calculated using the American and
Australian/New Zealand specifications for cold-formed steel structures.

Chodraui et al., (2006), local-plate global-torsional mode has some important behaviour
when multiple buckling half-wavelengths are considered along the length. The results
indicate that the design practice of ignoring local/torsional buckling as a global mode and
only considering it as a local mode may not be conservative in some circumstances. This
conclusion is further supported and discussed in an extended set of nonlinear finite element
analysis.

De Barros al., (2007), The objective of this paper is to examine the stability and strength
of concentrically loaded cold-formed steel angles as determined by (i) numerical methods,
(ii) experiment, (iii) effective width and (iv) Direct Strength based design methods
examined primarily with the finite strip method to show that the coincident local-
plate/global-torsion mode has some important behaviour when multiple buckling half-
wavelengths are considered along the length. local/torsion buckling as a global mode and
only considering it as a local mode may not be conservative in some circumstances.

15
Dabaon et al., (2009), The longitudinal stiffener of the column plate was formed to avoid
shrinkage of the concrete and to behave as a continuous connector between the concrete
core and the stainless-steel tube. The measured average overall depth-to-width ratios
(aspect ratio) varied from 1.0 to 1.8. The depth-to-plate thickness ratio of the tube sections
varied from 60 to 90. The results of the experimental study showed that the design rules,
as specified in the European specifications and the ASCE, are highly conservative for
square and rectangular cold-formed concrete-filled normal-strength stainless steel stiffened
stub columns.

Georgieva et al., (2012) Using the conventional cold-formed shapes in built-up assemblies
(composed members, trusses, etc.) has allowed designers of light-steel framing to widen
the applications of cold-formed steel (CFS) to structures of larger scale. Built-up elements,
fastened by bolts, screws or welds are usually symmetrical, more stable and of higher
capacity. Second, the overall behaviour is analysed in eight compression tests on slender
members. The goal is to determine the actual failure mode and overall buckling capacity of
these members.

Bagheri et al., (2013) The updated FE models result in an accurate prediction of the
hysteretic moment-rotation behaviour of the connections dominated by a flexural behaviour
in the beams. A simplified cyclic slip model which allows slip at a specified reduced slip
resistance load simulates reasonably well the hysteretic behaviour of connections
dominated by bolt slip.

Aghoury et al., (2013), The design variables of the problem are the angles of orientation
of cross-section wall elements - the thickness and width of the steel sheet that forms the
cross-section are fixed. The elastic local, distortional and global buckling loads are
determined using Finite Strip Method (CUFSM) and the strength of cold-formed steel
columns (with given length) is calculated using the Direct Strength Method (DSM). The
results are analysed and further discussed, and some interesting conclusions about the
individual strengths (local-global and distortional) are found.

16
Ananthi, et al, (2015), A nonlinear finite element model was developed and verified
against the ball- and bolted-end conditions. The specimens are modelled precisely for the
numerical investigation using finite element analysis as done in the column tests carefully
under controlled. It is shown that the design column strengths calculated from the
specification are generally conservative for cold-formed steel angle sections. Results from
the FEA correlate well with experimental data, NAS-2007 and BS: 5950 (Part 5)
predictions.
Weixin et al, (2015), A simple lipped C-shape is taken as a starting point, but the
optimization process allows for the addition of double-fold (return) lips, inclined lips and
triangular web stiffeners. set by the Eurocode, are thereby taken into account as constraints
on the optimization problem. The optimization for compression is carried out for different
column lengths and includes the effects of the shift of the effective centroid induced by
local buckling. Detailed finite element models are used to confirm the relative gains in
capacity obtained through the optimization process.

Dinis et al, (2016), Consisting of a slight modification of a design approach developed by

Dinis & Camotim (2015) and based on the Direct Strength Method (DSM). (i) the quality
of the estimates of the available failure load data and (ii) the determination of the
corresponding LRFD resistance factors. Concerning the latter, it is shown hat the value
recommended, for compression members, by the North American Specification (NAS) for
the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members (AISI 2012), namely fc=0.85, can
also be adopted for angle columns.

Yousof et al, (2017), The compression strength of the cantilevered leg of cold-formed steel
clip angle connectors. The test results were compared to three existing standard design
methods for cold-formed steel members similar to the clip angles, but no good agreement
was found. The new method was based on the elastic buckling solution of thin-walled plate
columns. The allowable-strength design safety factors, load and resistance factor design,
and limit-state design resistance factors were also produced to support the proposed design
method.

Landesmann et al, (2017), current North American Specification for Cold-Formed Steel
Structures, short-to-intermediate equal-leg angle columns are (i) not yet pre-qualified for
the Direct Strength Method (DSM) design and (ii) excluded from the application of the
17
LFRD resistance factor ϕ = 0.85 perfectly in line with that observed in the recent studies
available in the literature − this means that the validation and calibration of the above design
approach may be deemed completed. Finally, the paper closes with the presentation and
assessment of small alterations to the existing design expressions, aimed at improving their
accuracy and rationality.

Fasoulakis et al, (2017), The additional bending moments resulting from the eccentric
connection and the shift of the effective centroid. Results indicate a small discrepancy on
the strength prediction in general by EN 1993-1-3, as well as by the AISI for slender
columns and a more conservative one by EN 1993-1-1. A comparison of the above results
is clearly illustrated herein in graphical forms.

Krishanu et al, (2018), A comprehensive parametric study consisting of 204 models has
been carried out covering a wide range of thickness and slenderness for the considered
back-to-back built-up columns. This paper has therefore proposed improved design rules
and verified their accuracy using finite element analysis and test results of back-to-back
built-up cold-formed channel sections, subjected to axial compression.

