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LEADER’S REFERENCE BOOK Eighteenth Edition, Revised 2015
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LEADER’S
REFERENCE
BOOK
Leadership Training Program

Eighteenth Edition, Revised February 2015

Leadership Training Committee
Angeles Chapter, Sierra Club

© Copyright 2015
Angeles Chapter, Sierra Club
 Contents

1. LEADERSHIP TRAINING PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Enrollment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Completion Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Two Outings Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Leader Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Mentors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2. SIERRA CLUB ORGANIZATION, CONSERVATION, AND OUTINGS PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Sierra Club Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Information Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Outings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3. OUTINGS OVERSIGHT AND POLICIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Safety Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Use of Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Rules of Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Harassment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Complaints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Sierra Club Insurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Angeles Chapter Safety Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

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4. OUTINGS LEADERSHIP AND EMERGENCY PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Outings Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The How-To’s of Leading a Trip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Outing Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Injury and Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Helicopter Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Misplaced Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Bivouacs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

5. FIRST AID CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Choosing a First Aid Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Legal Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Suggested Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

6. NAVIGATION, TRIP PLANNING, AND ROUTE FINDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Navigational Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Field Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Route Finding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Trip/Route Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Navigation Checkout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Suggested Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

7. ROCK CLIMBING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Safety Committee Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Scope of the LTP Rock Climbing Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Rock Climbing References and Sources of LTP Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Rock Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Rock Techniques and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Rock Checkout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Suggested Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

8. SNOW CLIMBING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

M and E Snow Climbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Trekking Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Ice Axe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Snow Climbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Cramponing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Roped Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Belays and Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Avalanches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Snow Checkout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Suggested Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

9. ADDITIONAL OUTINGS NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Bus Trips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Backcountry Skiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Bicycle Tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Sailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

APPENDIX A: MAPPING SYSTEMS AND UTM COORDINATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

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APPENDIX B: ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Girth Hitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Clove Hitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Munter Hitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Double Fisherman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Prusik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 8 Followthrough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure 8 on a Bight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Bowline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Bowline on a Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Overhand Followthrough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Parisian Baudrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Dulfersitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
“Z” Pulley System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

APPENDIX C: FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Sign-in Sheet and Liability Waiver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Sign-in Sheet & Acknowledgement of Risk (for outingswhere waivers are prohibited) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Sign-in Sheet & Release (for restricted mountaineering outings) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Acknowledgement of Responsibility/Liability Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Acknowledgement of Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
Medical Treatment Authorization & Consent Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Angeles Chapter Incident Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Emergency Response--Patient Report Form User’s Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Emergency Response–Patient Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Refusal of First Aid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Safety Management--Emergency Response Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Application for Mountaineering Outing Approval (Non-Training Trips) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Application for Mountaineering Outing Approval (Training Trips) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
About the Medical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Medical Form (for restricted mountaineering outings) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Assistant Leader’s Evaluation for O-Level Provisional Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
O-Level Provisional Leader’s Self-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Assistant Leader’s Evaluation for I, M and E-Level Provisional Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
I, M and E-Level Provisional Leader’s Self-Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
M-Level Rock Checkout Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
E-Level Rock Checkout Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Snow Checkout Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Trip Leg Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

APPENDIX D: ROUTE CARD FOR MT. SAN ANTONIO CLIMB AND ENERGETICS FORMULA . . . .188
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Mountaineering, General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Rock Climbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Snow and Ice Climbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Winter Skills and Ski Touring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Search and Rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
First Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Wilderness First Aid and Mountaineering Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

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 Preface

W
elcome to the Leader’s Reference Book (LRB), a guide for outings leaders and leadership candidates of the Angeles
Chapter of the Sierra Club. As an integral part of the Leadership Training Program of the chapter’s Leadership
Training Committee, the LRB describes the program, including graduation requirements. In addition, this
volume stands alongside a host of literature about outdoor recreation, mountaineering, natural science, conservation, first
aid, and leadership. The LRB provides essential information about organizing and managing outings, Sierra Club policies
and procedures, and applying various outdoor skills to Sierra Club activities. The LRB aims to help leaders conduct safe,
enjoyable, and environmentally inspired outings—the foundation goals of Angeles Chapter outings.
Leaders bring a wealth of experience, education, and judgment to the outings they lead. As expertise grows, a leader’s
knowledge will far exceed the contents of this book. The LRB supplements, but does not replace, other literature that may
be of value and interest to leaders.
Safety is always the first priority on any outing. As a result, the chapters on navigation, first aid, and snow and rock
travel describe certain fundamental skills leaders must have in order to avoid problems and cope with emergencies. Time-
tested techniques that require a minimum of equipment are emphasized to provide a margin of safety.
Whether already rated or provisional, leaders may find the material in chapters 4 and 6 especially useful in organizing
and conducting an outing. Candidates for leadership ratings can use chapters 6, 7, and 8 and other relevant literature,
along with information provided in the Leadership Training Program (LTP) seminar and practice gained at LTP outings,
to prepare for checkout evaluations. Candidates must be proficient in the techniques appropriate for the outings they lead
and must understand the strengths and limitations of any techniques used. While the checkout forms define the minimum
skills required for various ratings, leaders and candidates alike are encouraged to advance their knowledge well beyond these
requirements.
As ambassadors for the Sierra Club, leaders can enhance participants’ enjoyment and appreciation of the outdoors.
Technical proficiency, while essential, does not qualify the candidate for a leadership rating on its own. When evaluating
candidates, examiners look for judgment, breadth and depth of knowledge, interpersonal skills, and practical expertise.
Thus, the Leader’s Reference Book is a resource that helps leaders plan and manage safe, successful outings. Ongoing
education about the natural environment, leadership skills, and wilderness travel is an essential component of leadership
that will enhance safety and enjoyment for everyone.

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Acknowledgements
The first edition of the LRB was compiled by Duane McRuer and Bill Houze in 1973. Contributors to succeeding
editions include How Bailey, Wynne Benti, Bill Bradley, Maureen Cates, Bruce Collier, Don Creighton, Randall Danta,
Diana Dee, Jim Erb, Joy Goebel, Bob Hicks, Ron Jones, Bob Kanne, Dennis Lantz, Gene Mauk, Duane McRuer, Byron
Myhre M.D., Bill Oliver, Gene Olsen, Horace Ory, Dan Richter, Frank Riseley M.D., Bill T. Russell, Chuck Sal, Steve
Schuster, Chuck Stein, Les Stockton, Larry Tidball, Barbee Tidball, and Chuck Youngberg.
The fifteenth edition, which differs significantly from the fourteenth, was inspired by the efforts of LTC Chair Dan
Richter. The book has been partly reorganized, major additions have been made to the leadership and trip planning
components of chapters 4 and 6, an appendix on UTM coordinates has been added, all drawings have been revised and
many new ones created by Tom Bowman in Appendix B and elsewhere, many sidebars have been added, forms have been
updated in Appendix C, changes have been made to every chapter, and the whole book has been reformatted by Tom
Bowman. Tina Bowman edited and reorganized the text. The editors wish to thank the many who helped in revising this
edition: Ron Campbell, Craig Connally, Don Creighton, Harry Freimanis, Donna Hryshchyshyn, Ann Kramer, Doug
Mantle, Duane McRuer, Patrick McKusky, Bill Oliver, Dan Richter, Virgil Shields, Nile Sorenson, Steve Schuster, Larry
Tidball, and Phil Wheeler.
The sixteenth edition has more material to aid candidates as they become new leaders with provisional lead pointers,
new policies, and more information about the Provisional Lead Committee for M and E candidates in chapter 1 and an
outing planning checklist in chapter 4. Information about the National Leader Standards, which became effective for the
Angeles Chapter in 2006, and the effect of those standards on Angeles leaders has been added to chapter 2, and other
updates have been made throughout the text. Brian (Wolf ) Leverich, the LTC Administration Chair, reviewed chapter 1
to ensure that it is as clear and helpful to candidates as possible. Navigation Co-chairs Harry Freimanis and Phil Wheeler
extensively revised chapter 6. Ron Hudson, the Rock Chair, made changes to chapter 7. Appendix C has the most recent
version of forms, adding in several not included in the LRB before. Darrick Danta caught various slips in the fifteenth
edition, which have been corrected. Tina Bowman edited the text; Tom Bowman revised the design and artwork.
The seventeenth edition includes general updates; information about the recently established M-rock and M-snow
ratings; revisions to the rock and snow chapters by Ron Hudson and Nile Sorenson, the Rock and Snow Chairs respectively;
and a revision of Chapter 6 by the outgoing Navigation Chair, Harry Freimanis, and the incoming Navigation Chair, Bob
Myers. Ron Campbell and Jane Simpson are largely responsible for the M rating sidebar.
Since the seventeenth edition, the Angeles Chapter has dropped the normal printed Schedule of Activities; the Outdoor
Activities Registration System (OARS), an on-line tool developed by the National Sierra Club, replaces it. Similarly, the
Southern Sierran newspaper is now primarily an Angeles Chapter on-line publication. New E-rock and E-snow ratings
have been added. The rock checkouts have been revised, and all chapters carefully reviewed and revised to be as current as
possible. The technical chairs—Steve Schuster for first aid, Bob Myers for navigation, Patrick McKusky and Ron Hudson
for rock, and Nile Sorenson for snow—have revised the technical chapters and associated bibliographic entries, sometimes
extensively. Special thanks go to Phil Wheeler and Tina Bowman for looking over various chapters with their eagle eyes and
extensive Sierra Club expertise. Edd Ruskowitz did the formatting for this edition.

Editions and editors:

First 1973 McRuer Eleventh 1986 Danta
Second 1974 McRuer Twelfth 1987 Danta
Third 1974-75 McRuer Thirteenth 1991 Danta
Fourth 1975 McRuer Fourteenth 1997 Danta
Fifth 1977 Youngberg Fifteenth 2002 Bowman and Bowman
Sixth 1979 Youngberg Sixteenth 2006 Bowman and Bowman
Seventh 1982 Russell Seventeenth 2009 Bowman and Bowman
Eighth 1982 Russell Eighteenth 2013 Bowman and Ruskowitz
Ninth 1983 Russell Eighteenth, rev. ed. 2015 Bowman and Ruskowitz
Tenth 1984 Russell

viii
 1
Leadership Training Program

T
he Leadership Training Program (LTP) consists of an introductory one-day seminar and a series of practical studies,
field exercises, and evaluations conducted under the jurisdiction of the Leadership Training Committee (LTC),
which prepares candidates for leadership of Angeles Chapter outings. Successful candidates are certified by the
Chapter Safety Committee at one of nine leadership levels designated as O-1, O-2, I, M-rock, M-snow, M, E-rock, E-snow,
and E.
O-level outings are limited to Class 1 terrain (walking/hiking) and include nature walks, conditioning hikes, day
hikes, and overnight backpacks on trails that require only minimal navigation skills. O-level outings comprise the majority
of Angeles Chapter activities. Leaders rated at the O-1 level may lead day hikes and car camps. O-2 level leaders may lead
backpacks.
I-level outings require navigation skills for significant off-trail travel, which may include Class 2 terrain (occasional use
of the hands for balance).
M-level outings include skills for leading Class 3 rock climbs (frequent use of hands for upward progress) and moderate
snow climbs, which may require the use of an ice axe, as well as navigation skills. M-rock leaders may not lead moderate
snow climbs; M-snow leaders may not lead class 3 rock climbs.
E-level outings add skills for leading Class 4 rock (consistent use of the hands for upward progress and more exposure
to falling) with a rope, anchors, protection, and belays; steep snow climbs that require the use of ice axe and crampons and
may require roped travel and belays; and advanced navigation, which may require the use of an altimeter.
Note that a few Angeles Chapter entities offer outings rated T for technical. These outings require specialized skills,
and leaders of these trips are approved by the entity to lead the technical aspect of the outing in addition to having an
appropriate leader rating granted by the chapter. Examples include sailing and ski mountaineering.

PREREQUISITES
Prior to becoming provisional leaders, LTP candidates need to meet these requirements as well as those that are part of
the LTP:
1. Current Sierra Club membership
2. Participation in five Sierra Club trips
3. Backpacking skill (for categories O-2, I, M, and E)
4. Mountaineering skill equivalent to that expected of a Sierra Peaks Section Mountaineers List member
(for categories M and E).
1
Current Sierra Club Membership least five experience climbs that are solidly M or E rated; this
experience does not have to be gained entirely on Angeles
Information on Sierra Club membership may be Chapter outings. At the discretion of the Provisional
obtained by contacting Lead Committee, more mountaineering experience may
be required before M- and E-level candidates are granted
Sierra Club National Office provisional status.
85 Second St., 2nd Floor The LTC Chair may grant equivalent credit for trips
San Francisco, CA 94105-3441 other than scheduled Angeles Chapter Sierra Club trips.
(415) 977-5500 Those asking for such credit should attach a statement to
Internet: http://sierraclub.org their LTP enrollment application explaining the situation.

Angeles Chapter Headquarters

3435 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 660 ENROLLMENT
Los Angeles, CA 90010-1904
(213) 387-4287 Application
(213) 387-5383 (fax)
Internet: http://angeles2.sierraclub.org An application for enrollment in the LTP can be
obtained at http://angeles2.sierraclub.org/ltc_leadership_
Leadership candidates must maintain their Sierra Club seminar or by mailing a request, together with a self-
membership. Although most of the Angeles Chapter’s addressed stamped envelope (sase), to the LTC Registrar.
outings are open to all qualified participants from the At least two weeks prior to the seminar, the completed
general public, only club members may lead outings. application must be mailed with the registration fee to the
registrar.
Participant Experience Trips
Registration Fee
Prior to leading provisional outings, candidates must
have participated on five Sierra Club outings at the O level The registration fee for the LTP is $25 in Spring of
or higher within the previous ten years. These experiences 2015, which includes a copy of the Leader’s Reference Book
provide candidates the opportunity to observe the mechanics (LRB). The fee also includes a leader recognition patch
of outings leadership and to become familiar with Chapter identifying the leadership level, which is issued to successful
outings and procedures. candidates by the Safety Committee with a leader’s
Participation on trips with various leaders can help certificate. A discounted course fee is offered to applicants
candidates to develop a sense of their own leadership skills who do not wish to receive a paper copy of the LRB.
and style, possibly cultivate a relationship with a leader Paper copies of the LRB, however, will no longer be
mentor, and provide introductions to those who may available in the future. Leaders, candidates and seminar
serve as assistant leaders and evaluators of the provisional participants can find the current version at http://angeles2.
leaders. As a result, a maximum of two regularly occurring sierraclub.org/ltc_the_lrb.
conditioning hikes or the like may be counted toward the
experience trip requirement. Activities such as lectures, Pre-Seminar Examination
picnics, or workshops do not qualify, nor do LTC checkouts
and similar training outings. After receiving the application and registration fee, the
Either the Wilderness Travel Course (WTC) snow LTC Registrar will mail the applicant a copy of the LRB and
camp or Joshua Tree weekend qualifies (but not both and pre-seminar examination, designed to assure that applicants
neither the conditioning hike nor the snow travel day). have a minimum level of familiarity with information
O-2 level candidates should have at least one Sierra Club contained in the LRB. As a condition of admittance to
overnight backpack experience trip. the seminar, the applicant must present the completed
For I candidates at least three of the five outings must examination to the registrar at the seminar.
be at or above the I level, and at least one of the outings
must include wilderness travel with overnight backpacking. Seminar
For the M and E levels at least three of the outings must
include wilderness travel with overnight backpacking. The LTC presents two one-day Leadership Training
M and E candidates also must have participated on at Seminars each year, one in April and the other in October.

2
Candidates begin the LTP by attending one of these LTP Calendar of Events
seminars. The location and dates of these seminars may be
found on the LTC home page at http://angeles2.sierraclub. The LTC maintains a Calendar of Events, listing dates
org/get_outdoors/becoming_leader. The LTC home page is for LTP practical studies and field exercises that candidates
a valuable tool for leadership candidates. The LRB can also may use to schedule and complete their requirements for
be found for download in pdf format at the LTC home page. leader certification. At the seminar candidates will receive
a current copy of this calendar, and they may see updates of
the calendar on the LTC home page.
Leadership Levels
Updates to the Leader’s Reference Book
At the seminar registration, applicants will identify
the leadership level that they are seeking: O-1, O-2, I, The Leader’s Reference Book is available to rated leaders
M-rock, M-snow, M, E-rock, E-snow, or E. The choice and previous LTP enrollees online at http://angeles2.
will depend on the level of outings one intends to lead. If sierraclub.org/ltc_the_lrb. Previous editions are archived at
qualified, one can begin the LTP as an E-level candidate; the LTC web site.
there is no requirement to obtain certification in succession.
Candidates may, however, obtain progressive certifications COMPLETION REQUIREMENTS
without repeating similar requirements and without
additional fees (but receiving only one patch); one simply The LTC Administrative Chair maintains a progress
completes those unique requirements of the next level. Once file for each candidate with documentation of completed
certified at a specific level, leaders may conduct outings requirements. Upon the candidate’s successful completion
at or below that level for a sponsoring group, section, or of all requirements, the Administrative Chair forwards the
committee. Additional patches may be purchased from the file to the Safety Committee with a recommendation for
Safety Committee for $3 each. certification.

-Requirements O-1 & O-2 I M-rock M-snow M E-rock E-snow E

Seminars (Ch. 1) One day One day One day One day One day One day One day One day

First Aid (Ch. 5)

CPR Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Standard First Aid Yes

Wilderness First Aid Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Environmental Awareness (Ch. 1) Two Days Two Days Two Days Two Days Two Days Two Days Two Days

Technical Checkouts

Navigation (Ch. 6) I/M Nav. I/M Nav. I/M Nav. I/M Nav. E Nav. E Nav. E Nav.

Rock (Ch. 7) M-rock M-rock E-rock E-rock

Snow (Ch. 8) M-snow M-snow E-snow E-snow

Final Exam Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Approval by Provisional Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Lead Committee

Leader Provisional Trips One1 Two Two Two2,3 Two2,3 Two2,3 Two2,3 Three2,3
1 For the O-1 level, the provisional outing is a day hike or car camp. For the O-2, an overnight backpack.
2 All E outings and any M outings using rope and/or ice axe must be approved by the national club’s Mountaineering Oversight Committee. See page 9 for more information.

3 See M-Rock and M-Snow requirements for Provisional Outings on page 9, the M Rating sidebar on page 6, and the E Rating sidebar on page 7 for more information.

Figure 1-1. Summary of LTP graduation requirements

3
Summary of Graduation Requirements sources for specific education about our diverse California
ecology. For example, community colleges often offer
Graduation from the LTP requires that the enrollee two-day field study courses, such as Geology and Natural
complete the steps identified in Figure 1-1 below. Detailed History of the Eastern Sierra and A Field Study of Desert
requirements for each step are given in the LRB chapter Birds, which provide appropriate environmental awareness
indicated. The LTC may change these completion training. “Leave No Trace” training may be used to fulfill
requirements, including the specifics of the technical part of the environmental awareness requirement. The LTC
checkouts, at any time and may require candidates to Chair and the LTC Administrative Chair are authorized
comply with the new changes. to approve the method of satisfying this requirement.
Candidates must provide the Administrative Chair with
First Aid documentation identifying a minimum of fourteen hours
of environmental awareness training.
All candidates must have a current certification for
an American Heart Association, American Red Cross, or Technical Checkouts
equivalent one-person adult (or higher) cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR) course. O-level candidates need current The LTC chair appoints a Technical Chair for each of
certification from a four-hour minimum American Red the three disciplines of navigation, rock climbing, and snow
Cross or equivalent standard first aid course. Candidates at climbing. The Technical Chairs are members of the LTC and
the I, M, and E levels need to complete a certified twenty- are responsible for the technical requirements and checkouts
four hour (minimum) wilderness first aid course. For Sierra for each leadership level in their discipline. The Technical
Club and LTP purposes first aid, wilderness first aid, and Chairs schedule and conduct practice and checkout outings,
CPR are considered current for four years, whatever the which are listed in the online LTC Calendar of Events.
card issued says (most cards will indicate a one-, two- or These checkout requirements are detailed in the relevant
three-year duration). If a candidate’s certification for CPR, chapters of this book.
standard first aid, or wilderness first aid expires before The LTC Chair and the respective Technical Chairs
completion of the LTP, including provisional leads, the appoint examiners who are authorized to checkout
candidate will need to repeat the requirement to be current candidates for the applicable technical requirements for
with certification. If an I or M leader chooses to become each leadership level. All of the examiners are authorized
an M or E, he or she must have current certification in for the M level with a more restricted set usually for the E
wilderness first aid (twenty-four hour minimum course) level. With prior approval of the Technical Chair, examiners
and CPR or will need to repeat these requirements. have the authority to perform a checkout at times or places
that they deem proper, and they may also grant a checkout
Environmental Awareness based upon direct personal knowledge of the enrollee’s skill.
The preferred method of obtaining checkout, however, is
Angeles Chapter leaders may conduct outings in such for enrollees to attend a scheduled checkout sponsored by
diverse ecological areas as the Sierra Nevada, the Mojave the LTC or some other group, section, or committee. The
Desert, the Angeles National Forest, Griffith Park, or Malibu Technical Chair has the final approval of an LTC checkout.
beach. The environmental awareness training requirement Although candidates may apply for and attend as many
for I, M, and E candidates is intended to enrich the leader’s practice outings as they wish before attempting a checkout,
knowledge and appreciation of the natural environment. they may not practice and attempt a checkout on the same
As models for their trip participants, leaders should have a day. Candidates who fail a checkout will be assigned to a
general awareness of the natural environment in which they different examiner if at all possible at the next checkout they
travel and practice “leave no trace” environmental ethics. attend. Candidates who fail a technical checkout two times
Candidates should choose environmental field study in one year must wait one year or have permission from the
programs that are specific to the area in which they intend to Technical Chair before attempting the same checkout again
lead outings. The Angeles Chapter’s Natural Science Section so that they have time to learn and practice the appropriate
conducts a Nature Knowledge Workshop each year in late skills. This two-time in one year limitation does not apply
spring and several Field Ecology Workshops throughout to navigation checkouts.
the year. These workshops are listed on the Natural Science Technical checkouts are designed to do more than just
Section’s home page at http://sierraclub.org/angeles/natural- test skills. In each of the checkout exercises, examiners
science. In addition, college, university, or university will also be assessing the candidate’s knowledge of the
extension natural science field study courses are excellent material, preparation and execution, ability, judgment, and

4
leadership qualities. Candidates must not only perform E leaders typically lead. A candidate may be asked to gain
the exercises at an appropriate skill level, but also must more experience before proceeding to the provisional stage.
demonstrate an understanding of how they work and why Completion of checkouts, provisional leads, and tests
they are important, as well as an ability to communicate and the taking of required courses are not an indication
those concepts to others. of automatic submission for certification to the Safety
Upon successful completion of a technical checkout, Committee. Because becoming an Angeles Chapter leader
the examiner will notify the Technical Chair. The Technical is a privilege, not a right, the LTC reserves the right not to
Chair will notify the Administrative Chair that the candidate approve a potential leader if it deems that the candidate lacks
has completed the requirement at a specified leadership sufficient leadership qualities such as judgment, character,
level. The examiner is also charged with giving an enrollee and the ability to work with people.
notice in writing or by e-mail of satisfactory completion, The Provisional Lead Committee also reviews M- and
which should be kept as insurance against some breakdown E-level provisional outings and evaluates assistant leaders.
in internal LTC communications.
Provisional Outings
Final Examination
Once a candidate has satisfactorily completed all
Candidates for the M and E levels must complete a of the requirements aside from provisional outings, the
final written examination before applying to the Provisional Administrative Chair will notify the Safety Committee,
Lead Committee to lead provisional outings. The exam, which will recognize the candidate as a provisional leader.
which is available at the LTC web site, is completed at The candidate may then submit proposals for provisional
home and submitted to a designated LTC member for outings.
evaluation. If the exam is satisfactory, the evaluator will Conducted in accord with the chapter’s Rules of
return the exam with comments to the candidate and notify Conduct and Safety Policy, Angeles Chapter outings are
the Administrative Chair that the candidate has successfully sponsored by specific groups, sections, and committees
completed the exam. (GSC). Having completed their five prerequisite outings
if not more, provisional leaders will be somewhat familiar
Provisional Lead Committee with at least one of the GSCs, and some candidates may
have already enjoyed long membership in one or more of
When M- and E-level candidates have completed the them. At any rate, provisional leaders need to identify with
requirements to become provisional
leaders, including the final exam,
they must send the LTC Chair their ABBREVIATIONS
snow- and rock-climbing resume, A number of abbreviations are used in the Leader’s Reference Book, many
preferably attached to an e-mail. The of them familiar and some probably not so familiar to prospective leaders.
resume should detail M and E climbs
(Angeles Chapter outings or their ExCom Executive Committee of the Angeles Chapter
equivalent) of the last three years, GPS Global Positioning System
as well as list Sierra Club number, GSC Group, Section, or Committee of the Angeles Chapter
contact information, and dates for ICO Inner City Outings
passing the technical checkouts or LOSC Local Outings Support Committee (National Sierra Club)
completing other requirements such LRB Leader’s Reference Book
as wilderness first aid. For the climbs, LTC Leadership Training Committee
give dates, leaders, technical difficulty LTP Leadership Training Program
level, and route information if known. MOC Mountaineering Oversight Committee (National Sierra Club)
The Provisional Lead Committee— OARS Outdoor Activity Registration System
the LTC Chair, Vice-chair, Rock (on-line outings and activities list)
Chair, Snow Chair, Navigation OLT 101 Outings Leader Training 101
Chair, and Administrative Chair— OLT 201 Outings Leader Training 201
will approve or disapprove the OMC Outings Management Committee
potential leader to lead provisional USGS United States Geological Survey
trips based on what it considers UTM Universal Transverse Mercator (mapping coordinate system)
sufficient experience in the kinds of WTC Wilderness Travel Course or Wilderness Training Committee
trips that Angeles Chapter M and
5
or become members of a GSC that sponsors the type of travel and require significant navigation skill. Hiking a trail
outings at the leadership level that they intend to lead. The to within a few hundred feet of a visible peak and then
outings chair of a GSC, moreover, can help provisional walking to the summit do not meet the test of navigating
leaders choose appropriate trips, seasons in which to and route finding.
conduct them, and assistant leaders. Once provisional leaders have planned their outings
I- and M-level provisional outings should be planned and obtained an assistant leader to evaluate them, they
so that they are representative of the higher end of a submit their outing proposal, identified as provisional, to
leadership level. Because outings that barely meet the the outings chair of the sponsoring GSC. Upon approval
minimum standard do not provide leaders with adequate of the trips, the outings chair then submits the outings
opportunities to test their leadership potential nor allow for for publication in OARS (Outdoor Activity Registration
a thorough assessment of the provisional leaders by their System), the Southern Sierran, newsletter of the GSC,
evaluators, such outings will not be accepted. If provisional and/or GSC web site or list server. The LTC Provisional
leaders have any doubts about their proposed outings’ Lead Committee gives final approval for M- and E-level
meeting the criteria for their level of leadership, the LTC provisional leads and evaluating assistant leaders. Many
Chair and Angeles Chapter Safety Committee Chair can M- and all E-level outings also require approval by the
review and approve the outings. I trips (and M and E trips Mountaineering Oversight Committee (see page 9 under
for provisional leaders who are not already rated I or M) Restricted Mountaineering Outings).
must include a significant amount of off-trail wilderness Provisional leaders must conduct their outings with

THE M RATINGS

The Angeles Chapter now allows leaders at the M level to be certified in both rock and snow, rock only, or snow only:
• M rating: Qualified to lead all M-level outings—rock, snow, or rock and snow combined
• M-rock rating: Qualified to lead all M-rated outings where M-level rock travel (but no M-level snow travel)
is required
• M-snow rating: Qualified to lead all M-rated outings where M-level snow travel (but no M-level rock travel)
is required.

Training and certification for the new M-rock [snow] rating are based on current standards for the M-rating, including
• Be an I-rated leader (or see below for new leader candidates and O-rated leaders)
• Pass an M rock or snow technical checkout
• Be current in wilderness first aid and CPR
• Complete an M-level written exam
• Provide evidence in a climbing resume of experience on an appropriate number of rock [snow] experience trips
at Class 3 or higher to reach provisional status, as assessed by the Provisional Lead Committee of LTC
• For M-rock: lead a provisional outing including at least 100 feet of 3rd class rock climbing
• For M-snow: lead a provisional outing consisting of at least 400 feet of elevation gain on a snow slope between
25 and 35 degrees and requiring the use of an ice axe.

If a leader candidate for M-rock or M-snow is not a rated leader or is an O-rated leader, these are the additional
requirements:
• Complete two days of environmental awareness training
• Pass the I/M-level navigation check-off
• Lead a second provisional outing at the I- or M-level that demonstrates navigation, and one for M-rock or
M-snow (see above); both provisional outings should include a significant amount of off-trail wilderness travel that
requires I/M level navigation (one provisional lead must be a backpack).

The requirements for the full M (both rock and snow) remain the same, requiring two M-level provisional outings, one
on rock and one on snow. For more information, see the M Rating FAQ (frequently asked questions) document at the
LTC web site: http://angeles2.sierraclub.org/ltc_become_a_leader.

6
 THE E RATINGS

E rating: Qualified to lead all currently-defined E-level outings—rock, snow, or rock and snow combined

E-rock rating: Qualified to lead all currently-defined E-rated outings where E-level rock travel (but no E-level snow
travel) is required

E-snow rating: Qualified to lead all currently-defined E-rated outings where E-level snow travel (but no E-level rock
travel) is required

The requirements for the full E (both rock and snow) remain the same. Training and certification for the E-rock or E-snow
rating1 are based on the following standards:

• Be a full M-rated leader if seeking an E-rock or E-snow rating (M rating not required for full E rating)
• Pass the applicable E-technical checkout (rock for E-rock or snow for E-snow) and the E-level navigation
checkout
• Provide evidence in a climbing resume of experience on an appropriate number of rock/snow experience trips
at Class 4 or higher to reach provisional status, as assessed by the Provisional Lead Committee of LTC
• For E-rock: lead two provisional outings including at least 200 feet of 4th class rock climbing that requires the use
of ropes and belays1
• For E-snow: lead two provisional outings consisting of at least 800 feet of elevation gain on a snow slope greater
than 35 degrees requiring the use of an ice axe and crampons1
• All provisional E outings must be approved by the LTC’s Provisional Lead Committee and the national
Mountaineering Oversight Committee
• Complete an E-level written exam.

If a candidate first obtains an E-rock or E-snow rating, the candidate needs to complete one additional provisional
outing on the applicable terrain for the full E-rating.

All provisional E outings must be approved by the LTC’s Provisional Lead Committee and the national Mountaineering Oversight Committee.
1

an assistant or evaluating leader who is currently an active the provisional leader submits this Assistant Leader’s Report
chapter leader and has been certified at or above the and the Provisional Leader’s Self-evaluation Report to the
level of the outing for a minimum of two years or has a Administrative Chair. Because provisional leaders are not
commensurate level of experience and has been approved by expected to exhibit the same level of leadership maturity,
the LTC Chair. Assistant leaders should not be so familiar poise, and group management skills as that of a seasoned
with provisional leaders that an impartial evaluation might leader, the comments offered by the evaluating leader are an
be compromised. In addition, the evaluating leader must important part of the provisional trip experience.
be fully capable of conducting the outing and have the Provisional leaders must select, plan, and lead their
authority and responsibility to assume leadership of the provisional outings, including preparing proper write-ups
outing at any time if the evaluating leader believes that the for publication. Provisional leaders need to research and plan
safety or well being of the group is being jeopardized by their own trips and should not copy standard trips to over-
actions of the provisional leader. The assistant leader will used places. In preparing and leading outings, provisional
observe and evaluate the provisional leader and provide him leaders need to do such things as
or her with a written performance assessment. I-, M-, and • research and select a destination
E-level provisional leaders should have different evaluators • select a date and acquire a wilderness permit
for each outing or obtain a waiver from the LTC Chair if necessary
to use the same evaluator. Different evaluators will give a • obtain the map(s) and plan the route
wider, more varied response. After completing the outing, • graph a trail profile and compute a time and

7
 distance table for restricted M- and E-level outings. Trips, furthermore,
• obtain an assistant leader to evaluate the need to have participants to count as a trip: the provisional
provisional leader leader, a close friend, and the assistant leader do not make
• write and submit the trip write-up for publication an acceptable provisional trip. An outing with leaders but
• interview, screen, and select participants no participants is not considered a Sierra Club outing.
• write and send outing information to participants Provisional outings at the O-1 and O-2 levels should have
• introduce themselves and identify the outing at least six participants, not counting the two leaders, in
requirements and objectives to the participants order to demonstrate group management skills adequately.
• lead the way and set the pace Provisional leaders at the I and M levels should aim to
• navigate off-trail with map and compass have at least six participants on one, preferably both, of
(for I, M, and E trips) their provisionals; this is particularly important for those
• find a route on difficult terrain candidates who have no history of leading groups as an
• choose campsites and manage the group Angeles Chapter leader (e.g., as O-1/O-2 for I candidates,
• make decisions with respect to objective and or as O-1/O-2/I for M candidates). Provisional leaders may
subjective hazards, changing conditions, be asked to lead another provisional if the LTC and/or
accidents, injuries, and other emergencies Safety Committee considers the number of participants on
• know their own ability and that of the group and a provisional outing to be too low for the demonstration of
stay within the realm of capability. group management skills. In some circumstances the LTC
These and other leadership skills are detailed in Chair and the Safety Committee Chair may jointly waive
subsequent chapters. The provisional leader will follow this requirement of a minimum number of participants.
the outings rules for the GSC sponsoring the outing. All Provisional leaders should send a copy of online
outings require that leaders and participants sign the publication of an outing together with the evaluations of
standardized nationwide sign-in/waiver sheets, one used the provisional outing to the LTC Administrative Chair.
for O-, I-, and non-restricted M-level trips and the other This may be done electronically or by hard copy. It is a good

PROGRESS CHECKLIST
The checklist below is a summary of completion requirements and may help candidates keep track of their progress.
It is a good idea to keep a copy of all certifications, publications of provisional outings, and evaluations.

Sierra Club membership renewal date: CPR date: Agency:

LTP seminar date: Standard First Aid (O) date:
Angeles Chapter participant experience trips: Wilderness First Aid (I, M, E) date:
Date GSC Level Destination Agency:
1. Environmental Awareness (I, M, E) date:
2. Environmental Awareness (I, M, E) date:
3. Final Exam (M, E) date:
4. Provisional Outings:
5. Date GSC Level Destination Evaluator

Technical checkouts: 1.
Date Level Location Examiner 2.
Navigation: 3.
Rock: Notes:
Snow:
Provisional Lead Committee Approval (M&E) date:

8
idea to keep a copy of the published write-up as well as of one rated M that demonstrates navigation ability and
the evaluations. includes at least 400 feet of elevation gain on a slope between
Publication is required for all outings, provisional 25 and 35 degrees that requires the use of an ice axe. The
or not. All outings must be listed in an official Angeles other may be an I-rated trip that demonstrates navigation
Chapter publication, whether in print or online, such as in ability or may be another M-rated snow outing that also
OARS (Outdoor Activity Registration System)1, the Southern demonstrates navigation. If the M-snow provisional leader
Sierran, a periodic newsletter of a GSC, or on a GSC web is already an I-rated leader, the second outing is waived as is
site or list server. OARS listings are automatically archived. the navigation component of the snow provisional.
Because other listings may not be automatically archived, The E-level requirement is to lead three scheduled
provisional leaders should make a copy of the provisional outings at the E level. Two of the outings must have significant
outing listing for their own records and in case the LTC off-trail wilderness travel demanding I/M-level navigation
Administrative Chair later requests a copy. The outing unless the provisional leader is already an I- or M-rated
write-up must include the name of the provisional leader leader. At least two outings must be overnight backpacks; the
and the assistant. other may be a full day outing or two successive days with
The O-level requirement is to lead one outing that is overnight car camping. One outing must include a snow
rated O, either a day hike or car camp outing for the O-1 climb of at least 800 feet of elevation gain on a slope greater
level or overnight backpack for the O-2. The trip must be a than 35 degrees on hard snow, requiring the use of ice axe
unique trip planned and conducted by the leader candidate, and crampons. One must include at least 200 feet of Class 4
not a regularly occurring event such as a conditioning hike rock climbing that requires the use of ropes and belays.
to the usual destination. The trip must be listed in OARS, The E-rock level requirement is to lead two outings
in a periodic newsletter of an Angeles Chapter GSC, or on a including at least 200 feet of 4th class rock climbing that
GSC web site or list server (and archived). The trip write-up requires the use of ropes and belays.
must include the names of the provisional leader and the The E-snow requirement is to lead two outings
assistant leader. consisting of at least 800 feet of elevation gain on a snow
The I-level requirement is to lead two trips that are slope greater than 35 degrees and requiring the use of ice axe
rated I. Both must include a significant amount of off-trail and crampons.
wilderness travel and be of a nature that requires significant Note that only full M-rated leaders are eligible to apply
I/M-level navigation. (Travel over snow is considered off for E-rock and E-snow provisional leader status.
trail.) One trip must be an overnight backpack; the other
may be a full day trip or a trip of two successive days with TWO OUTINGS NOTES
overnight car camping.
The M-level requirement is to lead two trips that WTC Experience Trips
are rated M. If the provisional M leader has significant
backpacking experience, one of the trips may be a day hike; Wilderness Travel Course (WTC) students are not
otherwise, both must be backpacks. If the leader isn’t already trained for trips at the M or E level, and thus M- and E-level
an I-rated leader, both outings must entail significant off- provisional trips should not be led as WTC experience trips.
trial wilderness travel of a nature that demands I/M-level (Students need to complete several outings in order to be
navigation. One outing must include a snow climb of at graduated from WTC.)
least 400 feet of elevation gain on a slope between 25 and
35 degrees that requires the use of an ice axe. One trip must Restricted Mountaineering Outings
include at least 100 feet of Class 3 rock climbing.
The M-rock level requirement is to lead two outings, All E-level and most M-level outings fall into the category
one rated M that demonstrates navigation ability and of Sierra Club restricted outings. Any outing requiring
includes at least 100 feet of Class 3 rock climbing. The the use of ice axe, crampons, or a rope is by definition a
other may be an I-rated trip that demonstrates navigation restricted mountaineering outing. In contrast, an example
ability or may be another M-rated rock outing that also of an unrestricted M-level outing is one with easy class 3
demonstrates navigation. If the M-rock provisional leader rock without exposure; the leader would reasonably expect
is already an I-rated leader, the second outing is waived as is that no one screened for the outing would request a belay.
the navigation component of the rock provisional. Although permissible to use a rope for safety in unanticipated
The M-snow level requirement is to lead two outings, conditions on an unrestricted M-level outing, it may be
1The OARS nomenclature is in flux as of this writing. It may be called OARS at some web pages, the “Activity Calendar” at others, and perhaps even the “Schedule of Activities,”

which until recently referred to a print publication. If you have any doubts or questions, please contact the LTC Administrative Chair, LTC Chair, or your entity’s outings chair.

9
used only to retreat, not to continue toward a summit. For completion of the LTP. If no progress has been made in
example, rain may make rock slick and dangerous, barring twenty-four months, however, their files will be made
safe upward progress and causing concerns about safety inactive. Reinstatement to active status is at the discretion of
for a descent; a leader may belay climbers down in such the LTC. Candidates may be asked to repeat some or all of
a situation. Open to Sierra Club members only, restricted the requirements. Questions concerning LTP progress and
outings have special approval requirements controlled by requirements should be directed to the LTC Administrative
the national club and its insurance carrier and subject to Chair. Enrollees also should keep the Administrative Chair
change. Applications for restricted mountaineering outings informed of their mailing address, e-mail address, day
may be found in Appendix C and at the LTC web site, and night telephone numbers, and name changes. Those
http://angeles.sierraclub.org/ltc/forms.html who wish to progress from one leader category to another
should make sure that their intention is understood by the
LEADER CERTIFICATION Administrative Chair and that their provisional leads satisfy
the applicable requirements. If candidates have questions
Upon a candidate’s successful completion of the LTP about first aid, navigation, rock climbing, or snow climbing,
requirements listed above, the LTC may recommend the they should address them to the respective Technical
candidate for certification to the chapter Safety Committee. Chairs. Questions or suggestions of any nature pertaining
Successful completion of the LTP, however, does not to the LTP or the LTC may be addressed to the LTC Chair.
guarantee certification. Only the Safety Committee can Questions pertaining to Angeles Chapter safety policy,
certify candidates to lead outings for the Angeles Chapter. to the definition of trip categories, and to certification of
The LTC Chair or the Safety Committee may require leaders other than by LTP graduation should be addressed
candidates to gain more experience, develop higher technical to the Angeles Chapter Safety Committee Chair.
and/or leadership skills, or lead additional provisional
outings before being certified at a specific leadership level. MENTORS
PROGRESS All leader candidates are encouraged to have a mentor,
an experienced leader who can help guide the candidate
Leadership candidates set their own timetable for through the LTP process.

MAINTAINING A LEADER RATING

Aside from maintaining their Sierra Club membership, under the National Leader Standards (NLS) leaders are to
maintain currency every four years in first aid, by refreshing OLT 101 training, and by having led an outing at a
given level within the past four years.

First aid training is considered current for four years, and a four-hour basic first aid course is sufficient to
maintain currency, no matter what level a leader is under the Angeles rating system (O-1, O-2, I, M-Rock,
M-Snow, M, E-Rock, E-Snow, E). Leaders of restricted mountaineering trips (many M and all E trips) should note
that one of the two leaders of restricted mountaineering outings must be current in wilderness first aid. CPR is
not required under the NLS and does not count toward first aid currency. All leaders are encouraged to take
wilderness first aid if they plan to lead outings more than several hours from emergency help.

OLT 101 and OLT 201: The LTP seminar is considered the equivalent of the higher-level course, OLT 201. To
“refresh” OLT 101 training, a leader will be able to take the course online or review it in a printed format. The
Angeles Chapter’s Outings Management Committee will be aiding leaders with maintaining currency in OLT 101.

Provisional leads: The Angeles Chapter already requires one or more provisional leads of leader candidates,
the mentor being the assistant leader who evaluates the provisional leader. Leaders who have not led an outing
in over four years may, with the approval of the outings chair, lead one as a provisional lead, the assistant leader
becoming the Mentor Leader of the National Leader Standards.

10
 PROVISIONAL LEAD POINTERS

I. General Reminders

A. The evaluating assistant leader shall not be someone with a close relationship with the provisional leader, i. e., a
spouse, partner, or close relative.
B. The evaluating leader shall have been a leader at the level of the outing for two or more years or have significant
experience leading at that level and have been granted a waiver by the LTC Chair.
C. For I-, M-, and E-level provisional outings, the outing should be solidly within that level, not at the lower end of it.

II. Scheduling Provisional Leads

In anticipation of fulfilling all requirements to advance to provisional leader status, candidates may schedule their
provisional outing(s) prior to completing all the requirements. The sponsoring outings chair, nevertheless, must know
that a candidate has a reasonable plan to complete the prerequisites prior to the outing date. The outings chair should
actively monitor the candidate’s progress prior to the trip.

A problem arises, however, when a candidate has not been able to meet all the requirements by the date of the
provisional lead. In this case, a candidate has several options:

A. The outing may be postponed until after the requirements are met; the candidate should have a firm date in mind
to communicate to would-be participants of the originally scheduled outing;

B. Another appropriately-rated leader may take over for the candidate, and the candidate may schedule another
outing; the leader candidate may not participate in any leader capacity on the original outing now to be led by
current leaders of the appropriate rating;

C. The outing may be canceled.

III. Meeting Navigation Requirements for I-, M-, and E-level Provisional Outings

If M- and E-level provisional leaders are already I-rated or M-rated, their provisional outings need not be planned
with a view to demonstrating navigational skill. These provisional leaders will be expected to navigate well and show
good route-finding skills, of course, but the outings do not have to be planned with significant navigation as one of the
factors. M- or E-level provisional leaders who are not already I- or M-rated need to demonstrate navigational skill on two
of their provisionals as would be expected of an I-level provisional leader. Passing the E-level navigation checkout is a
sufficient demonstration of that skill level.

A. I-level provisional outings (and M- and E-level for provisional leaders who are not already I- or M-rated) need to
allow the provisional leader to demonstrate navigation and not only route-finding skills. The following are some
clarifications and amplifications.
1. The route must involve cross-country travel, i.e., routes that are not on roads, maintained trails, or use trails and
ducked routes that are known to be reliable. Occasional encounters with use trails or ducked routes will not
prevent a route from being considered cross-country.
2. The objective and/or significant portions of the route to it should not be visible from the point of departure
from the trail, i.e., simply leaving the trail to take an obvious route to a nearby visible objective does not
demonstrate navigation skill. A summit visible from the trail would be acceptable only if the route involved a
navigational challenge (i.e., the summit is visible from the trail but not for most of the route).

11
 3. Cross-country routes should be significantly different from available trails. Simply staying off a trail while
walking essentially the same route does not demonstrate navigation skill.
4. The route will require the leader to make important decisions that require navigation skill and correct judgment
such as traveling on a bearing in a forest or desert; choosing the appropriate gully, drainage, ridge, etc. to
follow or cross while ascending and/or descending; etc. The following are unacceptable for demonstrating
navigational skill:
a. Going up or down a long ridge that has no forks or where there is no choice between ridges
b. Going up or down a long gully that does not have major tributaries and changes in direction or
where there is no choice between one or more gullies
c. Gentle, open, featureless, or low-relief terrain on the topo and to the eye that is simple and easy to
follow
d. Destinations in the Sierra Nevada or elsewhere where normal routes clearly do not involve sufficient
navigation for a provisional lead, such as Mt. Agassiz, Cirque Peak, Mt. Goode, Mt. Lamarck, Mt. Tom,
Vogelsang Peak.
Generally acceptable demonstrations of navigational skill include
e. cross-country in broken terrain with visibility limited to nearby features because of the terrain (may
include finding passes or gullies in the mountains and key up or down turnoffs to achieve a planned
route)
f. cross-country navigation in a heavy forest with broken terrain
g. cross-country navigation in broken terrain on snow where there are no trail markers or pre-existing
trail
h. cross-country to normally easy objectives using alternate routes of much greater navigation difficulty.
Be sure it is a feasible, likely route, however, and not one contorted to demonstrate navigation.
5. Off-trail navigation is “significant” when it provides a meaningful demonstration that the candidate can make
practical use in a real trip situation of the types of skills that are tested in the exercises of the I/M navigation
checkout. Neither the navigational problems nor the travel needs to be more difficult than the checkout. This is
not a test of climbing skill or the ability to conduct arduous travel over rough terrain.
6. The only navigation aids permitted for provisional leaders are map, compass, and altimeter. If the altimeter
used is integral to a GPS receiver, the leader may not use the GPS “pages” on the instrument. A GPS may not
be used to navigate or to mark waypoints to be followed later. The provisional leader may also not rely on the
navigational advice or directions from others in the group.
7. Here are some suggestions:
a. Lead an outing to one of the many desert peaks that are not visible from the trail (if any) or cars;
b. Lead an outing to an HPS peak by a different route in which the peak is not visible from the point of
departure from the trail; this should be a route without a known, clear use trail and with some sort of
navigational challenge
c. Lead an outing that requires navigation through forest;
d. Lead an outing other than a peak climb that involves cross-country navigation, such as a cross-
country trip through western Sierra forest to visit a lake or some other feature not visible from or easily
deduced from the take-off point from the trail; there is no requirement that an I-level provisional
outing include a peak climb, and candidates would be well-advised to consider interesting non-
peak objectives that require significant off-trail navigation.