Mojtabaei et al, (2018), The results indicate that both EC3 and DSM provide accurate
predictions for the bending capacity of lipped channel beam sections. the geometric
imperfections can change the FE predictions of ultimate capacity by 7%, while the strain-
hardening of CFS material at the round corners has negligible effects. It is also shown that
EC3 uses a reduced cross-sectional property to calculate deflections, which can reasonably
predict deflections with a slight overestimation (6%) at the serviceability load level.

Krishanu et al, (2019), A nonlinear finite element model is then described that shows good
agreement with the experimental results. the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI),
Australian and New Zealand Standards (AS/NZS) and Eurocode (EN 1993-1-3).
parametric study comprising 90 models. it is shown that the design in accordance with the
AISI & AS/NZS and Eurocode (EN 1993-1-3) is generally conservative by around 15%,
however, AISI & AS/NZS and Eurocode (EN 1993-1-3) can be un-conservative by 8% on
average for face-to-face built-up columns failed through local buckling.

18
Krishanu et al, (2019), Three different grades of stainless steel i.e., duplex EN1.4462,
ferritic EN1.4003 and austenitic EN1.4404 have been considered. The effect of screw
spacing on axial strength of face-to-face built-up stainless steel channel sections was
investigated. 160 finite element models were analysed. From the results of the parametric
study, it was found that the AISI & AS/NZS are conservative by around 15% for all
stainless steel face-to-face built-up columns failed through global buckling. However, the
AISI & AS/NZS are un-conservative by around 5% for face-to-face built-up stainless-steel
columns failed through local buckling.

Beulah et al, (2019) Five different thicknesses and seven different lengths (stub to slender
columns) with two different yield stresses were investigated in the parametric study. Axial
strengths obtained from the experimental tests and FE analyses were used to assess the
performance of the current design guidelines as per the Direct Strength Method (DSM);
obtained comparisons show that the current DSM is conservative by only 7% on average,
while predicting the axial strengths of back-to-back built-up CFS unequal angle sections.

Beulah et al, (2019), In cold-formed steel (CFS) structures, such as trusses, the issue is
addressed herein. This paper presents the results of 16 experimental tests, conducted on
back-to-back built-up CFS screw fastened angle sections under axial compression obtained
comparison showed that the DSM is over-conservative by 13% on average. This paper has
therefore proposed improved design rules for the DSM and verified their accuracy against
the finite element and test results of back-to-back built-up CFS angle sections under axial
compression.

Boshan et al, (2020), This paper presents a total of 162 new results comprising 27 axial
compression tests and 135 finite element analysis (FEA) results on the axial strength of
back-to-back channels with edge-stiffened holes, un-stiffened holes and plain webs. The
axial strength increased by 6.6% on average, compared to a back-to-back plain channel.
For comparison, the same section with un-stiffened holes had a 12.4% reduction on average
in axial strength, compared to a back-to-back plain channel. It was found that the AISI
(2016) and AS/NZS (2018) are only 3% conservative to the test results. The Moen and
Schafer equations (2008, 2009, 2011) are conservative by 21% on average for back-to-back
channels with un-stiffened holes.

19
Craveiro et al, (2020), This paper presents and discusses the results of an experimental
investigation on the structural response of cold-formed steel columns with intermediate and
edge stiffeners under fire conditions for assessing mainly their critical temperatures,
European fire design predictions (EN 1993-1-2:2005) were compared with the
experimental results, based on the Although the use of longitudinal stiffeners in cold-
formed steel members in compression is known to increase their ultimate strength at
ambient temperatures. Existing analytical methods have been shown to be incapable to
predict sufficiently realistic the complex buckling behaviour of restrained CFS columns
under fire conditions.

Georgieva et al, (2020), A total of 24 built-up columns, including four different cross-
sectional geometries, were tested between pin-ended boundary conditions, while applying
the load with nominal eccentricities of L/1000 or L/1500. The built-up sections were
fabricated from flat plates, plain channels and lipped channels and were assembled with
either bolts or self-drilling screws. However, in the cases where global buckling of the
components in between connector points was not critical, the connector spacing had a
minor influence on the ultimate capacity of the columns.

Rasmussen et al, (2020), The linear analysis of built-up sections in torsion, considering
first uniform torsion followed by non-uniform torsion. Including columns supported on
flexible end tracks. Closed form solutions are presented for up to seven rows of fasteners
longitudinally. While by nature approximate, the solutions are shown to be highly accurate.
Comparisons are made between the presented closed form solutions and buckling load
predictions obtained using current design provisions.

Fitrah et al, (2020), This research aims to analyze the performance of long-span roof truss,
24 m, using CFS back-to-back channel section. Two types of roof trusses, model 1 and
model 2, are compared to get better configuration for long-span roof truss. CFS back-to-
back channel section safely withstands resisting axial forces by giving compressive ratio
number around 0,54-0,72. Then, model 2 has given better structural performance, stress
ratio and deflection, than model 1.

20
Boshan et al, (2020), This paper presents a total of 162 new results comprising 27 axial
compression tests and 135 finite element analysis (FEA) results on the axial strength of
back-to-back channels with edge-stiffened holes, un-stiffened holes and plain webs. the
axial strength increased by 6.6% on average, compared to a back-to-back plain channel.
For comparison, the same section with un-stiffened holes had a 12.4% reduction on average
in axial strength, compared to a back-to-back plain channel It was found that the AISI
(2016) and AS/NZS (2018) are only 3% conservative to the test results. The Moen and
Schafer equations (2008, 2009, 2011) are conservative by 21% on average for back-to-back
channels with un-stiffened holes.

Aruna et al, (2020), The validated FEM can be used for further parametric study on
strength of built-up closed columns. The results obtained from the parametric study are
compared with the current direct strength method (DSM) in the North American
specification of cold-formed steel structures for those specimens that failed by only local,
distortional, and flexural buckling. It is shown that the current DSM is not quite suitable
for the design of cold-formed steel built-up closed columns. Therefore, the improved design
equations are proposed by modifying the current design equations used in the DSM for
flexural, local, and distortional buckling. The reliability of current DSM and proposed DSM
was assessed by reliability analysis.

Dobrić et al, (2020), The experimental programme was performed on press-braked lean
duplex stainless steel equal-leg angle sections with nominal dimensions of 80 × 80 × 4 mm,
and involved material testing, initial imperfection measurements and 11 column tests. The
test setup and procedure, together with the key experimental results, axial load vs. lateral
deflections, axial load vs. torsional rotations and characterised failure modes, the database
of test results is still quite limited, and further research is needed to amplify the data needed
to enable a more precise assessment of the codified procedures.

Anbarasu et al, (2020), The present paper reports the numerical parametric study on the
structural behaviour of battened cold-formed steel built-up box columns composed of four
lipped angles. The results of the assessment revealed the limitation of the current design
rules in the prediction of the capacity of the CFS built-up battened box columns, design
procedure was proposed in the framework of AS/NZS specifications (AS/NZ 4600:2018)
21
and European standards (EN1993-1-3:2006) for the safe, less scattered, and reliable design
strength predictions of battened CFS built-up columns composed of four lipped angles.

Firdaus et al, (2020), The proposed connections consisted of 6 specimens divided into two
types, the first of which were stiffened by the gusset plate and the second of which were
enhanced further with the top, seat, and web angles. where the strength was more than 25%
of the connected beam and suitable for use in semi-continuous construction. which differed
in the range of 1.31 to 1.5 times for the moment resistance and 1.07 to 1.37 times for the
stiffness of the proposed connections.

Aruna G. (2020), This paper describes the experimental and theoretical investigation on
ultimate strength of cold-formed steel built-up square stub columns under axial
compression. Local buckling, distortion, and interaction of these buckling modes were
observed, and the strengths were calculated using the effective width method. It was
observed that this method conservatively predicted the strength of specimens.

Natesan et al, (2020), This study aims to determine the efficiency of a three bolted web
cleat over a two-bolted web cleat joint between the beam-column predominantly subjected
to a shear load. The results show that the ultimate load increases with a decrease in the
aspect ratio of the web cleat leg attached to the column and the experimental loads of three-
bolted configuration were 13 to 95% higher than the corresponding two-bolted
configuration.

Firdaus et al, (2020), This paper presents an isolated joint test of composite joints
consisting of concrete slab 100 mm thickness, double lipped channel section used for beam
and column, connected by hot-rolled steel gusset plates and bolts. Two specimens with the
same configuration but with and without seat angle were tested. The experiment results
revealed that using seat angle, the moment resistance and stiffness of joints increased with
the ratio 1.06 and 1.19, respectively.

Camotim et al, (2020), Extended keynote paper of Eurosteel 2021. This two-part paper
provides the behaviour, strength and DSM design of CFS columns and beams affected by
mode coupling phenomena namely local-distortional (L-D), local-distortional-global (L-D-
G), distortional-global (D-G) and global-global (flexural-torsional/flexural – FT-F)
22
interaction. For columns undergoing L-D and L-D-G interaction, beams experiencing L-D
interaction and angle columns susceptible to FT-F interaction, the work reported includes
experimental studies, numerical simulations, and DSM-based design considerations and/or
guidelines. For the remaining coupling phenomena, only numerical results are reported.

Branquinho et al, (2021), This paper reports results of experimental and numerical
investigations on a novel design approach to cold-formed steel angle columns connected
by the leg that uses effective slenderness ratios by A FEM model (ANSYS). From the
parametric study, a new design approach based on effective slenderness ratio method and
with a width/thickness ratio (b/t) is proposed with high accuracy mainly for intermediate
angle columns.

Dobrić et al, (2021), The design rules for centrically compressed stainless steel equal-leg
angle members are not explicitly stated in the current European standard SRPS EN 1993-
1-4. The design curves for flexural and flexural-torsional buckling check have been
proposed in accordance with European codified procedures in this paper from research
conducted on this type of structural element.

Pandey et al, (2021), The load vs deformation behaviour and static joint resistances of
these novel tubular T-joints are presented in this study. Three failure modes chord face
failure (F), combined failure (F + W), and chord crown failure (C) were observed in this
investigation. It has been demonstrated that the design rules available in the literature are
generally not suitable for the design of CFHSS brace-rotated and bird-beak T-joints made
of S960 steel.

Deepak et al, (2021), The axial load carrying abilities and the buckling behaviour of CFS
SBC has been presented in this paper. SBC sections made of lipped channels along with
longitudinal stiffeners exhibited highest load carrying ability. Providing stiffeners at the
junction of flange and web portions did not radically increase in load carrying ability when
compared to sections having stiffeners in the webs and lip portions. SBC sections made of
lipped channels also failed in similar buckling phenomenon like in other sections, but the
plate element local buckling predominantly occurred at the lip portions.

23
Mou, et al, (2021), This paper investigates the mechanical behaviour of bolted built-up
steel column, which is built using bolts instead of welds. The experimental and numerical
results were compared with the calculated ultimate strength obtained from the
corresponding codes of GB 50017–2017, ANSI/AISC 360–10, EN 1993-1-1, and AIJ-
2002. The results showed that both slenderness ratio and angle section side length were the
main factors on the bearing capacity.