B. The LTP checkout process previously certified the provisional leader’s basic navigation competence, whether I/M
or E. The provisional leader simply needs to demonstrate appropriate use of the navigation skills during a real-life
group-led situation, not on any contorted provisional navigation route.

C. The LTP has always encouraged scouting the provisional trip (and other outings), which is a good strategy for
experience and safety reasons. In scouting the provisional trip route, however, the provisional leader has then
already navigated the route. This is entirely acceptable. In analogous provisional rock and snow situations (M and

12
 E), the provisional leader, having scouted, would simply perform all the technical moves correctly again. Same
for navigation. The candidate is required to demonstrate the navigation skills and decision-making steps to the
checkout leader regardless of having scouted the outing.

D. The provisional leader is encouraged to consult with the assistant/evaluating leader, his or her leader mentor, and/or
the outings chair of the sponsoring group, section, or committee in planning the provisional outing. The provisional
leader may also wish to consult the LTC Navigation Chair and/or the LTC Chair about the acceptability of the
proposed outing as a provisional lead.

E. Finally, the assistant leader is responsible to determine the adequacy of the provisional leader’s performance, not
only for navigation but all other aspects of the outing. The assistant leader may ask questions or take actions similar
to those of a navigation examiner during an LTP checkout and may pose challenges or problems for the provisional
leader to solve along the way.

IV. Meeting Route-finding Requirements for I, M, and E Provisional Outings

A. Route finding is a different skill than navigation, but demonstrations of both are required for cross-country travel.

B. Route finding involves the small-scale decisions of the leader in determining the route through terrain that is not
obvious. This is a learned skill developed by experience on various types of terrain.

C. On many peak climbs the “listed” routes follow a relatively easy route up the peak with more difficult ground on
either side. The listed route may be second class or I rated, but to either side it may be third class or full of dense
brush. How well the leader does in discerning the route will keep the group on the easiest ground and within the
rating classification of the outing.

D. The assistant leader should evaluate the leader candidate on route-finding decisions and the leader’s awareness
and handling of the group dynamics and abilities on the different types of terrain.

E. A provisional leader may need to consider such route-finding options as

1. Making a side-hill traverse vs. a descent and regain of altitude
2. Ascending or descending scree and/or talus
3. Traveling across large talus or small talus blocks
4. Going around a difficult patch of terrain or across it
5. Selecting stream-crossing points where no bridge is available
6. Choosing between travel on snow or on adjacent rocks
7. Going through the brush or over other terrain
8. Deciding to go around fallen logs or over them.

F. Route finding may also require management of the group whenever there is a possibility of rock fall or loose terrain.

G. Such route-finding decisions not only indicate skills in reading terrain but also in estimating overall time required for
a group, considering energy requirements for various options, and relating the time and energy aspects to the trip
participants and the trip plan.

H. Screening of participants comes into play as well as the adequacy of the trip plan for the time required to negotiate
the terrain.

13
 THE NATIONAL LEADER STANDARDS AND ANGELES CHAPTER LEADERS

The Sierra Club’s National Leader Standards (NLS) became effective January 1, 2006, for the Angeles Chapter. The NLS
divide outings into two basic types: Level 1 outings, such as day hikes and car camps, and Level 2 outings, such as
backpacks or other trips with an overnight stay away from cars. The Angeles Chapter will continue to use its O, I, M, E,
and T leader ratings without conflict with the NLS.

Under the NLS Sierra Club leaders must

• be a Sierra Club member
• be at least eighteen years old
• have first aid certification equivalent to or higher than American Red Cross Basic
• complete the Outings Leader Training—Basic (OLT-101) or comparable training
• have outing participant skills appropriate for the activities of the trip towards the advanced end of the scale
• provisionally lead at least one outing and receive a positive evaluation by the Mentor Leader
• receive approval to lead outings from the Outings Chair or delegated authority of the entity sponsoring the outing.

Leaders of Level 2 outings must also

• successfully complete the Outings Leader Training—Core Workshop (OLT-201) or comparable training
• provisionally lead at least one outing that includes an overnight stay away from cars and receive a positive
evaluation from the Mentor Leader.

Leaders trained under the Angeles Chapter’s Leadership Training Program meet all of these standards.

14
 2
Sierra Club Organization, Conservation,
and Outings Programs

T he Sierra Club differs from all other conservation organizations in several important ways. No other organization
chooses the members of both its local and national policy-making bodies through contested elections in which all
members are encouraged to participate. No other organization has a network of volunteers that is as extensive as that of
the Sierra Club or leads as many outings as the Sierra Club does. When David Brower was hired as the Sierra Club’s first
conservation staff member in 1952, the Sierra Club already had a tradition of volunteer leadership that was sixty years old.
That tradition of activism and volunteer control of policy has continued to grow as the issues have become more complex
and the size of the Sierra Club has multiplied. The result has been an increasingly complicated organizational structure,
which still embodies the democratic principles of the Sierra Club’s earlier days.

Statistics Summary (2014)

Members and Supporters: 2,400,000
Chapters: 64
Angeles Chapter: 40,000 members;
largest chapter in country has 16 regional groups, 32 recreational sections and committees, and
a constantly changing number of conservation subcommittees.

15
SIERRA CLUB STRUCTURE pursue a special activity such as river touring or Sierra peak
climbing. Each has its own organization with bylaws and
The Board of Directors (BOD) is the fifteen-member elected officers. In the Angeles Chapter sections have about
governing body of the Sierra Club, which meets about six the same number of active members as regional groups.
times a year, usually in San Francisco. The masthead of All Sierra Club meetings are open to Sierra Club
Sierra Magazine lists the current BOD members. These members and to the general public, except for rare executive
people are all volunteers. sessions when sensitive issues (such as personnel or lawsuits)
The President, the highest officer of the Sierra Club, is are discussed.
elected by the board; this is a volunteer position.
Staff members working for the national Sierra Club are
hired by the Executive Director and the Controller, who INFORMATION SOURCES
are hired by the BOD. Local chapter executive committees
may also hire chapter staff. The Sierra Club has about 500 Angeles Chapter Office
employees in the San Francisco headquarters, field offices, 3435 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 660
and chapters. The Angeles Chapter has six positions (Senior Los Angeles, CA 90010-1904
Chapter Director, Chapter Coordinator, two Conservation Phone: (213) 387-4287
Coordinators, Outreach and Advertising Coordinator, and Fax: (213) 387-5383
the Southern Sierran editor) as well as a treasurer’s assistant, Internet: http://angeles2.sierraclub.org
librarian, person to handle database and membership
problems, and many office volunteers. http://angeles2.sierraclub.org/ltc_become_a_leader
A chapter is a geographically defined area of Sierra (Leadership Training Committee)
Club membership, organized according to standards set in
the Sierra Club bylaws. The Angeles Chapter consists of http://angeles2.sierraclub.org/leadership_and_
Los Angeles and Orange Counties. Chapters are officially outings_resources_management (Outings
sanctioned by the board to operate Sierra Club programs Management Committee and the Safety Committee)
and are partially funded by an allocation from the national
Sierra Club. The Angeles Chapter office or the national web Sierra Club National Office
site (http://sierraclub.org) can supply the address and phone 85 Second St., 2nd floor
number of any other Sierra Club chapter. San Francisco, CA 94105-3441
Regional Groups are subdivisions of a chapter, first Phone: (415) 977-5500
begun in 1956. The Angeles Chapter is divided into sixteen Internet: http://sierraclub.org
regional groups based on zip code. Extranet: http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org
The Chapter Executive Committee (ExCom) is the (resource for leaders)
governing body of a chapter, elected by its membership. In
alternate years the Angeles Chapter elects four or five people The National Sierra Club publishes Sierra Magazine six
to serve two-year terms as at-large members. Each regional times a year.
group is entitled to a representative on the ExCom, which The Angeles Chapter publishes Southern Sierran on-
meets once a month on a Sunday. line monthly.
The Chapter Conservation Committee discusses, The National Sierra Club offers several web features to
organizes, and carries out conservation campaigns, as well as assist environmental activists: Grassroots at http://sierraclub.
advises the ExCom on chapter conservation policy. Voting org/grassroots and the Insider at http://www.action.
members are the representatives of each group and section as sierraclub.org/site/PageServer?pagename=ArchiveInsider.
well as the issue committee chairs. The committee meets on Minutes and agendas of the BOD and Chapter
the third Wednesday of each month at the chapter office. A ExCom meetings are available in the chapter office. Make
separate Orange County Conservation Committee focuses arrangements with the Chapter Director to see these
on issues related to Orange County only. documents.
Chapter Committees may be administrative, outings- For entities still using print publications, the current
oriented (and may become activity sections if they grow in issues of group, section, committee, and task force
membership and develop bylaws), or category defying. Their newsletters are available in the chapter library.
chairs are appointed by the chapter chair and approved by The Chapter Leadership Training Academy is a one-day
the ExCom. workshop held in late winter, designed to help new group
Activity Sections are formed by members who wish to and section officers learn how to handle their responsibilities

16
 Leaders also can promote conservation in a variety
CONSERVATION of ways, such as by reporting incidents of unnecessary
resource damage (timber cutting, road building, ORV
Sierra Club Conservation Policy damage, or illegal activities) to chapter leaders or staff;
setting a good example by bringing a trash bag for litter
The Board of Directors adopts policy statements and using low-impact techniques; and telling participants
on broad national issues (e.g. energy, climate change, about some of the local natural history to increase nature
transportation). The board also sets long-range (“decadal”) appreciation. To educate participants about a controversy,
and two-year national campaign priorities for the period of one may lead trips to areas where management decisions
a Congress. are soon to be made and talk about the issues during the
All units of the Sierra Club structure are bound by outing. Leaders, furthermore, may conduct trips that raise
board-adopted policy, and each level of the structure is funds for conservation activities or for the chapter and carry
bound by the policies adopted by the levels above it. The membership applications for recruiting new members.
relevant level handles policy about specific local issues.
Sierra Club Conservation Priorities
Policy Formation
The Sierra Club is involved with hundreds of
The BOD formulates broad policy on environmental conservation issues, ranging from the protection of specific
issues and decadal and two-year priorities, prepares areas to policy questions of global scope. The Sierra Club’s
resolutions for public consumption on hot national issues, various campaigns are conducted locally, regionally,
and makes statements of commendation or condemnation nationally, and internationally. To be effective, though, the
aimed at federal agencies and politicians. Sierra Club must focus its efforts. Accordingly, the Board
Chapters develop policy applicable to the area they of Directors periodically adopts national conservation
cover and governmental entities contained therein. issues for top-priority campaigns. Major current campaigns
Groups coordinate policy stances involving issues in include
their own areas with chapter policy. • Beyond Coal
• Beyond Oil
Conservation Policy Guides • Beyond Natural Gas
• Protecting America’s Waters
Sierra Club policy is posted on the Sierra Club’s • Resilient Habitats
extranet site (http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org). The club’s conservation policies can be found at
http://sierraclub.org/policy/conservation.
Conservation and Outings Leadership
Outings fit quite naturally with Sierra Club
environmental priorities. Perhaps the best approach for a OUTINGS
leader is to tie a local issue directly to the area in which the
outing is being conducted. This local issue may be used as a Club outings fall under three broad categories:
jumping off point for giving visibility to national priorities National, Inner City, and Local.
since people easily understand the connections between their
local issues and those that resonate on a national level. This is National Outings Program
a fundamental truth of our outings programs. Many outing
leaders, however, are reluctant to “lecture about issues” in The national outings program was started when the
the context of a recreational experience. Armed with a basic Sierra Club was less than ten years old. William E. Colby,
knowledge of the community and national issues, a leader then secretary of the Sierra Club, led the first wilderness
often can support and direct the conversations that trip outing in 1901: a high trip into the Sierra Nevada. Sometimes
participants usually have about the area into information lasting two months and including as many as two hundred
about real action in ways that do not have the character of a participants, this outing became an annual occurrence. John
lecture. This skill takes some development, but it is not out Muir, Colby, and other early leaders of the Sierra Club were
of range for most leaders. Those leaders who are interested motivated to establish and expand this program by their
in using outings to build advocacy may use other, stronger love of the wilderness. By taking people into remote and
approaches by leading Activist outings or service trips. beautiful mountain areas and by giving them a taste of this

17
wild freedom, they hoped to establish an involved group of Local Outings
people who would care about these places and who would
fight for the preservation of all natural scenic resources and Local Outings are those outings sponsored by the
important wildlife habitats. Today, this is still a primary goal various chapters of the Sierra Club and account for the
of the outings program. Although a much smaller version of majority of outings offered by the club. Angeles Chapter
the high trip still exists, the program now encompasses over outings fall under Local Outings. With a range of outings
three hundred other outings to every region of the United as diverse as the interests of the volunteer leaders, most local
States and to over fifteen foreign countries. The program outings are open to members and non-members alike.
includes backpack, burro, base camp, raft, ski-touring,
canoe, service, bicycle, family, and service trips, all generally Angeles Chapter Outings Program
lasting from one to two weeks.
The outings program is a volunteer program. The Over four thousand outings each year are conducted
outings department staff assists the volunteer trip leaders under the auspices of the Angeles Chapter, far more than
with reservations, publicity, trip budgeting, and finances. those of any other Sierra Club chapter. This program is the
Volunteers and staff work closely together to produce a result of the work of hundreds of volunteers under a chapter
yearly outings catalog, trip supplements (informational organizational structure, which is specially designed to
sheets on specific trips), and trip budgets. encourage enjoyable, efficient, and safe outings at all levels.
The outings program is continually seeking new Chapter outings are conceived, planned, and
leaders and welcomes chapter outing leaders to participate executed by outing leaders associated with the regional
in the program. Chapter outing leaders or others who are groups, special activity sections, activity committees, and
interested may become involved by attending subcommittee training committees. The management committees of the
meetings or by participating in the various leader training sponsoring groups, sections, and committees (GSC) are
programs which are run by the national outings program. responsible for all aspects of their trips (e.g., planning,
One may contact the outings department at the National leaders’ qualifications, and outing procedures). Each GSC
Sierra Club for additional information or see the extranet may have its own outings policies and procedures, which
site (http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org/outings). must comply with the chapter Safety Policy and be approved
by the chapter Safety Committee.
Inner City Outings To support the Angeles Chapter outings program,
the Wilderness Travel Course (WTC) is offered every year,
Sierra Club Inner City Outings is a community beginning in January. The ten-week course consists of
outreach program that provides opportunities for urban weekly evening meetings and four weekend outings. Subjects
youth and adults to explore, enjoy, and protect the natural include physical conditioning, equipment, land navigation,
world. The program goals are to promote appreciation and mountaineering medicine and safety, backpacking, snow
protection of the natural environment through wilderness travel, and winter camping. Graduation from the course
adventures and environmental education and to create requires completion of two additional off-trail peak climbs
opportunities for personal growth and development by with overnight backpacks.
linking participants from different cultures, foster respect The LTC, WTC, and Safety Committee fall under
of self and others, and provide participants with outdoor the Angeles Chapter Outings Management Committee
skills training and leadership opportunities. The Angeles (OMC), which includes the chairs of the LTC, WTC, and
Chapter has two local ICO groups in Los Angeles and Safety Committee. The OMC has overall responsibility for
Orange Counties. and oversight of all training and outings-related activities in
the Angeles Chapter.

18
 Outings Oversight and Policies
3
SAFETY COMMITTEE
The Angeles Chapter Safety Policy is included at the end of this chapter.

Background and History

In 1970 a voluntary leadership training program was established. At that time, outings were not classified as to their
technical nature, nor were the leaders certified. In 1974 the Angeles Chapter decided that an outings safety policy should
be established. The policy created a Safety Committee and a system of outings classifications and leader certifications. To
provide opportunities for new leaders to obtain training and leader certification, the Leadership Training Program (LTP)
also was established. The Safety Committee and the Leadership Training Committee (LTC) work together to ensure that
outings are led by qualified leaders. The LTP can prepare potential leaders in various technical aspects related to the outings.
Because the most important aspect of leading outings is leadership, provisional outings give new leaders an opportunity to
exhibit leadership. Final recommendation by the Safety Committee is required to complete the LTP and become a certified
outings leader.

Safety Committee Responsibilities

Approves procedures for Groups, Sections, and Committees (GSCs). A few of the GSCs sponsoring outings higher
than O have a safety policy that expands on and supports the chapter policy. Those GSC policies contain specific training
and procedural requirements for leaders of outings sponsored by that group. New leaders should obtain a copy of these
procedures from GSCs for which they plan to lead and become familiar with the specific requirements of those entities.
Certifies leaders. Completion of LTP requirements is the usual method of obtaining certification. Special requests
based on LTP requirement equivalency may be considered. Certification is at the minimum level, and leaders are encouraged
to advance their experience and training actively. After successful completion of the committee review, a certification card
and leader patch are mailed to the leader.

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 Publishes a yearly safety report. A copy of the report snowshoe or cross-country ski trips normally require two
is e-mailed to the chair and outings chair of all GSCs. I-rated leaders; the Safety Committee may grant a waiver
The report contains a copy of the chapter safety policy for some exceptions. Leaders must recognize that snow
and accident reporting forms. GSC outings chairs are conditions change and that a snowshoe trip that starts out
responsible for assuring that leaders are qualified to lead on soft snow might be dangerous without an ice axe on the
outings sponsored by that GSC. return. It is the leader’s responsibility to keep the outing
Investigates accidents and complaints. To reduce the safe and within the rating of the trip; when in doubt, turn
frequency of accidents, actions are taken as appropriate. around.
The committee receives and reviews written complaints M If safety dictates the use of ice axes, the trip can no
concerning leader conduct and takes appropriate action, longer be classed as I. Rock climbing at the M level will
which can include a permanent revocation of leader involve the use of hands, and some participants may want
certification. a belay for safety. The term Class 3 would apply to M-level
Monitors publications. The Safety Committee trips.
monitors listings in OARS and in GSC newsletters and E If safety dictates the use of crampons as well as ice
on their web sites that contain scheduled outings. The axe, the trip can no longer be classed as M. Rock climbing
Safety Chair and Outings Checker both receive copies at the E level will involve the use of a rope. The term Class
of newsletters and submit appropriate comments to the 4 would apply to E-level trips.
sponsoring groups. The Safety Committee evaluates the Circumstances can change the classification. Spring
trips for these aspects: trips may involve travel where trails are obscured by snow.
• Reasonableness of the trip Although streams do not have a classification, crossings
• Proper classification of the trip in April and May could justify an E trip rating, while in
• Listing of two appropriately rated leaders. summer the crossing could be made in ankle deep water.
Rain and snow—even a small amount—can change rock
Trip Classifications travel from easy to hazardous. Fog or darkness can quickly
present a severe navigation challenge to an O-rated leader.
The Safety Policy, included at the end of this chapter, Being prepared as a leader means having skills that normally
provides a brief description of the classifications of would exceed the demands expected for the planned outing.
outing difficulty. These classifications help to ensure that Because the point at which an outing is classified as
participants and leaders have a common understanding of “M” or “E” is not always easy to distinguish, the following
the difficulties involved in the outing. By working with an elaboration on the factors leading to a trip rating and related
experienced outings chair, a leader can be sure to classify issues is offered.
outings properly. Some additional comments to elaborate M-rated trips: An M-rated trip involving snow
on the descriptions in the Safety Policy are included below. climbing would typically take place on slopes that in late
The O category covers a variety of outings (e.g., beach summer would be class 1 or 2 sand, scree, or talus slopes. The
walks, bike rides, climb of Mt. Lowe). Trips at this level can snow on these slopes would be less than the angle of repose
include easy cross-country if they do not require the use of of scree, that is, less than 34 degrees. An occasional short
navigation skills and are still class 1 (walking, not class 2, section of soft snow up to 45 degrees may be encountered.
which is going over rougher terrain where hands may be Ice axe skills for snow climbing, self-belay, and self-arrest
occasionally used for balance). For example, a hike on a are mandatory for these snow climbs. On M-rated climbs,
trail comes within a short distance of the summit of a peak. the snow should have a consistency that allows for step
The peak can be seen from the trail, and no navigation or kicking. Crampons may be used on a M-rated snow climb
scrambling is necessary to hike from the trail to the summit to facilitate an early morning start or more rapid movement
and return. O-level overnight backpacks may be led by O-2 on consolidated snow. Crampons, however, should not be
rated leaders. O-1 leaders may lead day outings. necessary for climbing (step kicking is possible, but slower
I trips involve cross-country travel. Snow conditions due to surface hardness), but may be equipment required by
requiring use of an ice axe for safe travel (e.g., hiking poles the trip leader. An occasional top rope belay may be used to
and snowshoes may not be enough to prevent or arrest a fall) get the group past a short exposed or icy spot.
and rock travel that requires the use of hands for climbing An M-rated rock outing would involve class 3 scrambling
would be at least M level. Hands can be used for balance or climbing over rock. Class 3 climbing is defined as that in
on an I trip, but if they must be used for climbing, the trip which hands are used frequently for upward progress. A top
must be rated higher than I. The term Class 2 would apply rope belay may be used on M rock routes. Exposure for M-rated
to I-level trips. Because of the navigation usually required, snow or rock routes would be classified as moderate.

20
 E-rated Trips: An E-rated snow climb extends Forms/index.asp) or from the LTC web site (www.angeles2.
conditions to steeper slopes and harder snow where crampons sierraclub.org/ltc_become_a_leader).
are mandatory. Roped snow travel, belays, and glacier travel
with crevasse hazard may occur. Skills for these conditions Incident Report
including crevasse rescue techniques may be required,
depending on the trip. An E-rated trip may also involve An Incident Report must be filed whenever an accident
rock travel on belayed class 4 pitches. Climbing proficiency, or incident occurs on a Sierra Club sponsored activity. In
belaying, knots, and rappel skills may be necessary. all cases, use the Incident Report form from the LTC web
Exposure for E-rated routes is likely to be significant, and site or this book. The Angeles Chapter uses a customized
belay, anchoring, and/or self-belay skills must be adequate Incident Report form that is different from the standardized
to provide a margin of safety for all participants. Class 5 form on the national Sierra Club extranet site, adding the
rock climbs and vertical ice climbing are beyond the scope Angeles Chapter office and Angeles Chapter Safety Chair
of the E rating, although a 5th class summit block is within as recipients of the form. The Angeles Chapter form may
the scope of the E. This difficulty of outing is classified as be found in Appendix C or on the Angeles Chapter LTC
T (technical). Mountaineering outings at this level are not web site.
currently sponsored by the Angeles Chapter. The report is to be made as soon as possible after the
Many M and all E outings are designated as MR and event even if it is unlikely that the Sierra Club may have a
ER in the trip listing. The R indicates that the outing is liability for the incident. Leaders should carry a copy of the
restricted to Sierra Club members only, a requirement of the form on the hike. Memories fade rapidly, particularly under
Club’s insurance. Any trip on which an ice axe or a rope may stressful conditions. Note that it is preferable to submit
be used is a restricted mountaineering outing. A version of reports for seemingly minor events than not to report them
the sign-in/waiver form that has a space for the member at all. What seems to be a simple illness or a sprain could
number is to be used for these outings. turn out to be a stroke or a fracture when the person visits
T-rated Trips: A few outings are designated by the T a doctor after the outing. In the event of a serious injury or
rating, which indicates that special technical skills, such as fatality, the national Sierra Club office must be informed
sailing or ski mountaineering, are required. immediately. The toll-free emergency number for such
Leader judgment is necessary in assessing current reports is 1-888-OUTINGS (1-888-688-4647).
conditions of any route based on the weather and other
factors. Many routes require excellent route-finding to stay Emergency Response–Patient Report
on terrain of the guidebook-listed difficulty. Straying “off-
route” can suddenly put the group on significantly more In the event of an emergency situation that requires
difficult ground than that anticipated. Any route can also outside help, the Emergency Response-Patient Report Form
quickly become much more difficult with a change in should be used. Each of the two leaders should carry a copy
conditions. Knowing the skills of the group as well as those on the outing, with one copy being retained at the emergency
of the leaders is essential in judging whether a route is safely site. The copies should contain identical information so that
within the described limits of the outing as well as within there is no need to question what information the messenger
the skill limits of the participants. Leaders must not exceed took to the rescue party.
the listed outing rating and always maintain a safety margin.
Liability Release
The national outings and risk management office of
USE OF FORMS the Sierra Club has issued a combined sign-in/waiver form
for use by all Sierra Club leaders on all Sierra Club trips,
The forms for Incident Reports and combination sign- including the conditioning hikes.
in/waiver sheets are supplied in this book. Mountaineering
outings and watercraft outings falling under the “restricted
outings” category require special forms. All of these forms RULES OF CONDUCT
are issued by the Club from San Francisco. One may contact
the outings chair of the sponsoring GSC for the latest correct The Rules of Conduct give the outings leaders the
forms because they change from time to time. Or one may authority to conduct the outings and manage the group. The
obtain the forms from the national Sierra Club extranet rules that govern all Angeles Chapter outings are reprinted
site (http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org/outings/Handbook/ in the sidebar. Many activity GSCs have special modified

21
versions incorporated into their outings procedures. upon,” “targeted,” or seen as “fair game” by others. This
Outing leaders should check with the outings chair of the is more likely the case for single, unaccompanied people.
sponsoring GSC to obtain a copy of these procedures and Leaders should be alert for such inappropriate conduct
rules that apply to that entity’s outings. and sensitive to the need to make everyone feel welcome
Although cell phones and other devices may be used to and comfortable. For leaders themselves to be guilty of
summon help in some circumstances, leaders should note unwanted sexual advances is particularly unacceptable.
that reception is not possible in many outings locations. A number of avenues are available to a person who feels
Although carrying a cell phone is advised, the cell phone is that he or she is a victim of harassment, sexual or otherwise.
not a substitute for the safe conduct of the outing, nor for They include contacting the chair or the outings chair of
the leader’s ability to manage an emergency situation. the GSC sponsoring the event or outing, the chair of the
Outings Management Committee, the Sexual Harassment
Committee, the chair of the chapter Executive Committee,
HARASSMENT or the Local Outings Manager at Sierra Club Headquarters
in San Francisco. All complaints will be thoroughly
The policy of the Angeles Chapter Sierra Club is investigated.
that there is no place in Sierra Club events or outings for
harassment, sexual or otherwise, of leaders or participants.
Such action by any Sierra Club leader or participant will COMPLAINTS
not be tolerated, and violation of the policy will result in
disciplinary action, including loss of leadership status and Leader candidates, rated leaders, and outings
loss of privilege of participating in Sierra Club events or participants may choose to voice questions, concerns, or
outings. complaints pertaining to outings and outings leaders. In
Harassment may take many forms, including such circumstances, several alternatives exist.
1. Verbal conduct—such as swearing; epithets; If the complaint arises as a result of a technical checkout
derogatory comments; or racial, ethnic, or (navigation, rock, or snow), the complaint should be made
gender-based slurs—or unwanted sexual advances, to the appropriate technical chair or chair of the LTC. If
invitations, or comments the complaint arises on non-training outings, it should
2. Physical conduct such as assault, pushing, be addressed to the chair of the Angeles Chapter Safety
or blocking normal movement Committee if it is an issue related to the safe conduct of
3. Retaliation for having reported harassment. outings. If safety is not the primary issue, then the complaint
Specific forms of sexual harassment include should be addressed to the ombudsperson/member advocate
1. Pressure for sexual favors of the Angeles Chapter Outings Management Committee.
2. Demands or requests for sexual favors All of these people are listed in the Angeles Chapter’s
accompanied by threats concerning acquisition Directory.
of volunteer leadership roles or overt promises
of preferential treatment
3. Repeated requests for dates or “get-togethers” SIERRA CLUB INSURANCE (2012)
when a person has said “no”
4. Unwanted physical contact such as touching, Sierra Club insurance is renewed annually, and
pinching, or brushing against significant changes can and do occur. National Sierra Club
5. Persistent unwanted attention to physical staff prepare a guide to the insurance coverage in an effort
appearance or manner of dress to help leaders and outings chairs understand the insurance
6. Inappropriate sexually-oriented questions about coverage. The guide is called “Risk Management and
a person’s personal life Insurance Manual.” Information included here has been
7. Intimidation, hostility, or condescension based taken from the national Sierra Club extranet site and may be
on gender reviewed or downloaded from http://clubhouse.sierraclub.
8. Obscene remarks, jokes, insults, or tricks org/administration/finance/risk/default.aspx.
9. The use of stereotypes based on gender in Unfortunately, the insurance policy tends to change
attempts at humor. faster than the guide can be amended. In case of a conflict,
Although harassment is not common, it happens, the insurance policy, not the guide, controls. Questions
unfortunately, that people on outings sometime feel “preyed about insurance coverage should be addressed to local.

22
The Angeles Chapter will be updating the Rules of Conduct. Check http://angeles2.sierraclub.org/ltc_rules_of_
conduct for the most current rules.

RULES OF CONDUCT

The following rules apply to all persons participating in outings activities of the Angeles Chapter of the Sierra Club.
Violation of these rules may result in removal of a participant from a particular outing and/or revocation of the
privilege to participate in future outings.

Authority of the Leader: The authority of an outing leader is nearly absolute. The outing leader is the sole judge
of the qualifications of participants. Participants must comply with the orders and instructions of the outing leader.

Eligibility to Participate: Most Angeles Chapter outings are open to both Sierra Club members and non-members.
Eligibility restrictions, if any, should be stated in the trip write-up. Sponsoring entity themes should be regarded
as a clue to the ambiance to be expected rather than a restriction on participation. For example, you don’t have
to live in the San Fernando Valley to go on an outing sponsored by the San Fernando Valley Group, and you don’t
have to be single to go on an outing sponsored by the Sierra Singles Section.

Qualification to Participate: Trip announcements typically give information about the physical challenge involved
(distance and elevation gain) and the skills, equipment, and experience required for successful participation.
Some trips require prospective participants to provide information about their conditioning and experience to the
leader for screening in advance of the trip. Other trips may simply ask participants to screen themselves before
showing up at the trailhead. In either case, you should be honest with the leader or yourself. If you participate in a
trip for which you are really not qualified, you won’t enjoy the experience, and you may make the experience less
enjoyable for other participants. Leaders should give good faith consideration to accommodations requested by
potential participants who are disabled.

Minors: Participants under 18 years of age must be accompanied by a parent or guardian or have written
permission from same giving phone number and authorization for continuing treatment by a physician in case of
necessity. An Authorization and Consent form is printed in Appendix C and is available at http://angeles.sierraclub.
org/ltc/transfers/Minor_Waiver.pdf or http://www.sierraclub.org/outings/national/participantforms/forms/
individual_waiver.pdf Note that there is also a medical release form for minors, available in Appendix C and at
http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org/outings/forms/programs/insurance/minorrelease.PDF

Liability Waiver: All participants are required to sign a liability waiver. This is an important legal document which
limits your right to sue the Club or its leaders in the event of injury on an outing. Your participation in an outing is a
voluntary recreational activity. If you are not willing to sign a waiver, you need to find some other recreational activity.

Travel Procedures: Participants are to remain with the group unless the leader gives permission to leave, adhere
to routes designated by the leader, refrain from “short cutting” switchbacks on trails, and remain behind the leader
and ahead of the trail sweep.

Leave No Trace: The Sierra Club supports leave no trace principles, including minimizing the environmental
impact of travel and camping, disposing of waste properly or packing it out, leaving natural objects as you find
them, using stoves for cooking, limiting campfires to a single small campfire where permitted, respecting wildlife,
storing food and garbage securely, and being courteous to other visitors.

Compliance with Laws and Regulations: Sierra Club outings are conducted in compliance with applicable laws
and regulations, including requirements for entry permits, campfire restrictions, campsite location restrictions, waste
handling rules, parking restrictions, etc. Rangers and other law enforcement personnel are to be treated with respect.

23
 Sexual Harassment: Sexual harassment of Club members, volunteers, or others who participate in Club-sponsored
activities is prohibited. Sexual harassment includes unwelcome sexual suggestions, physical contact, offensive
sexual language or images, or use of club contact information to make unwelcome sexual suggestions outside of
Club activities.

Animals: Animals (other than guide dogs) are prohibited unless a specific announcement that animals are allowed
is included in the trip write-up. The leader may permit a disabled participant to bring a guide dog as long as the
group safety isn’t jeopardized or local land agency rules or regulations are not violated.

Firearms: Always prohibited.

Cell Phones: Both leaders and participants are encouraged (but not required) to carry cell phones because they
may be a useful resource in an emergency. Inappropriate or excessive use of cell phones for non-emergency
communications can be annoying to participants. Outing leaders therefore have the authority to restrict or regulate
the use of cell phones.

Hand-held Transceivers: May be carried but used only if permitted by the leader and subject to further leader
restrictions.

Radios and Sound Listening Devices: May always be used at camp if equipped with earphones for private
listening. On the trail or when climbing, use may be restricted or prohibited by the leader in the interest of safety.

GPS Receivers: Generally permitted, with the sole exception of navigation checkouts, where evaluators may
prohibit use or possession in order to test a candidate’s skill at non-electronic navigation techniques.

Hiking Poles: Permitted unless the trip announcement indicates that hiking poles are not permitted. Even when
permitted, leaders have the authority to require safe practices in use of hiking poles and restrict their use when
appropriate for safety reasons.

Bike Helmets: Participants and leaders must wear appropriate safety helmets while riding on a bicycle outing.

Technical Climbing Gear: In general, gear such as ropes, ice axes, or crampons is appropriate only on approved
Restricted Mountaineering Trips. There is no prohibition against outings participants bringing along whatever
mountaineering or safety equipment they may choose to bring on an outing for their own personal safety.
However, the use of technical climbing gear should be restricted to avoiding unanticipated hazards only, not to be
used for mountaineering that is not part of the structured outing.

[email protected]. The Local Outings Manager at and members authorized to act on its behalf against claims
the national Sierra Club office can also help local chapter for bodily injury, death, damage to property of others, or
entities with insurance questions. infringement on others’ personal and property rights. The
The basic purpose of the Sierra Club’s insurance is policy extends to activities of the Sierra Club in the United
to provide that Sierra Club activities and property are States and Canada (except for Sierra Club Canada, including
adequately covered by insurance to protect the Sierra Club the Canadian Chapters/Groups, which is incorporated
against significant risk or loss. under Canadian law).
The General Liability policy is not a medical or accident
Comprehensive General Liability policy to insure covered parties against medical expense
Coverage–Domestic or income loss[es] from injuries. It insures the Club, its
employees, and volunteers against liability to third parties
The domestic liability policy provides coverage for the for unintentional negligence and provides a defense against
Sierra Club and the Sierra Club Foundation, its employees, such claims. For insurance coverage to apply, the following
24
conditions must be met. Watercraft Activities–United States and Canada
1. The person must be an employee, authorized agent,
or volunteer of the Club and be acting within the scope Current watercraft policies and answers to frequently
of his/her authorized duties. Volunteers must be acting on asked questions can be found at http://clubhouse.sierraclub.
behalf of the Club in a responsible manner and in a defined org/outings/policy/watercraft/ and http://clubhouse.
role (e.g., outings leader, chairperson, newsletter editor, sierraclub.org/outings/faq/watercraft.asp rescpectively. For
coordinator for a fundraising event, etc.) and are covered insurance limitations, please see the Risk Management
only while performing his/her authorized function. This and Insurance Manual: http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org/
is limited by the restrictions on coverage while operating administration/finance/risk/default.aspx.
a vehicle as set forth in Auto Liability Coverage. Individual All watercraft activities must meet the following
members participating on an outing, or attending a Club criteria:
meeting, fundraising event, or other activity, are generally 1. The watercraft cannot be owned by the Sierra Club
not insured by our various policies, since they are not or any of its entities. (If the watercraft is less than fifty feet
officially acting on behalf of the Club. in length, it is permissible for the watercraft of an outing
2. The “event” or “activity” must be a Club function to be owned by the leader and to be used by participants,
that has been officially authorized or sponsored by the Club provided that no fee is charged for the use of the watercraft).
or one of its entities. Typical functions include outings, 2. Watercraft fifty feet or greater in length must be
fundraising activities, volunteer meetings, retreats, etc. Such operated by a licensed professional concessionaire.
functions, after being authorized, should be announced 3. The outings leader must have all participants sign
in a Club, Chapter or Group publication. Authorization an Acknowledgment of Participant Responsibility, Express
must come from some governing body within the Club, Assumption of Risk, and Release of Liability waiver form before
such as a Chapter or Group ExCom, Outings Chair or the trip begins and must send these waivers to the outings
a Club committee. Individual trips, events or activities, chair. Outings chairs must keep these on file for at least as
even though participated in entirely or partially by Club long as the statute of limitation for negligence lawsuits in
members, are not covered if they are privately organized their state, which is generally six years. All participants must
by individuals and not officially authorized by the Club as be informed in advance of the outing of the requirement to sign
described above. If an event cannot be announced in Sierra an assumption of risk and liability waiver.
Club publications (i.e., event or outing is planned after a 4. The outings leaders must follow all state and federal
newsletter goes to print), other documentation, such as trip regulations for operating watercraft used for carrying
reports, master outing calendar entries, or meeting minutes, passengers. Sierra Club entities conducting watercraft
must be used to substantiate the activity as an authorized activities must check with their state on any regulations
Club event. Chapter, Group, or Outings Chairs must keep for leading the type of watercraft activity they wish to be
the documentation on file for at least as long as the statute approved.
of limitation for negligence lawsuits in their state, which Due to insurance restrictions, some watercraft activities
can be up to six years from the date of injury (depends on that use a concessionaire are considered “restricted” and
state law). approval must be obtained from the national Sierra Club
prior to making any commitments or advertising the event.
Restrictions in the Domestic General Liability Policy If the concessionaire is hired for the renting of equipment
only (e.g., renting kayaks/canoes from an operator, but
Most activities will normally be covered by this not using their guide services) or is a regularly scheduled
policy. Specific exclusions, however, have limited the charter/cruise (e.g., a public ferry), the trip is not considered
types of activities the Sierra Club can be involved in, and restricted, and an application does not need to submitted.
some activities have exclusions or limitations or require If a concessionaire is hired (either with or without
special approval prior to the outing or event. The current payment) for the operation/chartering of a watercraft,
restrictions for 2012 are described below, but are subject to guiding services (e.g., a rafting operator, a kayak/canoe
change annually. Besides the restrictions on watercraft and guide), or even just to accompany the trip, the trip is
mountaineering activities, Challenge Courses, also called considered restricted and an application must be submitted
Ropes Courses, have restrictions but are not offered by the to the Outings Department.
Angeles Chapter. For restricted watercraft activities, in addition to the
criteria listed above that all watercraft activities must meet, it

25
is necessary for the concessionaire to sign the Concessionaire the Outings Department.
Agreement and issue a Certificate of Insurance to the Sierra IMPORTANT: Trips to climbing gyms are strictly
Club, naming the Sierra Club as an “additional insured.” prohibited.
The application, Concessionaire Agreement, Certificate of To view the Sierra Club Mountaineering Policy
Insurance, and proof of current first aid training for each go to http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org/outings/policy/
Sierra Club leader must be sent to the Outings Department Mountaineering.asp
at least 30 days prior to making any arrangements or Ice axes and other personal safety equipment may be
commitments or advertising the activity. In the event brought by participants on non-restricted trips. This must
that a concessionaire refuses to name the Sierra Club as not be interpreted, however, to mean that trips may be
an additional insured, contact the Outings Department scheduled on which it is “understood” but “not required”
immediately. that everyone bring an ice axe, or that belays will be given,
On restricted watercraft activities, the Acknowledgment but “not required” to avoid the Restricted Outing approval
waivers must be sent to the Local Outings Manager in the process. Leaders need to live by both the spirit and letter
Outings Department. of these regulations. The trip leader needs to judge well in
advance whether ice axes or ropes are prudently required for
Mountaineering Activities the trip to be led safely. If the leader is not really sure that
the trip can be led safely without ice axes or ropes, the leader
Any Club event that is expected to use ropes, runners, should make the outing a restricted one and obtain the
ice axes, crampons, or other mountaineering equipment is necessary approvals. If a trip is not scheduled as a restricted
considered “mountaineering” and must be approved by the outing and the leader determines during the trip that a
Mountaineering Oversight Committee (MOC), a group of rope or ice axes must be used to continue, the trip objective
volunteers with expertise in mountaineering. should be aborted and another goal which can be met safely
This applies only to outings on which mountaineering without using this equipment substituted. If, for example,
equipment is expected to be used. In no event should this conditions make it appear that a peak climb may require a
policy be treated as restricting leaders from taking along rope for some participants to descend safely (even if they
such mountaineering or other safety equipment as may be could climb up without one), the leaders must abort the
prudent to deal with unanticipated hazards. Leaders must climb so that there is no need to use the rope for the descent
not attempt to avoid the extra requirements for approval of in a situation that could have been avoided. TRIP LEADERS
a mountaineering outing if the leaders know or reasonably WHO VIOLATE THIS RULE AND ALLOW THE USE
believe that mountaineering hardware will be required in OF ROPES OR ICE AXES WHEN NOT APPROVED
order to negotiate the planned itinerary or any optional RISK LOSING THEIR LEADERSHIP PRIVILEGES AS
routes on the outing safely. WELL AS BEING HELD PERSONALLY LIABLE. This
For any mountaineering outing, an application must be policy is not to be interpreted to rule out the use of any
submitted to the MOC Chair, who will forward approved safety equipment in an emergency.
applications to the Local Outings Manager. The leader Mountaineering Outings are allowed by the Club
cannot make any arrangements or commitments or advertise when they are approved in advance by the national
the outing until the activity has been approved by the MOC. Mountaineering Oversight Committee. Approval of the trip
Due to insurance restrictions, if a professional must be obtained prior to publication of the trip in OARS
concessionaire is hired to guide the outing, the following or activity calendar of the GSC. These outings are restricted
criteria must be met: the concessionaire must have proof to Sierra Club members only. At this time the Desert Peaks
of up-to-date American Mountain Guide Certification and Section, Leadership Training Committee, Sierra Peaks
the concessionaire must carry liability insurance of at least Section, Ski Mountaineers Section, and Wilderness Training
$1,000,000 and provide the Sierra Club with a certificate Committee have received approval to lead these “restricted”
of insurance naming the Sierra Club as additional insured. outings. The outings chairs for these sections will have the
In the event that a concessionaire refuses to name the Sierra latest applications for trip certification, special sign-in/
Club as an additional insured, contact the Local Outings waiver sheets, and liability release forms. The forms are also
Manager immediately. located on the Chapter’s LTC web site and the national
On all Sierra Club mountaineering outings, the outings extranet site, as well as in Appendix C. Leaders planning
leader must have all participants sign an Acknowledgment on leading a mountaineering outing should contact the
of Participant Responsibility, Express Assumption of Risk, and appropriate outings chair for the latest information. Only
Release of Liability waiver form before the trip begins and those trips reviewed and approved by the national Sierra
must send these waivers to the Local Outings Manager in Club’s Mountaineering Oversight Committee will be

26
covered by the Club’s liability insurance. application for training trips should be used.
Mountaineering and rock climbing outings as well
as mountaineering training outings have the following Certificate of Insurance
requirements in common:
1. The leader must obtain approval for the outing prior When arranging an outing or an event, a leader may be
to publication in OARS or a GSC activities calendar. Obtain asked to provide a “Certificate of Insurance” by a property
the application forms from the outings chair, LTC web site, owner. If this is the case, contact the Local Outings Manager
Appendix C, or http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org/outings/ in San Francisco to obtain the proper help.
local/forms. Upon approval by the sponsoring GSC, the
outings chair will forward the application to the chair of the What to Do in the Event of a Lawsuit
Mountaineering Oversight Committee (MOC), who will
forward the application to San Francisco for final approval, If one is advised of any form of legal action against the
which may take up to four weeks to obtain. Sierra Club or any of its affiliated entities, this information
2. All participants and leaders must be current Sierra must be communicated to the Risk Management Manager
Club members and must be screened for appropriate skills immediately (415-977-5569). Leaders should report threats
suitable for the mountaineering activities planned or those of litigation as well as actual notice of suit. Chapters and
that could reasonably be expected. subentities should not engage their own counsel. The
3. When the leader sends back trip information to the foregoing applies to complaints in the areas of libel and
participants, they should be warned that there is no medical slander, copyright, employment, breach of contract,
coverage for this type of event and that a liability release accidents, negligence, and any and all forms of liability.
form (waiver) must be signed. The leader may enclose a The Sierra Club headquarters, with assistance of the
copy of the waiver form for their prior review. legal committee, will retain outside legal counsel, which
4. All participants and leaders must sign the includes paying for the legal fees, and will ask outside
Mountaineering Sign-In Sheet Liability Waiver form, which counsel to work with the appropriate persons to resolve the
has a space for each person’s Sierra Club number. legal matter.
5. All leaders and participants must provide a completed Once one has received notice of litigation or potential
Participant Medical Form, usually two copies, available on litigation, one should not discuss the matter with the press
the extranet site at http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org/outings/ or newspapers until or unless directed by counsel to do so.
local/forms Leaders may use these for further screening of Other discussions with Sierra Club employees or members
participants as well as in an emergency. should be done only if necessary and only with appropriate
6. After the trip, the sign-in/waiver and one copy of the parties. The goal is to minimize inaccuracies, adverse
medical form must be sent to the outings chair, who sends publicity, and weakening of the Sierra Club’s case.
them on to the Local Outings Manager in San Francisco.
Mountaineering outings may have as a part of the on- Bus Insurance
trip climb preparation a skills refresher to make sure that
all participants are, for example, current on ice axe arrests. Outings chairpersons must ensure that sponsored bus
Critique and comments can be made, but this is not to be trips comply with Sierra Club rules. The rules applying to
a training course, and all participants should have been bus trips are outlined in the Insurance Guide. Bus trip rules
screened to make sure that they had the prerequisite skills require the sponsoring leader to determine that the bus
prior to the outing. company being chartered has a valid certificate of insurance
which names the Sierra Club as additional insured. This
Mountaineering Training Outings certificate must be on file in the chapter office. In order to
give leaders more freedom in the selection of bus companies,
Mountaineering Training Trips (including leader there is no official list. The leader is responsible for checking
certification training) may be led, but training of “rank with the chapter office to see if the chosen bus company has
beginners” is not permitted. This is the only restriction, a current certificate on file, and, if not, the leader is to secure
however, in the material that may be taught. These trips will a renewal or new certificate from the bus company and to
have as their primary goal training. Trips with limited skills send it to the chapter office before the trip. Forms for this
refreshers as a part of a climbing trip (as described above) purpose are available in the chapter office or on the national
will not be considered training trips. As with all restricted extranet site. In the case of lapsed certificates or refusal to
outings, leaders and participants must be club members, add the Sierra Club as additional insured, the bus company
and the trip must be approved in advance (see above). The must not be used.