Ananthi et al, (2021), This paper presents a total of 77 new results comprising 13 axial
compression tests and 64 finite element analysis (FEA) results on axial capacity of BUATC
with and without intermediate stiffeners. From the experimental results, it was found that
for the case of BUATC with two stiffeners in the longer leg and one stiffener in the shorter
leg, the axial capacity was increased by 20% on average, when compared to the axial
capacity of built-up angles without any intermediate stiffener.

Mahar, et al, (2021), This study proposes a design equation for built-up cold-formed steel
(CFS) columns to eliminate the inconsistencies present in Section I1.2 of AISI S100
specification. The study shows that the modified slenderness ratio (MSR) in Section I1.2
of AISI S100 yields conservative strength predictions with increased fastener spacing.

Zhou, et al, (2021), In this paper, the elastic buckling behaviours of the composite plates
extracted from CFS back-to-back built-up columns were investigated using a combination
of tests and finite element (FE) analyses. Both the critical buckling loads as well as the
buckling modes predicted from the FE analyses were in good agreement with the laboratory
test results.

Mou, et al, (2021), This paper investigates the mechanical behaviour of bolted built-up
steel column, which is built using bolts instead of welds. The results showed that
both slenderness ratio and angle section side length were the main factors on the bearing
capacity.

Zhang et al, (2022), This study aimed at making efforts towards resolving the accuracy of
the DSM method. The column axial strengths and stiffnesses, failure modes, and structural
responses under compression, the parameters required by the DSM for estimating the axial
strengths of these columns were determined, and the accuracy of the DSM was assessed
24
with the tested axial strengths of the columns. It was found that the DSM could not
accurately estimate the axial strengths of the columns rather these estimates were
unconservative.

Djafour, et al, (2022), This research aims to convey parametric study on built-up columns
using a proposed Approach based on DSM and to understand the behaviour of cold-formed
steel built-up columns. For the proposed DSM approaches, the results were slightly
conservative for global buckling columns and non-conservative for local buckling mode
columns.

Liang, et al, (2022), This paper presents results from 90 new cases comprising 10 eccentric
compression tests and 80 finite element (FE) analyses of the load capacity of starred
compound members, by varying the interconnector arrangement, form, spacing and bolt
row, and slenderness ratio of the compound members. Therefore, proposing a kd coefficient
method to improve the prediction accuracy of the bearing capacity.

Chen, et al, (2022), In this paper, the axial compression strengths of the cruciform CFS
built-up columns obtained from the tests were used to assess the applicability of AISI
standards. For columns failed by local and distortional buckling, AISI standard were un-
conservative, whereas for torsional and flexural, AISI standard were conservative.

Yang, et al, (2022), In this paper, two types of pre-engineered fabricated beam-column
connections with popular connectors were innovatively proposed, and full-scale static
experiments were implemented. From experimental results, the ultimate capacity and initial
stiffness of the proposed beam-column connections with the core-pulling rivets increased
by 79.3% and 34.3%, respectively compared to those of self-tapping screws. The ultimate
moment and initial stiffness of the connection with lateral angle steels decreased by 29.9%
and 40.6%, respectively than those with beam supports up and down.

Fang, et al, (2022), This paper investigates the structural behaviour of CFS BTB channel
sections subjected to axial compression at elevated temperatures (20 to 700 °C). The results
of reliability analysis conducted showed that the proposed design equations could closely
predict the axial strength of CFS BTB channel sections at elevated temperatures.

25
2.3 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE

• CFS has an advantage of being light weight, durable, stable, non-combustible,

sustainable, and cost effective.
• CFS has wide range application in engineering fields such as bridges, roof panels
and decks etc.
• One of the disadvantages of CFS is buckling, so the literature involves knowing
the methods to overcome the buckling.
• In CFS structures such as trusses, wall frames and portal frame the use of back-to-
back built-up CFS channel sections are becoming increasingly popular.
• Strain gauges and an optical measurement device are used for tests.
• Quality of flexible interconnection between z-profiles is evaluated.
• CFS are widely used in modern construction.
• Optimization for compression is carried out for different column lengths and
includes effect of shift of effective centroid induced by local buckling.
• Experimental (test conducted), analytical (codes and equations), numerical
(software used) has been understood.
• The member behaviour with respect to w/t ratio, length and boundary conditions,
methods for finding geometrical imperfection and material properties.
• The study about local and global buckling under the application of load and
influence on the collapse of column has been done.
• The methods for calculating the load bearing capacity (DSM and effective section
method).
• Comparison of results with the codes, c/s to be used under certain situation.

26
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 GENERAL
In this chapter we are discussing about different methods to study about the cold formed
steel angle columns and the step-by-step process. The main aim to predict the buckling
strength of cold form steel angle columns.

STAGE 1: THEORETICAL STUDY

The study has been carried out on the buckling behaviour of cold-formed steel
sections using the International standard codes ▪ Australian/New Zealand (AS/NZS):
4600 (2005) - Finite Element Analysis (based on analysis of single element) ▪
American (Direct Strength Method) - Finite Strip Analysis (based on analysis of
global element)

STAGE 2: NUMERICAL STUDY

To study the buckling behaviour using the software. ▪ CUFSM5 - For finding the
sectional properties of the sections. ▪ ABAQUS - For Finite Element Analysis of the
models.

STAGE 3: EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

To study the buckling behaviour by conducting ▪ Coupon testing - For finding the
material properties of the section. ▪ Column compression testing - Compressive
testing has been carried out to find the ultimate strength of the column

3.2 PROCESS TREE FOR RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The methodology is also illustrated by the typical flowchart.

27
Literature Construction
collection of Interpretation and
hypothetical Conclusion
model

Review of Quantitative and

literature qualitative analysis Validation of
of data (FEM using findings
ABAQUS software) against prior
research

Analyse
literature and
theoretical
study (DSM
Method and
Euro code)

Figure 3.1 Methodology

3.3 SUMMARY
In this chapter the discussion is about the step-by-step procedure is to be followed for
the whole project.

28
 CHAPTER 4

SECTION CLASSIFICATION

4.1. GENERAL

In this chapter the cross-sections to be used for the study has been determined. The
specifications of section selection, details of specimen, cross-sectional geometries, dimension
and specimen labelling are investigated and tabulated. 4.2. SELECTION OF SECTION A
parametric study involving a total of 72 FE models to analyzes the effects of column
slenderness and orientation of edge and intermediate stiffeners on axial strength of such CFS
angle sections is conducted. In total, 2 different geometries of unequal single angle sections
and 2 different back-to-back angle sections were considered for the parametric study. The
width of both legs, the width of the edge and intermediate stiffeners were kept constants for all
specimens. The 3 different thickness and 6 depths were also used for each section. Table 1
Shows the dimensions and length of the specimens.

4.2 SELECTION OF SECTIONS (CHOOSING DIMENSIONS USING

CUFSM SOFTWARE)
Cross section of the angle member and eccentricity values with respect to major and
minor axis must be chosen.

Widt
Widt Widt
h of
h of h of Thickn Ang
Specim flan Length
web lip ess le
en ID ge (mm)
(mm (mm (mm) θ
(mm
) )
)
450,550,650,750,950,1150,1350,1550,1750,1950,2150,2
BBAS 150 150 15 2 -
350,2550,2750

BBAS 450,550,650,750,950,1150,1350,1550,1750,1950,2150,2
150 150 15 2 0
E-θ0 350,2550,2750

BBAS 450,550,650,750,950,1150,1350,1550,1750,1950,2150,2
150 150 15 2 135
E-135 350,2550,2750

Table. 1- Geometry details

29
4.3. SPECIMEN LABELLING

The specimens are labelled so the test series and orientation of edge stiffeners could be
identified from the label. For example,

SAS - Single angle section with equal angle

BBAS - Back-to-back angle section with edge stiffener of angle135
BBAS - Back-to-back angle section with edge stiffener of angle0

Figure 4.1-GEOMETRIC DESIGN

30
 CHAPTER 5

THEOROTICAL STUDY

5.1 GENERAL

The two important methods available for the design of cold-formed members are direct
strength method (DSM) and Euro code. The result that will obtain from finite element
modelling for eccentrically loaded columns will be compared with DSM and Euro results.
The Direct Strength Method in the North American Specification for cold-formed steel
structures are presently used to predict the strength of cold-formed steel structural members. In
Effective Width Method, the determination of effective area for a complex section is very
complicated. But in DSM, there is no need to calculate the effective area; instead, an elastic
critical buckling load is required to be determined. Currently, DSM method is used for the
design of open sections. So, it is in need to study the appropriateness of DSM on design of cold
formed steel built-up sections. It was observed that the Effective Width Method was generally
conservative compared to DSM. This chapter describes the appropriateness of the DSM method
that was assessed by the FEA results of cold-formed steel built-up closed section columns. In
the DSM, the elastic buckling stresses are needed to calculate the strength of the section. The
open-source software CUFSM is used to find out the elastic buckling stresses of the sections.
An analytical model was developed and used to calculate the elastic bulking stresses of the
built-up closed sections.

5.2. DIRECT STRENGTH METHOD

The American Iron and Steel Industry (AISI) - Direct Strength Method is a
contemporary design procedure for cold-formed steel. The method employs elastic buckling
solutions for the cross-sections, instead of the element-by element plate buckling solutions.
As it considers the gross area of the section irrespective of the cross-section, it is applied
globally. The nominal design strength of Cold-formed steel unequal angle columns with
complex edge and intermediate stiffeners were studied using the DSM in AISI specification
for Cold-formed steel structures. The nominal or un-factored design strength (PDSM) is the
minimum value amongst the strengths calculated for flexural buckling (Pne), local buckling
(Pnl), and distortional buckling (Pnd), as given in Equation 1,

31
 PDSM = min (Pne, Pnl, Pnd) (1)
Equation 2 and 3 as given below was used to compute the nominal axial strength (Pne)
for flexural buckling.
Pne = (0.658λc) Py for λc ≤ 1.5 (2)
Pne = (0.877λc) Py for λc> 1.5 (3)
Where, λc = √(Py/Pcre)
Py = Afy
Py = the squash load
A = the gross cross-sectional area
fy = the yield stress, which is the static 0.2% proof stress (σ0.2)
Pcre = the critical elastic column buckling load in flexural buckling in this study
Equation 4 and 5 as given below was used to compute the nominal axial strength for local
buckling (Pnl)
Pnl = Pne for λl ≤ 0.776 (4)
Pnl = [1 − 0.15 (Pcrl /Pne) 0.4] (Pcrl / Pne) 0.4 Pne for λl> 0.776 240 (5)
Where, λl = √ (Pne /Pcrl)
Pcrl = Afol
Equation 6 and 7 as given below was used to compute the nominal axial strength (Pnd)
for distortional buckling.
Pnd = Py for λd ≤ 0.561 (6)
Pnd = [1 − 0.25 (Pcrd/Py) 0.6] (Pcrd/Py) 0.6 Py for λd> 0.561 244 (7)
Where, λd = √(Py/Pcrd)
Pcrd = Afod
The axial strengths of Cold-formed steel angle sections can be calculated using the
above equations, whereas the elastic buckling load such as flexural (Pcre), local (Pcrl), and
distortional (Pcrd) buckling loads were obtained from the half wave length curves generated
from the CUFSM.