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 left behind. The leader should not imply that transportation
Carpooling arrangements are anything but voluntary and participant-
initiated because some lawyers may try to make the Sierra
Because the policy is that trips start at the trailhead, Club liable for traffic accidents. For further information,
leaders must not take an active role in making arrangements one may contact the Safety Chair. The sign-in sheet/waiver
for participants’ transportation. Carpooling and should be signed at the initial trip meeting place, which may
transportation arrangements are not to be directed by be the carpool point. It is a good idea for a leader to tell
the leader. Instead, the leader is responsible to see that all participants about the plan of the trip at a rideshare point
participants know the directions and, in the case of moving before carpooling in case a participant decides not to go on
between roadheads and/or campsites, that no participants are the outing.

ANGELES CHAPTER SAFETY POLICY

Angeles Chapter Safety Policy (ACSP):
Approved by Angeles Chapter Executive Committee June 23, 2013

1.0 Purpose
This policy applies to the Angeles Chapter outings program and provides specific requirements for groups,
sections, committees, and task forces (GSCs) to assure that outings consistently meet participant safety
expectations and Sierra Club risk-management goals.

2.0 Scope and Precedence

This Angeles Chapter Safety Policy (ACSP) supplements national Sierra Club outings policies and the Angeles
Chapter Outings Governance Policy and is applicable to all personnel involved in the Angeles Chapter outings
program. This policy provides requirements for the Safety Committee to conduct its business and oversee chapter-
and GSC-sponsored outings. This policy also provides detailed guidance for certain GSCs to prepare GSC Safety
Policies and manage their outings program consistent with chapter and national requirements.

In any case where this policy is less stringent than national Sierra Club outings policies and the Angeles Chapter
Outings Governance Policy, those policies have precedence. In cases where this policy is more stringent (e.g., the
requirement for two leaders on outings), this policy shall apply.

3.0 Angeles Chapter Outings Ratings

A system of classifying outings has been established in the Angeles Chapter according to 6 levels of difficulty (C,
O, I, M, E, T). Five of these levels correspond to leader certification levels (O, I, M, E, T) as described below

Level C (Conducted): Certain outings are conducted almost entirely under external control, such as by a
concessionaire or ranger. During a conducted outing, the Sierra Club leader has little responsibility beyond
administrative matters. Organizers of conducted outings require only minimal leader qualifications and, therefore,
conducted outings are not included in the leader certification system.

Level O (Ordinary): O-Level outings are trips on trails or off trail with no navigation or terrain difficulty (class 1)
and require basic technical skills of outings leaders and participants. New leaders who have not led a backpack
as a provisional leader are identified as O Level 1 (O-1) leaders who may lead day hikes and car camps but not
backpacks. Such O-1 leaders may subsequently upgrade to O Level 2 (O-2) status by completing a provisional
lead of a backpack.

Level I (Intermediate): I-Level outings include cross-country travel and possibly class 2 terrain. Leader
qualifications shall include demonstrated navigation, cross-country travel, and backpacking skills in addition to the
O-level requirements.

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Level M (Moderate): Outings that involve class 3 rock or snow travel requiring the use of an ice axe shall
be classed as M. Technical training in rock climbing and snow travel is required in addition to lower-level
requirements. Leaders may be rated full M (both rock and snow), M-Rock, or M-Snow.

Level E (Exposed): Outings that involve class 4 rock or snow travel that requires the use of crampons in addition
to ice axe for safety shall be classed E. Leaders are required to demonstrate more advanced skills involving rock
climbing and snow travel than are required for level M. Leaders may be rated full E (both rock and snow), E-Rock,
or E-Snow.

Level T (Technical): T-Level outings involve specialized technical skills (for example, sailing, kayaking, or ski
mountaineering). These outings impose highly specialized leadership requirements, and certification of leadership
qualifications shall be in accordance with the requirements defined by the entities that sponsor such outings.

4.0 Related Committees

In addition to the Angeles Chapter Executive Committee (ExCom) and the GSCs, the Safety Committee relates to several
other committees, notably the Outings Management Committee (OMC) and Leadership Training Committee (LTC).

4.1 Outings Management Committee (OMC)

The Outings Management Committee is the Angeles Chapter committee responsible for managing all aspects of
the outdoor activities program of the chapter, including training and risk management. The OMC promotes outdoor
leadership and provides support for entity outings chairs.

4.2 Leadership Training Committee (LTC)

The LTC provides training of potential outings leaders in technical and non-technical subjects. LTC recommends
qualified candidates to the Safety Committee for certification as Angeles Chapter outings leaders.

5.0 Angeles Chapter Safety Committee

The Safety Committee manages all safety and risk management aspects of the outdoor activities program of the
chapter, including safety policies, publication review, Quick-Turnaround (Q-T) approval, accident investigation,
policy monitoring, leader certification, and leader database maintenance.

The Safety Committee is led by the Safety Chair, appointed by the Chapter ExCom Chair and confirmed by the
Chapter ExCom. Other Safety Committee members include the OMC Chair, the LTC Chair, the Wilderness Training
Committee (WTC) Safety Coordinator and any other members specified by the current Angeles Chapter Outings
Governance Policy and other Chapter Outings Standing Rules. The Safety Chair shall appoint additional committee
members as needed to enhance judgment, expertise, and liaison functions of the committee.

SAFETY COMMITTEE RESPONSIBILITIES

5.1 The Safety Committee shall review the ACSP at least annually to reflect changes due to new situations or to
capture chapter experience in operating under it. The Safety Chair shall propose ACSP revisions to the OMC. If the
proposed revision is adopted by a vote of the OMC, it will become effective upon its confirmation by a vote of
Chapter ExCom.

5.2 The Safety Committee shall review and approve safety policies established by the GSCs. Policies judged
inadequate by the Safety Committee shall be returned to the appropriate GSC for revisions.

5.3 The Safety Committee shall monitor published outings that appear in all chapter media, including the Online
Activity Registration System (OARS) and its successors, websites, listservs, newsletters and the Southern Sierran. It
shall also set standards for publicizing chapter outings on social media. It shall ensure that qualifications of leaders
are appropriate for the outing and that mileage, elevation gain, and other trip characteristics are properly identified

29
 for participants. The Safety Committee shall communicate with the sponsoring GSC and request modifications
of outings that exceed the qualifications of the leaders or participants. If the above is not successful, the Safety
Committee shall direct the sponsoring GSC to cancel the outing.

5.4 Outings write-ups approved by a GSC outings chair shall be provided to the Safety Committee for information
as soon as possible (e.g., by email to [email protected] if they are submitted for publication
in OARS or another chapter website or listserv). The outings chair of the sponsoring entity shall make suitable
provision for seven-year archiving of the trip write-up if it is not published on OARS; no archiving shall be required
for outings published on OARS.

5.5 Upon request by a GSC outings chair, the chapter Safety Chair may grant authority for an entity to employ the
nationally-defined “Enduring” Waiver procedure for their regularly scheduled conditioning hikes. This authority
must be confirmed by the national Outdoor Activity Program Team (OAPT) to take effect, and be implemented
with full adherence to the “Enduring” Liability Waivers then current at the outings extranet of Clubhouse.

5.6 The Safety Committee shall investigate outing incidents and complaints involving outings leaders. Depending
on circumstances and steps taken by the sponsoring GSC, additional action may be taken by the Safety Committee.
The Safety Committee shall assure that incident reports are processed and that copies are retained.

5.7 The Safety Committee shall monitor national outings policies and forms for changes and notify the GSCs.

5.8 Upon leader candidates’ satisfactory completion of the LTC training program, the Safety Committee shall
grant leader certification. The Safety Chair may also directly certify leaders based on previous experience, proven
capabilities, certification with other club chapters, etc. The Safety Committee shall notify sponsors of provisional
outings of newly certified leaders and update the leader database to reflect new certifications.

5.9 The Safety Committee maintains a database of currently approved leaders, providing the leader’s name,
membership number and expiration date, leader certification level, first aid certification (date of course
completion and type of course—standard or wilderness first aid), and date of policy knowledge renewal.

6.0 GSCs
Angeles Chapter outings are sponsored by regional groups, activity sections, committees, and task forces (GSCs).

6.1 GSC Organization

Each GSC is recognized by the Safety Committee to lead outings up to a particular certification level. Each GSC
shall establish an appropriate organizational structure, select officers, recruit leaders, and provide resources as
needed to conduct safe and successful outings at the indicated level.

GSCs that offer T-rated outings, provide training or conduct proficiency exams at the I-level or higher, or permit
leaders to lead routes that are rated higher than their leader rating shall prepare a GSC Safety Policy (GSCSP) to
supplement this Angeles Chapter Safety Policy (see section 7). Each such GSC shall review its GSCSP at least
annually or if any major changes occur in the level and nature of outings conducted. A copy of the GSCSP shall be
submitted to the Safety Committee for review and approval and subsequent archiving. Other GSCs that operate
their outings entirely within the provisions of this ASCP have blanket authorization to operate their outings program
and do not need to file a GSCSP.

The outings chairs of the GSCs play a crucial role in planning, selection, and scheduling of outings. More than any
other individuals, the outings chairs can influence outing safety. Therefore, it is important that they be selected with
great care. They should be well-qualified outings leaders familiar with the types and locations of outings frequently
conducted by the GSC. Each GSC shall select an outings chair according to established criteria following
documented procedures.

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GSCs shall notify the OMC Chair, the Safety Chair, and the Schedule editor of new outings chair appointments
before the new outings chair functions to approve outings for the entity.

Outings chairs shall use the Chapter Outings Chairs listserv ([email protected]) as
needed to keep informed on matters of safety and on changes to club and chapter outings policies. Outings chairs
without e-mail are to provide the OMC and Safety Chairs with an e-mail address of someone who will forward
listserv messages to the outings chair.

6.2 GSC Outing Requirements

With the exception of “conducted” events and certain outings as noted below, the GSC shall identify two
appropriately rated leaders for each outing. If the GSC conducts outings that require additional leaders, the outings
chair shall assure that additional leaders are provided.

The Safety Committee may sanction a GSC to lead specific outings (e.g., conditioning hikes with one leader per
subgroup). If the GSC is so sanctioned, the GSC shall establish appropriate procedures for ensuring group control
and safety.

If circumstances arise that impose greater difficulty (e.g., outings held in early spring), then the outings chair shall
recognize these circumstances as the need arises and assign the outing a commensurately higher rating (e.g., an
I-level outing with spring snow may become an M-level outing), and it shall be led only by persons qualified for
the newly assigned higher level.

All snowshoe and cross-country ski outings must be led by two leaders certified at the I-level or higher unless a
one-trip waiver is granted by the Chair of the Angeles Chapter Safety Committee for one or both leaders to be
O-rated. Waivers will be based on such factors as the planned route and the experience of the leaders (e.g., have
they led such trips and this particular route before?). Such waivers are required for any such trip published to
be led by either two O-rated leaders or one I-rated leader and one O-rated leader. Any trip published to be led
based on such a waiver must be canceled if there is heavy snowfall forecast on the day of the outing.

If the GSC conducts outings that involve special difficulty or that require special skills or equipment, the GSCs shall
document additional procedures for the selection of the outings chair, leaders, and participants in their Safety
Policy. Mountaineering outings requiring the use of technical equipment (ropes, ice axes, or crampons) shall
receive prior approval by the national Mountaineering Oversight Committee (MOC).

Some GSCs conduct technical T-level outings (e.g., ski mountaineers, river touring) that encompass a broad span
of specialized skills and difficulties. Outings chairs involved with T-level outings shall document criteria for leader
selection and participant screening for safe outings under normal and possibly adverse conditions.

Some GSCs conduct training outings (e.g., navigation, rock climbing, and snow climbing). GSCs offering training
outings at the I-level or higher shall document policies to screen participants properly and to conduct training
outings in a manner commensurate with the risk to ensure the safety of participants.

Some GSCs conduct proficiency demonstrations (e.g., Leadership Training Committee and Ski Mountaineers) and
shall document their policies to screen participants properly and conduct proficiency demonstration outings in a
manner to ensure the safety of participants.

A GSC that is allowed to offer certain outings rated higher than the rating of the leader shall document this
arrangement and its implementation in a GSC Safety Policy. The document shall indicate the ways in which safety
and risk management are maintained.

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 6.3 Announcement Processing
Each Sierra Club outing shall be sponsored by a GSC and shall be published in an appropriate form in order for
the outing to be sanctioned as an official Sierra Club trip. By sponsoring an outing, the GSC is giving its approval to
the outing plan and the outing’s leadership.

The GSC outings chairs shall be responsible for collecting announcements from leaders and seeing that they are
published. Announcements submitted by anyone other than the outings chair shall be approved by the outings
chair prior to publication. Restricted mountaineering outings shall be approved by the national Mountaineering
Oversight Committee (MOC).

Outings chairs shall verify that each announcement lists a leader and at least one properly qualified assistant,
contains an indication of the trip rating (O, I, M, E), describes the difficulty of an outing (such as elevation gain,
distance, pace, etc.), addresses the general demands on participants and any special skills required, and provides
contact information for the leaders.

On reserved outings, for which participants apply in advance for a spot, the trip announcement generally will
not include the meeting time and place. On non-reserved outings, for which participants show up without a
reservation, the meeting time and place must be included in the announcement.

Outings with multiple sponsors listed shall be approved in advance by each sponsoring entity and must comply
with the outings procedures of each entity. The primary sponsor must be listed first in the header wherever the
write-up is published. The primary sponsor is the one that would take the lead, in conjunction with the Safety
Committee, to investigate any incidents that occurred on the outing.

Publication may be accomplished by GSC outings chairs submitting announcements to the Online Activity
Registration System (OARS) or a successor website. Publishing in a GSC newsletter, website, or listserv also
qualifies, provided a copy of the announcement is forwarded to the Safety Committee publications monitor. A
complimentary copy of all GSC-sponsored publications shall be sent to reviewers designated by the Safety Chair
and the Angeles Chapter office.

Any schedule announcements not published in OARS shall be archived for seven years after completion of the
outing. In the event an announcement is published only electronically (at a website or any other non-print medium
other than OARS), a hard-copy of the announcement shall be archived for the seven-year period.

After publication in OARS or a GSC newsletter, website or listserv, outings may be publicized through social
media (such as Facebook, Twitter, Meetup or Craigslist) at the discretion of the sponsoring GSC. All such publicity
shall mention “Sierra Club” or “Angeles Chapter” or the name of the sponsoring group, section or committee in the
social media post or be prominently displayed in the account name for the posting. All such publicity shall also
contain a hyperlink to the original publication in OARS or a chapter website; this link may be a “short link,” such as
those provided through bitly.com and tinyurl.com.

6.4 Verification of Leader Qualifications

Outings leaders are trained and rated through a chapter-approved leadership training program conducted by
LTC and structured to be compatible with the leader requirements for rating levels O through E. Experience and
training other than that obtained through a leadership training course may be recognized as a partial basis for
leadership certification. Leadership certification is done by the Safety Committee following a leader candidate’s
completion of all appropriate training, demonstrations, and provisional leads.

Outings chairs shall verify that leaders meet the following criteria at the time of the outing:
a. Current Sierra Club membership,

32
b. Certification as a rated leader at or above the level of the outing,
c. First aid certification within the last four years before conduct of an outing,
d. Leadership “soft” skills competence demonstration (e.g., OLT 101 completion and having read the Chapter
Supplement to OLT 101—or the equivalent of these two as identified by LTC) within the last four years.

Any waivers to these requirements for specific individuals must be approved by the Safety Chair.

Outings chairs shall verify that leaders possess adequate knowledge, skills, experience, and mental aptitude
commensurate to the outing and are capable of effective control of the group during the outing.

Outings chairs shall verify that leaders know the basic procedures for conduct of the outing and know Sierra
Club emergency procedures. Sponsoring GSCs may elaborate upon the Chapter’s Rules of Conduct in their safety
policies to match their outings characteristics.

Outings chairs shall verify that leaders of proposed outings be in sufficient physical condition to complete the
outing and handle emergency situations, be familiar with the areas to be entered, and have a good idea of the
conditions to be encountered during the outing.

Outings chairs shall verify that leaders of technical outings (especially T-rated outings) have appropriate training
and certification(s).

6.5 Leader Responsibilities

Once adequate information is gathered for an outing, the leader prepares an announcement and submits it to the
outings chair. Following publication, interested participants evaluate their interest and suitability for a particular
outing and may contact the leader for further clarification. The leader answers inquiries so that participants
understand the demands of the outing and can make more reasoned judgments on whether they should attend.

On reserved outings, the leader shall perform screening in advance of the trip. Once screening is completed and
the participant list takes shape, the leader normally sends out a trip sheet to participants, detailing where and
when to meet, what to bring, how to prepare, and what to expect. The trip sheet normally includes participant
contact information to allow participants to make individual carpool arrangements to arrive at the meeting point on
time, fed, rested, and ready to go.

If two appropriately rated leaders are not available at the start of the outing, the outing must be replanned at a
level consistent with available leaders or canceled. Trips canceled for this reason may not be led as “private”
outings, unless all participants are notified before leaving home.

The carpool to the trailhead is never part of the Sierra Club outing, and leaders should not suggest or imply that the
outing begins with the carpool. Leaders shall avoid accepting responsibility for travel to, during, or from outings,
leaving that to private, voluntary arrangements. If there is a carpool from the meeting point to the trailhead, the
waiver should be signed before the carpool.

A waiver is required for participation in any Sierra Club outing. Leaders are responsible for collecting waivers from
all participants. At the start of the outing, leaders shall provide a sign-in/waiver sheet to obtain information on each
participant, including name, car license, and emergency contact. Participants should sign the liability waiver at the
initial trip meeting place, thus providing participants an opportunity to back out of the outing if they decide not to
sign the waiver.

Leaders should ensure that participants are prepared to follow the Rules of Conduct established by the Sierra
Club and Angeles Chapter. During introductions, leaders shall inform participants of the rules that govern conduct
on an outing.

33
 The leaders shall check that all participants are properly equipped and qualified for the outing, either through pre-
screening or at the trailhead or both. On non-reserved outings, the meeting point is the first opportunity to screen
participants.

During the outing, the outing leaders shall exercise control of the group and are responsible for the outing’s safe
conduct. This includes compliance with the requirements and procedures established for safe outing conduct.
Leaders shall keep the group together and under control at all times. The leaders shall modify the outing plan
as necessary to avoid exceeding the capability of the group. The leaders shall abort the outing objective if
circumstances prevent its completion in safety. During the conduct of an extended outing, if two rated leaders
are not available for any part of the planned outing, a fully-rated leader may appoint an experienced participant
to assist in conduct of that part of the outing. Such a participant must be a Sierra Club member. Before doing so,
the leader must make the determination that the outing plan may be safely completed with the remaining group.
Following any outing during which a fully-rated leader appoints a participant to assist in conduct of part of the
outing, the leader shall report the circumstances to the outings chair and to the Safety Committee Chair.

Any participant leaving the outing before its completion shall be signed out, consistent with national policy
(“Early Sign-Outs”). Sign-out of all participants at the end of an outing is at the leader’s discretion but is particularly
prudent in the case of more remote outings to ensure no one is left behind.

Following an outing, sign-in/waiver sheets shall be archived by the GSC outings chair for a period of seven years.

For a normal outing without accident or incident, no further follow-up is required.

6.6 Accident/Incident Procedures

If an accident occurs during an outing, the leader is expected to limit the situation to avoid any further injuries,
appoint someone to document the events, then render assistance to the injured. Often an incident necessitates
holding the group together for a prolonged period and may involve the entire group missing work the next day or
until the situation is remedied. It is important that the vitals of the patient(s) be recorded at regular intervals and
that injuries and treatments be recorded. In medical and legal parlance, if it isn’t written down, it didn’t happen.
Also, a written record may prove vital to defend the leader’s actions months or years later during an investigation.

Following an accident/incident, the leader shall file a report with the Safety Committee and National. Subsequent
to filing the incident report the GSC shall investigate all accidents and complaints, take action as appropriate, and
file their analysis with the Safety Committee. The GSC shall support the Safety Committee investigator as needed.

7.0 GSC Safety Policies

The following guidance is for GSCs that need to maintain a GSC Safety Policy. While adherence to the structure
suggested below for a GSC safety policy is not a requirement, GSC safety policies shall be audited for content in
each of the following areas. Therefore, policies that are structured with the following points in mind will be much
easier to evaluate and approve.

GSC Organization
A1 Indicate the GSC name and highest level of outings the GSC is authorized to conduct;
A2 Indicate the title of the person(s) responsible to write and approve the GSCSP;
A3 Indicate the outings chair selection criteria;
A4 If applicable, if the outings chair does not use the listserv, indicate the person responsible for forwarding
listserv messages to the outings chair;
A5 If applicable, indicate whether the GSC has any special approvals on file for one-leader outings;
A6 If applicable, indicate whether the GSC has any special approvals on file for outings that involve special

34
difficulties or special skills and equipment;
A7 If applicable, indicate whether the GSC has quick-turnaround outings approval.

GSC Outings
B1 Describe the types of outings conducted by the GSC;
B2 If applicable, describe how waivers and sign-in sheets are handled before, during, and after the outing;
B3 If applicable, describe any large group events that require more than two leaders;
B4 If applicable, describe any one-leader outings;
B5 If applicable, describe any outings that involve special difficulties, skills, or equipment;
B6 If applicable, describe procedures used for any restricted trips, including MOC coordination;
B7 If applicable, describe any criteria for upgrading the level of an outing due to adverse conditions;
B8 If applicable, detail any T-rated outings including leader selection, participant screening, and any special
grading systems used;
B9 If applicable, describe any outdoor training conducted by the GSC, including qualifications of leaders,
instructors, and participants and how risks to students are controlled;
B10 If applicable, describe any outdoor proficiency demonstrations conducted by the GSC, including
qualifications of leaders, examiners, and participants;
B11 If applicable, describe any arrangements whereby a leader of a particular rating may lead a route at a higher
level.

Announcement Processing
C1 Describe the method(s) used by the GSC to satisfy the publishing and archiving requirements, especially if
electronic publications are used;
C2 If applicable, describe any procedures for quick-turnaround approval of outings;
C3 If applicable, detail any special rating systems, other than mileage and altitude gain, used in the publication of
outings to indicate strenuousness or technical demands;
C4 If applicable, describe procedures for any jointly-sponsored outings;
C5 If applicable, list any outings-related books, manuals, or newsletters published by the GSC, and frequency of
publication.

Leader Qualifications
D1 Describe the GSC criteria for approving a leader (especially one with previous accidents, complaints, or
disciplinary action) to conduct a particular outing;
D2 If applicable, describe any GSC-specific directives that elaborate upon the chapter’s Rules of Conduct and
how leaders become aware of any such GSC specific directives;
D3 If applicable, explain how any T-rated leaders receive technical training and certification.

Leader Responsibilities
E1 Describe or provide representative example(s) of trip sheets provided to participants before the outing to help
them assemble their equipment and prepare for the outing;
E2 Indicate how trip participants are screened to assure that they have the skills required for the trip and to identify
those with medical conditions or a previous history of complaints or disciplinary action;
E3 If applicable, describe any special procedures used to assure the technical skills of participants (e.g., the
mountaineers list).

Accident/Incident Procedures
F1 Describe how the entity is set up to handle emergencies, reports, and follow up activities and how these
procedures are coordinated with leaders before an outing;
F2 If applicable, explain any special emergency procedures employed by the GSC for the scope of its outings.

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4
Outings Leadership
and Emergency Procedures

T
he leader is responsible for achieving the published goals of the trip to the extent they can be accomplished while
ensuring the safety of the party. Sierra Club trips are planned to be enjoyable and environmentally sound, but to
reduce whatever hazards may exist and to increase the enjoyment of all, certain rules should be followed and various
precautions taken. This can be accomplished in large part by planning and good judgment with a minimum of orders and
regimentation.
Experience in the Sierra Club and other outdoor activity groups has shown that good leadership is more important to
successful outings than technical skills. Leadership has many dimensions and can be viewed and assessed in multiple ways:
behavior of the leader, internal motivation of the leader and group members, performance of individual outing participants,
the interpersonal dynamics of the group, or objective performance of the group as a whole. Besides the mechanics of leading
a trip for the Angeles Chapter, this chapter delves into the components of leadership as an aid to prospective leaders and
offers perspective on leadership with the goal of enhancing the performance of leaders and the groups they lead.
The best leaders are aware of their limitations and personal motivations for being a leader, and they are aware of the
style of leadership they are expressing. They become good judges of when it is prudent to shift styles in reaction to changing
conditions. Just as leaders will be conscious of their own style and performance, they know they will be closely watched by
members of their party looking for models of successful or dysfunctional leadership.

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OUTINGS LEADERSHIP leader is a confident leader. A vacillating leader, or one
obviously not in control of oneself, can do irreparable harm
Psychology of Leadership to the psychological set of a group and its members. Alert
for the early signs of psychological deterioration in specific
Successful leaders reflect a variety of personal profiles members of the group, the leader will check with the assistant
or personalities. There is no perfect leader profile, but the to determine the presence of those attitudes and actions
outings leader should possess certain qualities, common to which may be symptomatic of an undesirable psychological
many successful leaders, in reasonable degree. The qualities state, and thus, of future trouble (running ahead, lagging
include physical fitness, technical knowledge, planning and behind, bravado, excessive competition, groundless fears,
problem-solving skills, confidence, and decisiveness. Leaders inexplicable exhaustion, unusual irritability, or incessant
should be as gentle as possible on the feelings of others and complaining). Beyond checking for symptoms in a particular
aware that they are in a position of visibility. Good leaders person or persons, the leader must also consider the
act in a manner that reflects well upon themselves, the possibility of impending group psychological deterioration.
Sierra Club, and the outings community. The two (or more) This can stem from one or two disturbed persons gradually
leaders of an Angeles Chapter outing, furthermore, need to “infecting” others, or it can happen suddenly to the group as
work well together. a whole. This latter situation can be the result of monotony
The psychological factor involved in outings is often or physical and nervous exhaustion. Often, it will stem from
difficult to detect in the field until too late and sometimes the group’s disappointment (and perhaps disagreement)
surprisingly hard to describe and understand after the with the leader’s decision to turn back, skip lunch, impose
occurrence. But its influence, for good or evil, cannot be regulations, bivouac early, or leave camp before dawn.
overestimated in the outings environment. An effective A negative psychological set, once established in the
group, has high potential for future trouble. One “leader
error” or one “unexpected” natural event (e.g., a white
LEADERSHIP QUALITIES out) may precipitate panic or rebellion. The successful
leader THINKS AHEAD and by words and actions
Good leaders precludes or greatly minimizes the possibility of group
Accept responsibility; deterioration. Of course, there is no pat answer, no one
Always are learners, seeking to improve their right course of action, for the leader confronted with an
leadership skills; adverse psychological situation. In general, however, the
Know appropriate outdoor skills and practices; leader should remain calm, display objective interest in the
Organize and delegate; person and the situation, listen and observe more than talk,
Plan safe, enjoyable, and environmentally appreciative and discreetly discuss the situation with the assistant (and
trips; perhaps another knowledgeable person). In the end, the
Are enthusiastic, energetic self-starters, who follow leader must exercise judgment and make a decision based
through; on experience, training, and problem-solving ability. Once
Remain poised and confident under pressure; made, the decision should be explained to the person (and
Exercise a sense of humor; the group, as appropriate) and then implemented, politely,
Are congenial and considerate; but firmly and rapidly. Judgment is what leadership is all
Are tactful and understanding, yet firm and diligent; about. One useful resource is John Graham’s Outdoor
Have patience with the inexperienced; Leadership: Technique, Common Sense & Self-Confidence
Restrain the overenthusiastic; (Seattle: Mountaineers, 1997).
Are effective communicators and good listeners;
Encourage others; Styles of Leadership and Roles of the Leader
Are flexible;
Willingly impart knowledge and skills to others; The leader serves as the balancer of the many polar
Recognize their own limitations, capabilities, and elements of group activity: structure versus flexibility,
shortcomings; adventure versus safety, cohesion versus individuality,
Identify potential leaders. personal security versus growth, goal versus process, and
others. Although a particular style of leadership may be most
Sierra Club Group and Outings Committee, effective in a given situation, in most cases the difference in
Outing Leader Handbook “The Redbook,” results is small, and leaders can express their individuality.
San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1998, pp. 5-6.
In pursuing a proper balance, an effective leader will adjust

37
 STATE OF MIND: A KEY TO SAFETY

It’s impossible to know how many hikers have been injured by haste or overconfidence, but many survivors will tell you
that they somehow lost their good judgment long enough to get hurt.

At least three states of mind frequently contribute to accidents: ignorance, casualness, and distraction.

Ignorance: There’s Always More to Learn

• Look in the mirror: Are you the stubborn type? Do you resist suggestions? Could you be a bit overconfident? (Ask
your friends.)

• Read: The climbing magazines are full of good recommendations and case histories that can show you how subtle
factors may combine to catch you unaware.

• Practice: Reading may make you aware but not competent. In fact, you can be dangerously misled by what you
read. Book-learning alone can give a complacency that could prove fatal.

Casualness: “I just didn’t take it seriously”

• Habit Reinforcement: The more often you get away with taking risks, the more entrenched risky habits become. For
example, you may casually drop items from your safety checklist.

• Listening to Others: Your attitudes and habits can be reinforced by the experiences (and states of mind) of oth-
ers—sometimes good, often not.

• Memory Decay: “I’m not going up again without raingear—I thought I would die!” A week later this climber had
forgotten how scared he had been in that thunderstorm and took no raingear on the next outing.

Distraction: Whatever Takes Your Mind off the Task at Hand (Like the Hike)

Experienced hikers are often hurt after making “beginner errors” (their words) to get somewhere quickly. There was no
emergency or panic, but their minds were elsewhere—on a cold beer, a good pizza, or a warm bed. For example,
darkness had caught two day-hikers far from their car. Unprepared, upset, and off-route, they rushed to get down, argu-
ing with each other about what to do. After several errors, which they knew how to avoid, one was seriously injured
by a long fall.

Conclusion—Or a Beginning

An adequate state of mind is like good physical conditioning: it doesn’t happen overnight, and it takes constant prac-
tice, but the payoff in both safety and confidence is well worth it.

Stay aware of your mental state:

• Are you uneasy before this hike or climb? Learn to recognize that, ask yourself why, and deal with it.

• Are you taking shortcuts and risks? Could it be you’re distracted? Stop, get your act together, then go.

• As a leader you are responsible for your trip participants: your mental preparation will affect their safety.

This material is adapted by Phil Wheeler from the paper “Staying Alive” by John Dill, National Park Service Search and Rescue

38
style to the situation. Leadership style is an interplay among so is the responsibility. The guide may even be responsible
the amount of task-oriented direction the leader gives, the for providing equipment and preparing meals. Sierra Club
amount of emotional support the leader provides, and the outing leaders are not guides, even though their decision-
maturity or competence that group members exhibit in making authority during an outing is akin to that of a guide.
specific circumstances.
The definitions of leadership are many. Without Sierra Club Leadership
settling on a single version, survey results from hundreds of
outings show that participants expect leaders to be good at Leadership on Sierra Club outings can be a dynamic
organizing and planning; be self-confident; be technically combination of the various styles discussed previously, but
competent in skills such as first aid, route finding, and our outings have certain basic and perhaps unique aspects.
reading the weather; care for other people; make good One is a process intended to ensure that participants are
decisions; be trustworthy; communicate well; inspire others selected to have uniformly appropriate competence, with
to do their best; build and maintain morale; be good teachers the selection process becoming more rigorous for more
and coaches; be able to deal with difficult people and handle demanding outings. The leader first describes the outing for
conflicts; be able to build and maintain teams; anticipate a published listing in a way that allows participants to self-
problems and deal with them proactively. This is certainly select based on their own abilities. The leader may return
a heavy obligation. Leaders approach such responsibilities more detailed trip descriptions to applicants, providing
and expectations in their own manner and style. Here are another opportunity for self-selection. The leader has the
some generalized examples of styles. option of requesting background information to assess the
In many circumstances, particularly private trips, the applicant’s ability and capability for self-assessment; this is a
participants are nominally equals and have comparable levels purpose of the SPS Mountaineers List or a personal activity
of skills; each relates as a companion. They mutually agree résumé. For restricted mountaineering outings (those
on objectives and style (aggressive or casual) and the degree using a rope or ice axes), leaders must have two copies of
of commitment expected of everyone. Responsibility for the Participant Medical Form for each person on the trip.
safety of the party is shared, if unspoken, and no structured The form can be used as part of the screening process, and
leadership is required as long as things go well. one copy should be carried on the outing in case of an
Another style of leadership is that of teacher or emergency. See page 48 for more information and Appendix
coach. Most outings are not specifically training events, C for a copy of the form. The leader can ask others who
nor are leaders intended to be instructors, but outings have been out with the applicant whether they feel the
participants often comment that they want to learn things applicant is appropriate for the outing. Inappropriate does
as well as do things. Skills and knowledge gained from not always mean that abilities are below the requirements;
more experienced outing members are big reasons for a hard charger on a modest outing can be as disruptive as
participation and a primary means of increasing the skills a laggard. Even at the trailhead, the leader can describe the
and confidence of Sierra Club members, even though outing again, perhaps adding data on weather and route
all participants are nominally expected to be similarly conditions, and allow applicants to opt out. The leader
competent. The designated outing leaders need not be the has the responsibility at that time to ensure that every
most knowledgeable persons; instead, they can provide great participant has adequate personal equipment and supplies,
value by verbalizing context in a teachable moment when providing another assessment of competence. Finally,
skills transfer takes place: “OK, we’re going to set up a belay even after the outing commences, the leader can make the
here. Notice how Bob is . . . .” Some leaders may think such uncomfortable decision to require a participant to sign out
comments are too contrived, but participants universally if it becomes obvious that his or her abilities will impair
report appreciation when their uncertainties are resolved or the group and if it is safe to do so. Social pressure should
new skills are conveyed by a few simple pointers offered by not compel an outing leader to include participants who are
the leader. unsuitable for the planned activities; doing so can be unsafe
One final leadership role should be mentioned by for the individual, unwelcome for the group, and damaging
way of contrast, that of guide. A guide is paid to accept all to the leader’s regard.
responsibility for the party and for every member achieving The most important responsibility an outing leader
the stated objective, sometimes even when doing so sacrifices accepts is the physical and emotional safety of every group
other rewards of the outing. The members of the party are member. In modern leadership parlance this is called risk
likely to be substantially unskilled, compared to the guide. management; every outing is in some way a balance of
An autocratic guide may not even inform the party of adventure and safety. Risk management is first proactive and
upcoming events. The authority of a guide is absolute, but then, in an emergency, reactive. If one reviews compilations

39
 LEAVE NO TRACE PRINCIPLES OF OUTDOOR ETHICS

Plan Ahead and Prepare

• Know the regulations and special concerns for the area you’ll visit.
• Prepare for extreme weather, hazards, and emergencies.
• Schedule your trip to avoid times of high use.
• Visit in small groups. Split larger parties into groups of 4-6.
• Repackage food to minimize waste.
• Use a map and compass to eliminate the use of marking paint, rock cairns, or flagging.
Travel and Camp on Durable Surfaces
• Durable surfaces include established trails and campsites, rock, gravel, dry grasses, or snow.
• Protect riparian areas by camping at least 200 feet from lakes and streams.
• Good campsites are found, not made. Altering a site is not necessary.
• In popular areas:
– Concentrate use on existing trails and campsites.
– Walk single file in the middle of the trail, even when wet or muddy.
– Keep campsites small. Focus activity in areas where vegetation is absent.
• In pristine areas:
– Disperse use to prevent the creation of campsites and trails.
– Avoid places where impacts are just beginning.
Dispose of Waste Properly
• Pack it in, pack it out. Inspect your campsite and rest areas for trash or spilled foods. Pack out all trash, leftover food, and litter.
• Deposit solid human waste in catholes dug 6 to 8 inches deep at least 200 feet from water, camp, and trails. Cover and disguise the
cathole when finished.
• Pack out toilet paper and hygiene products.
• To wash yourself or your dishes, carry water 200 feet away from streams or lakes and use small amounts of biodegradable soap. Scat-
ter strained dishwater.
Leave What You Find
• Preserve the past: examine, but do not touch, cultural or historic structures and artifacts.
• Leave rocks, plants, and other natural objects as you find them.
• Avoid introducing or transporting non-native species.
• Do not build structures or furniture or dig trenches.
Minimize Campfire Impacts
• Campfires can cause lasting impacts to the backcountry. Use a lightweight stove for cooking and enjoy a candle lantern for light.
• Where fires are permitted, use established fire rings, fire pans, or mound fires.
• Keep fires small. Only use sticks from the ground that can be broken by hand.
• Burn all wood and coals to ash, put out campfires completely, then scatter cool ashes.
Respect Wildlife
• Observe wildlife from a distance. Do not follow or approach them.
• Never feed animals. Feeding wildlife damages their health, alters natural behaviors, and exposes them to predators and other dangers.
• Protect wildlife and your food by storing rations and trash securely.
• Control pets at all times, or leave them at home.
• Avoid wildlife during sensitive times: mating, nesting, raising young, or winter.
Be Considerate of Other Visitors
• Respect other visitors and protect the quality of their experience.
• Be courteous. Yield to other users on the trail.
• Step to the downhill side of the trail when encountering pack stock.
• Take breaks and camp away from trails and other visitors.
• Let nature’s sounds prevail. Avoid loud voices and noises
From http://www.lnt.org/programs/lnt7/index.html

40
of outdoor accidents, the inevitable conclusion is that among the leader’s responsibilities to involve other members
nearly all could have been prevented by more effective risk of the party actively in the overall risk management strategy.
management, and very few are actually due to unforeseeable Communication is key. The leader can brief the group
hazards or circumstances beyond the leader’s influence. on objective hazards (“We’ll each need two liters of water
Foresight is never as acute as hindsight, however, and when today”), promote collaboration (“Let’s all keep an eye on the
unplanned incidents do occur, leaders must step forward to weather”), and monitor impairments (“Let me know if that
direct the best resolution. ankle gets worse”).
When all is going well, seemingly little leadership The Angeles Chapter requires the demonstration of
is needed. That things are going well indicates effective higher levels of leader competence to reflect the increased
leadership has already taken place. When problems arise, demands on risk management as environmental hazards
it is most often due to previous lapses in leadership. Sierra and the adverse potential of incidents become more serious,
Club leadership training and outings protocols emphasize reflected in the O, I, M, and E trip and leader ratings. All
the small actions leaders must take to head off big problems leaders are expected to conduct every outing with the safety
later on. of participants as the foremost objective.

Objectives of Successful Leadership

Positive Group Experience
Risk Management A positive group experience is central to a successful
The leader’s primary responsibility is to balance risk outing; it begins with the sense of belonging to a group.
and adventure with individual and group safety. This task is The military has long known that soldiers will perform far
non-trivial because a good part of personal growth and the beyond their personal norms if they feel their performance
enjoyment of outdoor adventure comes from surmounting is important to and recognized by their group; performance
risk; risk is a component of adventure. Incidents, which is falls far below norm with impaired group cohesion. How
perhaps a better term than “accidents” as it does not imply do skilled leaders create a sense of group identity? Most
unpredictability, occur at the unfortunate confluence of importantly by a constant, consistent, and obvious policy
environmental hazards (such as weather, terrain, rockfall, of inclusion. This can begin with brief introductions
or equipment faults) and human factors (such as gaps or in sign-up confirmations, but it really gets going with
weaknesses in planning, skill, leadership, communication, introductions at the trail head. Although this is a time
or physical conditioning). The skills that a leader employs when the natural tendency is to minimize the chatter and
to strike the optimum balance between adventure and get on with the hiking, a wise leader will take the time to
incident come from self-knowledge, training, modeling draw out participants just enough to send the message that
other leaders, and thoughtful experience. All these point to a group is being formed and that this component of the
a basic strategy: apply a keen awareness of environmental outing is important. Investing a few minutes can produce
hazards and anticipate their impacts to avoid or minimize considerable benefit later on. The leader can see that the
adverse consequences, optimize the human factors, and group starts its hike smiling and chatting with one another,
have a plan to deal with incidents should environmental rather than everyone silently hunkering down for the
hazards unavoidably overwhelm human factors. forthcoming trudge. And that is only the beginning.
As an example, the most common emergency incident The next component of a positive group experience
is probably the unaccountable separation of individuals is the sense of personally contributing to the success of
from the party. This can occur for many physical reasons: the group. The leader can encourage this by distributing
brushy or indistinct trails, intersecting trails, gastrointestinal responsibilities and chores among group members rather
exigency, exhaustion, and so forth. Deterrence is achieved that taking on every task personally. He or she can
by preemptive human intervention: advising the party underscore the importance of individual contributions
regarding known problem points, keeping all of the with praise in front of others. The official leader is not
group in visual contact and regrouping frequently at trail required to direct every task and may choose to let group
junctures, and having a plan to minimize the consequences dynamics guide the selection of a situational leader, so
should this incident arise. The consequences range from long as other criteria, particularly risk management, are
a time-wasting inconvenience for a group hike on a local met. Any time leaders give more autonomy to the group,
trail to life threatening—for the separated individual or they must consider whether doing so might be unsafe or
for the balance of the party that must conduct a search in reckless or could jeopardize objectives. Doing so, however,
impending darkness, such as on a ski mountaineering tour. may allow the group to build its sense of unity and lay the
Group safety is not solely the leader’s task, but it is groundwork for individual members to grow personally.

41
As it is not necessary for leaders always to act as if they motivation and a sense of personal accomplishment. Even
are the most competent group members in every respect, when buying in to the nominal objectives of the outing
neither is it necessary for leaders always to be at the front in (“climb Mt. Hazelton”), individuals may have a variety of
every activity. A competent and confident leader may move secondary personal objectives (bag a certain peak, complete
another person to the front in order to take the opportunity any challenging climb, view nature, learn camping skills). A
for other components of leadership, such as getting to leader must focus on group accomplishment and recognize
know participants, coaching, assessing competencies that success in terms of the group’s performance, while all the
may be called upon later, or surveying the physical and time realizing that a fundamental element for success is the
psychological condition of the party. The official leader harmony of personal objectives among an outing’s leaders
may suggest, “Alice, you seem strong, will you lead us up and participants. To promote that harmony, the leader will
this next section?” Such an action is not an abrogation of praise the group when milestones are reached (“Good work,
leadership responsibility, but is a mature acknowledgement folks, we made it to the lake right on schedule!”), but will
that outings may have complex objectives and that meeting also realize that each person is striving to reach personal
more of them will result in a better experience overall. milestones that should also be recognized and celebrated.
The leader can demonstrate expert group management by The leader faces a challenge of balancing task-oriented
allowing someone else to demonstrate technical skill or direction (achieving group objectives) and providing
grow in confidence. emotional support (achieving individual objectives) but can
Sometimes risk management requires the leader not meet that challenge by sensing how individual participants
be first, as might be the case when a party rappels and the and the group as a whole are doing both physically and
assistant should go first to allow the leader to check, belay, emotionally and using this assessment to choose appropriate
and possibly coach each person. Knowing when to be first leadership strategies.
and when not to be is part of the situational judgment that When direction is required, a leader provides it by
good leaders develop. clearly stating messages using “I” language (“Dave, I need
Delegating responsibility for tasks is not the same as you to . . .”), by making messages complete and specific
abrogating responsibility for making decisions. An outing with congruent verbal and nonverbal delivery, and by
group is not a democracy. A leader must carefully consider emphasizing importance with redundancy. To ensure the
whether asking for a vote to reach a decision will have a directions are understood, a leader uses body language that
positive effect, as participants may then view the leader as communicates attentiveness to the person being addressed
indecisive. In the backs of their minds, participants want to and asks for feedback about how the messages are being
know they can rely on the leader to make critical decisions received.
should the need arise, particularly when safety or other
important objectives might be at risk. Individual Motivation and Personal Growth
A dictatorial leader will be shunned and a lackadaisical The first party members whose motivations must be
leader may cause concern for safety, even though both lead addressed are the leaders. Leaders’ strength comes from
outings that achieve their stated objectives without incident. knowing why they want to be leaders and why they want
For nearly all participants, achievement of nominal to lead the kinds of trips they choose. When leaders accept
objectives is not the foremost reward of an outing, though it that role, a certain amount of self-sacrifice is required, as the
is certainly high on the list. best interests of the party come before the personal needs of
the leaders. To accept this successfully, leaders need to have
Achievement of Stated Objectives a good deal of self- knowledge and self-confidence—leading
The leader begins the process of achieving the outing’s outings is not a means of proving oneself. Usually, in fact,
objectives by stating them clearly, first in the published leaders must confront their limitations more forthrightly
write up, later at the trailhead and throughout the outing. than any other party member while expressing a genuine
Articulating a vision of the outing’s success serves to clarify interest in every participant that transcends their own
the goals and get buy-in from participants. Of course, the emotional needs. The self-exploration and personal growth
total list of objectives may be complex; leaders need to demanded of good leaders can require more courage
acknowledge objectives other than the nominal, prioritize than facing the most daunting environmental hazards or
them, and let the group know the priorities and the bounds technical difficulties.
of flexibility with which objectives and milestones might Self-knowledge, as well as compatible styles and
be changed. Wise leaders know that participants have coincident motivation, also applies to the leader’s selection
unspoken personal objectives that they associate with the of an assistant or co-leader. Conflict between the leader and
nominal objectives of the outing; this provides individual the assistant results in a mediocre outing, even if nominal

42
 ELECTRONIC RESOURCES FOR OUTINGS LEADERS AND OUTINGS CHAIRS

On the Web
1. The Outings Extranet. The national Sierra Club maintains an Outings Extranet web site, called Clubhouse,
with information that is useful to Sierra Club outings leaders. To get to the Outings Extranet, go to: http://
clubhouse.sierraclub.org/outings. The extranet cannot be located with search engines, and it is not linked
to the Club’s “main” internet web site. It contains national outings policies, national forms, and other helpful
information.
• The Local Outings page is particularly helpful to group and section outings chairs and leaders. It includes
national outings policies applicable to group and chapter outings.
• Please note that the Incident Report Form for use in the Angeles Chapter is slightly different from the form
on the national extranet site.
• Be sure to use the Angeles Chapter Incident Report form for reports about Angeles Chapter trips.
2. The Chapter LTC Web Site. The Chapter’s Leadership Training Committee maintains a web site at http://
angeles2.sierraclub.org/ltc_become_a_leader. This web site has all of the national Sierra Club forms that you
are likely to need, as well as the Angeles Chapter-specific Accident/Incident Report Form.