5.3 Cold Formed Steel in Europe

Cold rolled steel sections should be one of the most efficient and economical of
structural members. The raw material arrives in a convenient coil, already galvanised, and cut
to the correct width. The rolling process is fast, and the sections may be automatically punched
and cut to length by inserting appropriate data cards into the machine. The profile is tailormade

32
to suit the application, and the sections usually nest together so that they are convenient to
handle and transport. With these special features, it is perhaps surprising that these sections are
not more widely used in construction than they are at present. In fact, the major use of cold
formed sections in building in Europe has been as purlins (Fig. 2) or sheeting rails (Fig. 3).
However, recently there have been moves to use sections in other structural applications, e.g.,
as columns and beams in raised storage platforms (Fig. 4), as wall studs, as main frame
members, as roof trusses, and other situations. These developments are now quickening in pace
as cold formed steel becomes increasingly more competitive in price with timber and hot rolled
steel. In the field of sheeting and cladding, steel has progressed enormously in recent years. In
Sweden, profiled metal sheeting accounts for 90% of the roofs and 70% of the walls in
industrial buildings, and the annual consumption of profiled steel and aluminium sheeting is
approximately 3 square metres per head of the population.

33
 Figure 5.1 European code method

5.4 SUMMARY

i. Generating the excel worksheet for DSM method and euro code to find the buckling
strength of the cold form steel angle column.
ii. Section properties of the members can be calculated by using CUFSM software.

34
 CHAPTER 6
NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION
6.1. GENERAL
Finite Element Analysis is an efficient tool which can predict the behaviour accurately,
provided the model developed resembles the experimental prototype. Hence, it is necessary to
verify the finite element results with experimental results. In general, finite element analysis is
a powerful tool in predicting the ultimate loads and complex failure modes of cold-formed steel
structural members. This chapter describes the modelling and analysis of the specimens by
Finite Element Analysis. The Finite Element Analysis was carried out by using ABAQUS
software.
6.2. CUFSM5 SOFTWARE
CUFSM stands for Constrained and Unconstrained Finite Strip Method. For an
arbitrary thin-walled cross-section CUFSM provides for all cross-section and member elastic
buckling modes and loads for any applied end action (compression, bending, warping, etc.).
CUFSM provides both the semi-analytical finite strip method for creation of the cross-section
signature curve as well as the generalized finite strip method for other end boundary conditions.
CUFSM provides a complete implementation of the constrained finite strip method which
allows the user to perform quantitative modal decomposition and identification that provides a
precise means to separate local, distortional, and global buckling modes in thin-walled
members. CUFSM includes tools for generalized beam column loading and analysis. Several
supplementary tools have been added to CUFSM including development of plastic surfaces for
cross-sections under arbitrary load, independent global buckling analysis with classical beam
formula, and an interface to generate ABAQUS input files with cross-section imperfections
based on CUFSM buckling modes.
The following points help in better understanding the necessity of using CUFSM.
i. Design and hand methods that are traditionally used for plate structures often ignore
the compatibility at plate junctures and typically provide no means to calculate a
variety of buckling modes.
ii. CUFSM allows all elastic buckling modes of a structure to be quantified and
examined.

35
 iii. In order to calculate input for DSM (say Pcre , Pcrl and Pcrd, and for compression
members), CUFSM can be used instead of cumbersome hand calculations, thereby
saving time.
6.3 Section properties of the members
Section properties of the members can be calculated by using CUFSM software by
generating the excel worksheet for DSM method.

Figure 6.1 Section Properties of BB135 Section

Figure6.2 Section Properties of BB Section

36
 Figure 6.3 Section Properties of BB0 Section

6.4. ABAQUS SOFTWARE

Linear Finite Element Analysis was carried out by ABAQUS. The buckling strength of
the specimen was obtained after linear buckling analysis has been carried out. The general steps
involved in the Finite Element Analysis are.
• Creation of model by parts
• Material property assigning
• Assembling the parts to create model
• Creation of Mesh
• Creating Boundary Condition
• Creating Interaction between the section
• Creation of loads and assigning
• Creation of fasteners
• Report generation.

6.4.1. MODELLING OF THE SPECIMEN

The Finite Element Analysis is done to anticipate the critical buckling loads of the
symmetric sections. The finite element program ABAQUS was employed to develop finite
element (FE) models for Cold-formed steel unequal angle section with complex edge and
intermediate stiffeners under axial compression. The FE models were enhanced with centre
axis of cross-section. The buckling mode shape is determined through eigen value analysis
using ABAQUS software.

37
 6.5 DEVELOPMENT OF FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
Cold-formed steel sections have thickness which is extremely small compared to the
other two dimensions which are modelled as plate-shell elements. The commercial non-linear
finite element analysis software 96 ABAQUS 6.9 was used to predict load versus axial
shortening behaviour, failure loads and failure modes of the channel sections loaded axially
and eccentrically loading conditions have been studied and compared with fixed end condition.
The program has static, stability and non-linear analysis capabilities, which are used in this
study. The various steps involved in the finite element analysis, are discussed in detail in this
chapter. The numerical simulation is performed in three stages. In the first stage a linear
analysis was performed on a perfect geometry and secondly a buckling analysis to incorporate
the initial imperfections was performed with the same geometry to establish probable buckling
modes of a column. In the third stage, a non-linear analysis was performed incorporating
material and geometric nonlinearities to obtain the ultimate load and failure modes of the
column. In the finite element model, the measured cross-section dimensions of the tested
specimens and their material properties were modelled. The model was based on the centerline
dimensions of the cross-sections.