E-mail Resources
1. The Lists of Climber.Org. SPS member Steve Eckert maintains e-mail discussion lists that may be of interest
to outings participants or leaders. There are separate lists for particular areas, such as the Sierra Nevada, the
desert, the Bay Area, the Cascades, Colorado, the Los Angeles area. He also has lists for particular topics, such
as high altitude and gear (equipment). For information on how to subscribe, check out http://climber.org or
contact Steve at [email protected].

24 hour Help Line

Serious injuries and fatalities must be reported immediately. The 24-hour emergency telephone number for
this purpose is 1-888-OUTINGS (1-888-688-4647).

objectives are met. to be instructors and that party members are nominally of
When a participant remarks, “Yeah, we got the peak, comparable ability. Nevertheless, leaders and assistants have
and the scenery was great, but I really didn’t get much out a tremendous collection of skills that are eagerly soaked up
of it,” this translates to emotional needs not being met. by outing members—who report that this is a major reason
Leaders can get a grip on this problem by realizing that for participating. For most leaders, transferring skills is one
needs are a hierarchy: physiological needs (warmth, food, of the rewards of leadership once they get the hang of it.
water, etc); safety and security; affection, friendship, and They quickly realize that knowledge transfer best takes place
belonging; esteem; and self-actualization. Somewhere in when the learner is in a receptive mode, and they develop
that hierarchy that person’s needs were not met or were a sense of when skills transfer is appropriate and when it is
threatened. All individuals—leaders and participants alike— futile. Therefore leaders must be sure their skills are kept
have emotional needs that are uniquely associated with up to date to avoid perpetuating wisdom that is no longer
tangible accomplishments that may or may not be among wise. It should also be mentioned that experience is not the
the identified objectives of the outing. By understanding same as knowledge, skill, or wisdom—experience can mean
this, leaders can more effectively ensure that all participants making the same mistakes over and over, until sufficiently
achieve the personal rewards and growth they are seeking, stressful circumstances finally reveal the deficiency.
even though becoming personally acquainted with everyone
on the outing may not be possible. Environmental Activism
For well over one hundred years the continuing purpose
Take-Away Value, New Skills of Sierra Club outings has been to promote environmental
Each of us has benefited when a more experienced activism. People are more likely to fight for and preserve
person gave us a little tidbit of knowledge: a take-away skill areas they have explored. A leader can contribute to this by
that we remember long after the outing. This chapter has describing plants, animals, and geography of the natural
already pointed out that leaders are usually not intended environment—or threats to it—encountered during the
43
outing. Historical tidbits and the names of pioneers are readily be avoided. The emergency may arise because of injury to
absorbed by every participant, who appreciate a leader’s a party member, encountering a person in distress from
taking the time to do the research and tell the tales. Some another party, an unexpected change of weather or other
outings are more specifically focused on environmentalism objective conditions, or the realization that the party is
and activism. Leaders should always model environmentally lost or in imminent danger. The most common emergency
conscientious behavior, such as Leave No Trace practices. It incident is probably the realization that a member of the
is said that a group is a collection of people with common party is missing or that the party has become split up with
objectives, and that a team is a group with common values. no plan of how to reunite.
On Sierra Club outings one shared value is a desire to If the official leader is not present or is injured, the group
preserve and protect the natural environment, and every may be momentarily paralyzed. The assistant or previously
leader has the responsibility to build upon this value. designated alternate leader must immediately take over.
If neither is present, it is imperative that an acting leader
Resolving Conflicts be selected. This can be done by someone volunteering to
assume the role of leader, verbalizing the need for a single
Conflict in a group arises when individual goals are leader and perhaps nominating someone, or simply by
impossible to reconcile with the group’s goals. A leader assuming the role and taking action.
should be sensitive to this possibility and head it off at In an emergency situation the objective of the leader is
the first sign. Such conflicts occur so infrequently and not to perform all the necessary tasks personally, but rather
dealing with them is so unwelcome that a leader may at to identify the tasks and ensure that they are carried out.
first deny the conflict and then be surprised when dealing The skill required is management, not technical expertise.
with it becomes inescapable. Maladaptive behavior almost For example, instead of suggesting “Bob, you have a lot
always gets worse; denial is an ineffective response. After of first aid experience, why don’t you take over” a better
formulating an approach with the assistant, the leader’s first suggestion might be “Alice, you seem to have a handle on
recourse is a private consultation with the individual and things, why don’t you take over so that Bob can concentrate
the assistant leader. Sometimes it is only necessary to let on first aid treatment.”
the individual know that his or her voice has been heard The most important concern for the leader in an
and allow that person to confirm or clarify the leaders’ emergency situation is the safety of the party; providing aid
interpretations. If a person’s behavior needs to be changed, to an individual is secondary. The role of party members in
the leader will describe the behavior without evaluating or an emergency is to support the leader, carry out assigned
interpreting it and will place the behavior in the context tasks, and report relevant information to the leader to keep
of the group’s objectives and values. The leader will accept him or her apprised of all aspects of the situation.
the person while making it clear that the behavior is not
acceptable. The leaders may offer general comments on Contribution Expected of Group Members
successful alternate behaviors, reiterate common and as Effective Followers
agreed upon goals, and even call upon peer pressure. Much
depends on the personal trust the leader has built and on the This chapter discusses leadership, but in a sense, each
sense of group belonging that has been created during the person is his or her own leader. Every outing leader hopes
outing. The dissenting individual should never be corrected that each member of the party will exhibit effective personal
publicly, and the interaction should never be allowed leadership by setting high but achievable personal goals,
to become one of personal differences with the leaders. taking responsibility for personal and group objectives,
Ultimately, the leaders may have to isolate the individual showing willingness to go beyond personal comfort zones
from the group; this may mean signing the individual out, and be exposed to growth, interacting effectively with others
with all the attendant difficulties that may cause. in the group, and accepting assignments and carrying them
out cooperatively and effectively should an emergency
Handling Emergencies arise. Participants need to remember—and perhaps be
reminded—that they are signed up for the duration of the
In the event of an emergency, the style of leadership trip; in the event of an emergency, such as the injury of
is no longer discretionary. The leader and assistant must another member, participants may not sign-out for their
step forward and orchestrate the individual and group personal convenience but are expected to help as directed
actions necessary to resolve the emergency. Organization by the leader.
and reassurance are critical; hasty or panicked actions must

44
Leadership Methods for Specific Situations covered in chapter 6. With a trip location and objective(s)
in mind, the leader may get information from guidebooks,
Leaders benefit from considering what they would do newsletter write-ups, maps, and other leaders. The goal is
in various situations when the harmony of the group has to plan a safe trip that will be attractive to participants.
been disrupted or the trip goes awry. Some advice is given The best information can come from scouting the trip
in this chapter about what to do when a party member is since weather and people can drastically change conditions.
lost, but what if the whole group is off route? Chapter 6 Ideally then, the trip should be scouted (in full if possible)
gives practical advice, but leaders should consider how best as near the scheduled outing as possible.
to handle the situation for the group dynamics. What if a Chapter 6 shows how to develop a detailed plan and
participant challenges a leader’s authority or ignores it? How route card. Aside from the hiking or other activity portion
can a leader best handle a sudden deterioration of group of the day, one should consider the campsites for overnight
morale? How can a leader help the group endure a bivouac? backpacks and car camps. In some areas such as Sequoia and
Kings Canyon National Parks backcountry and developed
campgrounds, bear boxes are available at certain commonly
THE HOW-TO’S OF LEADING A TRIP used campsites. Will there be enough space for the number
of participants the leader is planning on accepting for the
Conditioning trip? If the group will use a campground, are group sites
available, what is the fee, and does the campground have
A primary obligation of a leader is to be physically water? Big picture maps help with information about
capable of fulfilling the requirements of the trip. Thus trailheads and the overall area. If a trailhead has limited
leaders must be fit enough to lead the trip, to enjoy the parking, which the group size may exceed, the leader should
experience, and to have an adequate margin left over to cope have a plan for alternative parking arrangements.
with emergencies. The need for a margin may arise only Leaders may also wish to form alternative plans should
rarely, but when it does, the leader must be able to deliver a the group turn out to be faster or slower than expected,
clear-headed, physically active response. such as nearby areas to explore if camp is reached early or
For most Sierra Club outings, the principal physical a closer campsite if the group is not as fast as predicted.
requirement is endurance. The buildup of fitness requires Finally, leaders should err on the side of being conservative,
well-ordered and regular work. One should start one’s fitness keeping in mind that most people are tired after eight to ten
buildup campaign very cautiously with a modest level of hours of hiking. One may use the energetics formula at the
exertion and gradually expand to establish a training baseline end of Appendix D and the Naismith Rules in chapter 6 to
that is adequate to support the workload level required on determine the strenuousness and reasonableness of the trip.
trips. The key to fitness and endurance is aerobic exercise
maintained for extended periods of time at elevated heart Apply for a Wilderness Permit
rates. A nominal training heart rate to shoot for is resting Most wilderness areas require permits, applications
heart rate plus 75% of the difference between resting and for which may be obtained from the US Forest Service or
maximum heart rate. The maximum heart rate is about 220 national park in which the trip will occur. Rules change
minus one’s age. Any activity that permits the development from year to year, but head count limits are imposed in
of such rates for extended intervals will improve one’s most areas. Because some areas limit group sizes severely, a
fitness, be it fast walking, jogging, bicycling, or swimming. leader needs to plan ahead and not wait too long to apply.
Some activities may have more direct relevance to your If permits are required, lack of one makes trip cancellation
Sierra Club activities than others, but all will help. The best mandatory. Some areas require only fire permits. If the
practice is a regular and routine exercise that contains as group will use a campground, the leader should probably
many of the physical components of the trips to be led as make reservations.
possible. Thus, for climbs in the Sierra a preparation based
on local hill climbing is ideal. Submit a Write-up and Publicize the Outing
The leader needs to submit a write-up to the
sponsoring entity’s outings chair for publication in OARS,
Plan the Trip GSC newsletter or web site, or Southern Sierran. Although
brief, the write-up should indicate how strenuous the trip
Gather information will be and request that those responding include enough
The most important preparation for a successful trip information so that the leader can screen the applicants.
occurs with the pre-trip planning phase that is extensively The sidebars give guidelines and format for the write-up.

45
 A BRIEF OUTING PLANNING CHECKLIST

• Provide a write-up for OARS, GSC calendar of activities, or Southern Sierran to the sponsoring GSC’s outings
chair. If this is a provisional lead, tell the outings chair so.
• Provide the outings chair with an Application for Mountaineering Outing Approval and current leader resumes
for restricted M- and all E-level outings, i.e., those using a rope or ice axe.
• Apply for a Wilderness Permit if needed.
• Screen applicants. For restricted mountaineering trips, get two copies of the medical form for each person on
the trip, one copy to be held by the leader during the outing.
• Scout the trip or otherwise get information about the most current conditions.
• Distribute an information sheet to participants and those on a waiting list for outings for which people apply in
advance.
• Gather needed forms: sign-in sheet/waiver, Angeles Chapter Incident Report form, Emergency Response-Patient
Report, Refusal of First Aid form.

A BRIEF POST-OUTING CHECKLIST

• Send the original of the sign-in sheet/waiver (and one copy of the medical form for each person for restricted
mountaineering outings) to the outings chair of the sponsoring GSC. Keep a copy of the sign-in sheet/waiver for
yourself.
• Submit a trip report to the sponsoring GSC’s newsletter
• If it was a provisional lead, send the assistant leader’s evaluation and your own self-evaluation to the LTC
Administration Chair (keep copies for yourself).
• If there was an incident or accident, submit an Incident Report form.

“Provisional” leaders or those planning to be one by the the trip, including the leaders, will not be well served. Trip
time the trip takes place should also notify the outings chair schedules are compromised, chances for problems increase,
of that fact. I-, M-, and E-level provisional leaders should and safety margins are jeopardized. Screening criteria
also remember to have the trip approved by the LTC Chair should not be relaxed for friends and family members of
or Administration Chair to be sure that the trip meets leaders or participants. Although inappropriate participants
the minimum requirements for the candidate’s level of may be rejected at the trailhead or signed out after the trip
leadership. commences, screening should be accomplished primarily
Restricted outings, M- and E-level trips that will use in the reservation process. A questionnaire may be used
ropes and/or ice axes, must be approved by the outings chair to assess the suitability of the participants for a particular
and the national Mountaineering Oversight Committee. An outing.
application for such a trip is included in Appendix C and Restricted mountaineering outings also require that
may be downloaded from the Angeles Chapter or national participants and leaders provide two copies of the Medical
Sierra Club web sites or obtained from the outings chair of Form, which may be used in screening participants. If a
the sponsoring GSC. The write-up for a restricted outing leader has questions about a person’s ability to participate
should include the fact that only Sierra Club members may on a mountaineering outing because of a medical condition,
participate, unlike most other Sierra Club outings. the leader may discuss it with the participant or ask the
participant to get written approval to participate from his
Screen Applicants and Select Participants or her physician. A copy of the form is available at the LTC
The trip write-up and applicant screening should web site and http://www.clubhouse.sierraclub.org/outings/
aim to assure that participants have the appropriate level local/forms/ as well as in Appendix C. One copy of the form
of physical abilities, technical skills, and equipment. should go with the leader on the trip (or one copy with each
Participant screening can be extremely important, and leader if three copies are requested); if there is an accident or
leaders should be reasonably certain that the trip is right for illness, the form may help first aiders and medical personnel.
the participant and vice versa. If someone is approved for The medical forms are sent with the sign-in sheet/waiver to
the trip without having the proper qualifications, others on the outings chair, who will forward them to national. All

46
 WRITE-UP FORMAT EXAMPLE

Some entities use the format below for their web sites or newsletters. Other entities use the newer OARS/Schedule
of Activities format, such as that found at the Angeles Chapter’s web site. For OARS format help see http://
clubhouse.sierraclub.org/communications/web/support/activities/activity_entry.aspx

The write-up should include all the information prospective participants will need to know in order to sign up
without telephoning the leaders. If that would make the write-up overly long, then the leader can give basic
information and request that prospective participants “Send sase or e-mail for detailed information” or “Telephone
leader for more info.”

Leaders send all write-ups to the outings chair of the sponsoring entity.

Apr 181 Sat2 Sponsoring Entity3, Co-Sponsoring Entity(s)

I:4 Black Mtn #6 (5244'), Red Mtn (5261')5: Two volcanoes in Kern County. Moderately paced
12 mi rt, 3000' gain over rocky xc routes in historic mining area. Dirt road driving with high
clearance recommended6. Meet 6:30 am Sylmar Rideshare pt.7 Bring 4 qts water, lunch, lugsoles8.
Rain cancels9. Ldr10: Great Leader11. Asst: Great Assistant.

• When in doubt, compare with a similar situation in a current newsletter or on a web site. Use the
abbreviations listed here but no others.
• Write-ups should be in the following order for consistency.

Headers (Boldface)
1. Dates: Abbreviated to 3 letters, no periods: Apr, Sep, etc. If event is longer than one day, use first and last
dates only. Separate by hyphen.
2. Days: Abbreviated to 3 letters, no periods: Sat, Sat-Mon
3. Organization: Use as found in the newsletter or web site. Separate co-sponsor(s) with a comma. Primary
sponsor should be listed first. Send a copy of the write-up to the co-sponsor(s).

Title (Boldface)
4. Rating: O, I, M, M-R, E-R, T, C. All leaders must have this rating of the outing or higher. Follow with colon.
M-R and E-R indicate restricted mountaineering outings open to Sierra Club members only with appropriate
experience.
5. Title: Give short description of the event. Initial caps. End with a colon. Peak elevations in parentheses (9952').
If over 9999, use a comma (10,649').

Text
6. Description. (Order may vary for readability or emphasis.)
• Difficulty: Terrain, steepness, pace, etc. Note unusual situations. Cross-country (XC) should be noted.
• Miles: Usually roundtrip (12 mi rt). Do not use periods with abbreviations.
• Gain: (3000’ gain) Do not give loss unless different than gain. Give gain on return if significant.
• Other: Any other information important to describe the event. Include any unusual conditions. Be
brief, but give enough information so that prospective participants can determine if the event will
suit their plans and abilities. Include all necessary information, restrictions, and requirements (not for
beginners, Sierra Club members only [for restricted trips]).

47
 7. Meeting place and time or contact info:
• Rideshare or meeting point: If participants are to meet at a carpool point or trailhead for trips not
requiring prior sign-up, give meeting time and detailed location and directions if not a standard
meeting point. (Use E, W, N, S, R, L)
• Time: On the hour is 8 am. Other is 8:15 am or 7:30 pm.
• E-sase or sase: Activities requiring reservations should include any space limitations, deadlines,
requirements for experience, contact info, fees, or other requirements. “Sase” stands for self-
addressed stamped envelope. Most people now apply by e-mail (e-sase).
8. Things to bring: Include any items required for the outing.
9. Rain cancels or postpones (give a specific alternate date if possible).

Leader Information
10. Leader Title: Ldr, Ldrs, Co-Ldr, Co-Ldrs, Reserv, Asst, Assts, followed by a colon.
11. Names: Leader names should be approved to lead the rating of the activity. Leaders must be current Sierra
Club members. If a leader is not in the current Directory, include contact information. Use the directory form in
Appendix C.

information on the form should be kept confidential. include directions to the meeting place and indicate when
Reservations should not be granted nor promised participants are expected to be ready to begin the trip. The
prior to publication of the trip description, and all leader should send out the information sheet at least a week
prompt applicants should receive bona fide consideration. before the trip and may request that participants confirm
A leader legitimately may inform friends about trips in a by a specified date or it will be assumed that they have
forthcoming publication and urge them to apply promptly canceled. “No shows” are a continuing problem. If spaces
after publication to maximize their chance of acceptance. open up, the leader may fill them with participants on the
The location and nature of the trip will influence the size waiting list.
of the group along with factors such as party size limitations
in various wilderness areas, parking at a trailhead, climbing Make an Emergency Management Plan
safety, and time margins. An emergency management plan is a safety
management tool that lists the local resources a leader may
Scout the Trip need to call upon in the event of an emergency. The plan
A leader should scout the trip whenever warranted by would indicate the nearest hospital and whom to contact in
conditions or uncertainties. Private property restrictions, event of emergency, whether it be the sheriff, National Park
washed-out roads, and real estate developments may Service, Forest Service, or Bureau of Land Management.
have changed the feasibility of a trip. Leaders of recent The plan would include addresses and phone numbers as
outings to the area may be helpful in supplementing the appropriate. A Safety Management/Emergency Response
information gathered in the planning phase. And the www. Plan form is available at http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org/
angeleschapter.org web site is an excellent source of current outings/local/forms/#Safety This national Sierra Club form
information on many HPS, DPS, and SPS peaks. indicates that a copy should be left with the outings chair.
The Angeles Chapter does not require that a leader do this,
Distribute an Information Sheet though leaving the completed form with someone who will
The information sheet should leave no doubt notice that the group has not returned is a good idea.
concerning distances to be traveled on trails and cross
country, elevation gain/loss, steepness, anticipated hiking At the Meeting Place
or climbing conditions, maps of the area, and equipment
and special clothing requirements for each day of the trip. Two Leaders
To facilitate carpooling, a list of participants with addresses Although some trips have more than two leaders, all
and phone numbers should be included, but under the trips require two appropriately rated leaders. If one of the
Sierra Club insurance policy the leader must not arrange designated leaders is not available, a rated participant may
the carpooling for participants. The trip sheet should be appointed as an assistant leader. All assistants must meet

48
the rating requirements that the trip difficulty specifies. If out any participant who appears to have encouraged their
this cannot be done, then the route or objective must be presence. After the trip, the leader must send the sign-in
modified to match the leader/assistant rating level. Should sheet to the outings chair. The form is available in Appendix
two appropriately rated leaders not be available, the trip C of the LRB and from the Angeles Chapter LTC web site.
must be canceled. When a trip is canceled for any reason,
it may be rescheduled as an official Sierra Club trip even Check for the Essentials and Trip-Specific Gear and Clothing
though a notice may not appear in a chapter publication. The “10 Essentials Plus” are important. Time is well
The planned trip canceled at the trailhead cannot be led spent at the trailhead to check that suitable footwear and
as a “private trip” since it would still be recognized as a clothing are being worn and that necessary items such as
Sierra Club sponsored outing. Outings canceled before food, water, and camping gear are being carried. Participants
participants leave home may become private outings. in outdoor activities must be able to stay dry in order to keep
warm, and backpackers must have additional equipment to
Introductions stay dry in camp. Does everyone have the specified special
The leaders should identify themselves and have equipment ready for use? For example, are crampons sized
the participants introduce themselves. Explaining the to the boots? Or do participants have appropriate footwear
expectations for the trip and that day and reviewing the for a segment of a trip that has repeated stream crossings to
rules of conduct, the leader should also point out any special avoid time lost in changing in and out of boots with every
permit restrictions and/or group restrictions. Reminding crossing? What first aid supplies does the group have besides
participants to stay between the leaders, to keep the group the leaders’ first aid kits?
together, and to “leave no trace” (including human waste), A leader’s essentials represent a number considerably in
the leader may also wish to let participants know how much excess of the usual ten. As a leader one may often supplement
water to carry before the first reliable water will be reached items forgotten by others. The “Equipment and Other
and to discuss water purification. The leader should ask Items” sidebar offers items to be chosen according to the
that participants with specialized medical training or with terrain, weather, and duration of trip. Certain items may be
medical considerations contact one of the leaders in private. specified by the leader as mandatory for each group member
to accommodate some special requirement of a trip.
Sign-In
Participants must sign in on the national Sierra Club Trip Conduct
form that combines a sign-in sheet with a release of liability.
Leaders should mention that by signing in, participants are Start on Time
agreeing to obey the “Rules of Conduct” and have signed a Having made a plan, the leader should try to stay with
liability waiver. “Camp followers” (persons who want to tag it. Starting early may provide a buffer of daylight for a
along without being officially signed into the trip) should long day’s outing. Roadhead introductions, signing-in, and
be discouraged by every lawful means, including signing equipment checks take time.
THE TEN ESSENTIALS
Car Caravans
If the trip starts with a drive
TO CARRY: IN THE CAR:
to the roadhead from some
To Find Your Way meeting spot, the caravan
1. Water, Pack, Boots procedure, in which each car
1. Navigation (map and compass)
2. Illumination (flashlight/headlamp) 2. Spare Motor Oil, Tools is responsible for visual contact
For Your Protection 3. Spare Clothes, Personal Items with the car behind, should be
3. Sun Protection (sunscreen/sunglasses/hat) 4. Extra Car Keys used. If the car behind stops or
4. Nutrition (extra food) is out of sight, the car in front
5. Electrical Jumper Cables stops. With a proper caravan a
5. Hydration (extra water)
6. Insulation (extra clothing) 6. Car Jack, Spare Tire car will not be left behind, and
For an Emergency 7. Tow Cable, Shovel problems can be taken care of
7. Fire (waterproof matches and fire starter) 8. Maps more readily. Carpooling may
8. Emergency Shelter be advised. A count of the cars
9. Repair Kit and Tools (knife, duct tape, etc.) 9. Alarm Clock
should be kept until they are all
10. First-aid kit 10. Blanket, Tarp to Cover Vehicle Items parked.

49
Who Leads? a mile allows everyone’s respiratory and cardiovascular
A leader who knows the route and is competent in systems a chance to warm up to a comfortable steady state.
navigation (if required) should precede the group. The By maintaining a steady pace at a rate the party can sustain,
other leader should be the “sweep,” moving with the end of the group will probably fare best.
the group. If the group starts to separate into a slow group How the party is likely to feel about a particular speed
following a fast group, the sweep leader may precede the is indicated in the chart in Fig 4-1. The data on which this
slow group while at the same time retaining visual contact graph is based were obtained with hikers walking on the level.
with them. This technique is especially helpful if there is The graph shows that the exertion felt subjectively does not
some question as to the specific route to take. Because an change very much until the pace exceeds about 2.5 mph.
“easy” pace in front may be much too fast for those in the Above this speed the perceived exertion rises very rapidly as
rear, rotating the lead so that all leaders are sensitive to the the pace is increased, so complaints (or stoic overexertion)
physical condition of group members is a good idea. can be expected.
After unusual obstacles (e.g., stream crossings or short
Pace sections of class 3) that tend to slow down each one in line, the
Setting a proper pace of travel will keep the group leader should shorten steps until everyone has caught up.
together. If the difference in arrival time between leader
and sweep at a rest break exceeds fifteen minutes, it may be Rest Periods
necessary to place additional restraints on faster participants, Well-timed breaks can make the difference between
give additional encouragement to the slower participants, or agony and enjoyment. Most people will appreciate a
both. clothing break after a few minutes of hiking. Well-timed
Once the group is underway, several key points should “split” breaks and stops for water and/or rest will contribute
be followed to assure that everyone has the best chance of to an enjoyable trip. During a rest stop, a leader may take
keeping up with the group and does not become “burned time to discuss the elements of route finding and navigation
out” in the process. Starting off slowly for half a mile to or local environmental issues. A break is a good time for the

EQUIPMENT AND OTHER ITEMS

USUALLY CARRIED BY OFTEN CARRIED AS LEADER NEEDS AND

EACH BACKPACK PARTICIPANT INDIVIDUAL OR COMMUNITY GEAR TECHNICAL EQUIPMENT

1. Backpack 21. Tent or Bivouac Sack 42. Wilderness Permit

2. Water Bottles 22. Mosquito Netting, Insect Repellent 43. Sign-in Sheet/Waivers
3. Ten Essentials 23. Day Pack 44. Incident/Patient Repprt
4. Boots (waterproofed) 24. Bandana Forms
5. Socks (wool or synthetic) 25. Car Keys, Wallet 45. Medical Forms
6. Sun Hat, Sunglasses 26. Personal Items, Sunscreen 46. Climber Guide
7. Shirt (wool or synthetic) 27. Needle, Thread 47. Nylon Cord
8. Pants (wool or synthetic) 28. Whistle 48. Bags for Hanging Food
9. Wind Parka 29. Watch 49. Altimeter
10. Sweater (wool or synthetic) 30. Thermometer 50. Rope(s)
11. Rain Jacket and Hood, Rain Pants 31. Monocular or Binoculars 51. Carabiners, Pulleys
12. Down or Pile Jacket, Hood, 32. Notebook, Pen, Pencil 52. Chocks, Friends
Vest, Mittens, Booties 33. Glasses 53. Slings, Prusiks, Sit Harness
13. Balaclava or Wool/Synthetic Cap 34. Photography Items 54. Helmet
14. Sleeping Bag 35. Rain Cover for Pack 55. Gaiters
15. Insulating Foam Pad 36. Spare Flashlights 56. Ice Axe, Protectors
16. Waterproof Ground Cloth 37. Stuff Sacks 57. Snow Pickets
17. Food and Drink Items 38. Plastic Bags for Trash 58. Crampons, Protectors
18. Stove, Fuel, Pot, Cup, Spoon 39. Folding Water Bottle 59. Snow Goggles or Equivalent
19. First Aid Kit 40. Water Filter, Iodine, Purification Pills 60. First Aid Kit
20. Toilet Tissue 41. Bear Canister

First Aid kit may contain sterile compresses, adhesive tape, adhesive bandages, triangular bandages, air splint, moleskin, roll
bandage, elastic bandage, scissors, aspirin, thermometer, soap, sunburn protection, windburn protection, tweezers,
magnifying glass, insect repellent, First Aid book.

50
leader to get to know participants better and monitor the
3
group’s attitude and physical condition.

Subjective Perceived Exertion

With an appropriate steady pace the primary reasons
for periodic rests (other than equipment changes or split
2
breaks) are to decrease the level of lactic acid and other
waste products in the blood, to take on fuel, and to re-
hydrate. These can be accomplished with five to ten minutes
1
of rest every hour. If a longer rest is requested, the leader
should slow the pace instead. Stragglers who are too slow
should be halted or turned back, if feasible.
0
Longer rest periods are not particularly advantageous 0 1 2 3 4
because the fall-off in concentration of waste products Speed (miles / hour)
decreases with time (recovery in twenty minutes is only
about twice that in the first five minutes). Also, the Figure 4-1. Perceived exertion at various speeds
movement equilibrium built up by the group is lost with
longer rests. The slow breaking-in period must then be insist on keeping the group together until the cars are in
repeated plain sight of all. An aiming-off strategy is often helpful
After lunch, some time (about thirty minutes) should be here. Even more useful is a good GPS fix taken at the cars at
allowed for digestion to get well along, because this process the start of the hike.
competes with exercise for the blood supply. If time is One very important aspect to keeping the group
short, the lunch size should be reduced. together is being aware of the group’s physical condition.
Are participants starting to lag? Do they need to eat or have
Keeping the Group Together a water break? Leaders should monitor
Together does not mean in lock-step. It means in • Minor first aid issues such as blisters and
contact or being able to make contact in a short time. The sunburn
main goal is to avoid losing people or more likely, having • Energy levels
them lose the group, and to maintain communication • Dehydration
ties verbally or visually. When the route being followed • Cold problems: hypothermia and frostbite
develops options, contact becomes particularly important. • Heat problems: dehydration, heat exhaustion,
Counting heads after breaks or when gaps in the group have heat stroke
developed is a very sound practice. When in doubt, count! • Altitude problems: acute mountain sickness,
Large diverse groups, trails with many junctions, routes cerebral edema, pulmonary edema
with lots of stream crossings, and routes in heavy forest or • Tick attachment and other insect problems
brush can give the leaders some real challenges in keeping
the group together or even maintaining a good appreciation In Camp
of the group status. Groups tend to be easier to keep When the group reaches camp, the leader often
together going up (the front leader can wait) in contrast to designates a kitchen site and eating area as well as bathroom,
going down. In fact, there is a peculiar tendency for large bathing, and swimming areas. The leader may wish to
groups to spread out over the landscape during the last offer assistance as appropriate as participants set up their
stages of trips proceeding cross-country across relatively flat camps and fuss with stoves. During or after dinner, the
terrain. For instance, once off the high ground and onto the leader should take time to talk about the next day’s plan
wash-dissected undulating terrain on the return to a desert and objectives and discuss the day just completed. All food,
road head, participants making relatively small individual trash, and scented items must be stored properly to avoid
heading errors can build into a widely dispersed group problems with animals before the group goes to bed.
front. Cars at the road head and other members of the far-
flung party are often out of visual contact in spite of being Signing Out Problem Participants
fairly close together. Although it is always good strategy to Signing out a participant before the conclusion of
keep the group together, it is not always a simple process, an outing may be appropriate for the safety, comfort, or
especially as all are stumbling towards the end, believing convenience of that participant or to deal with inappropriate
they know what they are doing. So this easiest of ground has behavior. (The national Sierra Club’s leader extranet site
been known to lead to a great mess, long delays at the end has advice about conflict resolution, which is useful for
of trips, and a major headache for those leaders who do not a leader to review before the trip.) Most often signing

51
out occurs when someone is significantly slower than the return safely to the trailhead.
rest of the group. Signing out a participant is a judgment Weighing all the factors, the leader bases the final
decision, which should not be made lightly, and alternative decision on safety considerations above all else. People
solutions (modifying trip objectives or turning the entire leaving the group must sign out.
group around) should always be weighed in the light of the
following considerations: Trip Modifications
• The group objectives Conditions change, and the trip plan may have to
• The length and difficulty of the return route change also. A good leader adjusts the objectives and route
• Prevailing weather conditions and any other as needed due to weather, participant limitations, and other
special hazards factors. This judgment decision, often with many options
• The physical and mental condition of the and tradeoffs, is even tougher because of the conflicting
person to be signed out desires of participants. Trying to be reasonable, the leader
• The experience, ability, and equipment of the must make safety the overriding consideration. Hiking in
person to be signed out daylight is much safer than in the dark. If a safe alternative
• The availability of sufficient personnel to to the trip cannot be planned, the trip should be aborted.
provide an escort if needed
• The level of confidence that the person to be Hazards
signed out expresses in his or her ability to Leaders must be constantly alert to potential hazards

RECOGNIZING HYPOTHERMIA AND HEAT PROBLEMS

Mild Hypothermia Heat Cramps

1. Victim feels cold 1. Severe muscle cramps
2. Victim shivers uncontrollably 2. Weakness, exhaustion, clammy skin, fast pulse,
3. Victim loses fine motor (hand) coordination profuse sweating, anxiety, nausea, restlessness
4. Victim is lethargic/tired/apathetic/forgetful 3. Normal or slightly elevated body temperature
5. Victim feels weak
6. Victim moves at a slow pace Heat Exhaustion
7. Victim stumbles 1. Thirst, weakness, nausea, confusion, cool and
clammy skin, fast pulse (above 90/min), rapid and
Profound Hypothermia shallow breathing, profuse sweating, anxiety,
1. Slow thinking process (decision making is difficult, restlessness (seems like shock)
often erroneous) 2. Person may faint
2. Retrograde amnesia (memory of specific facts, 3. Normal or slightly elevated body temperature,
dates, and names deteriorates) below 105°F
3. Strong desire to escape the cold by sleeping 4. Decreased urine output
4. Apathetic (especially towards survival)
5. Periodically lapses into coma Heat Stroke
6. Speech is incoherent (this is a late sign) 1. Skin is hot and flushed
7. Loses vision (another late sign) 2. Altered level of consciousness
8. Has acetone-like, fruity breath (poor fat metabolism 3. The person may still be sweating, or sweating may
from inadequate blood supply) have stopped
9. Shivering is decreased or absent 4. Pulse is rapid and strong, becoming weak later on
10. Expresses a willingness to cooperate but does not 5. The person may be confused, weak, or dizzy and
do so be complaining of headache and being very hot
11. Skin is cold, pale to blue in color 6. Temperature is usually above 105°F
12. Pulse is weak, slow, irregular 7. Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, agitation, delirium,
13. Respirations are slow, shallow, irregular coma, seizures
14. Urinary incontinence
15. Denial that anything is wrong

52
during the outing. Steep banks, loose rocks, stream crossings, • Render first aid as necessary
poison oak, and icy patches are some. How will these • Get outside help if one cannot handle the
conditions affect the group’s return? Will the conditions situation properly
change from morning to afternoon? Good leaders stay aware • Complete the recovery.
of their surroundings and any situations that may affect the Report the accident/incident. In all cases use the Angeles
outing. Chapter Incident Report Form available in Appendix C and
Accidents and Emergencies on the Angeles Chapter web site.
Because accidents and emergencies come in all shapes
and sizes, careful risk management can help avert problems. End of the Trip
The following section on outing hazards provides a survey The trip is not over until all members are accounted
of what can happen and what can be done about these for. At the end of the outing, most leaders simply check
problems. that everyone is back; some leaders have participants sign
The leader should out.. The leaders should verify that all cars will start before
• Limit the emergency they leave. After the trip, the leader sends the sign-in sheet/

SIGNING OUT?

The Rules of Conduct and the Chapter Safety Policy require that the group be kept together at all times. Generally, no one
is to get ahead of the leader or behind the sweep. Participants are not to leave the group unless signed out by the leaders
when, in the leaders’ judgment, it is a safe and prudent thing to allow this. These rules allow for some leader flexibility
and require sound leadership decision making to apply them to the circumstances of the outing. However, uncontrolled
joining and leaving a group should not be allowed.

1. The first premise of our outings policy is that all of the participants and leaders will start the outing together, stay
together throughout the outing, and return to the end together. If a participant is not willing or able to participate on
the terms of the outing proposed in the write-up, he or she should not be a participant on that outing. Participants
who wish to hike faster than the planned pace should seek another outing. If a participant wishes to split off from the
group to climb a peak not part of the trip objectives, he or she should not sign up to participate on the group outing.
2. While some situations may require the leader to allow a participant to sign out of the group, this should be the
exception and should be done only when it is safe. If the group is at the cars or a short distance away where a safe
return is assured, checking out someone is fine. Other options are returning the entire group to the cars to ensure a
sick or tired participant gets out safely or sending back several qualified people with the person checking out.
3. On rare occasions a participant may be creating a problem for the group or other participants. Signing out the
problem person may be done only when safe, but it may be necessary to ensure the enjoyment of the entire group.
The leader may have to cancel an outing by returning the group to the cars to deal with a problem person if it is not
safe to sign him or her out on the spot.
4. Splitting the group creates two outings, each of which must have two leaders qualified at the level of the outing.
5. Signing out a participant to go home or to split off to another objective can have two very negative results. First, it
weakens the remaining group in the event of an emergency through its decrease in numbers. Second, the person
signing out may lead others to come along, who are trusting the person splitting off to be a safe and competent “leader”
(and in fact the first one leaving may not be qualified to be a leader either formally or not). If an accident occurs, this
kind of situation could have very disastrous results if an accident occurs for both the entrusted one and the Club.
6. If leaders are having problems with participants who wish to check out and do their own thing, those participants
should not be allowed to participate on future outings unless they agree to abide by the outing plan and leaders’
directions. Signing out is not “fine” and should be discouraged.
7. Some outings have clear break points such as a multi-day car camp trip. With the leader’s permission, it is possible for
participants to arrive a day late or leave early. This is different from signing out someone in the middle of a hike.
8. A good practice is to include date and time of sign out.

53
waiver to the outings chair of the sponsoring GSC. If an where rock fall potential exists. Again, the key to effective
incident has occurred requiring reporting, the leader should risk management is active leadership.
follow the directions on the report form. The leader should
carry a copy of the form as part of emergency preparedness. Snapping Branches
Chapter 3 has more information on the forms and their use.
In areas with high brush or trees with low branches,
OUTING HAZARDS hikers should watch out for branches snapping back into
them. Eye injuries are a real danger. The leader may wish to
Anticipate Possible Problems remind participants to be considerate of others by not letting
the branches swing back violently into those following and
A number of factors have the potential of creating an by not following too closely. It is illegal to trim branches
emergency situation, but for the most part, things can be and brush along trails without the consent of the agency
done to prevent this occurrence. The leader’s job is to predict responsible for the land being traveled.
possible emergency situations and take action to minimize
the effect of “unavoidable” events. Some preparations may Hiking Poles
be useful, such as carrying pencil and paper, having a list
of names and telephone numbers of rescue organizations Many hikers like to use hiking poles. The leaders
in the outing area, and noting the location of phones and should caution participants not to let poles point back at
ranger stations. The club’s extranet site has a useful Safety others as they go over rough terrain and to allow sufficient
Management/Emergency Response Plan at http://www. room between hikers to avoid injuries. When stowed on a
clubhouse.sierraclub.org/outings/local/forms/#Safety pack, poles should not angle out but be snugged into the
pack like a well-stowed ice axe.
Use of Helmets
Earthquakes
Leaders and participants must wear climbing helmets
on restricted mountaineering outings for ascending and Earthquakes are not usually a problem to travelers
descending third class or higher rock when ropes are used unless they are near a rock slide or tall building. Unstable
and for snow travel when ice axes are necessary as well as structures or loose hillsides may fall to the ground.
in any area known or suspected to be dangerous because of
rockfall. Stream Crossing

Equipment Failures Plan trips to avoid stream crossing at high run-off times,
whether by season or time of day. When snow is melting,
A thorough check of equipment before leaving the streams are at their lowest in the morning. Turn back if a
roadhead is certainly desirable, but a leader should be safe place to cross cannot be found.
prepared for repairs. An emergency repair kit might contain
a knife (Swiss Army type is versatile), wire, duct tape, safety Rain
pins, needle and thread, and extra hardware items such as
crampon adjustment screws/nuts. Having the proper rain gear and a tent will minimize
the effects of adverse weather. Provided the group is dressed
Rock Fall adequately and packs are covered, it is still possible to enjoy
a trip in rainy weather. Wet clothing and even a mild breeze,
A significant number of chapter accidents result however, can have a very chilling effect. If an outing is
from a rock fall inadvertently started by another climber. conducted in rainy weather, the leader should be especially
Rock fall is a very common hazard, but one which is often alert for signs of hypothermia. Rain may make travel on
controllable through group discipline. On high angle slopes, normally passable rock slabs treacherous. A continued rainfall
the leader can switchback so that climbers are never above lasting more than a few days can soak through all but the best
one another. Where chutes are unavoidable, the leader can tents, eventually leading to a wet sleeping bag. Unless means
send one, two, or three climbers at a time in closely bunched are devised to exclude moisture, it is time to retreat.
groups. The leader can keep the area below a rappel clear of
other climbers. Helmets are mandatory on climbs and hikes

54
Snowfall Lightning
An unexpected snowfall can make the landscape Especially when travel takes the group to high places,
beautiful, but as everything becomes cold and wet, travel the leader must watch for sudden thunderstorms. Glowing
becomes far more difficult. Rain gear, extra clothing, and metal objects, hair standing, and lightning striking close are
overmitts can protect from the cold, but travel may be exceptionally strong warnings that it is no time to be on a
reduced to a crawl. Caught in the wilderness, travelers may summit or ridge. For more information see http://clubhouse.
spend extra days returning to safety. Weather reports for the sierraclub.org/outings/medical/protocols/lightning.asp
outing area as close as possible to the beginning of the outing
may help the leader to avoid unpleasant surprises; a storm Bears
prediction may be cause to postpone or cancel the trip.
Although many mountain areas are free of bears,
Unexpected Snow Crossing and Ice wilderness permit information will usually describe the
bear risk if any, as well as how to protect food. Some bears
If a detour around an unexpected snow patch is not know the “rip-off ” business better than the hikers who try
feasible, a stick or sharp rock may be held in the snow as to outwit them, so hanging food usually is no longer a viable
a third point of contact to aid balance as one crosses. The option. Bear canisters are the best solution and are required
leader must consider how likely and how dangerous a fall in many areas. Food loss and/or equipment destruction can
may be. If the risks are high, the leader should get out the be a serious matter for the victim and the bear, which may
rope for a belay–if available and if the trip has been approved be killed for such behavior.
to use a rope–or turn around.
Ice patches sometimes remain for months, even in the Insects
local mountains, after periods of warm weather. If ice must
be crossed, extreme caution must be used. In the absence of a Mosquitoes are a nuisance and may carry West Nile
rope, it is probably time to abort the trip or a particular goal. Virus, but bees and wasps can be deadly for those allergic to
their stings. Those who are allergic should carry an EpiPen
Flood and inform the leaders of their allergy and location of the
pen. Ticks may be carriers of Lyme disease; frequent checks
Flash floods are especially common in the desert. Even for ticks on members of the group when travelling in areas
streams in local areas can change quickly from an easy step- where ticks are present help prevent their attachment.
across to a raging torrent. The group may have to make a
detour to get out. The leader should be concerned when INJURY AND ILLNESS
heavy weather conditions exist in hilly areas nearby.
Leaders should use first aid as appropriate (see chapter
Fire 5). If altitude sickness is the problem, do not wait before
deciding to descend. Caring for the sick and injured is far
Brush fires and forest fires are fairly common and more important than reaching the objective or getting home
move quickly, easily trapping a group by advancing flames. on time. Generally, it is better to keep the whole group
Determining the best escape route, the leader should avoid together until everyone is back to the starting point and
rash action and assure that the group sticks together. Doing able to proceed home. Morale can deteriorate rapidly if the
nothing, at least for a while, may be the best plan. leader excuses some participants and not others.

Wind Evacuation
Strong, gusty winds make some kinds of terrain very Can the leaders and group handle the situation
treacherous. In wet conditions, wind chill can lead to without outside help? Is evacuation the best solution?
hypothermia. Even in dry conditions, strong winds can Options include carrying the victim and getting a horse
severely chill the group and make progress difficult and or a helicopter. If the leader sends for help, the messengers
even dangerous. In forested areas breaking branches or an should have adequate information—such as one of the two
occasional falling tree are hazards. copies of the Emergency Response-Patient Report Form and
one of the two copies of the Medical Form—concerning the

55
 OUTINGS SAFETY

In order to “explore, enjoy, and protect,” we lead groups to wild places on outings that we want to be safe,
enjoyable, and environmentally responsible. A task force looked at safety on mountaineering outings and developed a
document, “Safety Management on Restricted Mountaineering Outings,” which may be reviewed at the Mountaineering
Oversight Committee’s page of the Clubhouse extranet site at http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org/outings/Mountaineering/
SafetyManagement.PDF While the focus was on mountaineering outings, some parts of the document apply to almost any
outing. The main point to emphasize is remaining aware of changing environmental conditions and the physical and mental
condition of the group.

Mental Aspect of Safety Management

• Fatigue—physical fatigue can dull mental awareness of risk and diminish concentration on the task at hand, such
as descending a relatively easy slope and taking a misstep or misjudging the size of a rock in the trail and tripping
• Distractions—similar to fatigue in removing concentration from one’s movement over the terrain, such as looking
back to respond in a conversation and then tripping over a root
• Over-confidence—over estimating the ability and experience of the individual or group, for example, assuming a
group will move as quickly at the end of a long day as at the beginning or assuming that a roped team on a snow
slope can arrest the slip of one member
• Complacency—for example, what the group climbed up with confidence may present challenges on the way
down because of fatigue or awkward moves. What has been done before may present challenges in the current
circumstance. Talus slopes can change in their stability as the slope changes.

Awareness of these factors—the leaders’ knowing and applying safety protocol and good judgment—is key to ac-
cident prevention. For example, leaders should remind participants on the descent that the climb is only half over
and that they must stay focused on the climb. Monitoring the physical, emotional, and mental condition of the
group is an essential aspect of good leadership and safety management.

Examples of Keeping Safety Paramount

These examples apply to leaders and participants.

• Being in good condition to climb safely (cardio-vascular conditioning as well as muscle strength and endurance)
• Staying stable and completely in balance on and off the trail
• Monitoring changing environmental conditions
• Making sure all members of the group have appropriate and necessary clothing and gear
• Keeping ice axe self-arrest skills well practiced
• Staying firmly attached to the ice axe
• Keeping away from exposure by anchoring oneself or staying well back from a cliff while waiting on a climb
• Not touching rocks above unless one is sure that the rocks are completely stable
• Staying well hydrated and eating enough to keep up with the energy demands of the outing
• Carrying a first aid kit appropriate for the outing and level of first aid training. For suggestions see http://clubhouse.
sierraclub.org/outings/medical/first_aid/kits.asp
• Reviewing first aid training prior to leading an outing
• Having a safety management plan for alerting rescue services if needed
• Periodically reviewing the lightning and altitude illness protocols available on Clubhouse: http://clubhouse.sierra-
club.org/outings/medical/library/altitude.asp

These are just a few ideas of ways we consciously can make outings as safe as possible.