6.6 MATERIAL MODELING

Selecting the material model was a challenge for the designer and it was most important
for the analytical model. The material properties of the cold-formed steel section could
sometimes be significantly different from the sheet from which it was originally pressed into
the desired shape. Material nonlinearity in the cold-formed sections could be modeled with
Von Mises yield criteria and isotropic hardening. For all developed components, the Poisons
ratio, the yield stress and the elastic modulus was taken as 0.3, 186 N/mm2 and 1.96x105
N/mm2 respectively. The loading beam element was approximated as a rigid body by setting
high Modulus of Elasticity (i.e.) one hundred times that of steel. The material behaviour for the
model was taken from the stress-strain behaviour obtained through experiment and is
incorporated in ABAQUS material modelling.

38
6.7 ELEMENT TYPE AND MESH

The widely adopted eight-noded shell element S6R with six (three translational and
three rotational) degrees of freedom for each node was employed to mesh the cold formed steel
columns channel columns. This shell element has successfully been adopted in previous finite
element studies in thin-walled pultruded profiles by other researchers. An element size of 5 x
5 mm with an aspect ratio of one was arrived based on the mesh sensitivity study.

Figure 6.4 Schematic Mesh Diagram

6.8. CREATION OF FASTENERS

Fasteners must be fitted out to provide connection between the angle pieces that are put
back-to-back to promote interaction and distribute the load evenly to both parts. A minimum
of two equidistant fasteners is required for optimum contact. In this study fasteners were
provided at L/5 for each section along the length of the column in the FE models

6.9 LOADING AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The nodes are created in the cross-section centroid at top and bottom end and then
linked to the nodes at the edge of the cross-section to create the rigid region. Each node is a
dependent node on the edges of the sections. These dependent nodes are linked to the

39
 independent node which is created at the cross-section centroid of the sections. The
loading and boundary conditions are applied through the master node at the centroid.

The axes are chosen as: Y-axis along the length of the member, X-axis and Z-axis
are normal to the walls. The pinned end of pultruded channel column was modelled by
preventing the loaded end from translations in both X and Z directions. The unloaded end is
prevented from translation in three directions X, Y and Z.

Figure 6.5 Boundary Condition for a section

Figure 6.6 Loading of the section

40
 6.10 GEOMETRICAL IMPERFECTIONS

The load carrying capacity is mainly affected by geometric imperfections which

arise from manufacturing, transportation, and fabrication. Thus, geometric imperfections are
incorporated in the linear analyses. In this study, the local and global geometrical imperfections
were included in the model according to their length. Local and global imperfections were used
for short and longer specimens. For intermediate length specimens, both local and global
imperfections were used. For local imperfection 1/10 of the column wall thickness was
incorporated to the numerical models. Similarly, for global imperfections, the selected lowest
buckling mode was scaled to a value of L/500 in order to incorporate the global imperfection
to the model as specified in the Fiber line design manual. After imposing the initial geometrical
imperfection, geometric non-linearity is incorporated by using the large displacement analysis
option.

6.11 LINEAR BUCKLING ANALYSIS

To predict the axial strength of channel columns, two stages of analyses were
performed. The critical buckling load with corresponding buckling mode shapes were
determined by performing the eigen buckling analysis. Followed by the linear static analysis
was performed by using Newton-Raphson’s method to determine the critical buckling strength
of the cold formed steel columns members. The imperfections (geometry imperfection) were
introduced in the geometry by adding the critical buckling mode shapes to the perfect geometry
of the channel column by using the imperfection option in the linear load-displacement
analysis.

6.12. BUCKLING MODE SHAPES

The moment capacities and buckling failure modes of Cold-formed steel angle sections
were predicted by finite element analysis. The buckling mode shapes show the type of buckling
failure occurred in the column. The failure of all the sections is characterized by mode coupling
between typical buckling effects for thin-walled members. The main purpose of linear
perturbation analysis is to establish probable buckling modes (eigen modes) of the column. The
various buckling modes attained by the single angle section (SAS-1) of 2mm thickness and

41
lengths 450mm,550 mm,650 mm,750 mm,950 mm,1150 mm,1350 mm,1550 mm,1750
mm,1950 mm,2150 mm,2350 mm,2550 mm,2750 mm.

(a). 950mm

(b). 1150mm

42
(c). 1750mm

(d). 1150mm

(e). 1350mm

43
(f). 550mm

(g). 650mm

(h). 750mm

44
(i). 750mm

(j). 550mm

(k). 450mm

45
 (l). 1350mm

(m). 950mm

Fig.6.7. Buckling mode shapes

46
 Figure 6. 8 Data Generation of a section

Finite element analysis code ABAQUS was used to analyse the three cold-formed
channels (ie) CFC 150x150x2 mm, CFC 150x150x2 mm and CFC 150x150x2 mm
respectively. The specimens were loaded through the centroid and through two negative and
positive axiality. A linear buckling analysis were performed incorporating geometric and
material linearities.