56
injured person and location. The appropriate authorities Army, Navy, or Marines is normally no-charge. The expense
should be notified immediately. The messengers should of a helicopter evacuation is a consideration, but obviously
maintain contact with the authorities (stay by the phone) safety and well being of the injured party are the foremost
to provide additional help if needed. The other members of concerns.
the group may help assure the best treatment possible and
achieve the best rescue position. Hoisting
Personal Locator Beacons If landing conditions are not suitable, a hoist operation
may be required. If the rescue team cannot provide a person
Personal Locator Beacons, such as the SPOT, are for ground support, the leader or other designated person
good to have when a true emergency arises that requires must perform the required actions. A litter will be preceded
outside help. These devices, however, should not be used by a tag line, which the leader will use to guide the litter
simply for convenience when the group can extricate itself down and up.
from trouble or evacuate an ill or injured member without
outside help. Like cell or satellite phones, personal locator
beacons should be used responsibly. Good leadership—trip MISPLACED PERSONS
planning savvy, technical skills, experience, judgment, group
and environmental awareness—may prevent an emergency. Form a Plan
Even if the leader does everything right, some member
HELICOPTER OPERATIONS of the group may become misplaced. If the leader has
counted heads periodically, he or she can establish when and
Landing Spots where the missing person was last included in the count.
Questioning members of the group may improve on that
One of the prime considerations for a helicopter pickup information. Trying to reconstruct events helps in guiding
is a site with clearance for a landing (or at least a partial ensuing actions. As in effective navigation, all the clues
touchdown). The ideal situation is a flat, one hundred foot should be used to develop a search plan.
square. Fifteen by thirty feet, however, should be adequate.
An exposed ridge is desirable to maximize approach and
departure.

Helicopters Yell and Listen

Wind, elevation, and temperature affect the function If no immediate response to a yell comes, one should
of the helicopter. High elevations, temperatures, and winds remember that many barriers block sound travel in
reduce capabilities. Using dirt, snow, or light clothing to mountainous terrain. Because good judgment will clear up
indicate wind direction will help the pilot. most of these situations, the leader should keep the group
controlled and patient.
Safety
Misplaced Leader
Safety on the ground is a prime concern. Staying at
least 100 feet from the pad and staying in sight of the pilot, If one of the leaders has become misplaced, the group
everyone should secure or move away all loose items (hats should stay together and function as in the case of a
included). misplaced non-leader. Sharing the problem may result in
some valuable assistance.
Evacuation Cost
Retreat
Helicopter rescues can be expensive. Although some
medical insurance policies will cover “emergency” expenses Without a leader, the group may want to return to the
such as helicopter evacuation, the person being evacuated is starting point. It is hoped that people in the group walked
generally responsible for payment. Service provided by the with their eyes up and with some attention. Scouting may

57
help as may a vantage point from a tree or a hill. The group darkness or weather may also dictate a bivouac. A few hours
should take time for navigation breaks, not rush, and stay of discomfort may be much preferred to a risky stream
calm. crossing or dangerous rock and/or snow travel.

Tracking Equipment
Tracking can be used in cases of misplaced persons or in Some basic equipment considerations can take the
finding one’s way, as retracing steps while returning from a danger and much of the discomfort out of a bivouac. The
peak climb. Avoiding obscuring the tracks that are available, standard “10 essentials,” extra clothing, food, and water are
one should try to follow step by step and use common sense vital. Assuming that someone may have to stay out overnight
as a guide to the route to follow. Broken branches and twigs (and it might be the leader) either injured or otherwise, the
and bent grass are other clues. One can practice tracking on leader should carry a down jacket or equivalent even though
any hike and then be ready to use it in a real situation. daytime weather is expected to be mild. A small, lightweight
emergency tube tent can conserve an enormous amount of
BIVOUACS body heat and will fit in a first aid kit. Combining the above
items with the other essentials will dictate the proper summit
Why and When pack size. Outside straps will help with bulky clothing.

Staying with the hiking/climbing game long enough, Be Prepared

one almost certainly will bivouac. Sometimes people choose
to bivouac even when a return to camp is possible. Accidents The obvious rule to follow is “be prepared.”
are an obvious consideration, but hazardous travel due to

LOST PERSONS

At the trailhead a leader should explain the Sierra Club procedure for lost people:

A search for lost participants will not begin after dark unless there is good cause for alarm, and searching will not begin
(or resume) until eight o’clock the next morning. The Club’s years of outing experience have led to the conclusion
that such occurrences are rare and do not justify the danger to other outings participants caused by undertaking night
searches.

In any event, the lost person should understand that there are usually several hours of daylight before 8:00 a.m. in which
to attempt to rejoin the group before a search begins (Sierra Club Outings Department, Outing Leader Handbook, San
Francisco: Sierra Club, 2007, 38).

The Outing Leader Handbook notes that this policy is not always followed:

With lost children, a leader’s emotions, as well as the emotions of parents and outing participants, often force action.
If conditions necessitate a night search, proceed methodically. A closely spaced line of searchers is best. Amateur
rescuers, by covering tracks and frightening a lost child with loud yelling, can make it even more difficult for experts to
locate that child the next day. (39)

58
 WHEN A TRIP MEMBER IS INJURED: BEDSIDE MANNER AND THE OUTING LEADER
By John Edginton

As Chairman of the Sierra Club’s insurance committee, I am often called upon to explain why the Sierra Club
has enjoyed an excellent loss history with regard to accidents on both national and chapter outings. A number
of factors contribute to our successful record: good safety practices on outings, the reluctance of loyal and/or
sympathetic members to sue the club, a realization that the participant is often at fault for the injury, and fate.

But there is another factor at work here which prevents claims, one that I think is as important as any of the others:
the good “bedside manner” of our outings leaders toward a trip member who is injured.

It goes without saying that we should operate our outings and activities as safely and cautiously as possible,
consistent with the goals and nature of the activity. We need to reinforce good leader traits and skills with training
and create opportunities for leaders to network and discuss their experiences, problems, and solutions. We should
also encourage fellowship among our participants so that their loyalty and restrained litigiousness continues. But as
we do all of that, we should also be sure that this other important skill is in our repertoire.

The expression “bedside manner” is commonly used in reference to a medical practitioner. A physician with
excellent bedside manner conveys confidence and concern in caring for his/her patient, regardless of the stress
involved. Likewise, an outing leader should exhibit confidence and concern toward an injured participant, not
only as a common courtesy but also for the purpose of preventing claims.

Techniques like bedside manner are part of the “soft” side of leadership—namely people-to-people skills. All
leaders have different personalities and will approach each situation differently. The following tips, however,
should prove useful to everyone.

Do:

• Stay calm. When an accident occurs, a good leader will approach the situation as calmly and efficiently
as possible. The expertise and training in first aid/mountain medicine skills will be apparent, which will be
comforting to the injured participant. If the leader is calm and logical, the victim will have a feeling that
the situation is in hand, and in good hands. The moral here is to have the appropriate amount of first aid/
mountaineering skills necessary for the trip you are leading. This will allow a confident and quiet approach.

• Pay attention to the injured person. In addition to being calm, the leader must present an empathetic/
sympathetic personality. The use of calming words and a concern for the injured person’s comfort and mental
well being are mandatory. Generally speaking, you should not leave the victim alone. Explain the details of
what is being done and describe any evacuation procedures or other measures you are taking to summon
help. Assure the patient that his/her gear will be taken care of if he/she is to be evacuated.

• Remember the relatives. It is also important to be considerate of any relatives or friends of the patient who
may be present and to keep them informed about what is going on.

• Keep written records. Keep a written log regarding the injury and treatment so that this can accompany the
patient if an evacuation is necessary. The doctors at the medical facility will be grateful for this information,
and it also will be helpful when preparing the accident report. Also be sure to send along any information you
have regarding allergies or other medical needs that you received from the trip participant prior to the outing.
If you didn’t get this information ahead of time, get as many details as you can from the injured person after
the accident.

59
 • Send someone out with the injured person. Unless the victim is evacuated by professionals, be sure he or she
is accompanied to the final destination for treatment by a member of the trip staff or responsible volunteer. As
leader you have a responsibility toward the other participants to continue the trip, assuming the welfare of the
injured person can be taken care of in some reasonable way.

• Maintain communication after the trip. If the participant has been evacuated and is in a hospital, visit him/
her at the end of the trip and offer assistance if possible. Be sure that diligent attempts have been made
to contact the participant’s relatives or friends who will assume responsibility after your departure. Upon
returning home, remain in contact with the injured participant, so that he or she understands that you care
about his/her welfare and recovery. These final steps are very important.

Don’t:

• Don’t volunteer opinions regarding the cause of the accident to the patient or anyone else. Complete the
accident report and transmit it in accordance with its instructions. During World War II is was said that “loose
lips sink ships,” and the same is true with claims prevention. Do not make statements, which later could be
deemed admissions against the Sierra Club’s interest.

• Don’t cancel the outing if it reasonably can be continued in light of the accident. You do have a responsibility
to the other trip members to fulfill their expectations.

• Don’t attempt medical procedures or treatment that is beyond your expertise. Some procedures should only
be performed by a nurse or doctor. Do utilize any medical expertise or training which may be present among
the trip members.

• Don’t expose yourself to the risk of a claim of sexual harassment. When working on a member of the opposite
sex, try to have a witness of the patient’s sex to avoid claims of improper touching, etc. Respect the victim’s
privacy, but recognize that sometimes performing appropriate medical treatment will require removal of
clothing, elimination of fluids and waste and other intimate actions. Try to obtain the victim’s consent before
dealing with such sensitive problems.

• Don’t tell the victim that the accident was his or her fault. Don’t make any deprecating remarks or imply that
he/she was clumsy or otherwise inadequate. Do sympathize with his/her plight.

Perhaps the best way to approach the bedside manner question in your own mind is to put yourself in the
place of an injured person and recall the kind of conduct that made you feel good as opposed to apprehensive,
frightened, or possibly angry. It is very helpful to discuss the subject in a meeting with other leaders, preferably of
both sexes. The more you are aware of the importance of your bedside manner, the easier it will be for you to put
it to use in the stressful situation of dealing with an injury on one of your trips.

60
 First Aid Considerations
5
S
ierra Club leaders should be capable of responding appropriately to medical problems and injuries that may occur
during outings that they lead. The leader’s level of training should be appropriate to the environment and risks
possibly encountered on a given trip. For example, leaders for outings that occur in or near an urban environment
require a lesser level of training than those occurring in more remote settings where professional medical care is more than
one hour away. Although O-level candidates need only a standard first aid course and adult cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR), all other candidates must complete a twenty-four hour or longer wilderness first aid course as well as adult CPR,
as noted in chapter 1. Those O leaders, however, who plan to lead backpacks or other trips more than an hour distant
from emergency medical services are strongly encouraged to study wilderness first aid also. If an I- or M-rated leader later
completes the additional requirements to become an M or E, he or she must have current certification in wilderness first
aid (twenty-four hour minimum) and CPR or will need to repeat these requirements so as to be current at the time the new
leadership level is attained. First aid, wilderness first aid, and CPR are considered current for four years for LTP purposes.
Please note that for restricted M- and all E-level outings, one of the two leaders must be current in wilderness first aid
(sixteen hour minimum course); the other leader may be current in standard first aid. Thus, a certified, not provisional, M
or E leader may take a sixteen-hour wilderness first aid course to stay current.
First aid in an urban setting is rendered under the assumption that the patient will enter the emergency medical system
rapidly. In the wilderness–essentially any location more than an hour away from professional medical care—basic first aid
is of limited use for a variety of reasons. For one, the care required may be beyond the scope of basic first aid. Because of a
lack of specific medical equipment and trained medical personnel to care for the victim optimally, the standard of care may
deviate in the wilderness from that of urban medical care, and rescuers may have to improvise equipment and technique
or do without. Some illnesses and injuries are unique to an outdoor or wilderness environment, such as snakebite or acute
mountain sickness. Due to remoteness, lack of communication, and lack of transportation, professional medical care is
likely to be delayed for hours or days when injury or illness strikes in the wilderness. As a result, the rescuer’s contact with
the patient will be prolonged for hours or days and will be around the clock; the rescuer thus needs training in longer-
term care. The outdoor environment itself can present a challenge to the victims and rescuers alike, who may be exposed
to unfavorable temperatures, weather, altitude, and terrain and a lack of food, water, and shelter. To make appropriate
evacuation decisions, a leader needs familiarity with rescue techniques and operations. Finally, outcomes of treatment in a
wilderness setting may be less favorable than treatment obtained by rapid entry into the emergency medical system.

61
 “rescuers” are assigned to one patient, and what fraction of
CHOOSING A FIRST AID COURSE his or her time the instructor(s) can devote to each group
doing a simulation.
For people with real jobs, taking sixteen to twenty-four
or more hours of wilderness first aid (WFA) instruction is Instructor Qualifications
generally inconvenient. Most commercial WFA courses
are expensive, and twenty-four hours of first aid may be First aid is like most other disciplines–if a person has
out of proportion with a leader’s training in other equally not done the real thing out “in the field,” he or she most
important disciplines, e.g., map and compass. Because first likely does not understand it well enough to do a quality
aid is a safety skill rather than a primary skill like recognizing job of teaching it. Many short first aid courses offered by the
trees and flowers, a leader will not necessarily have a more Red Cross and similar providers are taught by paramedics,
fulfilling trip just because of first aid training. Nevertheless, a nurses, and other experienced health care professionals, but
person cannot become adequately trained in wilderness first not all first aid instructors are that well qualified. Ask about
aid in three to four hours any more than one can learn to the instructor’s hands-on patient care experience before
skydive or pilot a small plane in the same period of time. signing up for the course.
Leaders who want the peace of mind that comes with being
adequately prepared to deal with medical emergencies in the Recognition of Course Credentials
wilderness will have to invest the time and money.
This is not really a discussion about wilderness vs urban If a leader wishes to go beyond a three- to four-hour
first aid courses; it is a discussion about getting enough hours first aid course and/or wishes to take wilderness first aid,
of quality instruction. To provide a specific example, the a number of regional and national organizations may offer
eighty- to one-hundred-hour Emergency Medical Technician appropriate first aid courses. All of them most likely provide
course is urban first aid, but it is quality first aid instruction a diploma or certificate of course completion. If a person is
that will prepare a person to deal with 98% of the illnesses taking the course as part of leadership training for one or
and injuries you will encounter in the wilderness. That is not more organizations, he or she should find out in advance
meant as a recommendation that every wilderness leader get which first aid courses are recognized by the organizations
an EMT certificate. Red Cross Standard First Aid (RCSFA), one is training to lead for. National organizations such
the most popular three- to four-hour first aid course, spends as Wilderness Medical Associates (WMA) are likely to
most of its time cataloguing injuries and illnesses and be recognized by most or all organizations requiring first
listing their signs and symptoms. It is very weak on patient aid training for their leaders; regional organizations such
assessment. Taking it is roughly equivalent to passing the as the Wilderness First Aid Course (WFAC) may not be
written driver’s license exam without any time behind the recognized outside their geographic areas. The American
wheel of a car and then expecting to be a competent driver. Camping Association maintains a list of widely recognized
Advanced electronics are no substitute for first aid Wilderness First Aid providers.
skills. If a party of backpackers in the Sierra uses a SPOT
emergency locator beacon or a satellite phone to request LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS
help for a life-threatening emergency, a typical response time
(from call to helicopter arrival) is five to six hours if the call Obligation To Render Aid
is made early in the day and ten to twelve hours if it is made
late in the day. At best, RCSFA training will prepare a leader No state in the United States has laws that require
to deal competently with the first fifteen to thirty minutes of anyone to help a stranger in distress. An obligation does
that period. The time between that first half hour for which exist in such circumstances, but the obligation is ethical,
a person has been trained and the arrival of professional not legal. A legal obligation to render first aid and assistance
medical assistance is going to seem like several lifetimes if (“duty to the patient”) does exist when one has caused injury
the leader has a seriously ill or injured patient and no idea to another. This obligation exists for leaders of organized
what to do for him or her. outings, and probably also for fellow members of a hike,
Realistic simulations are the heart of any quality first backpacking trip, or technical climb.
aid course, wilderness or not. Before signing up for a first aid If a citizen does go to another person’s aid, the law
course longer than three or four hours, ask how much time is obliges him or her to continue to care for the patient until
spent in simulations. Find out how long a single simulation the patient’s care is transferred to another qualified person.
runs (just doing a realistic assessment of a patient takes a Failure to do the latter is called abandonment and can result
beginning first aider fifteen minutes or more), how many in consequences such as a lawsuit.

62
 will also provide patients with greater confidence since they
Documentation know what to expect.
If the patient is unconscious or irrational or is a minor
Detailed documentation of the emergency care provided and urgently needs care for a life-threatening or serious
to each patient is very important: this documentation illness or injury, consent may be “implied.” This means that
is required by most rescue organizations, which provide the law presumes that the patient, if able (or the patient’s
report forms to be filled out in each case. The rescuer should parents or guardian, if present), would consent to the care.
remember that, in the case of litigation, he or she may be In some cases, a patient who initially refuses care can
required to testify in court many months or years after the be persuaded to accept help by a calm discussion of the
occurrence in question. Having a complete and accurate risks of not obtaining care. If the patient persists in refusing,
report to refer to is much better than relying on memory it is wise to have responsible witnesses present and have
alone. statements from them for the record specifying that care was
Once a first aider has touched a patient and started to offered and refused.
give care, he or she cannot just walk away, even if the patient If an irrational or unreasonable patient refuses urgently
momentarily changes his or her mind or starts imposing needed care for a life-threatening or very serious condition,
conditions that make it difficult to give appropriate first aid. it is probably better at least to try to give the care despite
The patient may decide to refuse further treatment or insist the refusal. At this point, however, proper documentation
on being released to the care of someone less qualified or is essential.
impose conditions (e.g., “I want your help, but you can’t
remove my clothing”). In such a case, the rescuer should “Good Samaritan” Laws
attempt to persuade the patient to accept the suggested care,
making it clear Another deterrent against litigation is the so-called
1) why this is in the patient’s best interest and Good Samaritan laws, the purpose of which is to encourage
2) that the recuer’s training requires him (her) to people to help out voluntarily in emergencies. Although
proceed in this manner. these laws do not prevent suits from being filed, they
If the patent still refuses to allow the rescuer to perform generally make it more difficult for the plaintiff to win
first aid in a manner that the first aider thinks appropriate, because in theory they absolve from liability anyone covered
the rescuer should ask the patient to sign a Refusal of First by the statute who gives care gratuitously, in good faith, and
Aid form, an example of which is found in Appendix C. The in accordance with his or her training and expertise in a
form provides a degree of legal protection for the rescuer if bona fide emergency—except in the case of gross or willful
first aid is discontinued. Before asking the patient to sign negligence.
this or any other form, one must make sure he is conscious, California Health and Safety Code 1799.102 adds that
alert, and fully oriented and not under the influence of no person who in good faith and not for compensation
alcohol or drugs. If the patient refuses to sign the form, one renders emergency care at the scene of an emergency shall
should note all the information on the form anyway, note be liable for any civil damages resulting from any act or
that the patient refused to sign, and have witnesses sign. omission. (Four other California good Samaritan laws add
very little to this basic one.)
Informed/Implied Consent Federal Volunteer Protection Act (1997) protects
volunteer members of non-profit organizations who are
In the eyes of the law, a person’s body is inviolate. acting within the scope of their responsibilities. Unlike the
Interfering with it or even touching it without permission California Good Samaritan laws, the Federal statute is not
may constitute battery, an illegal act in many states. limited to medical situations. It protects a wide range of
Because any person usually has a right to refuse emergency volunteer activities such as coaching Little League, being a
care, when first approaching a patient, the rescuer should Girl Scout leader, and leading a wilderness outing for the
identify himself or herself as a trained rescuer and provider Sierra Club.
of emergency care and ask “Can I be of help?” The patient Despite any legal protection offered by the above state
may either specifically give consent or may cooperate with laws, the rescuer should realize that the best protection—
your assessment and care in a way that can be taken as actual and also an ethical obligation—is good, up-to-date training,
consent. When telling patients what they need to know about conscientious maintenance of competency in knowledge
the treatment being offered, the first aider should make sure and skills, and dedicated patient care. Nonetheless, training
to do it in language the patient can understand. Not only and quality care alone are not sufficient legally unless records
will this satisfy the requirements of informed consent, but it are kept that document them, preferably on standardized

63
forms. Detailed notes should be made of dates, names of the Wilderness Medical Society. It has a fairly good chapter
rescuers attending, and procedures performed. Although on patient assessment.
a legal basis for claims does exist, lawsuits arising from
voluntary medical assistance are very rare. In wilderness Schimelpfenig, Tod and Joan Safford. NOLS Wilderness
circles they are essentially non-existent. Medicine, 4th ed. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 2008.
Note: This information is for general guidance only. Good coverage of the fundamentals, clearly written. A
An attorney should be consulted for definitive legal advice. good choice for a single WFA text, striking a good balance
between readability and completeness. Nice line drawings.
SUGGESTED READING
National Ski Patrol. McNamara, Edward C., David H.
Carline, Jan D., Martha J. Lentz, and Steven C. McDonald. Johe, and Deborah A. Endly, eds. Outdoor Emergency Care.
Mountaineering First Aid: A Guide to Accident Response and 5th ed. Boston: Brady, 2012.
First Aid Care. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2004. This is the ski patroller’s bible for outdoor first aid. A coffee
A very friendly and accessible text but not as complete as the table size reference book, it is not cheap (about $70). This
two following. The material on patient assessment is only text goes into great depth and is meant to be studied, not
fair. This is the only text listed here that might be small read casually. It assumes the availability of backboards,
and light enough to be carried by a group as part of the oxygen, and radio communication.
communal gear.
Wilkerson, James A. Medicine for Mountaineering and Other
National Safety Council and Wilderness Medical Society. Wilderness Activities. 6th ed. Seattle: Mountaineers, 2012.
Wilderness First Aid: Emergency Care for Remote Locations. The title says “medicine,” and they mean it. This is not a
2nd ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett, 2005. first aid text. This would be a useful handbook for medical
If you are going to buy one WFA textbook, this is the one. It professionals who want to learn more about outdoor medicine.
is readable, it is reasonably complete, and it is sponsored by

RESPONDING TO WILDERNESS ACCIDENTS AND ILLNESS

This material is designed for use as part of a course of instruction, including hands-on skills practice under the
supervision of qualified instructors. It is provided here to promote a general understanding of wilderness first aid.

Scene Survey
Form a general impression of the nature of the accident and the victim’s injuries.
Look around for objective danger–anything that can put you or your patient(s) at risk such as falling rock.
Put on medical gloves and get out your barrier for mouth-to-mouth breathing if you may need it.
Count the number of victims.

Primary Survey
Assuming that there is only one victim,
Assess Airway–is the patient able to respond verbally? Open airway with modified jaw thrust as needed.
Assess Breathing–can the patient use basic (complete) sentences? Give mouth-to-mouth breathing if needed.
Assess Circulation –does the patient have a pulse? If the patient meets A & B above, the answer is yes. Otherwise,
check for the carotid pulse.
Assess Bleeding–is there visible fresh blood on the patient’s skin, clothing, or the ground nearby? If so, expose the
source by removing clothing. If the bleeding is profuse, control the bleeding with direct pressure right over the
source of the bleeding. If the bleeding is minor, place a piece of gauze over the wound and secure it if needed.
Immobilize the patient’s head and neck. Use c-spine immobilization techniques if you are trained in them. Otherwise,
ask the patient to look straight ahead, to keep his or her head and neck absolutely still, and not to look around.

64
Gather Patient Information
Introduce yourself and state your qualifications in first aid.
Ask the patient’s name.
Estimate the patient’s age. If the patient is in his teens or twenties, ask his or her age.
Assess patient Level of Consciousness (LOC) as Alert/Verbally Responsive/Responsive to Pain/ Unresponsive.
Get permission to treat.
If the patient is alert, further assess LOC. Can the patient correctly identify:
Person–who is he or she?
Place–where is he or she?
Time–what day of the week and what month is it?
Situation–what happened?

Address the Patient’s Chief Complaint

Ask the patient “What hurts?” The answer to this question is referred to as the patient’s “chief complaint.” Expose
the site where the complaint is located. Assuming that what you find is not life-threatening or potentially disabling,
spend a minute or two addressing it. If it is a wound, put a dressing over it. If it is a possible fracture, have someone
immobilize it. If it is a bruise, elevate it and apply ice or compression. Talk to the patient about it and express your
concern, but move on as quickly as possible.

Get Vital Signs and Record Them

Pulse rate and quality, e.g., 88 per minute and weak
Breathing rate and quality, e.g., 16 per minute and shallow. Breathing rate can be difficult to assess through outdoor
clothing. If breathing is not labored or noisy, you can record it as “normal.”
Skin vitals are color, temperature, and moisture, for example “pink, warm, and dry.”
Check Pupils–assuming the patient is outdoors in daylight, ask the patient to close his or her eyes and cover them
with your hand. Count to ten. Have the patient open his or her eyes as you remove your hand. Do both pupils
constrict (get smaller)? Are they equal in size?
Record vital signs including level of consciousness along with the time.
Vital signs should be repeated every fifteen minutes until the patient’s condition is stable.

Medical History
Ask the patient about the following aspects of his or her medical history:
Allergies–does the patient have any allergies, if so, to what?
Medications–ask the patient to list his or her current medications. Since it is easy to record the drug names
incorrectly, make sure to record the function, e.g., drug for hypertension.
Previous Medical or Surgical History–ask the patient whether he or she has had illnesses, operations, or chronic
conditions that might be relevant to the current situation.
Last Meal–when did the patient eat last and what/how much? When did the patient drink last and what/how much?
Events Preceding–what happened just before the accident or the onset of the illness? For example, if the patient
fell down and injured his wrist in the fall, did he fall because he wasn’t watching his footing or because he felt
dizzy? If the latter, the first aider must ask additional questions to determine whether an underlying medical
condition caused the dizziness.

Head-to-Toe Exam
Begin at the head and work toward the feet but save the back for last.
Check the head for lumps, bruises and wounds. Check the nose, ears, cheekbones and mouth for blood or discharge.
Have the patient bite down; Ask “does this hurt?” Check the vertebra of the neck by pressing on each one and
wiggling it gently:
Is it displaced compared to its neighbors?
Does it move?
Does pressing on it cause the patient pain?

65
 Check both collarbones for pain and deformity. Ask the patient to inhale while you squeeze both sides of the
ribcage. Does this hurt the patient? Find the belly button and draw imaginary vertical and horizontal lines through it,
dividing the stomach and abdomen into four sectors. Press firmly on each sector using both hands with the fingers
overlapped. Does this cause pain? Are the muscles rigid? Find the points of the pelvis and put one palm on each.
Push down, compressing the pelvis against the ground. Does this hurt the patient?

Wrap your hands around each leg, one at a time. Run your hands down the leg, beginning just below the groin,
squeezing while trying to touch as much surface area as possible. Are there deformities? Does this hurt the patient?
Do you feel any fresh blood? On each leg, remove the shoe and sock. Do the following four checks on each foot:
Circulation–Pinch the big toe, observe that the nail bed has gone pale, release it and time how long it takes the
nail bed to go pink again. The time should be two seconds or briefer
Sensation–With the foot in a location where the patient cannot see the toes, pinch the big or little toe and ask
the patient which toe you are pinching.
Motion–ask the patient to wiggle his or her toes
Function–with your hands, push up (toward the patient’s head) on both of the patient’s feet and ask him or her
to resist. Then pull down (away from the patient’s head) on his or her feet and ask him or her to resist. Can the
patient exert a normal amount of force with his or her feet, and is the force roughly equal on both feet?

Put the patient’s socks and shoes back on and move up to his or her arms. Wrap your hands around each arm,
beginning just below the armpit, one at a time. Run your hands down the arm, squeezing while trying to touch as
much surface area as possible. Are there deformities? Does this hurt the patient? Do you feel any fresh blood? On
each hand, remove gloves or mittens. Do the following four checks on each arm:
Circulation–Pinch the thumb, observe that the nailbed has gone pale, release it, and time how long it takes
the nail bed to go pink again. The time should be two seconds or briefer. This is referred to as checking distal
circulation or “distals.”
Sensation–With the hand in a location where the patient cannot see the fingers, pinch the thumb or little finger
and ask the patient which finger you are pinching.
Motion–Ask the patient to wiggle his or her fingers.
Function–Offer the patient your index and middle finger on each hand and ask the patient to squeeze them
hard. Can the patient exert a normal amount of force with his or her grip, and is the force roughly equal using
both hands?

Check the back. Lift the patient’s near shoulder and reach under him or her with the other hand until you can feel the
spine. Starting with the prominent vertebra at the base of the neck (C7), place your fingertips on the bony protrusion
of each vertebra, one at a time, and press gently. Is it aligned with its neighbors? Wiggle it a bit–does it move more
than its neighbors? Watch the patient–does it look like he or she is experiencing pain when you move the vertebra?

Dress Wounds and Splint Possible Fractures

Wounds found during patient assessment that were bleeding heavily have had the bleeding controlled with direct
pressure over several pieces of gauze. At this time (if it has not already been done), the dressing is checked to
confirm that bleeding has stopped, a bandage is wrapped tightly to hold the dressing in place, and distal circulation
on the affected limb is checked.

Wounds found during patient assessment that are not bleeding heavily have been temporarily dressed with a piece
of gauze. At this time they are cleaned with soap and water, dried, and redressed, and a bandage is applied to
secure the dressing.

Possible fractures found during patient assessment have been stabilized by a first aider holding the limb above and
below the injury site. At this time the materials required for splinting are assembled. With the first aider continuing to
support the fracture site, the splint is applied and secured. Distal circulation is then checked on the affected limb.

66
 Reposition the Patient (this can be done at any time during the response)
Sometimes the patient needs to be moved a short distance to be relocated away from the trail or to be sheltered
behind a boulder from wind or rockfall. In addition, patient body position sometimes needs to be adjusted to be
more appropriate for the patient’s medical issues. For example, a patient who has lost significant blood is likely to
do better lying down than sitting up. The following is a list of body positions and the medical conditions with which
they are usually helpful. Keep in mind that the patient’s “position of comfort” trumps these general guidelines. If the
patient says that breathing while lying down is difficult, then allow him or her to recline or sit up. Also consider what
sort of injury or illness is likely to cause this symptom.
Shock or loss of blood–Lying down with head slightly downhill
Head injury–Lying down with head slightly uphill
Bleeding from the mouth or likely to vomit–On his or her side
Difficulty breathing–reclining
Chest or rib injury–sitting up with uninjured side higher

Summary of Urban First Aid, Wilderness First Aid, and CPR Courses
Course Name Org./ Lead Instructor Dates Total Hours/Format Est. Cost Location LTC Rating Contact
First Aid and CPR/AED Red Cross Many 6 hours $110 Many in LA Basin O OC: http://oc-redcross.org
LA: http://redcrossla.org
Click “Take a Class”
Web sites – www.redcrossla.org (Los Angeles); oc-redcross.org (Orange County); redcrosslb.org (Long Beach)
First Aid and CPR SC Angeles Chapter/ tba 6 hours for SFA + $35 course fee +$27 Angeles Chap HQ O [email protected]
Steve Goldstein adult CPR for card or by arrangement
Comments: Red Cross CPR card and First Aid card provided with some discussion of wilderness considerations
Wilderness First Aid WFAC/Steve Schuster April or May and 26 hours/Fri thru Sun $220 Harwood Lodge O to E WFAC PO Box 3414
Course October Fullerton, CA 92834
Comments: LTC/WTC sponsored; fee includes lodging, meals for weekend, notes
Prerequisite of CPR course within previous 4 years. Full fee and proof of CPR required for enrollment.
Web site address is http://wildernessfirstaidcourse.org/. Contact Steve Schuster at [email protected]
Wilderness Advanced Wilderness Outings Two to three per year 36 hours – Thursday $399 Idyllwild O to E www.wildernessoutings.com
First Aid thru Sunday
Comments: Nationally recognized certification; includes text and adult CPR; lodging extra. Phone 877-494-5368
HAT First Aid Verdugo Hills BSA Fall 60 hours/Saturdays $75 Glendale, CA O to E Marlene Lugg at 818-882-4526
or e-mail (below)
Comments: Fee includes book and mask; ARC Emergency Response, plus complies with WMS guidelines.
Includes CPR, and new Wilderness and Remote First Aid course.
Wilderness and Verdugo Hills BSA Spring and fall 16 hours/Sat., Adult $40 Glendale, CA O Marlene Lugg at
Remote First Aid CPR prerequisite [email protected]
Comments: This is the new, enlarged ARC Course replacing Wilderness First Aid Basics. Complies with WMS and BSA guidelines.
Can take CPR with High Adventure First Aid class for additional $10.00 fee.
REI NOLS tba 16 hours $200 mbr/ $220 other REI store O Your local REI store
The CPR Lady AHA certification 2 – 3 per month on 4 hours $50 class + $15 text Many in LA, OC, O to E www.thecprlady.net
Mondays Riverside counties 949-651-1020
Comments: Any CPR course is OK for any leadership rating. Ski patrol first aid instructors say that this is a good CPR provider.
A Google search on “CPR Instruction Southern California” yielded about half a million hits—choose a course with a time and location that is convenient for you.
It must be hands-on; web CPR training is not accepted.
Key to Abbreviations:
ARC–American Red Cross; WFA–Wilderness First Aid; HAT–High Adventure Training; NOLS–National Outdoor Leadership School;
WMS–Wilderness Medical Society; BSA–Boy Scouts of America
Financial support for first aid enrollment is available. Contact the LTC chair to discuss a scholarship. Contact Steve Schuster at [email protected]
about helping in the WFAC kitchen in exchange for reduced (or free) enrollment at a subsequent WFAC.
Sierra Club National First Aid Information: http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org/
Username: clubhouse
Password: explore
Choose Outings (top bar); Choose Training (left bar)
Choose First Aid Providers

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Reported Outings Injuries and Illness
This table, compiled by Steven Schuster, presents data for reported injuries (not incidents or persons) for an outings
program in the western United States over a ten-year period.

“Technical” refers to high-angle rock climbing and snow climbing with an ice axe. In case of doubt, injuries are
considered non-technical.

68
 Navigation, Route Finding,
6
and Trip Planning

A
ngeles Chapter trips are quite diverse activities, ranging from hikes on well-marked and mapped trails with excellent
descriptions in written guides to exploratory cross-country adventures through difficult mountain and desert terrain.
The range of planning and navigational skills required to conduct these trips safely is equally extensive.
For many leaders who plan outings in well-known and well-marked territory, some of the material in this chapter will
be unnecessarily complicated. Yet the moment a party steps off a trail in unfamiliar terrain, a leader with confidence in his
or her navigational knowledge and practical experience using navigational skills may be essential to reach the objective and
return safely; such confidence and experience often mean going beyond the “basics.” This chapter, therefore, goes beyond
the specifics called out for navigation checkouts to include supplemental information to enlarge the scope of the leader
candidate’s knowledge of navigation techniques and lore.
Advanced planning and route finding techniques are not difficult to learn in theory, but it takes practice to become
proficient under the stress of real-world situations.
• Leaders must be able to plan trips that can be done in a reasonably efficient and safe manner within the
time available. Planning entails selection of the route, estimation of the time required, selection of necessary
equipment, screening of group members for the necessary skills and physical condition, plus contemplation
of unexpected events that might require time-consuming corrective measures and fall-back plans. All of these
considerations have a direct or indirect impact on the navigation aspects of the trip.
• In the field the leader must navigate and “find” the route. The leader must know where the group is and
where it is going and be able to select an appropriate route to get there. Besides knowing their location on
the map or being able quickly to determine their location and correlate features on the map with the terrain,
leaders should also have the skill and experience to select a good route from the outset and be able to change
the route if necessary as the terrain unfolds.

69
MAPS the quadrangles in California is roughly 7 1/2 x 8 miles.)
Each quadrangle map has a unique name taken from some
Big Picture Maps prominent feature in it. National Park and National Forest
Visitor Centers, specialty map shops, and outdoors stores
Some maps produced by the Automobile Club of usually carry frequently-used topo maps of the local areas
Southern California are invaluable aids for the automobile they serve. The USGS web site is http://usgs.gov, and
part of the trip. They are updated frequently and show internet orders for USGS maps can be made at http://store.
unimproved roads, campgrounds, locked gates on roads, usgs.gov. At the USGS store web site, a “Map Locator and
many major trails and peaks, and various points of interest. Downloader” is available. This will allow you to search for
The Auto Club’s county map series includes coverage of and download .pdf images of all 7.5´ topo maps.
Southern California mountain ranges from the Mexican USGS 7.5´ topo maps are less available in local
border to the northern boundaries of San Luis Obispo outdoor stores than they were in the past, particularly for
and Tulare Counties. The Auto Club has also developed areas of California more remote from Los Angeles (e.g.,
excellent maps that provide detailed coverage of Yosemite the Sierra). Most REI stores in Southern California carry
and the Eastern Sierra, as well as of Death Valley, Indian a small selection of local topographic maps. The USGS has
Country, and the Colorado River. created a new map series called “US Topo” to replace the
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) 7.5´ map series. In 2012, the USGS released US Topo maps
1:250,000 scale maps cover an area of one degree latitude for every quadrangle in California. The new maps use the
by two degrees longitude at a scale of about one inch on the same names as the 7.5´ minute map series and cover the
map to four miles on the ground. They are topographical same area with slight marginal differences caused by use of
maps and have more terrain detail than the Auto Club maps the North American Datum of 1983. (Most maps in the
but have less reliable road information. They are very useful 7.5´ map series use the North American Datum of 1927.)
in those regions beyond the coverage of the Auto Club maps. The new US Topo maps can be downloaded for free on
USGS 1:100,000 scale maps (30 x 60 minute series) the USGS web site. Printed versions are available from the
are now available for most of the contiguous 48 states. USGS for $15.00.
These topographic maps have a scale of about one inch The US Topo map series is produced using automated
on the map to 1.5 miles on the ground. Since USGS is no and semi-automated processes and cost substantially less
longer updating or printing the 1:62,500 scale maps (15 x to produce than the handcrafted 7.5´ map series. These
15 minute series), the 30 x 60 minute series maps provide a new digital maps are considered the “next generation” of
useful tie-in or overview for the 1:24,000 scale maps (7.5 x USGS map products. The 7.5´ map series will no longer
7.5 minute series). be updated.
United States Forest Service (USFS) maps are helpful The 2012 release of US Topo does not have the same
supplements to other maps because they show trail numbers, detail of the 7.5´ map series. Future releases may address
campgrounds, private property, fire closure areas, logging some of these shortcomings, with the next release scheduled
roads, and the names of some terrain features not found for 2015. Significant shortcomings include
on topographic maps. They may be obtained by writing • Many common topographic map symbols are
the particular National Forest headquarters or by visiting a not used;
ranger station in that National Forest. Many outdoors and • Elevations for peaks are missing;
sports stores also carry these maps. • Township, Range, and Section information are
not included;
Topographic Maps • Trails, buildings, and other features are not
shown;
The principal map used by the leader for detailed • The contour lines are not as finely shown and
planning and in the field is the USGS topographic (topo) many small, closed contours on the 7.5 minute
map in the 7.5´ (minute) series, with a scale of 1:24,000 maps are not shown on the digital maps.
(one inch on the map represents 24,000 inches, or 2000 The LTP navigation program will continue to use the 7.5´
feet, in the field). The 7.5´ map series was launched in 1945 map series. These maps are superior to the new US Topo
and completed in 1992. All of the contiguous 48 states series and should continue to be available for purchase from
are covered by the 7.5´ map series, which has replaced the a variety of vendors.
older 15´ series once maintained and sold by the USGS. Caution: Some vendors sell 7.5´ topos printed on
Each map covers a region of 7.5´ (1/8 degree) in latitude plasticized material. These are not acceptable or usable for
and longitude, called a quadrangle. (The area covered by LTP navigation practice/checkout requirements because

70
one cannot write on them. Maps must be 7.5´ USGS topos including information about park rules and
printed on paper to correct USGS scale. For detailed trip regulations.
planning and especially for navigation in the field, 7.5´ Occasionally, when the area to be traversed or viewed
topo maps are generally used. These maps are mandatory is contained near the edges of two maps, then two maps are
for navigation practice and checkouts and the associated necessary. The maps may be carefully folded at the edges and
homework. For trip planning and more casual navigation, seamlessly taped together with write-on tape (not glossy),
however, other topo maps are available which can be very on both sides. Write-on tape permits lines to be drawn on
useful. These include the tape when plotting near the taped edges of the maps. It
• The USGS 15´ maps, while no longer updated is almost impossible to do terrain/map recognition, to plot
and therefore potentially suspect with regard bearings, or to estimate distances when the maps are separate.
to accuracy of trail and road locations, are It is best to fold the map to show the specific area of
still available in books (e.g., Hetch-Hetchy, interest and then change the folding to show new areas as
Yosemite, and Mt. Whitney) published by the trip progresses. A map which is quickly available and
Wilderness Press and available in local outdoor needs no unfolding, especially in the wind or rain, is most
stores. These maps, having a scale of 1:62,500, useful for route following. All map-folding methods will
are less detailed in terms of terrain features than eventually cause the corners and edges of the map to wear
the 7.5´ maps. Nevertheless, in California they away, resulting in loss of the printed area. These are then not
do cover larger areas (typically 14x17 miles) available for navigating. Special map holders, available at
and can be very useful in planning longer trips outdoors stores, are designed to protect maps from abrasion,
in the Sierra. Many of these 15´ maps can be wind, or water while being viewed. Re-sealable plastic bags
downloaded at the USGS online store. work too.
• In addition to large-scale national forest maps,
the USFS offers high quality topographic
maps of several wilderness areas in Southern Electronic Topographic Maps
California (e.g., the Cucamonga and San
Gorgonio Wilderness Areas). Although not as In recent years electronic topographic maps and the
detailed as the USGS 7.5´ topographic maps, availability of inexpensive color printers have made “do-
these maps are often more up-to-date and show it-yourself ” maps a viable option for the computer-literate
trails not yet incorporated in the USGS maps. hiker. Derived from USGS topographic maps, the electronic
• The commercially produced Tom Harrison maps and the user-friendly software offer the leader great
Maps are readily available in local stores and advantages: the ability to examine routes, calculate distances,
cover both local areas and the Sierra. Typical make trail profiles, and conduct other comprehensive
titles (only a small sample) include Trail Map map studies at home. The USGS topo of interest and its
of the Angeles Front Country, Trail Map of the surrounding quadrangles are seamlessly available at user-
Angeles High Country, Kings Canyon High selected scales. Among the most useful features available
Country Trail Map, Mono Divide High Country are the capabilities to draw and assess the statistics of routes
Trail Map, and Map of Yosemite Valley. The on the map, establish waypoints that can be transferred to
scales of these maps vary but are generally GPS receivers, catalog bearings and distances to near and
not as fine as the 1:24,000 USGS topo maps far peaks and other objects of interest, and determine their
(those of the Santa Monica mountains are an visibility from particular locations. These maps may include
exception, and offer very good detail). These some of the marginal data (scales, magnetic declination,
maps are plasticized (good for rain resistance), etc.) available on the printed topo, since they present data
include a UTM grid (see Appendix A), and, from many USGS maps. For the latest information on
unlike most other topo maps, include trail available software, contact the LTC Navigation Chair, your
mileage information. The publisher appears to local outdoor store, or search for resources online.
update these maps frequently. While electronic maps offer several advantages
• The commercially produced Trails Illustrated (selectable scales, spanning quadrangle boundaries, planning
maps by National Geographic are also readily tools with the home computer packages), their end product
available in local stores and cover Joshua Tree is one or more printed maps. And in this hardcopy product
National Park, the Santa Monica Mountains, there are limitations as compared to the standard USGS
Mojave National Preserve, and other areas in printed 7.5´ maps:
California. They provide valuable information, • The quality and readability of the maps will

71
The keys to visualizing landforms on topo maps are the contour lines: their shape shows the shape of the land,
and their spacing shows the steepness.

Gullies and Ridges appear as V-shaped contours, with the V’s pointing uphill in gullies and
downhill on ridges. Ridges may be U-shaped.
• Gullies tend to converge downhill and ridges diverge while the opposite is the case for
uphill travel.
• Ridges come together at the summit and gullies (going down) empty into bigger gullies.
• Ridges border drainage patterns; gullies are the drainage patterns.

High Points (or Sink Holes) appear as the smallest closed contours, usually within a concen-
tric group of larger closed contours.
• The precise location of peaks is often indicated by a benchmark, elevation, or a triangle
or “x” symbol.
• High points or sink holes may extend above or below the elevation of the smallest closed
contour lines, up to 39 feet on 7.5 minute maps.

Benches and Cliffs appear as variations in contour spacing.

• Benches show a local increase in contour line spacing because terrain flattens out.
• Contours are closely spaced for cliffs, where the terrain is very steep.

Bowls, Amphitheaters, and Cirques appear as approximately circular contour line patterns
with slight decreases in line spacing as altitude increases.

Saddles (and most passes) are low points on ridges and appear as hourglass-shaped
contours, with the higher ridge widening on both sides.

To help visualize the big terrain picture, one may trace certain contour lines, say every 1,000
feet, with colored pencils. Drawing lines along ridges reveals drainage patterns, and marking
peaks with colored dots makes high points stand out.

Many terms are used to denote related landforms. Thus, we have not only gully, but couloir, chute, ravine, gulch, wash,
draw, and at a larger scale, canyon, basin, and valley. Besides ridge we also have arête, rib, buttress, spur, and divide, while
besides saddle there is col, notch, and pass. Each term has a different shade of meaning, but they all appear as patterns
similar to their relatives differing primarily in sharpness and scale.

Figure 6-1. Topographic map terrain visualization

72
 be limited by the capability of the printer and meters (65.6 feet) in the Sierra and 10 meters (32.8 feet)
the paper used. Most consumer printers are or even 5 meters (16.4 feet) in the deserts. Occasionally,
limited in the size of paper that can be used; in gently sloping areas such as in flat desert or level towns,
a common limit is legal size (8.5 x 14 inches). a supplementary contour line may be added, typically
This means that a relatively small area will be at midpoint elevation between two contour lines. The
printed or that a less detailed scale must be supplementary contour interval is noted at the bottom of the
selected to allow printing of a larger area. map. The interval can vary from map to map to map (e.g.,
• Generally the marginal information printed 20 feet on the Mt. Wilson topo, 10 feet on the Stovepipe
will not be as detailed as that on a USGS map Wells topo) but will not exceed half the normal contour
and will usually be limited to distance scales interval. These supplementary contour lines are thinner and
and magnetic declination information. lighter than a regular contour line and may also be dashed
The electronic maps and their support software (e.g., Mt. Wilson quad).
certainly add to the personal arsenal of the navigator, USGS topographic maps contain a number of
especially for trip planning. But the USGS 7.5´ topo conventional symbols and colors to show both natural
maps are still the map of choice for field navigation and terrain features and human works. Water features are shown
are mandatory for LTC navigation events. Software printed in blue, vegetation in green, surface features and contours in
7.5´ topos are currently not acceptable for LTP Navigation brown, man-made objects in black, and public land survey
practice/checkout requirements. The maps must be USGS boundaries and major highways in red. Aerial photography
topos printed on paper with all margin information present. updates of urban areas are shown in purple.
The margins of USGS topos show essential information
Topographic Map Characteristics with which the navigator should become familiar and use as
needed. This information includes
The essential feature of a topographic map is the • The name of the quadrangle covered by the
depiction of elevation by contour lines of constant elevation, map
which reveal the general shape of the terrain. One way to • Identification of adjacent quadrangles
visualize a contour line is to consider a land area near the • Map scales
ocean. A contour at zero elevation corresponds to the coast • Some basic map symbol data (e.g., regarding
line; should the sea rise by 40 feet, its level would then highways, roads, and trails)
correspond to another 40 foot contour line on the map. • The contour interval (usually in feet,
On USGS 7.5´ maps contour lines are printed in brown, sometimes in meters)
typically at 40 foot intervals, with every fifth line made • The degrees/minutes difference between
heavier for ease of reading, typically 200 feet. Elevations UTM grid north (GN) and true north and the
of the heavy contour lines are printed in brown figures at direction of magnetic north (MN) and its year
occasional places along the lines. By their nature, contour and declination in degrees
lines on a map never cross and eventually always close on • The date(s) the map was made and/or last
themselves, frequently in a region beyond the borders of the revised
map. A direction straight up or down a slope is perpendicular • The datum of the map (essential for map use
to contour lines; a traverse at constant elevation is parallel with a GPS receiver, as discussed later).
to contour lines. Because the contours essentially provide Other paper topo maps will generally contain much or all
a three-dimensional representation of the terrain presented of this essential data.
on a two-dimensional surface, the navigator’s goal is to learn
to “see” the terrain form in its three-dimensions. Coordinates and Reference Frames
The contour interval, noted on the bottom margin Quadrangle maps have meridians of longitude and
of the map, is the vertical distance between two adjacent parallels of latitude as boundaries. Black tick marks 1/3
contour lines. For almost all 7.5´ maps the contour interval and 2/3 of the distance along each edge and four small
is 40 feet. Rarely, the contour interval can be 80 feet (San crosses in the map interior mark intermediate meridians
Jacinto is such an example in Southern California). The and parallels. These tick marks can be joined to give very
Malibu Beach topo has a contour interval of 25 feet and accurate north-south and east-west reference lines for
index contour lines are every four contour lines rather than drawing north-south (N-S) reference lines. These N-S lines
the usual five. Some maps in the Sierra and the Southern can be drawn as needed to cover the area navigated, typically
California deserts are still in the “provisional” status and about one inch apart. Because of meridians converging to
use metric contour intervals. Intervals are typically 20 the North Pole and because of the kind of projection used,

73
 UNITED STATES MOUNT SAN ANTONIO QUADRANGLE
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CALIFORNIA
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 7.5 MINUTE (TOPOGRAPHIC)

440000mE 441000mE 442000mE

117° 40' 10" 117° 37' 27"

C A B

3794000mN 3794000mN

3793000mN 3793000mN

3792000mN 3792000mN

3791000mN 3791000mN

34° 15' 23" 34° 15' 23"

117° 40' 10" 440000mE 442000mE 117° 37' 27"
SCALE 1:24 000
1 1
2 0 1 MILE

1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 FEET

MN
GN 1 1
2 0 1 KILOMETER

13 1/2° CONTOUR INTERVAL 40 FEET

0° 23'
236 MILS NATIONAL GEODETIC VERTICAL DATUM OF 1927
7 MILS
DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL

Figure 6-2. A portion of the Mt. San Antonio USGS 7.5' Series Quadrangle (reduced in size to fit this page)

74
 is transferred between the map and the terrain. When GPS
receiver readouts are set to the UTM coordinate system,

1000
500
the UTM map grid allows easy transfer to a location on

0
the map. Very accurate location can be plotted using UTM
1000 templates such as shown in Fig.6-3. On a metric map with
metric contours, it is useful to remember that 300 meters is
close to 1,000 (984) feet and 1,600 meters (5,249 feet) is
close to a mile.
UTM Coordinates–Location in the UTM system
500 is defined by the two coordinates of the point, giving the
easting first and then the northing (see Appendix A). The
convention of east (right) first, then north (up) second
starting from the southwest corner can be remembered by
the mnemonic “read right up.” A UTM coordinate can be
0
expressed with several levels of precision: within one meter
square area, ten meter square area, or 100 meter square
area. In Figure 6-2 as an example, Mount San Antonio
100m = 328 ft. = 0.3 in.
(Mt. Baldy) is 613 meters east of a line through the tick
marks labeled 440 at the top and bottom of the map, and
Figure 6-3. UTM template for 7.5 minute, 1:24,000 series topo it is 241 meters north of the line through the tick marks
corresponding to 3794 at the east and west boundaries of
in Southern California the width of a quadrangle map at the map.
the top is slightly less than at the bottom (about 350 feet, or Since this topo is in UTM Zone 11 and Region S, the
2/10 inch). The two sides are not quite parallel, but both do combined full UTM coordinate to the precision of one meter
point to true north. would be: 11S 440613E 3794241N. The digits printed in
Quadrangle maps show range, township, and section small type (superscript) denote the hundreds and thousands
lines of the United States public lands survey in red. Many of meters, which are referenced to the equator (northings)
section lines are sufficiently close to true north to permit and the zone meridian (eastings) and need not be listed when
their use as bearing reference lines. Others are obviously giving a reference on a single quadrangle. By convention,
skewed and unusable. For example, the north and south this same coordinate can also be streamlined and expressed
boundaries of Section 7 in Figure 6-2 are close to east-west, as 40613 94241 to a precision of one meter. Expressing the
but the east and west boundaries are skewed and not usable coordinates to a precision of ten meters (33 feet) would be
as N-S lines. Except when skewed, sections are one square written 4061 9424; to the nearest one hundred meters (328
mile, so the section grid can be used as a ready scale for feet), it would be written 406 942.
distance estimating. Accuracy should be checked before The N-S UTM grid lines are aligned with true north
using any of these survey lines as N-S lines for navigation. only at the center of the UTM zone. In Southern California
UTM Grid–Many quadrangle maps have the Universal they may differ by as much as -2.5º at the west edge of the
Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid printed on them, zone and +2.5º at the east edge of the zone; at the Equator
providing a convenient reference system to use as a scale the west and east edges of the zone are true north. The
and for N-S lines (see Appendix A). If it is not printed deviation between true north edges of the zone and UTM
on the map, the UTM grid can be constructed from the grid north (GN) at the center of the topo map is shown
blue tick marks spaced at one kilometer intervals on the as one of three arrows in the diagram at the bottom of the
borders of the map, using a long straightedge and a fine map, along with the GN value in terms of degrees and
pen. The UTM grid of one-kilometer squares (.62 mile, minutes. The other two arrows are magnetic north, along
approximately 2/3 mile) provides an excellent framework with its declination value, and true north.
for scaling map features relative to their on-the-ground
terrain features. As a result, distances on the map are easy Judging Gradients of Trails and Slopes
to visualize. For example, a distance equal to a tenth of the The local steepness of the terrain is important in
grid is one hundred meters ( 328 feet), about the length of a picking a route. It is also a safety factor in judging avalanche
football field. The grids themselves provide an excellent local hazards on snow and loose rock slopes.
scale for quick assessments of distances and location. Precise Slope–The slope can be expressed as the angle from
distances are seldom necessary when navigating. The one- the horizontal in degrees, or the ratio of elevation change
kilometer grid lines serve to calibrate the eye as attention to horizontal distance change as percentage. Use of slope

75
in percentages is not very useful in a practical sense since it safe because a human body, like a loose rock, tends to stay
is not linear. Slope in degrees (0º-90º) is a linear measure, put rather than to slide down. But it is difficult to climb
same as the azimuth and declination-clinometer scale on a in loose scree, leading to the “two steps up, one step back”
compass, and is easy to understand. For the angle of repose, phenomenon. Rock walls and the dirt sides of stream
a 34º slope is easy to visualize and can be measured with channels may occasionally have steeper slopes, because of
the compass clinometer, but as a 67% slope it is hard to supporting rock or vegetation. Highway slopes are usually
visualize, measure, or use in the field. For anyone desiring less than 6º, sand dunes up to about 30º, scree slopes
a percent slope number for trip planning purposes, it can between 30º and 40º, avalanche-prone slopes between 25º
easily be estimated by multiplying the degree slope by two. and 50º, and house stairs about 35º. Steep constructed trails
The resulting number, valid up to about 45º, is within 10% have slopes in the range of 6º to 12º.
of the mathematical percent slope, which is adequate for Contour Line Spacing of Slopes–With rare
any personal trip planning. exceptions, the USGS English system 7.5´ topo maps
The spacing of contour lines is a measure of slope. For show 40-foot contour lines with a heavy major line every
example, on a 1:24,000 scale map, 1/10 inch represents 200 200 feet. For the English system, spacing of 40-foot and
horizontal feet. For an 11º slope, the vertical rise over this 200-foot contour lines at various degrees of slope is shown
200 feet is 40 feet, or one contour interval. Thus an 11º in Fig 6-4; spacing and values for the metric system are
slope on this map scale has a spacing of 1/10 inch (2.5 mm). calibrated differently. Some topos in the Sierra have been
A 45º slope would rise 200 feet in 1/10 inch, or five contour converted to the metric system, typically with 20 meter
intervals (one major, bold contour interval), which places contour intervals. Also, some metric system topos in the
the contour lines five times closer together. Fig.6-4 shows Sierra and the deserts of Southern California remain in the
the spacing of contour lines for various degrees of slope. A “provisional” status with hand-lettered data (vs. printed).
scale (inch or cm) on the compass base plate provides the On these topos intervals are typically 20 meters (66 feet) in
means to make linear measurements. the Sierra and 10 meters (33 feet) or even 5 meters (16 feet)
Topo maps do not provide or imply any terrain in the deserts. Caution must be exercised when estimating
information between the contour lines. The terrain between slopes from the metric contour lines so as not to confuse
two contour lines actually might be a slope or might be them with the English system.
composed of a series of horizontal ledges or vertical terrain
features of less than 40 feet. This effect is true of horizontal
appearing narrow ridges in the high Sierra, which often are NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
a series of jagged pinnacles and notches. It is also true in
flat desert with many scattered large boulders (e.g. Indian Compass
Cove). This means that planning a trip in unknown terrain
based on topo maps alone can be misleading or dangerous. The Earth and Its Magnetic Field
Do consult leaders who have been there before, and it is The true geographic north-south pole direction
always best to scout the trip in advance. (longitude lines) is defined by the axis of rotation of the
Most natural hillsides such as sand, loose dirt, scree and earth, and its rotation is in the east direction (latitude
talus typically have slopes of up to about 34 degrees, which lines) on maps. The earth also has magnetic poles which
is called the angle of repose. It is a slope that is relatively are in the general vicinity of the geographic poles. In 2012,
the surface location of the magnetic
north pole lay north of the Canadian
arctic, at about 85.9ºN latitude and
These are contour spacings for 147.0ºW longitude—about 280 miles
7.5 minute, 1:24,000 series topos.
from the geographic pole—and was
5° 10° 15° moving north-by-northwest (NNW).
Some references: In Southern California its movement
6° = slope of typical trails resulted in the magnetic declination
decreasing by one degree about every
20° 30° 35° 11° = slope of steep trails twenty years during the last quarter
34° = the angle of repose of the 20th century. That decrease has
accelerated to about one degree every
ten years as of 2012.
Figure 6-4. Contour line spacing of slopes

76
Magnetic Declination mechanical pencil, clipboard, belt buckle, another compass,
The difference in bearing between the geographic pole watches (rarely), cars (especially a row of cars), garbage
and the direction the horizontal magnetic needle points to is bins, or rocks containing iron ore. Man-made features like
called the magnetic declination. This varies significantly as power lines, pipes, rails, and buildings influence the local
a function of where a person is on the surface of the earth. magnetism. A few peaks in California, like Iron Mountain,
In California the magnetic declination is to the east of true are known to contain iron ore and distort the compass
north and varies from 11.5° E of geographic true north in readings. More rarely, magnetized lava flows, areas of large
Blythe to 15° E in extreme northwest California. In the Los meteor impacts, areas around a lightning strike, major
Angeles area, the declination is about 12° E, in the Southern earthquake faults, or even sunspot activity can influence the
Sierra it is about 13°, and in Yosemite it is about 13.5° E. local magnetic fields. If in doubt, take bearings from several
In the eastern United States the declination is to the west spots in the general vicinity to verify that the bearings do
of true north. A small diagram at the left bottom margin not change significantly.
of each USGS topo map shows the magnetic declination
direction, its date, and its bearing value. The Magnetic Compass
Typically, a magnetic compass functions because of a
Magnetic Inclination magnetized needle that will, in the absence of interference
The earth’s magnetic field has another major effect from nearby magnetic sources, align itself along the local
on compasses, a vertical component caused by the three- horizontal lines of magnetic flux. These lines ultimately
dimensional center deep inside the earth’s mantle. The converge toward the observationally averaged magnetic
needle attempts to follow the magnetic flux lines as they pole. From California, the compass sees the far away
twistingly converge downward toward the area of the magnetic pole as a strong point source. Approaching the
magnetic pole. Around the pole the magnetic flux lines and area of the magnetic pole, the magnetic field becomes more
a simple magnetized needle would tend to point vertically. vertical, and weak and erratic in the horizontal direction, so
Far from the magnetic north pole in Southern California, as to become unreliable or useless for a compass.
the north end of a simple magnetic needle (typically red)
of the compass will tend to point northward below the Compasses for Trail and Backcountry
horizon at about 59º. This is called magnetic inclination Compasses suitable for basic navigation feature a
and is caused by the same chaotic and asymmetric magma magnetized compass needle, pivoting on a sharp point inside
circulation that gives rise to the magnetic declination. a fluid-filled capsule. Starting from this point, there are a
However, we are not even aware of it when using a compass. number of different compass types, varying in increasing
The inclination dip of the needle is offset in compasses by amount of features and accuracy in use.
counterbalancing the southern end of the needle (typically Most Basic–Very experienced navigators, who are
white) for the local magnetic region–so that the needle stays also expert in terrain recognition on maps, may need only
horizontal. On different parts of the earth, the apparent a simple compass (e.g., attached via a strap to a finger,
location of the magnetic pole, declination, and inclination wristwatch band, or hiking stick). By keeping track of
changes in regions distant from geographic poles. Compass their location on the map, they may need a compass only
manufacturers have divided the earth into five magnetic for general cardinal points (N-NNE-NE-ENE-E, etc.)
regions and produce compasses with different amounts of reference.
counterbalance tailored to each region. Some manufacturers Rough Accuracy–The next compass level, capable
have designed a solution to this global anomaly, called global of taking rough bearings, is a compass with a fluid-filled
compasses. They contain an unmagnetized and bottom- capsule inside a moveable dial that contains a degree bearing
weighted needle that pivots horizontally on a magnetized scale on the azimuth ring of the dial. It is mounted on a
gimbals base (patented). The gimbal in turn rotates and transparent plastic base plate that shows a direction-of-
pivots on a jewel base in the dial. Thus the needle is isolated travel line or arrow. It probably has some meridian lines in
from any varying vertical (inclination) magnetism effects the dial, making it possible to take and plot bearings on the
of the different magnetic regions of the globe. A global map. Declination adjustment can only be accomplished by
compass can be used wherever one travels. taping on a declination arrow at the bottom of the dial.
Good Accuracy–These significant-level compasses
Local Magnetic Fields start to meet the demanding navigation needs for trail and
Local magnetic fields, as well as any nearby source with backcountry. They have a longer base plate that carries
iron content that may be magnetized, can affect the compass various measurement scales to use on a topo. The dial is
so as to distort the reading. Common local sources include a larger, and the degree bearing scale, capable of one-degree

77
resolution (not bearing accuracy) by the eye, is graduated in since you must look down at the compass. Point it from
two-degree increments. The dial has five or more meridian your belly, then look up at the bearing object you are trying
lines for more accurate plotting of bearings. The dial to point to. Then keep on looking down and up until you
contains an orienting arrow of parallel lines to align the are ready to commit to a reading on the dial. In some ways
needle within the arrow accurately. this is analogous to “hip-shooting” with a handgun, instead
It is strongly recommended that the dial also contain a of aiming it.
mechanical means to adjust for declination, which increases Best Accuracy–A full-featured compass (see Fig.6-
accuracy. The dial then also contains the clinometer needle 5) contains a fold-out sighting mirror to achieve the best
which uses the declination scale as also the clinometer scale. accuracy possible. Using the sighting mirror is analogous
The declination adjustment feature uses a small screw at to aiming a gun vs. hip shooting. It has all the features of
the top or bottom of the dial using the small key tool on the “bellybutton” compass, and with the folding mirror
the lanyard to turn the declination adjustment scale to the extended, it has a straightedge to plot over two miles on a
desired declination in degrees. Practically, the adjustment 7.5´ topo without resorting to a separate ruler. Most hikers
can be made to within one degree. and backpackers will carry a mirror for various purposes,
This is, however, still a flat, relatively short straightedge, including signaling and personal needs; if so, then why not
base plate compass referred to as a “bellybutton” compass add a compass to it?
Sighting notch

Direction of
travel arrow
0

Magnifying lens Sighting mirror

1cm

1/2

Base plate ruler Sighting line

2

Index mark
1INCH
3

Protective cover
0
1/2
4

Declination
N offset box
5

Meridian lines
NW

NE

2
270

90
W

0
8

Magnetic needle
80

08

(red end North) N

60

06

40
04
NW
SW

NE
SE

20
0 02
Declination scale
with adjustment
S
180 screw
270

90
W

E
80

08

Rotating bezel
60

06

40
04
4
1/2

SW

SE

20 02
0

Lanyard eye
9 S
Clinometer
1INCH

Base plate compass

8 180
7
needle
The basic layout and features are shown in the
1000
SCALE 1:50 000 METERS
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

6
2

drawing above. 5
1/2

1cm

Sighting compass Base plate with

3
1000
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2

multiple map
2
Additional features of a sighting compass are shown SCALE 1:24 000 METERS

scale rulers and

1 1000 9

in the drawing to the right. The base plate compass

1 2 3 4 8 7 6 5

magnifying lens
has been enlarged relative to the sighting compass
TENTHS OF MILES
SCALE 1:24 000

to improve clarity.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 6-5. Base plate and sighting compass features

78
 The mirror is best used with the compass held at arm’s feature, the more accurate the bearing. We typically think
length with fingers of both hands and with the cover folded of taking bearings on large geographical features such
partway open (about 45º), using both thumbs to adjust the as mountains, saddles and notches, big rocks, and man-
dial. Too many navigators still use and teach the carryover made objects and features. Most terrain we travel through,
method from the old “bellybutton” compasses, which is to however, is rich with all kinds of less distinct but very useful
hold the compass in one hand while using the other hand bearing information that we refer to as local bearings. The
to adjust the dial. This is more difficult and generally less closer the object of a bearing is, the more accurate our
accurate. location on the topo.
Local Bearings–If we know where we generally are,
Slope Measurement a local bearing can precisely identify our location on a
In the field, the compass can be used to estimate the topo when the compass is aligned from our location with
terrain slope (washes, gullies, ridges, cliffs, mountain sides) a known nearby feature on the topo. A local bearing can
using the clinometer needle of the compass. If the slope is identify a segment of the trail, road, or a direction in an
ascending to your left, set the dial to 270º at the index mark, intermittent stream, gully, ravine, wash, or ridge. To take a
so that the meridian lines are horizontal when the base plate local bearing, align the compass with that terrain feature and
edge is horizontal. If the slope is ascending to your right, set take its bearing. Then move the compass around the general
the dial to 90º at the index mark. Then visually align the map area until that bearing aligns with a corresponding
edge of the base plate to the slope of the terrain viewed, and feature on the map. The compass edge now passes through
read the slope angle on the declination-clinometer scale. our location.
Without a clinometer, measuring slope is a similar but Compass Accuracy–What is the practical (vs.
more difficult process. If the slope measured is ascending theoretical) accuracy a navigator can expect taking bearings
from your right to the left, set the compass dial at 360º. in the field? Experienced navigators will do better than
Align the edge of the base plate to the slope of the terrain inexperienced, and users of large mirror compasses will do
viewed, then adjust the dial so the meridian lines of the dial better than those using small, short base plate compasses.
are about horizontal to the eye, and read the slope angle at Some observed rules of thumb are
the index mark. • Inexperienced navigator with small compass–
If the slope is ascending from your left to the right, within 3º to 5º range
align the edge of the base plate to the slope of the terrain • Inexperienced navigator with mirror compass,
viewed, then adjust the dial so the meridian lines of the dial and experienced with large baseplate non-
are about horizontal to the eye, and read the degree number mirror compass–2º to 3º
at the index mark. Subtract that degree reading from 360º • Experienced with mirror compass–1º to 2º
to get the slope angle. Navigators will find that in taking a series of repeated
bearings on the same object, their results will tend to vary
Bearings in these ranges. Taking a series of repeated bearings on the
The clockwise angle from the true north reference same object is also the only way one can get a true sense
direction to the direction of a given line is called the bearing of the accuracy of his or her personal bearings technique.
or azimuth. To measure a bearing in the field, point the base Should a bearing accuracy be very important, for whatever
plate of the compass direction-of-travel arrow or sighting reason, averaging several repeated bearings will almost
line toward the object of the bearing. Then rotate the dial always provide a more reliable result.
so that the red end of the magnetic needle is directly in the Bearing on a Map–When measuring a bearing on
middle (parallel to or “boxed in”) the red end (north) of the a map, the map need not be oriented with any compass
orienting arrow or lines. For mirror compasses, accuracy is direction, and the compass straight-edge is used as a
determined by having the mirror sighting line pass through protractor. The compass magnetic needle is ignored. An
the middle of the dial as seen in the mirror. The bearing edge of the base plate is aligned from one object to the other,
is read on the dial at the index mark. While a person is connecting two objects, such as the navigator’s present
learning, errors of 180 degrees in direction (i.e. dial with location and the object. The dial is then rotated so that the
N-S direction reversed) can happen and can be easily meridian lines in the dial are parallel with the true N-S lines
corrected by adding 180º to the reversed bearing. on the map. The dial angle at the index mark is the bearing.
Bearings of Terrain Features–Any terrain feature on a Locating a Feature in the Field Using a Bearing from
topo or feature on the ground that continues in a direction a Map–Hold the compass with both hands and point it in
for at least 200 to 400 feet (1/10 to 2/10" on topo) has the direction at which the needle is exactly parallel within
a direction which is a measurable bearing; the longer the the orienting arrow or marks. Be sure that the sighting line

79
in the mirror goes through exactly the middle of the dial.
The object terrain feature will be accurately identified.
Bearing in the Field, Plotted on a Map–Hold the
compass with both hands and point it to the direction of the
desired terrain feature in the field (either a known position
or a candidate object). Adjust the dial so that the needle is
0
SCA
LE 1:24

2
000 1/4
MILE

/2
1/2

1
CH
1 IN
NE
E
90

/2
exactly parallel within the orienting arrow or marks (“box”

N
1
0

SE
80

0
0
1cm

NW

06
2

S
3 W
4
SW

18
5

0
270

the needle). Be sure that the sighting line in the mirror goes A. Base plate compass
through exactly the middle of the dial to preclude parallax.
On the map align the edge of the base plate from the terrain
feature in the field until the meridian lines in the dial are
parallel to the N-S lines on the map. The edge of the base
plate should pass close to your location; draw a line lightly on
the map. This will seldom be as accurate as locating a feature

7
in the field using a bearing taken from the map (above).

EN

8
N
0
8

E
NE 7

90

N
80

SE
4

NW
3

06
2

02 04
S
1000
9
W SCALE
8
7 1cm
1:50 6
000 5
3 SW
4
METER3
2
S

18
2
3

0
270 4

10
5

SC

SC 1
6

00 9
AL 8

0
ALE
7

E 1: 7
8

24
1000 9

1:24 2
00 6
Topo N-S lines

0M

00
0 3
ET 5
ER 4
1/2

S
7
6
1INCH

4
4

3
3

5
2
1/2

1
1

6
B. Sighting compass

7
8
Several kinds of north-south lines of sufficient accuracy
(usually within one degree) found on various maps may be
used for aligning the meridian lines of the compass dial. The Figure 6-6. Measuring a bearing in the field
left and right edges of the maps are true N-S. The north and San Diego, and Death Valley are near the central meridian
south borders of the map have corresponding tick marks, of Zone 11, where the grid north is equal to true north
which can be connected. All USGS topo maps have four UTM. Grids may thus be very close to true N-S lines or
precisely located crosses, each one third in from the edge with an appropriate GN correction can be used as accurate
of two map borders, which also can be connected. In many N-S references for plotting bearings.
areas, UTM grids are close to N-S, and some section lines Grid North (GN)–This UTM grid convergence is in
are very close to true N-S (the eye can easily identify any effect a UTM “declination,” off true north depending on
that are not so). In the deserts, roads often run N-S, and the east-west location within its UTM rectangular grid. On
the eye can tell. Strong message: use your eyes as a primary the topo maps it is called Grid North (GN) and is identified
navigational instrument! When accordion folded from east in the lower left corner of the topo. When the UTM lines
to west, the creases in the map can be used as accurate, but are off true north, the topo declination of the compass
hard to see, N-S lines. should be adjusted by the GN value “declination” to permit
Add N-S lines–The most practical way to add N-S use of the UTM lines for plotting accurate bearings.
lines on a topo is with a ruler. Drawing accurate north-south Declination Adjustment–When a UTM line is 1º
lines on the map at about one inch intervals works best for (GN) off true north, the declination of the compass should
taking and plotting accurate bearings, even with a short be adjusted by 1º to be able to use the UTM lines accurately
baseplate compass. There is no need to cover the whole map for taking and plotting bearings. Los Angeles is 1º west
with these lines, just draw them in to cover the area you (add to topo declination) and the east end of Joshua Tree
will be navigating in, and include all the terrain you will see National Park is about 1º east (subtract from declination).
along the way. In the area where you are navigating, measure One degree difference between top to bottom of a topo
and mark one inch intervals in line from the east or west translates to a linear map difference of 4 tenths of an inch,
edge of the map, then do so again about 10 inches higher or about 800 feet on the ground. For maps with UTM grids,
lower. Then connect the marks for accurate N-S lines. additional N-S lines are not necessary if you have a large
mirror compass, since the UTM line spacing is adequate for
Use of UTM Grid as N-S lines large mirror compasses, as long as the declination is adjusted
Our local UTM Zone 11 and Region S covers an area by the GN value. If you have a short base plate (no mirror)
from the Mexico border to just north of Reno and from compass, a straightedge extension is usually necessary to
Santa Barbara to Kingman, Arizona. In Southern California take and plot accurate bearings of objects that are more
the UTM grid N-S lines vary off the true north between than 1 mile away. Without the extension, to use a short base
about -1.5º to the west and +1.5º to the east, depending on plate compass you need N-S lines drawn on the topo about
the location within a UTM region. In the northern part of one inch apart. A few sample locations and their declination
the Region, the variation will be greater, up to 2°. Barstow, corrections for GN are listed below.

80
 Some Region S Locations in California Adjust Declination
Lake Tahoe Add 2º
Santa Barbara Add 1.5°
15,000 ft.
5° Santa Monica, Kings Cyn, Mono Lk Add 1º
San Diego, Big Bear, Barstow, Death Valley No Change
–– Mt. Whitney Joshua Tree NP East, Providence Mtns (Mojave NP) Subtract 1º
–– White Mountain Needles, Blythe Subtract 1.5º
14,000 ft.
10°
Altimeter
13,000 ft.
A Portable Barometer
15° An altimeter is a portable barometer. A barometer at home
12,000 ft. on the wall measures the air pressure and indicates changing air
pressure on a millibar scale. The standard air pressure at sea level
–– Mt. San Gorgonio
is 29.92 in.hg or 1013.25 millibars, equal to zero feet altitude at
11,000 ft. 20° sea level. Wherever it is located, a portable barometer measures the
–– Mt. San Jacinto
–– Mt. San Antonio air pressure, which is translated into equivalent feet (or meters)
of elevation for the altimeter. The altimeter provides a vertical
10,000 ft.
dimension to assist navigation. The altimeter nowadays can be
25° found as mechanical devices (Thommen is the “gold standard”),
–– Mt. Baden Powell
in wristwatches, and on electronic devices of various functional
9000 ft.
combinations. A GPS depends on satellite signals for elevation data
and is not a barometer. A few GPS models, however, also have a
30° traditional barometric altimeter added, which also can plot pressure
8000 ft. –– Mt. Waterman
(elevation) over time.

7000 ft. Pressure Sensors

35° The key element of an altimeter is the pressure sensor. Since
there are many different pressure sensors of varying sensitivity and
6000 ft. accuracy, the various altimeters will differ in their performance due
–– Mt. Wilson to inherent pressure sensor range of error, both between similar and
40° between different instruments. Thus, on a typical navigation day in
5000 ft. the mountains, various altimeters, even the same make and model,
will vary during the course of a day in a range of 50 to 100 feet. The
primary contributors are sensor sensitivity, air column temperature,
4000 ft. 45° –– High Desert micro-weather variations, and the temperature of the altimeter.

Effect of Weather
3000 ft.
An ideal altimeter would accurately identify the elevation of
50° our location and therefore which contour line we are on or near.
2000 ft.
Along with accurate bearings, altitude measurements can help us
–– Low Desert
plot closer to our exact location. But just as compass bearings carry a
range of inaccuracy, many mechanical and environmental variables
1000 ft. 55° also contribute to the local air pressure and altimeter reading. These
make accurate altitude determinations with an altimeter less reliable
than desired or imagined. Using an altimeter effectively requires an
Sea Level understanding of how it functions, what affects its readings, and what
60°F its accuracy limitations are. Many environmental (weather) aspects
affect air pressure, which along with mechanical sensor limitations
combine to affect the altimeter readouts. All the barometer can do
Figure 6-7. International standard temperature is provide the bottom line, a lump sum pressure converted to an
at various altitudes (at related features) elevation readout. That is where the navigator’s understanding of

81
the weather and altimeter comes in. the temperature may be 30º to 40º above or below the ISA
The fact that air pressure decreases with increasing standard. On a hot day the air expands and is less dense,
altitude in a predictable way, according to the International so there is less indicated altitude change than actually
Standard Atmosphere (ISA), is the reference basis for an accomplished. The altimeter will read too low on ascent
ideal altimeter. But altimeter accuracy seldom, and only and too high on descent. On a cold day the air contracts
under ideal conditions, approaches the contour accuracy and is denser, so more altitude change is indicated than
of the map. USGS topo maps have a vertical accuracy actually accomplished. The altimeter will read too high on
requirement that 90% of the elevations be within one half ascent and too low on descent. Starting near sea level in the
of a contour interval, which is 20 feet on a 40 foot contour LA basin on a hot summer day and arriving at 7,000 feet
map. As weather pressure systems come and go, the pressure elevation in the San Bernardino Mountains, we typically
change over a few days can amount to 400-500 feet of find that the altimeter will read about 400 to 500 feet low.
apparent elevation change. Diurnal (day to night) changes We have moved 7,000 feet higher in an air column much
typically account for 50 feet. On a sunny, windy winter hotter and lighter than the ISA standard.
morning in Joshua Tree the campsite elevation was observed
to change 50 feet in 15 minutes! Short-term micro-weather Air Temperature Variance
pressure variations are caused by changes in airflow around One can correct for temperature departures from ISA
the local terrain and offer no visible clues to the eye. standard using the Correction Factor (CF) of CF = 0.0022 x
Temp Variance (TV) ºF x Altitude Variance (AV) feet.
Temperature Compensation Thus, for a typical Southern California climbing day in
Most quality altimeters (Thommen, wristwatch, etc.) which the temperature is about 20 degrees warmer than the
are advertised as being “temperature compensated.” But standard, the altimeter after climbing 1,000 feet will read
the altimeter is not compensated for changes in the air 956 feet, i.e. CF = 0.0022 x 20ºF x 1000 feet = 44 feet. The
temperature—an almost universal misperception. Rather, altimeter as set at the beginning will then read 44 feet too
“temperature compensation” is a manufacturer’s attempt to low on a gain of 1000 feet. The table below shows altitude
design a mechanical or electronic compensation for errors change effect caused by temperature differences from the
resulting from temperature changes of the instrument ISA standard profile. For temperatures warmer than ISA,
itself. Ideally, this temperature compensation would allow the altimeter will read too low on ascent and too high on
the altimeter to have the same reading whether it is placed descent; for temperatures colder than ISA, the altimeter will
on a sunlit windowsill or nearby on an ice cube. Since the read too high on ascent and too low on descent.
temperature compensation is only an approximation, the
instrument’s temperature will always have some effect on TV °F 10°F 20°F 40°F
the readout. A wristwatch altimeter is kept at a fairly steady AV 200 ft. * * 22 ft.
temperature by body heat, but an altimeter hanging from AV 500 ft. * 22 ft. 44 ft.
the neck or in a parka pocket will drift more due to exposure AV 1,000 ft. 22 ft. 44 ft. 88 ft.
to the external environment. The same two altimeters, one AV 2,000 ft. 44 ft. 88 ft. 176 ft.
in a pocket and one on a wrist, will tend to differ due to the AV 5,000 ft. 110 ft. 220 ft. 440 ft.
different temperature of the instruments. AV 8,000 ft. 176 ft. 352 ft. 704 ft.

International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) * Too small to be significant or measurable

ISA defines the standard temperature at various
altitudes, against which the altimeters are calibrated. The The air temperature variance is just one of a number
worldwide ISA profile is more representative of the average of weather-related and mechanical criteria that affect the
year temperature profile of Northern California weather altimeter readout, but it is the one that can be quantified.
than that of Southern California. Fig. 6-7 shows the ISA
standard temperature profile ºF for altitudes up to 15,500 Accuracy
feet. Some geographic features are identified for reference at In spite of many variables, including the above,
various altitudes. good altimeter accuracy can be achieved and maintained
by resetting the instrument whenever the user is at an
ISA Standard Temperature identifiable location on the topo map. The more frequent the
Temperature change with altitude is about 3.5ºF per reset, the more accurate the altitude reading when necessary.
1000 feet. Therefore, the temperature component is a Resetting negates any environmental and mechanical
major contributor to pressure change. On an extreme day variables. As a practical matter, to make effective use of the

82
altimeter as a navigation instrument, the navigator should In camp, your altimeter becomes a simple stationary
• Reset the altimeter whenever reliable reference barometer. It can alert you to significant changes in weather.
is available. This could include lakes, summits,
trailheads, streams, forks in gullies and ridges,
roads, buildings, railroad tracks, power lines, Global Positioning System Receivers
mine shafts, benchmarks, and wherever
elevations actually appear on the map. Consumer-oriented Global Positioning System
• Reset the altimeter when a good fix is available (GPS) receivers (simply referred to as GPS) have become
based on a combination of clues, such as good increasingly popular as size, weight, user-friendly properties,
bearings. and costs have improved. A GPS that is designed for outdoor
• On days that are much warmer than the use can provide position fixes accurate to +/- three meters
standard, expect the altimeter to indicate an (+/- 10 feet). Because 20 feet corresponds to about 1/10 of
altitude change to be significantly less than the 1/10 of an inch on a 1:24,000 scale USGS map, a GPS fix
real world, on ascent and descent (i.e., it will far exceeds the usable accuracy on the topo. Using data from
read lower than actual altitude on ascent and satellite transmissions, the GPS can provide location in
higher than actual altitude on descent). Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates, which
• On days that are much colder than the can be plotted readily on topos with UTM grid using a
standard, expect the altimeter to indicate an UTM template. The GPS may also be used to give a bearing
altitude change to be significantly more than and straight-line distance from one location to another.
the real world, on ascent and descent (i.e., it GPS fixes can help resolve ambiguities and uncertainties
will read higher than actual altitude on ascent and increase the leader’s confidence in the credibility of his
and lower than actual altitude on descent). position estimates derived from other techniques.
As the navigational challenges of a trip increase, the
Use of the Altimeter value of a GPS as an adjunct navigational instrument
An altimeter can support the use of the compass and increases. It is especially useful in featureless terrain (such
terrain recognition on the topo by adding information of as some desert areas and snowfields); in conditions, such as
the vertical dimension–elevation. Periodically resetting whiteout or in a forest, where other terrain features become
the altimeter at known points on the map is necessary to invisible; and in exploratory cross-country trips over terrain
ensure accurate readings along the way. For example, you with nondescript features. Cross-country navigation across
are hiking on a trail and come to a stream. You look at a significant up and down terrain is a natural use of the GPS.
map and see a stream that crosses the trail in two locations By entering waypoints along a route, a leader may not
nearby. The stream crossing that is closest to your altimeter only know the speed the group is traveling, but also have
reading is probably your location. When crossing it, you a reference for retracing the route. The receiver is used to
reset the altimeter. record waypoints when at rest stops, trail junctions and
An altimeter can help you find your location in the important route changes. These waypoints can then provide
absence of compass fixes. For example, your altimeter reads guidance on the way back, regardless of weather or visibility
7,240 feet, and looking at your topo, you see that the trail conditions.
crosses this contour line in only one place. Your location is Waypoints can also be created and entered into the GPS
close to that point. If the trail goes up or down, crossing from the trip plan which can then be used throughout the
the 7,240 contour line in more than one place, you need to trip to provide direction and distance to the next waypoint.
determine your location by identifying the terrain features The Go-To function can then be used to lead from one
around you. waypoint to the next, creating a route to follow. The Track
An altimeter can also help locate your position when function allows a GPS to display and store the trail as one
only one compass bearing is available. Your altimeter travels. The track can be used to show the return route,
reading locates the closest corresponding contour line along which can also be stored and used again at a later date.
the line of the compass bearing on the topo. This is close to Under some conditions the GPS does not work well.
your location. Satellite signals can be significantly reduced in steep terrain,
An altimeter can also help you track where you are in deep canyons, or under extensive tree cover, enough to
relative to your trip plan. Deep into the trip on a steep affect normal GPS function. The GPS is a complex electronic
climb, it may give you the information you need to decide instrument and is thus fragile, can run out of battery power,
whether you can meet the trip objective or need to turn and has temperature limitations. By comparison, a compass
back. is simple and always works as long as it is kept away from

83
iron. For these reasons a GPS can supplement, but never Some Factors to Consider
replace, other navigational instruments (i.e., map, compass, One may consider these factors among others in
and altimeter). Exclusive reliance on the GPS as the sole choosing a GPS unit:
source of navigational guidance is strongly discouraged. • A 12-channel parallel receiver, capable of
receiving up to 12 satellite signals
Grid Systems and Datums (see Appendix A for further discussion) • Size, weight and controls layout (personal
A topographic map is typically used to plot GPS preference)
coordinates. High-end GPS units with adequate storage • Screen color—black and white is adequate,
capacity can display and use various maps which are but a color screen improves readability in all
downloaded from a PC. The GPS location coordinates are conditions, with backlighting for low-light
selectable from a number of formats that can be plotted on conditions
a map scale. Most commonly used coordinates are latitude/ • Screen size—bigger screens are better
longitude and the UTM. • Battery type—alkaline is common, or NiCad
Most GPS receivers are intended for worldwide and NiMH rechargeables, or Lithium, which
use. The shape of the earth as defined by a mathematical lasts longer
model and the local mapping reference system for various • Storage capacity—replaceable MicroSD cards
parts of the world is defined by a datum to provide local for downloading city and topo maps to the
mapping reference systems for various parts of the world. unit from a PC.
A GPS supports a large number of datums worldwide and Given the number of options available, testing a friend’s
can compute locations in any of these mapping systems and GPS in the field or taking a class (try before buy) is a good
datum bases. The user, however, must set the same GPS idea. And there are numerous on-line sources of reviews and
datum on the paper or electronic USGS map being used. If other information.
the GPS datum selected and the USGS map datum are not The various smartphones on the market are GPS
the same, significant errors in the field will result. enabled. A variety of mapping applications is available to
Note that the USGS 7.5 minute topo maps provide transform your phone into a GPS device for hiking. Although
map datum information in the legend at the lower left these applications do not yet match the functionality of a
corner of the map. While most existing 7.5´ topos were full-featured GPS designed for hiking, they provide good
created using the NAD27 datum, it is gradually being location information. Users should be aware that some
replaced by the NAD83 datum in newer topos. applications come with a set of maps loaded into the phone;
others receive the maps via the network in real time.
Handheld GPS Receivers While a GPS receiver cannot replace skill with map and
Small, lightweight GPS units with road and off-road compass, it can provide added capability and accuracy once
maps can be a boon to navigators. Specific locations such as its capabilities and limitations are understood.
trail junctions, roadheads, caches, summits, and campsites
can be entered into the GPS as waypoints prior to a trip to Global Positioning System
guide travel or during travel to guide a return. Positioning
and navigation Go-To functions are universal, and high- A handheld GPS receiver is one piece of a three-
end GPS receivers with adequate storage and memory can part navigation system, consisting of the space segment
accept and display map downloads from PCs. These maps (satellites), the control segment (ground stations), and the
are typically created and sold by the GPS manufacturer user segment (the receiver/processors).
(copyright and/or copy protected), but some units are A minimum of 24 operational satellites circle in six
compatible with other map sources. The downloaded circular orbit planes, about 12,551 miles (20,200 km) above
maps are an extra-cost item. Different types of map sets the earth, with a 12-hour period. The satellites are spaced in
are available, some for road travel and topographic maps orbit so that at any time a minimum of 6 and as many as 12
for off-road activities. These topographic maps are usually satellites will be in view to a user anywhere in the world. The
1:100,000 scale or 1:24,000 scale (1:25,000 for metric master control station is in Colorado Springs, with monitor
scale), which are equivalent to the USGS 7.5 minute topos. stations and ground antennas located throughout the world.
Some GPS models may also have barometric altimeters and The GPS receivers (including processing and antennas)
electronic compasses added; these features are in addition to work worldwide, and allow land, sea, or airborne operators
the basic elevation and compass features of the GPS and add to receive the GPS satellite broadcasts and compute their
little functionality with increased battery drain. precise position, velocity, and time. More information on
the GPS system can be found at http://www.gps.gov/

84
GPS Operation Accuracy
GPS operation is based upon satellite ranging. By Although today’s handheld GPS can achieve horizontal
measuring their distance from the group of satellites in accuracy to within 10 feet with good satellite coverage,
space, user receivers calculate their position on the earth. The many factors can influence actual performance. When
satellites act as precise reference points. Each GPS satellite GPS signals are reflected off the local terrain, foliage, or
transmits an accurate position and time signal. A GPS structures, reception is affected in the same way FM and
receiver measures the time delay for the signal to reach the cell phone signals can fade in and out while one is driving
receiver, which is the direct measure of the apparent range to in traffic in urban canyons. Receivers can be confused by
the satellite. Measurements collected simultaneously from multi-path reception (receiving direct and reflected signals),
four or more satellites are necessary to process and solve for interruption in the line of sight to a transmitting satellite,
the three dimensions of position, velocity, and time—which and poor satellite distribution in the sky. For outdoors users,
provides a position location and elevation. the effects of thick foliage in a forest and poor line-of-sight
location (e.g., in a deep canyon) can significantly affect the
achievable accuracy. Conversely, hiking
AIDS TO MAP USE in the desert or along a mountain ridge
offers the best accuracy potential.
Maps may be carefully folded and taped together with write-on tape on
both sides when used for navigating near the edges of the maps. The margin FIELD NAVIGATION
information need not be cut off, but can simply be folded under prior to
taping the edges together. It is much more difficult to do terrain/map rec- The primary goal of field navigation
ognition, to plot bearings, or to estimate distances when the maps are used is to execute the trip plan effectively
separately. and safely while staying found. The
leader needs to know how the group is
For 7.5´ maps that do not have the UTM grid overlay, which is close to true progressing from point A to point B,
north, the UTM lines can be drawn in using the tick marks at the edges. For which involves connecting the map to
accurate positioning on a UTM grid, there are UTM templates that provide the terrain (map orientation), tracking
Northing-Easting accuracy to 1 millimeter (better than 1/20 inch, or 100 feet). and locating the group’s position as it
progresses, and leading the group towards
Maps may also be folded accordion style parallel to the edges, so that the its objective in an organized fashion.
folds represent N-S lines.
Map Orientation
It is best to fold the map to show the specific area of interest and then
change the folding as the trip progresses. A map which is quickly available A map is oriented to the terrain
and needs no unfolding, especially in the wind or rain, is most useful for when it is horizontal and the direction
route following. Special map holders, available at outdoors stores, are avail- of its features is in line with (conforms
able to protect maps from abrasion, wind, and water. Re-sealable plastic to) the corresponding features on the
bags work too. ground. A map may be oriented by
inspection in a number of ways, most
Maps can be stored at home flat and protected in stiff cover folders available directly by rotating the map so that
from art supply stores or can simply be rolled up. corresponding map and terrain features
are in line by direct observation. If
There are map-measuring devices that utilize a little wheel to trace a route an observer knows his or her current
and measure the distance. A calibrated readout wheel shows the distance position on the map and can locate on
on maps of various scales. the map some recognized terrain feature,
then an imaginary line can be drawn
There are slope angle–contour spacing scales or templates for easy assess- between these two map locations. The
ment of terrain slope angles (see Fig.6-4). map can then be oriented by rotating
it so that this imaginary line points to
For a visual scale reference on a 7.5´ topo in the area to be traveled through, the terrain feature. The map may also be
draw a line 1 mile long (2.6´), and divide 1˝ of it into 10 parts, each 1/10˝ oriented with a compass by placing the
long. These “building blocks” of 1/10˝ equal 200 feet exactly. compass on the map with the compass
N-S bearing line parallel to a map N-S

85
line or the edge of the map. The map and compass are then
SOME RULES OF THUMB
rotated together until the compass indicates the map is
aligned to true north. In this case the compass needle itself
A linear bearing error of 1° yields
will be contained within and parallel to the orienting arrow.
Another practical way is to draw a N-S line in the ground 92.4 feet @ 1 mile or about 100 feet @1 mile
with a stick or the boot, then use that line as an accurate (roughly 1/20 inch on a 7.5´ topo)
N-S reference to realign the map after having been turned
in a different direction. An index finger width held at arm’s length

Position Location–by Terrain is roughly 1.5° to 2º, which yields

Inspection and Correlation with the Map
138 feet to 185 feet @ 1 mile
The group’s position on a map can generally be (roughly 0.07 to 0.1 inch on a 7.5´ topo)
determined in open country by establishing correspondence
between the map and the observed terrain. For example, A hand width (4 fingers, no thumb) held at
when standing on the shore of a lake, align the map so that arm’s length
the lake shore features on the map are in line with the actual is roughly 6° to 8º, which yields
features. It can be more difficult if one is in a canyon bottom
and must identify observed side features with those shown 555 feet to 740 feet @ 1 mile
on the map. Among trees it may be impossible. (roughly 0.28 inch (3/10˝) to 0.37 inch (4/10˝)
When on trails that switchback or wind in and out of on a 7.5´ topo)
gullies or around ridges, the navigator may determine the
location on the map relatively easily if one keeps track as One may estimate remaining daylight
these points are passed. Some leaders even count switchbacks
or gully crossings, a simple and effective technique. Local by measuring the distance of the sun’s path to the
bearings can be very useful. setting point on the horizon (the sun moves 15°/hr):
Skill in estimating distances to terrain features and in
estimating elevation differences helps considerably in map A four-finger-width at arm’s length yields
to terrain correlation (and vice versa) once a map is N-S roughly 30 minutes.
aligned. For example, the fact that a cliff is judged to be 1000
feet high and three kilometers distant may help considerably Two four-finger-widths yield roughly 60 minutes
in searching the map for the corresponding feature. (1 hour).
In climbing a ridge or slope, one can often gain an
awareness for the altitude by noting neighboring peaklets Position Location–by Fixes
or saddles that are about level with one’s position and the
elevation of which can be determined from the map. Some map-indicated features are visible in the
As one works from the map to the terrain and vice surrounding terrain and can accurately identify a position.
versa, all the available clues should be used. For example, These include benchmarks; section markers; prominent
one could note the width, height, direction, curvature, and summits; trail junctions; trail switchbacks; trails crossing
length of a gully on a map and compare these features with ridges, ravines, and streambeds; and man-made objects.
what is visible in the gully to see what fits. Gullies A and
B in Figure 6-2 diverge near 8,600 foot elevation. Gully A Map and Compass Bearings
leads almost directly south (175°) and climbs 1,200 feet to An observer’s location on the map can be determined
the saddle. Gully B is slightly shallower, has a more open in the field by taking at least two bearings to identified
shape, and disappears below the saddle. The bearing is 156°, features and then plotting these bearing lines on the map.
and that bearing tops out on the ridge roughly 100 feet Ideally, their intersection is supposed to be the observer’s
above the saddle. Gully C generally parallels B, but is much location. For accuracy the bearings should be as nearly
deeper, is distinguished by an intermittent stream, and leads perpendicular to each other as possible. If the observer’s
toward West Baldy summit. These are sufficient clues to position is known to be on some identified line such as a
confirm a reliable identification. trail, road, gully, or ridge, then only one bearing is needed as
nearly perpendicular to the known line as possible. A third
bearing to another known point can be used to check and

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 SOME USEFUL CONVERSIONS

Attention here is confined to USGS maps with a scale of 1:24,000 (7.5´) and electronic maps that are printed on
a 1:1 basis (e.g., one actual inch on the map does indeed correspond to 24,000 inches on the ground). With the
variety of printing scales available with the software, a computer-generated map may not be on a 1:1 basis with
the actual map published by the USGS, so some of the measures listed below will not apply. The base plates of
appropriate compasses provide scales that read directly in English (miles) and/or metric (kilometers) systems that
can be used to measure distances on the 1:1 map.