6.13 SUMMARIES
In this chapter Numerical models were established by using FEA software ABAQUS
for the values taken from the journal ‘BEHAVIOUR OF COLD-FORMED STEEL PLAIN
CHANNELS UNDER AXIL AND ECCENTRIC COMPRESSION LOADS’ and the
deflection recorded in the journal to the ABA QUS is compared

47
 CHAPTER 7

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

7.1. GENERAL

The design of cold-formed steel members and assemblies are normally carried out on
the basis of theoretical provisions prescribed by the codes of practice. Due to very large variety
of cold-formed shapes that can be formed and the complex interactions that occur makes it
frequently uneconomical to design members and systems completely on theoretical basis. Also,
when adequate analytical design procedures are not available for the member or assembly to
be designed, testing of the components are recommended. The behavior of a component or
system can often be ascertained economically by a test and suitable modifications incorporated,
whenever necessary. They are tensile tests on the material, tests on members or connections to
determine the actual component behavior and the tests on complete structures and assemblies.
In present investigation, experiments were carried out to study the behavior of cold-formed
steel angle column. A series of compression tests were conducted, and their behavior is
observed. Specimens were fabricated from cold-formed steel sheets of 2 mm thickness. The
component plates were bent into the required sizes with edge and intermediate stiffeners. The
back-to-back sections were fabricated and screwed at L/5. All the specimens were loaded
axially.

7.2. COUPON TESTING

The specimens used in the present investigation were fabricated with a thickness of 2
mm. In order to study the material properties of the sheets used for fabrication of sections, four
tension tests were conducted on standard tensile coupons. The tension coupons were prepared
and tested according to the IS 1608 2005 (Part 1) specifications.

Fig. 7.1 Coupon test set up.

48
7.2.1. STRESS-STRAIN

The yield strength of cold-formed steel is determined either by the offset method or
the strain under-load method. Offset method is used generally for gradual yielding steel and it
is used to calculate the yield strength of the material. In the offset method, the yield strength is
the stress corresponding to the intersection of the stress-strain curve and a line parallel to the
initial straight-line portion offset by a specified strain. The typical stress-strain behaviour of
the tensile coupon.

7.2.2. MATERIAL PROPERTIES

The material properties resulted from the coupon testing is given in Table. Material
Properties from Coupon results

Youngs Modulus Yield Stress Ultimate Stress Poisson’s ratio

(MPa) (MPa)
(MPa)

7.85e-9 257.99 292.942 0.3

TABLE.2-MATERIAL PROPERTIES

7.3. TEST PROCEDURE

The compression tests were carried out on loading frame. The specimens were welded
with 6 mm thick rectangular hot-rolled steel plate at each end and base plate was provided at
each end with the thickness of 2 mm and the ball bearings were placed between the base plates
and the loading plates to simulate hinged end conditions, at both supports. The hydraulic jack
was used to apply load at the regular interval and readings were measured. The load was applied
until the specimens reach the ultimate load. The test setup is shown in Fig.

Fig. 7.2. Cold-formed steel

specimens test set up.

49
7.4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The strength and failure mode of the specimens were identified. Interaction of local and
distortional buckling mode was observed for all the specimens. The failure modes of the Cold-
formed steel specimens under axial compression testing are displayed in Fig.7.3.

Fig.7.3 Buckling mode shapes of the specimens after failure

Buckling factor determination of linear analysis is a quite tedious procedure in the case
of composite structures. The literature recommends various methods to determine buckling
factor. After examining all the methods, the South well plot was found to be more suitable for
all the cases and hence adopted for determination of buckling factor for linear analysis.

50
 CHAPTER 8
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
8.1. GENERAL
The behaviour of cold-formed steel single angle and back-to-back angle sections under
axial compression was investigated. Experimental investigations were carried out to study the
behaviour of cold-formed steel angle columns. Three cross sections of size 100 x 75 x 2 mm
were fabricated and tested. Out of which two sections were single angles and the other one was
double angles placed back to-back. Numerical investigations were also carried out by using a
commercial finite element code ABAQUS. The thin shell element was used, and the mesh used
in the model was investigated by varying the length and thickness of the elements. The ultimate
load carrying capacities of the specimens were compared with the load carrying capacities of
the sections predicted using the Finite Element Analysis ABAQUS software. The effect of
provision of edge and intermediate stiffeners and the load carrying capacity of different cross-
sections with various length and thickness were studied. Deformation patterns and stress
contours obtained from ABAQUS were compared with the experimental results. The numerical
model developed using ABAQUS to predict the behaviour of the angles under axial loading
with different length and orientation of the stiffeners was found to simulate the behaviour very
closely.
8.2. NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION
As Cold-formed steel being a thin-walled structure, its design is mainly governed by
buckling. In general, sections fail either by local or global buckling. In this study, the buckling
behaviour of single angle and back-to-back angle sections were studied by varying the lengths,
thickness, and orientation of intermediate stiffeners. The fig.8.1 shows the compressive axial
load versus the length of the specimens. From this graph, it is observed that BBAS-135 load
carrying capacity is high in compared to other specimens. The reason is when the edge
orientation is BBAS-135, the moment of inertia in minor axis is increased considerably, it
enhances the load carrying capacity.

51
 Linear Buckling Analysis
450

Buckling Strength(k) 400

350
300
250
BBAS
200 BBAS-135
150 BBAS-0
100
50
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Effective Length

Fig 8.1. Axial load versus effective length

8.3. VALIDATION OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS WITH EXPERIMENTAL

RESULTS
The developed finite element models were verified against experimental ultimate loads.
The experimental results were compared with ultimate loads and failure modes were predicted
from finite element analysis as shown in Table 4. The mean values of PFEA/PEXP ratio were
0.96. The interaction of distortional buckling was observed in all the specimens in the test as
well as in FEA.

Fig.8.2. Analytical VS Experimental Results

52
8.4. COMAPRISON OF BUCKLING MODE SHAPES
The buckling mode shapes obtained from the ABAQUS results were compared with
that of the Cold-formed steel specimen buckling mode shapes observed after compression
strength test. Fig.8.6. shows that verification of buckling mode shapes observed from the
analytical and experimental results.

Fig.8.3. Verification of buckling mode shapes

53
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