Linear Conversions

On the Ground
1 kilometer (km) = 0.6214 miles
1 mile = 1.609 km
1 meter = 3.281 feet = 39.4 inches

On the Map
1 unit on the map = 24,000 units on the ground
1 inch on the map = 24,000 inches on the ground
= 2,000 feet on the ground
= 0.379 miles
2.64 inches on the map = 1 mile on the ground
1.64 inches on the map = 1 km on the ground
0.1 (1/10) inch on the map = 200 feet on the ground, exactly
(The “building block” for 7.5´ topos)

Pacing

When navigating in conditions of poor visibility, as in a dark night or a heavy whiteout, one must move from
one point to another, keeping the segments short, limited to what visibility allows. In such conditions the ability
to estimate the distance traveled by counting steps can be useful. This works best over nearly level or slightly
undulating terrain. Here the word “pace” means the length of a step in walking-left foot to right foot. If one’s pace
is about 2.5 feet long (typical), every fourth pace marks 10 feet. Counting every fourth pace as 1, 2, 3, etc. is easier
to keep track, and then multiply that number by 10 feet to get the paced distance. After a predetermined count is
reached, say 100 (or 1000 feet), a second person is signaled to keep track of the 100s, and you can start counting
fourth paces over again. Some military recon teams use this technique. Each individual must find the typical size of
his or her own pace (that is practical to use) and own technique for keeping track of it.

usually improve accuracy of the location. The three bearings snow fields, etc.) with the aid of compass bearings. From
will ordinarily not intersect at the same spot but will create a known location on the map, a bearing may be measured
a bearing-bounded triangle (called an “error triangle” or from the map, and the compass can be used to locate
“cocked hat”). The best location estimate might then be accurately the feature in the field. Conversely, a bearing
in the middle of the triangle, depending on the relative may be taken to an unidentified physical feature and then
accuracy of the three bearings. plotted from the current position on the map to identify the
Navigation in terrain with distinctive relief with USGS feature in question.
maps and a compass can be done with good precision. Most
of the time people achieve reasonable accuracy in taking
bearings within two to three degrees. Following a bearing Route Following
with an error of about three degrees will result in an offset
of about 300 feet per mile. Errors of this order can to be The best way to follow the planned route is to keep
expected when navigating over featureless terrain (desert, track of location on the map at all times, i.e. “to stay found.”

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A leader should look at the terrain, recognize the features process is then repeated. This method gives greater accuracy
on the map, and carry a mental image of movement and than trying to follow an exact compass course, and it allows
location on the map. Carrying the map close at hand and one to pick a good path and to move around obstacles.
looking at it often, the leader is able to read the minor When moving over a snowfield in a fog, it may be useful to
features shown by the fine detail in the contour lines. Trip send another person ahead to the limit of visibility and then
planning and scouting the trip can be very beneficial in to move to the person and repeat the process.
enhancing these skills. As an example, a leader descends from a desert
Selecting visual terrain points (attack points) to walk mountain at dusk. The automobiles are known to be out
toward for the next trip leg of the trip plan is a useful on the desert one mile away at a bearing of 85 degrees. The
procedure. Switchbacks and other local trail wanderings are leader estimates that in crossing the desert, the group will
ignored in this process; it is the general trend that counts. move at 3 miles/hour. The leader sets the compass dial at
The navigator picks out a clearly visible point on or near 85 degrees, notes the departure time on a watch (or starts
this trend line as an attack point and proceeds toward it. a stopwatch), aligns the compass needle, selects a large rock
Desirable features of an attack point are that it is actually (still visible) about 1/4 mile away to home on, and starts
near or on the route, can be kept in view en route, and is off. After about twenty minutes of walking with a few more
identifiable once it is reached. If the attack point cannot be homing points, the group should encounter the vehicles. A
kept in view, pick a closer in-line object to serve as a local better technique, however, would be to offset the chosen
heading reference towards which the route can be directed direction deliberately, say to 80 degrees; then there would
for a given distance. be no doubt about which way to turn (to the right) when
A navigator should always think ahead and predict reaching the road. The cars would be reached about 500
future terrain features based on distance (or time) from a feet further.
known or presumed position. For example, when hiking on
a trail through timber in the western Sierra at an estimated A Compass Technique–
speed of 3 miles/hour, the group crosses a small stream Bearing of a Local Route Segment
that they believe they have correctly identified on the map.
About one mile farther the map shows another small stream Navigation technique frequently is most needed in
crossing the trail. The leader thus predicts that the second conditions of limited visibility such as in a forest, in fog, or
stream will be reached in twenty minutes. The time is noted, at the bottom of a gully or valley, and especially when the
or the stopwatch started, and if in fact a stream is reached leader has lost track and is not sure of his or her position.
in about twenty minutes, the leader has a strong confirming For these cases, a useful technique is to measure the bearing
clue that the original identification of the streams and the of the local route one is following, such as a segment of a
group’s previous and current positions are correct. ridge, dry creek bottom, trail, or hillside slope as a check
on the presumed position. If the leader has fallen behind
Dead Reckoning in the position-monitoring task, he or she may examine the
surrounding terrain, take an altitude reading, and search the
Dead reckoning is the process of moving from a known map for a segment with corresponding bearings or other
point for an estimated distance in an estimated direction to attributes to reestablish his or her position. Also, one may
reach a desired destination without visible clues along the ask for information from the group.
way. The process may be done in distance, in direction, or
in both. Dead reckoning is used in featureless terrain or at Updates along the Way
times of limited visibility, but can also be useful in general,
even hiking along a trail. Dead reckoning and the compass-based techniques can
Distance traveled is most easily obtained by estimating lead to lateral drift in position as time goes by. The perceived
one’s speed of travel and multiplying by elapsed time. For position can be reset to actual position by using one or more
directional dead reckoning with limited visibility as in of the position fixing routines. Reaching predicted attack
timber, darkness, or fog, navigators must carry a compass in points, monitoring the altimeter as particular altitudes are
hand and walk as closely as possible along a compass course. passed, and recognizing particular small-scale landforms
It helps to pick out an object, such as a tree or rock, which such as gully crossings can serve this purpose. The focused
lies on the compass course and is as far ahead as visibility leader will take advantage of any break to establish a new fix.
permits as an attack point and to walk to the object. The Indeed, break locations are often planned with this in mind.

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ROUTE FINDING ducks, branches, marks in the dirt made by hiking poles or
other objects, and wands (all removed on the way out). Best
Leading is to record some return bearings.
In the Sierra a leader need not worry about momentary
In the field the ability to choose a good path along loss of the trail. If correct about the general route of the
a planned route grows with experience. The terrain trail, one will find the trail in good time. This is an example
visualization phase of the trip planning serves to put the big of the old saw “Where would I go if I were a trail?” or “If
picture of features such as major ridges, canyons, and roads I go where it makes sense, the trail will find me.” On the
well in mind. The leader can do such good things as be alert, other hand, for some local peaks on the Hundred Peaks
look around, and try to register the terrain in one’s brain. list, staying on the route can be critical to minimize lengthy
Develop a two- or three-dimensional image of the terrain. encounters with brush. A major factor in establishing HPS
Grow beyond the one dimensional, head-down, trail- or routes in these cases is avoidance of brush, so the route can
compass-following mode. The big picture in reality can sometimes proceed seemingly all over the place.
often dissolve into a mess of local terrain features dominated A leader must keep the group together and maintain
by brush, rocks, dry waterfalls, washes, and other terrain visible or audible connecting ties to the rear leader (the
features. These have scales that are less than a contour sweep), particularly at turning points where people may go
interval and do not show up on the map. Probably because astray or with use trails that do not appear on the map or
maps do not reflect and even written guides often ignore in guides and that may be misleading. Walkie-talkies are
these features, they often come as unpleasant surprises. very useful. Every thirty minutes or so, one may let the rear
Fortunately, with experience, one can develop a sense of the catch up and verify that all is well. Because large groups
terrain from a quick observation and pick a reasonable path have a peculiar tendency to spread out over the landscape
through brush, over talus, or up a ridge. during the last stages of trips proceeding across relatively flat
The “reasonable path” is actually selected by assessing terrain, the leader should take special precautions.
the perceived possibilities. Some guidance for selecting
the detailed route might be provided by past experience Techniques
with different types of terrain and vegetation coverage.
For essentially identical plan and profile view but different Depth perception as to ridges and gullies can be gained
ground cover, the relative times to progress over a given plan by moving back and forth a few feet or by walking a few
segment could be significantly different. These unexpected tens of feet and noting how terrain in front seems to move
conditions are not foreseen in the trip plan but should give relative to terrain behind. On exploratory trips the seasoned
motivation for the leader to examine alternative routes at members of the group may help solve the immediate
the scene. problems. The leader may send out scouts as appropriate
When attention must be devoted to solving immediate to find the best local route but should maintain control by
small-scale problems, the leader still must keep the big telling them how far to go, when to come back, and how to
picture in focus. If for some reason the leader falls somewhat communicate.
behind in knowledge of the group’s exact location on the One must be especially careful in descending ridges to
map, the position should be reacquired and verified by keep to the correct ridge at branch points; a mistake of a
taking a fix at the next convenient break. On some terrain few feet at a branch point high up can lead to a mistake
even relatively slight departures from the desired route of a few miles at the bottom of the mountain. Streambeds
are embarrassing at best or near catastrophes at worst. diverge going up, and choice of the wrong gully can lead
On peak climbs these often occur on the descent and can to a surprise at the top of a secondary ridge far from the
be as apparently innocuous as making (or not making) a summit objective.
slight turn that results in being on the wrong ridge. Even A number of other techniques aid in “staying found”:
experienced leaders have made major errors atop rounded keeping a sense of direction and route always in the
and forested peaks with no conspicuous trails, where “down” forefront; learning to track footprints and to follow one’s
is in all directions or when clouds block all views. A back own footprints upon return; knowing how to recognize the
bearing here can be essential to find the right way down. Big Dipper and locate the North Star; and making use of the
Being concerned about the return trip, on the way fact that the morning sun is in the east, generally due south
in the leader should stop, look back frequently, and make at local noon, and to the west as the sun sets. If one has an
mental notes of key turning points. Written notes as to analog watch or a reasonably good spatial imagination, one
appearance, time, location, altitude, and other cues can can point the standard time hour hand at the sun to find
help, as can leaving route markers as appropriate, such as south, which will be half way between that direction and 12

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 USEFUL NAVIGATION HINTS

1 For visual scale reference in the area traveled through on a 7.5´ topo, draw a line 1 mile long (2.6˝), and divide
1˝ of it into 10 parts, each 1/10˝ long. These “building blocks” of 1/10˝ equal 200 feet exactly.

2 At arm’s length, index finger width subtends 1.5º to 2º, and a pinky subtends 1º to 1.5º, unique for each
individual. Use what fits you.

3 One degree at one mile distance subtends 92.4 feet of linear distance, or approx 100 feet. A 3º compass error
at 1 mile results in approx 300 feet linear offset for location error range.

4 At this time (2015), declination at Joshua Tree NP is 12º, at Mt. Wilson is 12º, and at Santa Barbara is 12.5º.

5 The North Magnetic Pole is in Northern Canada and moving to NNW, at double the historical rate since 2000.
Currently in Southern California that translates to a declination decrease of 1º about every 12 years.

6 Take a set of three independent bearings of the same object. The resulting spread in degrees is a measure of
your compass use accuracy. Also, the average of your three bearings results will tend to be more accurate
than any single reading.

7 After taking a bearing in the field, point the compass back at the object to see how close to the object the
bearing points. Use finger technique (2 above) to estimate degrees off.

8 For any good compass, the most import feature is a free and easy dial movement.

9 When the compass is laid on a topo, the magnetic needle “disappears,” i.e. it becomes useless. There is one
exception—when you are using the compass to orient the map to true North.

10 Bearing taken on a topo with N-S lines using the compass as a protractor is always accurate for identifying the
correct object in the field. Bearing taken of object in the field using the compass as a magnetic instrument will
almost always be less accurate.

11 To locate one’s position in the field on a topo, the closer an object is, the more accurate its bearing will be for
locating it on the topo.

12 When triangulating with two bearings, choose two objects whose lines of sight from your position are as close
to 90° apart as possible.

13 On a topo, a single closed contour line may represent a terrain feature anywhere from 1 foot to 79 feet high.
That feature is always visible, especially close by.

14 To locate and go to a destination object in the field, follow its bearing from the topo. Visually pick out a
distant terrain point and walk toward it (don’t lose sight of it). Then on the topo, take a reference bearing from
the destination object to another object that is nearly at a right angle to the path traveled. Following the path
direction, periodically check to see if the reference bearing points to the reference object yet. When it points
to the reference object, you are at your destination.

15 Man-made features can and will change over time, but even a recently revised topo may not show the latest
additions or deletions. An example is the North end of Boy Scout Trail on the Indian Cove topo.

16 Highlight or color-dot prominent high points on the topo that are most likely visible to the eye. This allows for
easier N-S alignment of the topo and facilitates timely terrain recognition.

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17 To keep a topo easily N-S aligned, draw a N-S line on the ground with a hiking pole or your boot. The topo
N-S lines can then be quickly and easily aligned with the line on the ground.

18 When N-S lines have not been drawn, a map may be folded accordion style parallel to the edges, so that the
folds represent N-S lines.

19 When using a topo for terrain recognition, always have it essentially N-S aligned.

20 For any UTM Region, the UTM grid N-S lines are true north only at the centerline of the region. Moving outward,
they diverge to about +2.5º on the west border and to -2.5º on the east. UTM lines can be used as N-S lines
for the compass, as long as the compass declination is adjusted for the UTM N-S line divergence. To west of
the centerline, the UTM angle (GN on the topo) is added to the topo declination. To east of the centerline, the
UTM angle (GN on the topo) is subtracted from the topo declination.

21 For 7.5′ maps that do not have the UTM grid overlay, the UTM lines (instead of N-S lines) can be drawn in
using the tick marks at the map edges. For accurate positioning on a UTM grid, use UTM templates or scales
that provide N-E location accuracy to 1 millimeter (better than 1/20 inch).

22 Maps may be carefully folded at the edges and taped together with write-on tape on both sides. Do not cut
off the map edges. Write-on tape permits lines to be drawn on the tape when plotting near the taped edges
of the maps. It is almost impossible to do terrain/map recognition, to plot bearings, or to estimate distances
when the maps are not taped together.

23 It is best is to fold the map to show the specific area of interest and then change the folding as the trip
progresses. A map which is quickly available and needs no unfolding, especially in the wind or rain, is most
useful for route following. Special map holders, available at outdoors stores, are designed to protect maps
from abrasion, wind, and water while being viewed. Re-sealable plastic bags work too.

24 Copy Fig.6-4, Contour Line Spacing of Slopes onto a Vu-graph transparency. Then cut out and trim the contour
spacing area to use as a template for overlay on a topo. When the template is overlaid on any topo contour
lines, select the best spacing match to determine the angle of the slope on the topo.

25 The trail or dirt road dash marks on a topo are 151 feet point to point. There are 35 of these to the mile.

26 There are map-measuring devices which utilize a little wheel to trace a route and measure its distance. A
calibrated readout wheel shows the distance on maps of various scales.

27 When the sun is highest around local noon, the shadow of a vertical stick points to the north.

28 At equinox in March and September, the sun is above the horizon for twelve hours. It rises at 90º East and sets
at 270º West.

29 There is a natural 3:2 rule for going up a steep hill, versus coming down the hill. If it takes three hours to reach
the top, it will take about two hours to come back down.

30 If you know where you are on a map but you don’t know what the declination is, here is how to find it.
First take an accurate magnetic bearing of an object (align the needle with the dial meridian lines). Then,
on the map take the geographic bearing from where you are to the object. The difference in bearings is the
declination.

31 To improve depth perception between two objects in the field, move alternately to the left and right, while
observing the relative movement of inline near and far objects.

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o’clock. The leader needs to keep track of how the margins bearings of local route segment, successive fixes along the
built into the original pre-trip plan are faring, especially route? Then, after concluding that it all adds up, the leader
time. On longer day trips be aware of the time of sunset— can compose a plan and try it out on other experienced
information readily obtained from newspapers, weather and knowledgeable members of the group. Throughout
reports, internet resources, or from most GPS receivers. the situation, the leader needs to maintain control,
Near the end of the day, the daylight time remaining can communications, and composure. Resist snap decisions and
be estimated by measuring the distance of the sun’s path think it through.
to the setting point on the horizon in portions of four-
finger hand widths. The width of the four fingers of the Expect Error
hand at arm’s length is approximately 6º to 8º, depending
on a person’s width of fingers. Since the sun moves fifteen Seasoned leaders recognize that none of their
degrees/hour, each four-finger width corresponds to about instrumental measurements is error free and that small
30 minutes of sunlight. It is important to remember that the errors uncorrected can, over time, turn into large errors.
sun approaches the horizon at an angle. So the 30 minutes The most effective means to compensate for error buildup
four-finger width is measured along the path of the sun. is to make appropriate fixes. These are times when a GPS
receiver can come into its own.
Other methods help compensate for error buildup.
Stress and Emergencies Under many circumstances the easiest is to live with it, as
when the group is returning to the (unseen) cars parked at
It is important to recognize that navigating becomes the end of a desert road and the leader uses a bearing offset
much more difficult under stressful conditions. Stress may to assure that the group actually hits the road. When an
occur in the leader for a variety of reasons: the party is objective is an obscure point rather than a line, the leader
delayed and darkness is near, the trail on the topo is wrong, may use the group as a resource. When near, but somewhat
the map tore or blew away, leader and party fatigue has set before reaching the estimated point, the group may spread
in, or someone in the party may challenge the leader and out, say, five scouts in a line abreast at thirty feet apart and
create uncertainty as to the location and route. Stress may proceed. This procedure can compensate for about a 200-
destroy memory and make judgment faulty. Fatigue and foot (1/10 inch) error on the topo. The spacing and number
stress are most manifest mentally as a reduction in one’s of scouts can be adjusted to suit the circumstances. If a
capacity to pay attention to more than one thing at a time. group approach is not pertinent, a solo search procedure can
Consequently, the leader must consciously work to keep be conducted. One strategy is to start at the best-estimate
cool, clear, and focused. It helps to take time, write things location, then walk north for ten paces, east for ten paces
down, and consult with experienced and knowledgeable (25 feet), south for twenty paces (50 feet), west for twenty
people in the party. Experience and preparation are the best paces (50 feet), north for thirty paces (75 feet), adding
preventatives for stress, and practice is the way to obtain paces in this expanding pattern until the point is found.
experience. For example, one may practice navigating while Depending on the nature of the point and circumstances,
pretending that the map or compass is lost. the pattern increment, e.g., ten paces in the example, can
If, notwithstanding trip planning and attempts to keep be reduced or increased. Also, when other help is available,
track of the group’s progress, the leader becomes unsure of more people can be recruited to broaden the pattern.
the group’s location, he or she should stop and analyze the
situation and not count on luck or rely on “gut feel.” One
should study the map and try to reconstruct what might TRIP/ROUTE PLANNING
have happened, then form hypotheses as to position by
methodically looking for a match between the observed Trip planning is essentially an exercise in foresight by
terrain and a corresponding place on the map. To get a identifying possibilities and their associated pros and cons
different view, one may climb a rock or a nearby hill or and deciding among the alternatives. A good leader selects
send out a few group members for a short look around. reasonable objectives, achievable by reasonable routes. The
One should use all available navigational techniques to process begins with terrain familiarization to set the scene
support one another. Navigation is a gathering of clues, and and view the physical constraints; then proceeds to the route
redundancy of information is good. Does all of the evidence planning needed to get from A to B with safety, efficiency,
about position add up—bearings to features, altitude, and maximum enjoyment; and ends with contingency
terrain shape, gradients of local slopes and pathways of possibilities, developed to try to address unexpected but
the immediate past, distances to features, size of features, possible events. In developing route possibilities from the

92
map, the planner can consult other information sources,
including guidebooks, DPS and HPS guides, trip reports Mount Harwood, and others. These peaks are further noted
published in GSC newsletters, and hearsay; other maps, as high points by their elevation notations, the triangle and
such as big-picture maps and those that show local interest; bench mark on West Baldy, and the x on Mount Harwood.
and trip-specific factors like the historical, natural history, The saddles on the ridge on either side of Mount San
geographical or geological aspects. Best is to scout the trip Antonio illustrate a characteristic necked-down appearance
in advance. If this is not feasible, sources such as the above with contours showing high points on either side and with
are invaluable—and can identify leaders who have recently contours showing draws in the perpendicular direction.
led the same or similar routes, so they can be contacted for Other characteristics to grasp are the distances to landforms
up-to-date information. and relative elevations. For example, the map shows that
Mt Harwood is about 3/4 mile (1.25km) distant and about
Terrain Visualization five hundred feet lower than Mount San Antonio. When
correlating the terrain in the field with the map, one should
On the map the leader initially locates points A (start) verify the presence of all of these clues.
and B (goal). Then the planner carefully studies all the On the color version of the map, some gullies are
features and aspects between A and B presented on the shown with blue line symbols for intermittent streams. This
map(s) and in other available material to develop a mental symbol is used for the more important channels in a given
picture of the territory and its characteristics. Indeed, reading watershed. Most of the time in Southern California and
a topo map—that is, converting the map images to a good the desert regions, no water is in any of the intermittent
mental image of the terrain—is the heart of route planning. streams. The canyons without this marking, furthermore,
The converse skill of viewing the terrain and correlating this may be just as prominent from the ground as those that
with the map is the heart of navigation by inspection. Both have the marking.
skills are complementary and require practice at the desk
and in the field. Route Formulation
Software can be a great aid for terrain visualization
with neighboring maps connected seamlessly, local regions Route Formulation Principles–Generalities
magnified at will, and physical size of the areas depicted on If good route descriptions exist in reliable guides,
the computer screen readily changed. Some programs even leaders usually follow the guide. Typical local hikes and
provide 3-D viewing under different lighting conditions, standard route HPS and DPS trips tend to fall into this
side by side with plan views. The planner may see the bigger category, as do trips described in the local and regional
picture either by zooming in and out of different scales on hiking guidebooks. Even in this case it is wise to plot the
the computer-generated maps or by comparing the printed trip on the topo, noting roadheads, trail junctions, clearings,
7.5´ USGS map with a larger scale map which shows a stream crossings, passes, and other major waypoints along
broader area in less detail. with some time estimates. When actually conducting the
The topographic map of Figure 6-2 shows some of the trip, the leader should use these places as checkpoints as
distinctive landforms typical of the San Gabriel range as they are passed.
well as the trails to Mount San Antonio and beyond and Other more navigationally intensive trips–such as
the road through Manker Flat from Baldy Village. Cut in pathfinding, exploratory, or adventure hiking to new
by intermittent streams and having steep sides, the gullies areas where specific route descriptions do not exist—require
exhibit the characteristic sharp uphill pointing V’s on the more attention to route planning.
map. The ridges, however, may be quite rounded and Some general travel considerations that can be helpful
appear as downhill pointing U’s. A similar map for the High in laying out possible routes include the following.
Sierra would appear as the converse, because the principal Choosing Available Trails–Any trip segment that can
water courses (basins) were cut by glaciers and appear as be done on a trail will almost invariably be less strenuous and
broad U’s, while the ridges are frequently very narrow and demanding than a cross-country equivalent. Also, on trails
appear as sharp V’s. The map clearly illustrates the features accurate location-estimation as the actual trip progresses
of converging gullies and diverging ridges going downhill, ordinarily requires the leader simply to pay attention to
and the converse going uphill. These are major factors to be the time and have some appreciation of the average speed.
considered in route selection. Location-fixing is also simple when the group is on a trail.
The east-west ridge along which the trail runs dominates Minimizing Encounters with Brush–The green
the general shape of the terrain in the upper middle of Figure colored vegetation-type-coded symbols on the map can
6-2. Small closed contour lines marking a high point are generally be relied on to differentiate between scrub and
represented at West Baldy, Mount San Antonio (Mt. Baldy), woods, although not necessarily to the vegetation density.

93
With mountainside chaparral southern exposures are should be noted for possible routes. Terminal route segments
usually worst. Snow may cover the brush deeply enough for over featureless ground (like the desert) should be set up
snowshoe travel. with an offset to an appropriate side of the starting point.
Minimizing Side-Hill Travels–Side-hill traverses can When a GPS is available, the roadhead location can be very
be very tedious, slow, and even dangerous on steep terrain. useful both at the start of the trip, to be sure one is really
Because they often involve much moving in and out of small at the desired point, and at the end of the trip to the cars.
gullies, traverses around in-route high points can be longer With these considerations and the terrain visualization,
and more time consuming than a direct route over the top. the leader may sketch out some possible routes. This
Considering Gully Routes–Gullies, including process is aided by mentally progressing along each route,
intermittent streambeds, are sometimes good travel following the ups and downs, switchbacks, and ridge and
possibilities. They tend to be more chaparral free than stream crossings along the way–virtually hiking on the
surrounding slopes, especially on northern exposures. map. This thought process should also pick out orientation
Gullies provide route segments that are readily identified and route following features as possible navigational clues,
on the map, and they tend to have a steady gradient. The clue sequences, trail junctions, check points, bearings
downsides of gully travel can include willows and other to conspicuous objects, and back bearings that become
brush that may be present near water and unexpected dry available as one progresses along the virtual route. A leader
water falls (common in the desert). Dry waterfalls can be should remember to include the small-scale features, such
very steep, are often quite slick, and may not show up at as gully crossings of a trail, where the trail line and the
all on the contour map because they may be less than the gully line define a fix, or the more gross aspects, such as
contour interval in height. Gullies near and beyond the switchbacks in number and sequence. Some of these points
angle of repose may have rock fall problems, so careful may have even greater possible value in anticipation of
attention should be paid to the slope angles. Finally, because reduced visibility or bad weather. A catalog of the more
gullies and streambeds diverge going up, the choice of the prominent and potentially useful of these cues and clues of
wrong branch can lead to unhappy consequences higher up. the virtual trip may be entered on the possible route card.
The conjunction of two gullies can be a crucial transition
point for a route and should be defined on the route card by Route Formulation Principles–Details
location and the bearing of the correct branch.
Considering Ridge Routes–Ridges are likely to be Underlying Criteria
relatively brush-free and provide route segments that have The most desirable route for a group is one that best
one line that is readily identified on the map. Possible satisfies the following criteria:
downsides include rocky ways, uneven and awkward
terrain, impassable gendarmes, and significant exposure, • From the group’s standpoint, the selected route
especially in the Sierra. Ridges can be very unpleasant or should proceed from A to B with safety, efficiency,
even dangerous in the wind or bad weather, especially when and maximum enjoyment. The route must be
lightning is about. Just as with gullies going up, diverging compatible with
ridges going down require attention to assure that the right 1. The number in the party (without doubt,
one is selected. Again, the conjunction point can be a crucial the most important and yet often the most
location point for the route card. Going down the incorrect neglected factor in mountain safety);
ridge can be a major error. 2. The varieties of experience and physical
Noting Water Sources, Good and Bad–Water condition of party members;
replenishment sites can be helpful by reducing the water- 3. Time constraints on the trip;
carrying needs of the party. Because getting across larger 4. The motivating objectives of the trip, like a
streams can be crux points for an entire trip, crossings peak climb or observation of special natural
must be thoroughly planned. Bridges can be a great boon features;
and may be worth miles of extra travel under high water 5. Projected weather variables and minimum
conditions. Stream flow is shallower and slower where the conditions.
stream is wider and has a lower gradient, factors that should • From the leaders’ standpoint, the selected route
be considered when locating a potential ford. Preparations should permit a continuous high level of situation
for spring and early summer crossings of most Sierra streams awareness. In other words, the leaders should
and some others should include safe crossing procedures. always be aware of
Planning the Return Trip–For starters, the back 1. Current location on the map,
bearings immediately off the summit and to the roadhead 2. The group and individual status,

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 3. Appropriate steps and alternatives to cope ridges, and gullies are obvious examples (and may even be
with the unexpected. the route); fences, power lines, borders of fields, valleys,
streams, and edges of lakes or marshes are other possibilities.
Trails with many junctions, routes with lots of stream Handrails can be helpful in maintaining location sense and
crossings, or routes in heavy forest or brush can give the general situation awareness. Marking the map to focus on
leaders of large, diverse groups some real challenges in the trends of such dominating major topographical features
keeping the group together or even maintaining a good as ridges helps to identify potential handrails and the
appreciation of the group’s status. The possibility of development of a big picture visualization of the terrain.
unexpected events—such as lost or strayed participants, Finally, for backup purposes it is desirable to have
injuries, etc.—is always present and needs to be foreseen as a catch line (sometimes called a baseline). This is an
part of the visualization process. unmistakable line, such as a road, power line, river, or
The visualization process outlined above will ordinarily lakeshore, of broad extent that lies across the trip’s general
result in one or two feasible route possibilities, usually with direction and is thereby more or less always in about the
one obvious favorite. The rest of the job is to finalize the same direction from the trip’s route. Following a bearing to
details. These are covered below. the catch line is a last resort when otherwise hopelessly lost.
It shouldn’t happen but has, especially in heavily forested
Layout of the Route on the Map areas.
and Development of Trip Statistics Profile Features–The trip profile depicts the route
The projected route should be drawn (or at least in the vertical plane, essentially a plot of altitude versus
sketched out) on the map. For standard routes the DPS and distance. Such qualitative profile features as saddles or
HPS guides are excellent. These guides and associated topo ridge crossings, stream (or gully) crossings, major gradient
maps ordinarily provide good starting points. Although changes, or gradients of steep sections can all be identified
of great value to the leader-planner, the existence of these from the map itself. The profile adds the quantitative
guides can foster complacency; to be prepared, the leaders details. A detailed examination of the contours enables one
should still go through the route visualization and other to select the least tiring line up a mountain. It also provides
preliminary steps carefully. an appreciation for the shape of the land forms as seen
When more elaborate logistical plans are called for, along a specific route. Although somewhat more subtle,
the leader must start afresh with the maps and other pre- gradient changes can be properties of a desired route just
planning tools. This used to be a tedious process: maps were as trails are in the plan view. The route profile provides all
often meticulously joined to provide a seamless character, sorts of valuable information, including route gradients;
while route possibilities, distances, bearings, and profiles changes to average gradient as clues for real-time progress
were fiddled with manually. Now all the manual details can and orientation, even as potential route markers; and actual
easily and rapidly be accomplished with the software aids. elevation increments for energy and timing estimates along
Ideally the route should be detailed in both plan and profile various trip segments.
views, although only the plan view is essential. Trip Statistics–The distances and elevation gains on
Plan View Features–Focus on trail(s) directions, segments of the trip are the usual quantitative descriptions
junctions (including where the other trails go), major of the trip. These can be obtained in various ways. Distance
direction changes; natural or artificial waypoints; along trails may be obtained from published information.
switchbacks; stream crossings; special observation points; For cross-country or mixed routes the simplest and most
potential rest or renewal locations; and similar points. accurate procedure is to use the features of mapping software
Marking the map with colored dots or “flags” at key programs.
points, such as tops of surrounding peaks or other visible Distance–Distances can be measured from the route
high points can provide helpful references to aid location traced on the map using several techniques. One common
awareness on the trip. They can also be valuable references scheme is to break up the route into approximately linear
for rapidly aligning the map to the terrain and can provide segments and then use a ruler-like strip of paper or dividers
a sequence of UTM coordinates for possible use with GPS (from a drafting set) to add up the several segments. The
receivers. total length is then converted to miles or kilometers using
Handrails–In some cases possible routes can be the scales on the map. Another method uses a map measurer,
referenced to so-called navigational “handrails.” These a tiny wheel with dial scales calibrated to convert map
are usually linear features on the map that lie in the right lengths to actual distance at several map scales. Rolled along
direction or orientation to be used as navigational aids or as the route on the map, these miniature wheel measurers have
occasional confidence builders that one is on route. Trails, the advantage that any highly curved sections of the route

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can be followed without appreciable error. The dashed lines
depicting trails on the map provide another way to measure Estimates of Time, Speed, and Distance
distance because there are about thirty-five trail dashes per
mile (twenty-two trail dashes per kilometer). These are In trip planning and in some aspects of field navigation
not always easy to see, but can sometimes be of value in estimating the time required to travel a given distance or,
making distance estimates. With 1:24,000 maps the map conversely, to estimate the distance traveled in a measured
scale is small enough to show trails accurately with quite time is desirable. The basic technique is the same; one
fine resolution. Therefore, all but the shortest switchbacks estimates speed and divides it into distance to obtain time
and other small details are usually represented, and distance required or multiplies estimated speed by measured time to
measurements as reflected onto a flat plain surface can be obtain distance traveled. For this reason, a watch is a vital
quite accurate. navigation instrument.
Because the distance measurement is of a route Time can be determined from the trip plan statistics.
projected onto a horizontal plane, any slopes encountered Rest stops, lunch breaks, signing peak registers, and other
will increase the actual distance. As an extreme example, stops need to be added. Five minutes per hour may be
consider the direct ascent up a slope of 34º, the angle of sufficient for breathers for tigers, but ten minutes is more
repose. Here one would travel about 20% farther than realistic, with 15 to 30 minutes for snacks and lunch.
the horizontal distance. For travel on an 11º grade, the Formula times should be increased for long trips to
additional horizontal distance can be ignored. This disparity account for fatigue as well as squiggle factors such as brush,
is not present with mapping software where the profile data soft snow, talus and scree, high winds, swamps, downed
gives actual distance as well as horizontal distance. trees or brush, and avalanche path debris that will slow the
Elevation Gain–The elevation gain is the second speed and increase the time considerably. Times for fighting
major trip statistic, easily computed by mapping software. through thick brush or floundering through deep snow
Otherwise the development of a detailed profile (see Trip could be four hours per mile or more.
Leg table) can be quite time consuming. One may manually Besides fitness levels, individual differences among the
construct a terrain profile or simply progress along the route participants can significantly change the trip time required.
on the map and tabulate all the major uphill segments using Speeds for descending vary considerably among individuals.
the contours. The altitude loss is not considered (although A group which might vary 25% in ascending time could
the loss will become a gain if the route returns over the same vary 50% or more in descending times, depending on the
ground). terrain and the group. This is partly the effect of relatively
greater fatigue on the weaker participants. Individuals also
Putting It All Together vary greatly in their ability to descend talus blocks, loose
With the entire physical route, trip visualization, and scree, and snow slopes. Generally speaking, the larger
key factors developed, sufficient information is available for the group, the longer the trip time; an approximate time
final route assessment. At this summary level addition is one percent per person. For a group of twenty-
• The physical route—general description, plan, five people, the total trip time should be increased by about
and profile views—is in hand; 25% over that estimated by the formulas.
• The crux points, the key transitions in the route— Bottlenecks can further add a major amount of time
such as trail to cross-country, branch points for a large group. For example, thirty people each taking
in diverging ridges and gullies (complete with two minutes to cross a stream will add one hour for zero
bearings), trail junctions or other locations where distance traveled. Fifteen people each taking six minutes to
confusion might develop, stream crossings, and be belayed up and down a twenty-foot 3rd-class pitch will
rockfall or exposure areas—have been identified; add three hours to the round-trip time.
• Handrails and perhaps some attack points may In arriving at time estimates, navigators should measure
have been identified. their own performance under various conditions in order
to calibrate themselves relative to the simple procedures.
Considering the crux points and other characteristics Because so much of navigation in the field relies on dead
of the route, the planner can finalize the route details and reckoning (speed x elapsed time), navigators should also
markers. Some of these transition and/or crux points may develop their skill in speed estimation. It is often convenient
also be candidates for GPS waypoints. One should include to think of speed in terms of minutes/mile or minutes/
route markers that can be useful for mid-course fixes or in kilometer. Thus, 3.0 mph is twenty minutes/mile or fifteen
emergencies. The route markers should then be formally minutes/kilometer. A kilometer is the distance equal to one
incorporated into trip leg table. side of a UTM grid square.

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 Some general caveats are necessary. First, all of the Naismith Backpacker Rule
schemes use formulas, which have been simplified by using The Backpacker Rule estimates the time to travel a
rounded off approximations, which are good enough. specified distance and climb a specified elevation gain when
Second, because of the variables of the route conditions traveling on a trail carrying a typical backpack. It assumes a
and group effects on speed, the estimates can provide only rate of 2 mph, plus an hour of travel time for each 1,000 feet
rough guidance. And third, the most important variable of altitude gain. As a reference time to build on, it does not
not included is the leader-planner’s own judgment and take into account off-trail (cross-country) travel and other
experience. Stated another way, time estimates can be made factors. The terrain difficulty requires additive times to the
for a particular trip using all the schemes; the estimates will Backpacker Rule and is addressed via the Squiggle Factor.
all be different; and, most likely, all will differ in detail. But The Backpacker Rule is
they will provide a pattern that, when leavened with the
leader-planner’s past experience and judgment, permits a T = D/2 mi + H/1000 ft.
decent estimate to be made prior to the trip. Again, this
estimate can be logically modified during the trip to account Again, T is time, the distance is expressed as D for all types
for the real situation. One must not take any one estimate or of travel, and H is elevation gain (uphill only) in thousands
plan too seriously. of feet. D/2 means travel is at 2 mph. H/1,000 means an
elevation gain of 1,000 feet adds one hour of travel time.
Naismith Rules The altitude term should be ignored for downhill segments,
but the downhill terrain difficulty is addressed by the
The Naismith Rules are used to estimate the time it Squiggle Factor. The slower travel reflects the effects of
takes to do a trip or a trip leg for hikers or for backpackers. carrying a heavier load.
They consider both distance and elevation gain. The
Naismith time is accurate when it is possible to walk over Squiggle Factor
unobstructed firm terrain in a straight line or on a good trail.
Otherwise, additional time must be considered in addition A squiggle factor, as used in the Angeles Chapter LTP
to the Naismith Rules. This additional time accounts for Navigation arena, allows for considering and applying to
terrain difficulty and is estimated separate from the basic trip planning any terrain or trail conditions that impede a
Naismith Rules by utilizing the Squiggle Factor below. wilderness traveler.
Whenever it is not possible to walk from one point to
Naismith Hiker Rule another in a straight line or on a trail or over unobstructed
The Hiker Rule estimates the time to travel a specified terrain and at a desired reference speed, we need a squiggle
distance and climb a specified elevation gain when traveling factor to apply in our trip planning. Since we use the
on a good trail carrying a typical daypack. It assumes a rate Naismith Rule to estimate time, the reference speed is three
of 3 mph, plus another hour of travel time for each 2,000 mph for hiking and two mph for backpacking. The squiggle
feet of altitude gain. As a reference time to build on, it does factor time is then added to the Naismith time to account
not take into account off-trail (cross-country) travel and for all types of terrain difficulty in the real world that we
other factors. The terrain difficulty requires additive times walk through. A simple Naismith time is on a good trail or
to the Hiker Rule and is addressed via the Squiggle Factor. over solid ground with no impediments.
The Hiker Rule is The expression “cross-country” (XC) is widely used and
misused. Nobody ever defines what XC means, other than it
T = D/3 mi + H/2,000 ft. is off-trail. Hence, it is a catchall that does not mean much.
Using the squiggle factor concept, however, allows planning
T is time, the distance is expressed as D for all types of to include specifics of real terrain. A squiggle factor can
travel, and H is elevation gain (uphill only) in thousands be used to account for all types of off-trail terrain. Terrain
of feet. D/3 means travel is at 3 mph. H/2,000 means an aspects that slow our progress include brush and trees, sandy
elevation gain of 2,000 feet adds one hour of travel time. ground (desert, washes, and beaches), wet or slippery ground
The altitude term should be ignored for downhill segments, (including scree slopes, pine needles, and wet rock), rock-
but the downhill terrain difficulty is addressed by the strewn ground, and boulder-covered ground. Included are
Squiggle Factor. easy and difficult non-technical bouldering. A dry waterfall
in a canyon choke point might require 15 minutes or much
longer to overcome! The following are some range estimates

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based on experience, to be added to basic Naismith trip legs: the checkout, a homework assignment to prepare a detailed
• Baseline is a solid ground with no trip plan prior to the checkout day, and most importantly
impediments; the navigation exercises in the field. The trip plan requires
• Typical desert terrain requires a squiggle factor a detailed and well-thought-out approach, documented in
of 10 to 15%; three parts: first, a topo marked with the proposed trip route
• Wooded terrain requires 10 to 20%, with slope and any alternate routes; second, a chart showing details of
20 to 40%; distance, elevation, and time for about 15 trip legs, which
• Wet and rock strewn ground might be 10 to describe the whole route; third, a trip-leg-elevation diagram
30%; showing the elevation profile of the trip.
• A sandy wash or a beach might require 20 to A detailed homework sample that meets all current LTP
40%; requirements is shown in Fig. 6-8, Trip Route Plan; Fig. 6-9,
• Easy bouldering might be 25 to 50%; Trip Leg Table; and Fig. 6-10, Trip Leg Elevation Profile.
• More difficult bouldering might be 100+%; A blank Trip Leg Table form can be found in Appendix C.
• Wet rock might be 20 to 200% (or not Using the Queen Mtn 7.5´ topo, the route starts at Utah
passable at all!); Trail road, at the 2,800 foot contour line, just before the
• A steep scree slope might be 50 to 100+%; North Entrance Station of the Joshua Tree National Park
• Wet terrain is always more difficult than dry; (JTNP). The route proceeds generally westward to the top
• Time required for significant choke points of the Queen Mountain range at over 5,000-foot level. It
like dry waterfalls or serious scrambling on then turns northward into 49 Palms valley and down the 49
boulders can only be determined by scouting Palms Canyon to 49 Palms Oasis. From there it continues
and personal experience. northward to the parking lot at the end of the 49 Palms
As one gains experience over varied off-trail terrains Canyon Road. The general route can be reconstructed on
in different locales, the judgment for selecting appropriate the topo from the Trip Leg Table, by following the General
squiggle factors for trip segments becomes easier. Squiggle Geographic Direction and Trip Leg Distance information
factors are rational estimates, never precise, and are difficult for each leg.
to select until you have seen the ground you will be
hiking on. Trip Route Plan
Can a squiggle factor apply to trails also? Yes, if the trail The actual 7.5´ topo with the route drawn in is shown in
is sandy, a wet grade, or rocky requiring balance and careful reduced size in Fig. 6-8. The route selected is generally based
planting of feet, a squiggle factor needs to be considered. on choosing the apparently easiest approach as indicated
Just as cross-country does not describe the condition of the by the spacing of the contour lines. This is particularly
terrain, so the word trail does not guarantee a solid path important not only going up the mountain but also going
without impediments. down through the canyons. Going uphill in a ravine with
Physical conditioning and number of participants are an intermittent stream may not always be best because it
important but should be addressed separately from the may contain dry waterfalls or big boulders blocking the way.
squiggle factor in trip planning. Areas of relatively flat terrain are always preferred. Areas
where the contour lines are very “jiggly” should be avoided,
Sample LTP Trip Plan because they indicate vertically haphazard terrain that is
probably difficult to traverse, like the JTNP Wonderland
A detailed trip plan to show Advanced (E) level LTP of Rocks. Trip legs and their length are selected according
Navigation requirements fully is provided below. It is not to similar terrain. Going uphill, portions of similar but not
meant to be a requirement in all its detail at the Basic (I/M) necessarily identical steepness would be a trip leg. Generally
level of navigation checkout and certainly not for beginner- flat areas and portions of lesser steepness can be trip legs.
level practice. Many basic-level students will create a Similarly, trip legs going downhill or through a canyon
modified plan approaching this sample. Many others will should be of comparable steepness. Generally, trip legs will
use a less-detailed approach to arrive at essentially the same be in the range of 0.5 to 1 mile. The trip should be divided
trip plan with similar results. There is no “right” or “wrong,” into 10 to 15 trip legs to ensure that differences in terrain
just how well the student has thought through the route are adequately addressed along the route.
and terrain and whether one has significantly missed or
underestimated the plan. That is part of the learning process. Trip Leg Table
There are three parts for LTP Navigation checkout: a The table is best constructed using a spreadsheet
comprehensive written exam mailed to candidates before software application (e.g., Excel). The chart can easily

98
 14

13
12

11

10

1
4 START
2
3
8
5
6
7

Figure 6-8. Trip route plan

A digital or hard copy of the full-size map may be obtained from the LTC Navigation Chair.

5500
5 6 7
5000
4
4500
8
9
Elevation (ft.)

4000
2 3 10
3500
1 12 13
3000
11 14
2500

2000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Cumulative Trip Distance (mi.)
Figure 6-10. Trip leg elevation profile

99
 Trip Description of Leg Geograph. Leg Cum. Elev. Leg Elev. Leg Elev. Ave. Naismith Squiggle Adj. Cum. Cum. Comments and

100
Leg Direction Dist. Dist. (Ft.) Gain Loss Slope Time Factor Time Time Time Break Times
(Mi.) (Mi.) (Ft.) (Ft.) (°) (Min.) (%) (Min.) (Min.) (Hrs.)
START – 6:00 AM at roadhead 2,800

1 Road to mountain WSW 0.5 0.5 3,000 200 5° 16 5% 17 17 0.3 Trailhead at road

2 To top of x3784 SW 0.4 0.9 3,784 784 25° 32 200% 95 112 1.9

BREAK 10 122 2.0 Short break & snack

3 Hilltop traverse W 0.4 1.3 3,800 116 5° 11 25% 14 136 2.3

4 To top of plateau WNW 0.7 2.0 4,560 760 20° 37 200% 110 246 4.1

BREAK 10 256 4.3 Short break & snack

5 To highpoint SW 0.7 2.7 5,120 560 8° 31 20% 37 293 4.9

6 To viewpoint – 49 Palms Valley SW 0.4 3.1 5,000 -120 5° 8 10% 9 302 5.0

LUNCH 30 332 5.5 Lunch with a view

7 Top of canyon WSW 1.1 4.2 5,200 200 2° 28 15% 32 364 6.1

8 To Bottom of canyon NNW 1.0 5.2 4,200 -1000 25° 20 100% 40 404 6.7

BREAK 10 414 6.9 Short break & snack

9 49 Palms Valley NW 1.8 7.0 4,000 -200 0° 36 10% 40 454 7.6

10 To 49 Palm Canyon Flats N 0.5 7.5 3,600 -400 10° 10 100% 20 474 7.9

BREAK 10 484 8.1 Short break & snack

11 To 49 Palm Oasis NNE 1.0 8.5 2,800 -800 10° 20 150% 50 534 8.9

BREAK 10 544 9.1 Short break & snack

12 Up to plateau N 0.5 9.0 3,000 200 3° 16 10% 18 562 9.4

13 Flat trail NNW 0.3 9.3 3,000 0° 6 0% 6 568 9.5

14 To parking lot NW 0.6 9.9 2,700 -280 5° 12 0% 12 580 9.7 End at road

FINISH – 5:06 PM 9.9 mi. 2,820 ft. -2800 ft. 283 min. 666 min. 11.1 hrs. +15% for group size

Date: 3-27-05 Sunrise: 5:38 AM Moonrise: 7:09 PM Moon Phase: Full Sunset: 6:01 PM Moonset: 6:35 AM Weather Report: Mostly sunny - High ~80°F, Low ~45°F Water: 3 qt. + expect some at Oasis

Figure 6-9. Trip leg chart

be constructed manually, but it simply takes longer and time added. It represents a more realistic time
lacks the advantage of the software basic math formulas, to traverse a trip leg, considering the terrain
which facilitate calculations and changes. The columns in encountered. Specific times are added for short
the chart provide a clear and understandable accounting breaks and lunch. The short breaks become
of various trip leg parameters. As such, not all of them naturally longer toward the end of the trip.
are necessary to arrive at a rational trip plan. The English • The Cum. Trip Time in minutes at each trip
system is commonly used and universally understood, but leg provides a cumulative tracking of the
the metric system can work equally well. The columns are trip progress. Periodic translation into hours
discussed below. provides a useful reference.
• Serially number each Trip Leg, with a short For planning reference, at the bottom of the chart are
description to identify each. Identify any provided the sun and moon rise/set times and the weather
peaks, benchmarks , or geologic and manmade report for the trip day. It is important to consider water
features. availability and how much water to carry for the day. For
• Give a General Geographic Direction for each the reference date of 27 March, there are 12 hours and 23
trip leg. This can be useful in locating the minutes between sunrise and sunset, which gives reasonable
trip leg on the topo or recreating the route daylight for the 11.1 estimated hours of the trip. Without
on another topo. Examples are N, NNE, NE, any mishaps (the 15% group size factor), the trip would
ENE, E, etc. finish about 4:00PM. It is interesting to note that the
• Identify the Trip Leg Distance in miles; one time adjusted for terrain difficulty is about twice the basic
decimal place is usually adequate. The distance Naismith time estimate.
in miles is used as the D value in the Naismith The trip plan should also consider some optional route
formula. Do consider trail nonlinearity, such as segments where appropriate, depending on the terrain.
multiple switchbacks. Turn-back points should be identified in the event of an
• The Cum. Distance at each trip leg provides a emergency or deteriorating weather that compromises the
cumulative tracking of the trip progress. trip plan. With rain, the rocks become wet and slippery, and
• The Elevation in feet identifies the altitude at on slopes and in canyons it may become too dangerous to
each trip leg start and finish. continue so that it may be necessary to bivouac overnight.
• The Trip Elevation Gain in feet for each trip The ten essentials, clothing, and any shelter equipment can
leg is used as the H value in the Naismith then become essential for survival.
formula. It is also helpful to track the Trip A good trip plan table can also be summarized on a
Elevation Loss along the route. Even though route card for easy reference.
elevation loss along the route is not used in
the Naismith calculations, it provides more Trip Leg Elevation Profile
understanding of the route. Since the gain and The trip plan elevation profile is best constructed using
loss amounts are independently estimated, the spreadsheet software such as Excel. With Excel, select menu
two totals may not be quite equal. “Chart-Chart Type–XY (Scatter)” and choose the curve
• The Average Slope in degrees estimates the desired. The various length Cum Distance values will be
average slope of each trip leg as a general accurately plotted on the X-axis against the corresponding
measure of overall difficulty. elevation values.
• Naismith Time in minutes gives the result of As always, the profile can easily be constructed
using the formula T = D/3 + H/2000. D is manually, but it may take longer and not look as pretty,
distance in miles, and H is elevation gain in which is fine for the homework. It shows the major ups and
feet. downs along the way and can be useful in timing breaks and
• The Squiggle Factor is an estimated terrain checking the time progress along the way.
difficulty factor, which can be used to
account for all types of terrain impediments Route Cards: A Useful Planning Option
encountered. It is added as a percentage
increase over the basic Naismith time In contrast to the LTP Trip Plan, which is tailored
calculated. See the Squiggle Factor sidebar for for the I-, M-, or E-level leader candidate, the Route Card
description. approach allows for a less rigorous trip planning solution.
• The Adjusted Time in minutes is the Naismith The route card approach considers all the basic elements
Time with the Squiggle Factor percentage of trip planning, but arranges the relevant information in

101
a more informal manner. It also adds some key “handrails” as transition points, e.g., key waypoints for
reference information, which will help the leader stay on conditions of bad visibility or unexpected
course at key points on the route. Often less focused on events. Note that poor visibility for the party
the technical aspects of trip planning, it can include some as a whole can often be anticipated, as with
information on the geology, flora, and fauna along the cross-country travel in heavily forested areas, so
route, as well as historical points of interest. Some trips are terminal locations and route bearings between
ideally suited to include ample time to “smell the flowers,” them become entries in the route card. Crux
as distinct from the peak-bagging end of the spectrum. One points also include escape points that provide
can tailor a route card to individual needs and preferences, for recovery from unanticipated events like
provided that it contains all necessary trip plan information. injuries or party separation that may require
A route card is a sequential listing of details that changes in the conduct of the trip;
define a navigational scenario for a trip. It provides an • Points of interest (POI) along the way, such as
organized trip plan, including provision for recovery from overlooks and natural history objectives;
unanticipated events. Because leaders differ greatly in their • Any other waypoints that might be useful to
styles, route cards can range from casual mental checklists to the leader to maintain situational awareness
masterpieces of logistical planning. For trips over unfamiliar and assure reasonable congruence between the
or cross-country terrain, the very process of preparing a actual trip and the plan.
written route card can provide an organized structure for
planning and executing the trip. Part of the process is to NAVIGATION CHECKOUT
extend the planning focus beyond the ideal route outline to
considerations of situations and poor conditions that depart Objective
(for whatever reason) from the nominal envisioned at home.
This foresight can be valuable to support safe operations The navigation checkout objective is to determine that
by the leader under stressful conditions that might be the LTP candidate has the required knowledge and skill to
encountered during the trip. In any case, the preparation of navigate in the mountains or deserts and to do route planning
a route card is a good practice for trip leaders who intend to and route finding at the particular level of the checkout
lead new routes or who wish to rejuvenate and add to their (Basic I/M or Advanced E). The ultimate objective is safety,
experiences about familiar routes. to ensure that a candidate who has successfully completed
From the logistics standpoint the preparation of a a checkout can lead a group in the field with sufficient
route card is a desirable end result of the trip planning navigation prowess for the level of outing undertaken. In all
process because it reflects essentially everything the leader checkouts, candidates need to demonstrate their problem
has considered. After the trip, the entry onto the card of solving, decision-making, and judgment––the leadership
corrections or additional comments can provide a log as well skills—as well as their technical skills. Technical skills alone
as a guide for future trips. are not sufficient to pass.

Elements of a Route Card Knowledge

The Route Card is the culmination of the trip planning
process. It summarizes the organized navigational scenario, The candidate is expected to know the material
in sequence, and includes such things as contained in this chapter at a level sufficient to pass a
• Basic segments of the trip (these are at least comprehensive written exam mailed prior to the checkout.
partly defined by the points listed below); Before the checkout event, the candidate will be asked to
• Transition points—such as trail junctions; prepare a selected trip plan as homework and then to explain
branch points for gullies on ascent and ridges the reasoning for the choice of route, terrain analysis, and
on descent; major gradient changes as with detailed time estimates to an examiner during the day of
entry/exit of a significant gully; stream, ridge, the checkout. Since not all Chapter 6 material is covered
power-line crossings—that can serve as easy in the exam and field demonstrations (GPS is an example),
location fixes are useful for the leader’s on- the checklists below have been provided as guidance for
going dead-reckoning-based awareness of checking off at the I/M and E levels. If an LTP candidate
exactly where the party is on the map; feels slighted in not passing, he/she is strongly encouraged
• Intermediate guidance objects to home in on to continue, gain experience, and then pass with confidence.
or take direction from; Just barely passing may be demeaning to a candidate’s self-
• Crux points that are not already identified worth and reputation. Repeat practices and/or checkouts
are strongly encouraged.

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 and travel time estimation, including Naismith
I/M Level Checkout hiker and backpacker rules and use of squiggle
factor; estimating the squiggle factor in the
Field demonstrations (“noodles”) and written/oral areas where the checkout is conducted;
exams may include • Using terrain recognition to identify one’s
• Knowledge of topographic map symbols, location on the topo map and to estimate the
colors, and marginal information (revision accuracy of the result based on the surrounding
date, magnetic declination, grid vs. true north); terrain, discussing how to use the compass to
• Knowledge of the primary map grid systems verify the result and which technique is likely to
used in the United States (Lat/Long and UTM); give the more accurate answer at one’s location;
• Identifying basic geographic features (hills, • Demonstrating one’s ability to follow an
saddles, depressions, ridges, etc.) from their instructor-specified route from point-to-point
contours on the map; (the “nav noodle”), using the techniques above
• Orienting the map with true North-South in a combination best suited to the area;
using two techniques; demonstrating the ability • Discussing techniques for dead reckoning in
to realign the map to N-S quickly during an en circumstances of poor visibility or where one
route stop; cannot see the destination (e.g., finding a car
• Locating prominent terrain features on the parked along a road);
map and identifying them in the field (with • Discussing the pros and cons of a GPS.
and without using a compass);
• Locating visually prominent features in the E-Level (Advanced) Navigation Checkout
field and identifying them on the map (with
and without using a compass); The skill of the E-level candidate is expected to be
• Locating a complex visual skyline in the field advanced and comparable to that of an LTC navigation
and tracing it on the topo map; examiner. No ambiguity is recognized for competency at
• Demonstrating knowledge of the various the E-level navigation checkout; marginal performance is
types of compasses available, their principal not acceptable.
elements, and their advantages/limitations; The E-level candidate is expected to know all material
• Demonstrating basic knowledge of magnetic identified above regarding navigation principles and use of
declination and how to deal with it when using the map and compass and to be able to demonstrate this
a compass to take bearings with respect to true knowledge in the field. The E-level candidate, however,
north; is expected to exhibit a higher degree of proficiency (for
• Taking a bearing from one’s location to a example, by taking more accurate and repeatable bearings to
distant object with sufficient and repeatable distant objects using a compass and by an ability to correlate
accuracy (e.g., 3 degrees or better) and finer terrain features with the topo map).
knowing how one can improve it; In addition, the E-level candidate must understand the
• Demonstrating use of the compass as a theory and function of the barometric altimeter, including
protractor to measure bearings on the map to how the readings can be affected by macro- and micro-
an accuracy of one degree; weather phenomena. The candidate must demonstrate
• Demonstrating the use of multiple bearings use of altimeter, in synergy with map and compass, during
to identify one’s location on the map by field demonstrations on the day of the checkout. To that
triangulation, discussing how to select the best end, E-level checkouts are conducted in locations that have
objects to use for such bearings, and the use of significant elevation changes to demonstrate use of the
more than two or more bearings to improve altimeter.
positional accuracy; Finally, the E-level candidate must demonstrate a basic
• Demonstrating and/or explaining the use of understanding of the GPS device. This basic understanding
the compass to take local bearings; can be satisfied by attending one of the GPS courses offered
• Discussing the rule of the “V”s; by the Leadership Training Committee or some reputable
• Describing alternate approaches (no compass) commercial offering of at least four hours duration with
for estimating true north in the field (e.g., sun, some hands-on practice in the field. During the checkout,
stars, glaciers, moss on trees, man-made objects); the candidate may be asked to use a GPS to demonstrate
• Describing different aspects of trip planning such knowledge.

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SUGGESTED READING
Burns, Bob, and Mike Burns. Wilderness Navigation: Finding Your Way Using Map, Compass, Altimeter, & GPS. 2nd ed.
Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2004.

Dept of the Army, U.S. Army Map Reading and Land Navigation Handbook. Guilford, CT: Lyons, 2004.

Fleming, June. Staying Found: The Complete Map and Compass Handbook. 3rd ed. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2001.

Kals, W. S., and Clyde Soles. Land Navigation Handbook: The Sierra Club Guide to Map, Compass & GPS. 2nd ed. San
Francisco: Sierra Club, 2005.

Kjellstrom, Bjorn, and Carina Kjellstrom Elgin. Be Expert with Map and Compass: The Complete Orienteering Handbook.
3rd ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.

Letham, Lawrence. GPS Made Easy: Using Global Positioning Systems in the Outdoors. 5th ed. Seattle: The Mountaineers,
2008.

Wells, Darren. NOLS Wilderness Navigation. 2nd ed. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2013.

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 7
Rock Climbing

T
his chapter outlines the skills, knowledge, and equipment required to lead groups competently on 3rd and 4th class
rock. It describes the procedures, requirements, and standards for the LTP rock checkout. As the Leader’s Reference
Book is not intended to stand alone, it also provides references to rock climbing information, which is readily
available in standard sources. Those sections relevant mainly to E candidates are prefaced with an (E).

SAFETY COMMITTEE REQUIREMENTS

The LTC trains and certifies leader candidates to general standards set by the Safety Committee, (i.e. a 3rd class rock
outing requires an M-rated leader, 4th class an E-rated leader). An E leader may perform several protected moves such as
might be encountered on a 5th class summit block, again presuming safety is not compromised. Conversely, an M leader
should not normally plan rappels on steep terrain where most of the rappeller’s body weight is borne by the rope. Recovery
from an emergency in such a rappel is one of the technical requirements of the E checkout. Therefore, planned vertical
rappels on backcountry outings are outside the scope of an M trip.
In order to comply with Safety Committee standards, the M and E checkouts are aimed toward the difficult end of the
3rd and 4th class spectrum. Technical multi-pitch 5th class climbing remains outside the scope of E outings.

SCOPE OF THE LTP ROCK CLIMBING PROGRAM

LTP candidates must not be beginners and are expected to gain at least some of the required skill on their own, on
climbs or training sessions scheduled by other Angeles Chapter organizations, or at the many commercially provided
classes and courses now available. The LTP, however, does offer training and practice associated with most workshops and
checkout sessions. This chapter describes the checkout procedures in sufficient detail for candidates to measure their own
readiness for a successful checkout.
The LTC has authorized certain persons to schedule and conduct LTP rock checkouts. These rock examiners are
appointed by the LTC Rock Chair as the need arises and on the basis of their experience and skill with the concurrence of

105
the LTC Chair. No others are authorized to perform LTP above the rating levels at which they expect to lead so that
checkouts, although other staff may be used in a support they have enough reserve to handle out-of-the ordinary
role. Only a few selected examiners are authorized to give E situations.
checkouts. All checkouts require an advance reservation with
the E-rated rock examiner leading the outing. E checkouts Planning M and E Rock Trips
must be approved by the LTC Rock Chair beforehand.
The preferred method of checkout is attendance at a Rock trips pose a few special planning problems. The
scheduled event. The LTC sponsors several M-level and leader must determine whether the proposed climb is within
E-level checkouts per year, which are shown on the LTP the approved Safety Committee limits of 3rd or 4th class. The
Schedule (available at the LTP website http://angeles. climb should also be within the leader’s real limits and abilities.
sierraclub.org/ltc). The notes on the LTP activities calendar In addition, the leader must screen the participants carefully
give more details on specific trips. The end of this chapter to ensure that they are qualified to make the climb. Restricted
provides details on LTP checkouts. trips on rock—all E-level and all M-level trips on which a
Typical locations for rock practice and checkout climbs rope is expected to be used—require prior approval, and all
are Stoney Point (Chatsworth), Mt. Rubidoux (Riverside), participants must be Sierra Club members (see chapters 3
Joshua Tree National Park, the San Gabriel Mountains, and and 4 for more information and the Mountaineering Outing
the Sierra Nevada wilderness and nearby areas. application in Appendix C).
Climbers soon discover that climb ratings are
somewhat subjective. Class 3 is often defined as easy rock
ROCK CLIMBING REFERENCES AND climbing requiring use of hands on most moves; a rope
SOURCES OF LTP INFORMATION should be available for some climbers. Class 4 is defined
as moderate climbing requiring a rope for safety; anchors
Additional rock climbing information is included in may be needed. Some definitions state that a fall on 3rd
the references in the Bibliography at the end of the book, class would probably not be fatal, whereas a fall on 4th class
as well as in this chapter. Candidates are held responsible probably would be. Exposure is not factored into class 3
for this type of information. In addition, they must possess or 4 ratings, but a long, steep and exposed class 3 climb,
a broad knowledge base, which should be obtained from such as Middle Palisade, can be a “no fall” zone where a
participation in actual climbing trips. fall could be lethal. Rather than relying solely on class
ratings, leaders need to recognize safety factors based upon
the terrain and the ability of their participants and adjust
ROCK LEADERSHIP their risk management plan accordingly. In actuality, each
climb is a unique problem, and the main value of ratings
Leader’s Responsibility is an experientially gained knowledge of what the climbing
community has in mind, in a general way, when it assigns
The leader’s job is to provide direction and motivation, a certain rating.
which safely allow all participants, including the leader, to A leader should not automatically assume that having
enjoy their mountaineering experience. Individual goals, obtained an M rating, he or she is ready to lead any climb
even on a rock trip, may include peak bagging, experiencing that someone has labeled as being class 3. A long 3rd class
nature, exercising, socializing, or just leading people–a wide ridge at 14,000 ft on Mt. Russell in the Sierra is a totally
spectrum of possible interests. The leader should provide different situation than a 3rd class move on Strawberry Peak
a boundary, a framework, in which all participants can in the San Gabriels. Initially, the M rating should be viewed
most fully meet their own expectations with the maximum as a license to practice leading. Skills will most likely be
possible safety margin. The leader should maintain a enhanced with practice.
balance between enthusiasm for climbing and the needs of Probably the best source of information for climbs
the participants within the group. commonly done by the Sierra Club is back issues of
M leaders must be able to climb at the highest standards climbing section newsletters such as the Sierra Peaks Section
of 3rd class rock with an ability to follow up to at least 5.2, Echo. The climbing sections of both the Angeles and Loma
and E leaders must be able to climb at the highest 4th class Prieta Chapters of the Sierra Club also post excellent online
level with the ability to follow at 5th class rock up to a 5.6 climbing archives at their web sites. Many experienced
rating. Because they must be able to do this under the most climbers have rather complete files and can supplement
severe pressures of group responsibility and leader fatigue, them with personal recollections. The Sierra Peaks Section
the LTC requires leaders to have personal climbing skills and Desert Peaks Section peak lists contain fairly accurate

106
difficulty ratings for each peak when climbed by the easiest reflecting a feeling that anything that could be climbed in
route. mountaineering boots could not be very hard. Remembering
Guidebooks also provide a fundamental source of that mountaineers really did do some hard climbs before
information. Especially outside of California, they often can 1960 and that the rating systems have changed, look on
use a variety of systems to rate climbing difficulty, systems such ratings with a skeptical eye,
which then need to be translated into our familiar Yosemite Although a trip as planned may be moderate, any
Decimal System. Perhaps the most complete discussion of number of things can happen suddenly which can make a
rating systems is that given in Mountaineering: The Freedom climb much harder, with a higher effective rating. For this
of the Hills. reason LTP candidates must demonstrate climbing ability
Guidebooks are notorious for underrating climbing above the level they plan to lead. These factors include
difficulty. Any description written prior to about 1960 is snow or rain, ice on the route, high wind, fog or whiteout,
apt to be grossly understated by modern standards, perhaps darkness, unforeseen difficulty, losing the route, climber

CLIMBING MATERIALS

All climbing must be done with dynamic climbing ropes that are UIAA approved. The use of static ropes, utility
cord, and webbing in place of a dynamic climbing rope can produce fatal fall factors on even very short falls.

Prusiks are generally made of kernmantle type utility cord of 5 mm to 6 mm diameter. The cord must be very
flexible; some brands are not and may not conform to and thus not lock on the climbing rope. Because Gemini
cord is too stiff and Spectra has a very low melting point, they should not be used for prusiks. Other friction knots
such as Klemheists can be made from tubular webbing. Experimenting with the performance of sizes and brands
under safe conditions is highly recommended.

For slings, 1 inch tubular nylon webbing is recommended. Ends of all nylon rope, cord, and webbing should
be hot cut or melted after cutting to prevent unraveling. Commercially sewn slings, available in various lengths,
eliminate the presence of the knot, which weakens the sling. Some common lengths are listed here that fit average-
sized climbers. Lengths here and elsewhere in the LRB refer to “as cut” lengths.

Slings, 1-inch nylon webbing: Prusiks, kernmantle cord:

5 ft, 3 in Single short anchor sling 3 ft, 5-6 mm Self-belay
9 ft Double long anchor sling 5 ft, 5-6 mm Self-belay
10 ft Parisian Baudrier 8 ft, 5-6 mm Foot loop
30 ft Anchor building 20 ft, 7 mm Cordelette

Commercial climbing harnesses are light and inexpensive and are preferred over swamis with or without a seat
sling and over bowlines on a coil for both safety and comfort. Have at least two locking carabiners and various
regular carabiners, a belay/rappel device, ample runners, and prusiks.

The leader must require helmets on class 3 rock whenever a rope is used as well as higher-level rock and anytime
on climbs that are known to have rockfall hazard. Some leaders may wish to require helmets on class 3 rock even
when a rope will not be used; this is a wise safety practice.

Instruction on the use and tying of runners can be found in Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills. Commercial
sewn runners are also discussed.

Make prusik loops (or other friction knots) from 3 to 5 feet of 5 to 6 mm utility cord, using a double fisherman’s knot.

(E) A suggestion for a starter rack is to use a set of stoppers, hexes, and some spring-loaded camming devices
(SLCDs) particularly for the medium to larger sizes. Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills discusses the use of
chocks and types of equipment racks.

107
“freak out,” climber fall or injury, climber inexperience, and during the trip to become better acquainted with each
climber fatigue. participant’s personal climbing history. Later, when the
group is on the rock, the leader will want to determine who
Trip Write-ups can be counted on for responsible roles, such as scouting and
belaying, and who is apt to need special encouragement or
For safety’s sake and for the enjoyment of qualified help. Belaying is especially critical and cannot be delegated
participants, the leader is required to set certain minimum to unqualified persons. The leader must exercise control
standards for a 3rd or 4th class rock trip. The trip over and provide appropriate limits for overconfident and
offering should be as explicit as possible in describing disruptive people. The leader may need to abort a trip and
the technical difficulty of the rock climbing and should should not hesitate to do so.
define the minimum participant qualifications. Further, In general, the leader should not be tied down to a
the participants should be asked to substantiate their routine task. The leader’s job is to make sure the outing all
qualifications in writing. All questionable responses require comes together, and on a rock trip that takes a lot of overall
follow-up by the leader. Experienced leaders know that it supervision. Likewise, the leader’s physical position may not
requires a lot of work to screen potential participant lists, necessarily always be at the head of the group, either going
but the extra work is rewarded in the field. up or down. For example, if the group has one outstandingly
Prior to the trip, participants should be sent accurate weak member, the leader may temporarily have to spend
information on the planned rock climbing activities. This some time coaching and encouraging that person; this is
can serve as one more final self-check on the part of the one task that is not always easy to delegate.
participants to determine whether they are truly ready Injury and rescue are beyond the scope of this chapter,
for the trip. The leader should indicate the required rock but emphasis on safety can reduce the likelihood of injury.
equipment; a suggested list will be found in the sidebar on
page 107. Safety on Rock
Leadership on the Trip Participants expect and deserve an adequate margin
of safety on climbs sponsored by the Sierra Club.
A well-planned trip is already off to the right start. Risk containment is perhaps the leader’s most serious
Before leaving the roadhead, the leader should make sure responsibility, requiring pre-trip planning, active trip
everyone has the required equipment and distribute any leadership, mountaineering expertise, and mature judgment.
group climbing equipment equitably. Use spare moments For added safety all participants on class 3 and higher terrain

FALL FACTOR
When a leader fall is caught, the climber, belayer, rope, protection, and anchor system are all subjected to a violent
jolt. Fall forces are potentially dangerous, yet they can be reduced significantly by managing the fall factor.

The severity of the fall force actually depends on two things. One element is the length of the drop, which is
usually twice the distance the climber ascended above the last point of protection. The climber can minimize the
drop by placing protection frequently or before a risky move.

The second factor is the length of the rope running between the climber and the belayer. Modern climbing rope
is designed to absorb shock force by stretching. The climber’s distance from the belayer determines the shock-
absorbing capacity: a long run of rope can stretch a great deal and absorb a lot of energy, but a short run of rope
can absorb relatively little.

A hypothetical example demonstrates how these two elements work together. A climber leaves a ledge and
ascends 10 feet over an exposed face before falling with only 10 feet of rope paid out. The fall factor is 20 feet of
fall divided by 10 feet of rope, which yields a severe 2.0. Theoretically, 2.0 is the largest fall factor a climbing team
can experience. If the same climber places protection and falls from just 5 feet above the last placement the fall
factor is 10 divided by 10, or 1.0. If the second scenario occurs farther up the pitch, from 5 feet above protection
but with 50 feet of rope paid out, the fall factor is 10 divided by 50, which yields a relatively mild fall factor of 0.2.

108
when a rope is used or in an area where a significant rockfall
hazard is present are required to wear climbing helmets. ROCK TECHNIQUES
Some leaders may wish to require helmets on class 3 rock AND EQUIPMENT
even when a rope will not be used.
How do people get hurt on rock? Accidents in North Climbing
American Mountaineering, published yearly by the American
Alpine Club, gives insight. By far, the majority of accidents Learning to rock climb is largely experiential but
occurred on rock terrain, with the initial cause being mostly can be enhanced through study. Many excellent climbing
due to a fall or slip on rock. Much smaller percentages books and videos illustrate the do’s and don’t’s of climbing,
were due to falling objects, rappel and anchor failure and rock gyms and classes are available to climbers today.
and equipment failure in that order. Contributory causes Leader candidates can use them to review the various moves
summarized in Accidents in North American Mountaineering and skills which must be demonstrated during the LTP
include climbing unroped, exceeding abilities, inadequate rock checkout, such as friction climbing, liebacks, edging,
equipment, climbing alone, bad weather, darkness, party counter-force, stemming, and jams. For most climbers,
separated, exposure and/or exhaustion, faulty rope, no good jamming technique in cracks does not come naturally
helmet, failure to test holds, placed no protection, improper but must be learned and practiced. Crack climbing includes
tie-in to the rope, waist harness failure, rappelling off the finger cracks, hand and fist cracks, off width cracks, and
end of the rope, and miscellaneous, including such bizarre chimneys, all of which should be practiced.
incidents as asphyxiation by rope after a fall, drug overdose, For leaders, however, good climbing technique is only
and tripping on equipment and falling. Each issue of one of the required leadership skills. They must also have the
Accidents in North American Mountaineering includes a skill to recognize participant weakness and take corrective
description and analysis of accidents that occurred during action before safety margins are reduced. This recognition
the year, ranging from one paragraph to several pages. involves monitoring of individual performance to detect
Reading these accident reports may be the best way of fatigue, fear, overconfidence, or lack of required skill, then
learning about risk reduction short of serving in a mountain taking appropriate action.
rescue organization. They are highly recommended. Inexperienced climbers sometimes over-estimate the
A leader has at least some control and responsibility quality of rock. On most peaks, the rock is often only a
over almost every category of contributory cause listed in whisper away from becoming debris. In such cases it is
Accidents in North American Mountaineering. Indeed, in appropriate to shelve advanced climbing techniques and
hindsight the majority of accidents covered could have remember the old adage about always having three points
been prevented or minimized by effective risk management of contact with the rock. Climbers should test all potential
by the leader. For example, darkness and exhaustion are handholds by pulling or striking them with the base of
most often results of inadequate planning or participant the palm before committing weight to them. Water and
screening. Active leadership could even uncover inadequate gravel often trap the unwary, especially when climbers are
personal gear such as a decrepit climbing harness. descending smooth slabs. Here the leader can encourage
Rockfall is a very common hazard, but one which is extra caution with words or the belay rope and remind
often controllable through group discipline. On high angle participants throughout the trip to “climb with your eyes,”
slopes, the leader can switchback so that climbers are never to evaluate holds before moving.
above one another. Where chutes are unavoidable, the
leader can send one, two, or three climbers at a time in Belaying
closely-bunched groups. The leader can keep the area below
a rappel clear of other climbers. No matter the difficulty of The cornerstone of modern roped climbing is the belay,
the climb, helmets should be made mandatory on climbs consisting of rope, anchor, belayer, and climber. Belays must
where rockfall potential exists and are now required by the be used on all 4th and 5th class climbs. When should one
Sierra Club on all climbs of class 3 and higher when a rope belay on 3rd class climbs? Abilities differ, as do attitude and
is used. Again, the key to effective risk management is active strength; if anyone on a climb wants to rope up, he or she
leadership. should be belayed with no argument. Weather is a major
All safety precautions must be weighed against the time factor, as wind can make balance poor, cold loosens the
required to implement them. In some cases, such as when grip, and rain or snow can make holds treacherous. A long
there are conflicting hazards such as rockfall and lightning, climb, poor coordination, illness, or nervousness can make
the leader must carefully weigh alternatives such as choosing a climber who was strong and sure an hour earlier suddenly
lowering with a Münter hitch belay over rappelling. very shaky; a leader should watch for these signs and rope up.

109
 When screening participants, a leader should be aware place is to insure against mistakes and unknowns, and
that those whose experience is limited to roped practice everyone is fallible.
climbs frequently feel uncomfortable on low difficulty rock With only a body anchor, the leader forfeits the comfort
when it is combined with mountain exposure. of relaxing or shifting during a lengthy belay, and it makes
Mechanical devices such as ATCs used with harnesses a fallen climber tie-off impossible. These considerations
are most commonly used to belay climbers on 3rd, 4th generally mean that all 3rd class belays should be anchored,
and higher class terrain. The ability, however, to establish a except for an occasional upper belay on a short, easy, but
belay without equipment using techniques such as the hip exposed slope where the climber can be lowered back
belay remains a necessary skill in case of emergencies or lost easily to a secure position. A body anchor should not be
equipment. The leader must be familiar and knowledgeable used where there is a chance of a dynamic fall such as when
with the various models of belay devices and harnesses that traversing or rappelling.
may be encountered on their outings, as well as belay, rappel, Natural anchors include large boulders, rock
and anchor techniques that do not require equipment. protrusions, and live trees at least two inches in diameter.
Although a bowline on a coil is adequate for easy 3rd The fastest, easiest, and safest anchor is usually a runner
class climbs, participants should normally be required to over a solid horn or around a sturdy tree. Runners or the
have a harness if a significant amount of roped climbing is climbing rope itself can be placed around the anchor.
anticipated during an outing. If a climber is injured and must Runners are often better for rope economy and the increased
hang for a prolonged period of time, a harness provides for friction and stability of 1 inch webbing; they also protect
greater safety. The harness economizes on the climbing rope the rope from abrasions, tree sap, and cuts. Also the use of a
and offers the potential of saving time with large groups. cordelette can provide a great connection to natural as well
The climbing rope should be tied to the harness using a as artificial anchors.
figure eight follow-through; that is the required method Anchors must hold regardless of where or in which
in the LTP. Experienced trip leaders sometimes ask their direction the belayed climber might fall. More than one
participants to clip in to the climbing rope using a locking belayer has been injured because of a side pull or because
carabiner. A locking carabiner connected to the harness of too much slack between the anchor and belayer, which
and to a figure-eight knot in the rope may be acceptable allowed a falling climber to pull the belayer off position.
for an occasional belay in mountaineering, especially when Where a fixed rope is used, climbers should attach
a large group is involved and the climbing required is less their harness with both a locking carabiner and a friction
than a rope length or uses a fixed line. The locking carabiner knot attached to separate short slings. Anchor points should
method of attaching the climber to the rope, nevertheless, preferably be placed at rest positions so that the climber may
is usually not used to avoid the risk of an unnecessary link safely move the tie-in around the anchor point.
in the belay chain. A fallen climber may be tied off a number of ways.
Traditionally, the climbing signals are “On belay? Belay The leader must be able to handle a tie-off with available
on. Climbing. Climb. Off belay? Belay off.” A variation can equipment. Leaders should always look for safe, quick,
be used when a leader has anchored in at the top of a pitch and bombproof anchors on which a climber tie-off can be
and pulls in the rope until the second yells “That’s me” to accomplished with a minimum of difficulty and contortions.
indicate that there is no more rope instead of “On belay?” The leader also should be familiar with belaying with
When ready, the leader will then say, “Belay on” without a Münter hitch or a belay device connected either to the
further prompting from the second. The remainder of harness or directly to the anchor.
the signals stay the same. As a reminder, the belay is not (E) When anchoring with chocks or nuts, the leader
established until the leader says “Belay on.” must distinguish between the terms “strength” and
Good anchors are the cornerstones of belayed climbing. “security.” Strength refers to the ability of a chock to
Without them the safety of the rope is merely an illusion. withstand loads, provided it stays in place; security, on the
Two good anchors should always be sought. A useful other hand, refers to the ability of a chock to stay in place.
acronym to remember when building an anchor is SRENE. No one would use a tiny wired chock for a belay anchor
Anchors must be solid, redundant, and equalized, and have because it would not have the required strength. Even large
no extension. wired chocks, however, sometimes do not make good belay
On most 3rd class climbing, one solid anchor plus anchors, especially where the anchor must stay in place
a bombproof seat is acceptable. On select occasions, an over a long period of time or there is a lot of activity at
experienced leader may be able to belay safely with only the belay station. Side forces on the stiff wire tend to rotate
a body anchor, but this places great responsibility on the or dislodge such wired chocks. Artificial protection always
leader’s judgment. The whole point of belaying in the first should be connected to the rope with an intermediate

110
sling or runner and carabiner to prevent the protection to untwist individually and facilitating retrieval.
from dislodging as a result of rope drag. Advanced anchor M candidates are required to rappel down a near vertical
techniques also include the use of opposition to increase slope which has an easy transition at the lip. E candidates
the security of a single chock placement and the use of a are required to rappel over a sharp transition onto a vertical
cordelette to construct an equalized anchor composed of wall where all of their weight is borne by the rappel rope.
multiple chocks.
Prusiking
Rappelling
Prusiking is useful for a rappeller who must reverse the
LTP candidates are trained and tested on the dulfersitz descent for some reason; a second climber following a hard
rappel because of its traditional importance and because pitch; a leader recovering from a fall on an overhanging
no special equipment is needed. Leaders should also be wall; and rescue work, particularly in crevasses. Proficiency
acquainted with the arm rappel. must be demonstrated during the E checkout.
Mechanical rappel devices are most commonly used by (E) With practice and prusiks or other friction knots
climbers, and leaders should be familiar with their use. Tuber properly sized to the climber, prusiking can be relatively
devices like the ATC are now very common. Leaders should efficient. Otherwise, it can be a slow, strenuous process.
also be able to rappel with a Münter hitch. Leaders should Climbers should carry prusiks on all climbs on which a rope
be familiar with using the various belay/rappel devices and will be used. They can be used on rock as well as on all
also be sure that the participants are using them correctly. climbs with crevasse hazards.
Rappelling is a hazardous affair, and mistakes are often (E) A prusik or other friction knot may be rigged and
lethal. To minimize risk, leaders should become familiar used a number of ways. In most rock climbing situations
with the objective hazards of rappelling and be able to where special equipment has not been brought, two normal
tell at a glance if participants are using suitable gear and prusiks are used. One is attached to the climbing rope with
suitable technique. The leader not only needs to know how a prusik knot and to the harness at the waist with a locking
to dulfersitz but also needs to recognize the correct setup carabiner. The second or foot prusik is attached also with a
on someone else. In the dulfersitz, the rappeller should prusik knot to the climbing rope below the first. The second
lead downward with the leg under which the rope runs to prusik can be extended with a runner for a foot or feet to
avoid losing the wrap. Also, keeping both hands on the rope stand on, which can be made more secure with a girth hitch
allows one to maintain rope control. to fit the foot or feet. The foot prusik should be backed up
Friction knot self-belays, such as the Auto Block, can by a runner to a locking carabiner on the waist harness in
offer some safety but have shortcomings. Inexperienced case the waist prusik fails. While it is preferred that a normal
persons frequently allow the friction knot to become prusik (or other friction knot) be used for the feet, applicants
jammed, sometimes out of their reach. At the other extreme, may use a Texas prusik with two leg loops. A third prusik
a falling climber may inadvertently cling to the friction knot should be carried to assist the climber to get back over the
so that it fails to jam when needed. Tests and accidents, start of the rappel where the rope goes over a lip.
particularly with cavers, have shown that a partially jammed (E) Chest harnesses are typically used when the climber
friction knot can melt through after two or three feet of has a heavy pack or is traveling on a glacier. While the waist
slippage. Finally, a climber cannot hang for long if a swami harness takes the body weight, the chest harness prevents
belt or a bowline on a coil is being used, so a reprieve from the climber from inverting.
a fall on a steep slope is short lived. (E) Using a tree limb or garage rafter, one may adjust
Although the LTP teaches and tests for the friction the rig using trial and error. Standing on the foot prusik,
knot self-belay, leaders should be aware of the drawbacks one raises the waist prusik, sits on the waist prusik, and
and risks. In situations where rock fall is not a hazard and a slides up the foot prusik. The waist prusik should not be so
rappel device is used, pulling on the lower end of the rope long that it is out of reach, and the foot prusik should not
can control or stop the descent (known as an army-belay or be so close to the waist prusik that it can be slid up only a
firefighter’s belay) few inches at a time.
Rappel anchors need to be bombproof. Use two or even (E) If problems are encountered prusiking over a lip, a
three anchors to be sure. Too much is at stake to depend on third prusik may be attached to the rope as high as possible
old rotten slings that someone else has left behind or to be above the lip, perhaps by working a carabiner under the
too cost conscious to leave behind a backup chock. loaded climbing rope to allow insertion of the prusik. A
To safeguard against overrunning the rappel, two runner then can be attached to the third prusik and stood
knots, one in each strand, are used, allowing the two strands on if necessary.

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 FORCE MULTIPLICATION

Belays and rappels are often rigged with multiple anchors to provide a safety margin by dividing the load among
two or more anchor points. Proper construction is critical because incorrect rigging can produce the opposite
effect and expose each anchor to forces many times greater than intended. Forces are multiplied by the geometry
of the system and by the methods used to connect the parts. These two factors must be understood in order to
avoid overloading the entire system.

Multiplication by Angle–If one anchor could be placed above another, perfectly in line with the direction of the
load and identically tensioned, each anchor would support 50% of the force. This arrangement is rarely possible,
and as anchors spread farther to the left and right of each other, the force carried by each anchor increases. Figure
7-4 shows that the downward force on each anchor in a basic “V” arrangement is combined with a lateral force
that pulls the anchors toward each other. The graph in Figure 7-5, which plots the force on each anchor, clearly
shows that loads increase dramatically as the “V” angle widens.

Multiplication by Method–Force multiplication by angle is charted on the table in Figure 7-6, which also
compares “V” construction with a triangular sling. The triangular sling, shown in Figure 7-7, links the two anchors
directly to each other, increasing the lateral pull between them and nearly doubles the multiplication caused by
the angle alone. Forces generated by the triangular sling can be extremely dangerous, yet there may be times when
only one sling is available for the job. Tying the sling off to each anchor with clove hitches or other appropriate
stop knots isolates the anchors and makes the entire system behave like a “V” (see Figure 7-7). If the sling running
between the two anchor points is slack and the stop knots are secure, the anchor system will only be subjected to
force multiplication by the angle, as seen in the “V” arrangement.

Lateral Force (b)

Downward Force (a)

)
+b 2
a2
(c=

Angle between
rce

anchors (60° shown)

l Fo
ta
To

"V" Arrangement

Figure 7-4. Force multiplication on each anchor. The vector lines demonstrate that the total force (c) is
always larger than the downward force (a), and increases as the angle between the anchors increases.
(All anchors are shown as bolts for convenience.)

112
 200%
Tension on Each Anchor

150%

100%

50%

0 45° 90° 135° 180°

Angle Between Anchors

Figure 7-5. The angle-dependant force

on each anchor in a "V" arrangement.

Slack

Tie-off knot
at each anchor

Angle between
anchors (60° shown)

Figure 7-7.
DANGEROUS!
Do Not Use This Triangle Arrangement A triangle sling with the anchors
See text on page 112. tied off behaves like the "V."

113
 (E) Before trusting one’s weight to the prusiks to climb preparing the right gear for a provisional outing is a vital
up the rope, the climber must tie off to the rappel rope as part of the leadership learning process.
a backup in case something should go wrong. Never trust The latest LTP calendar lists scheduled workshop and
one’s life to one prusik! The tieoff loop must be placed so checkout dates. All M checkouts are by advance reservation
that a fall would be caught by the rope before the climber with the scheduled trip leader.
would hit the ground. This is known as tying in short. Other than some basic exposure to rock climbing,
Additional loops may be tied as the climber ascends the rope no specific rock experience requirements are prerequisite
to minimize the potential dynamic fall distance. to attending a rock workshop. The M checkout typically
(E) The prusiking procedure is probably the most requires at least three or four days of formal teaching
difficult part of the E checkout and must be practiced until sessions and some outside experience in climbing in
the climber can perform it smoothly and efficiently. When addition to participation on several M-level trips involving
prusiking is called for, a rappel may have been aborted or a rock climbing. E candidates are expected to be experienced
climber may be injured so that time and proficiency could mountaineers. All participants must be current Sierra Club
be critical. members, and no beginners may participate.
The normal and preferred method of checkout is for
the candidate to attend a scheduled LTP checkout session.
ROCK CHECKOUT At each scheduled checkout, the Rock Chair endeavors
to schedule enough examiners to perform the reserved
General Information checkouts. Other experienced personnel are often used as
assistants. Checkouts begin the first thing without practice
beforehand during that session.
The M- and E-level rock checkouts are designed to (E) All E checkouts are by advance reservation with the
evaluate a candidate’s technical readiness to lead M- and LTC Rock Chair, not the trip leader. Candidates must send
E-level provisional rock outings. The checkouts include their qualifications and are expected to have mastered the
more than the minimum requirements necessary for the checkout exercises before the checkout. Candidates should
successful completion of a rock outing. Situations can plan to devote the entire day to the rock checkout.
change rapidly in the mountains and can dramatically alter Candidates are tested for skill, judgment, leadership,
the course of action needed to complete the objective safely. and knowledge, with emphasis on skills demonstration.
The objective itself, typically a peak ascent, may change Examiners will, however, weigh heavily judgment,
from a seemingly benign scramble to an urgent self-rescue knowledge, and leadership factors. Submitting a detailed
on difficult terrain in deteriorating conditions. Rock leaders resume of the candidate’s rock and mountain experience is
must be prepared to address the higher technical demands to his or her advantage for the checkout.
of unplanned events as they escalate. The assessment of judgment is a subjective process. A
The checkouts are not meant to be a simple checklist candidate may satisfy all other checkout requirements but
of tasks that are checked off as they are completed. The be subjectively perceived as needing additional experience
evaluator will be looking for demonstrations of leadership, and the judgment that develops with it. All doubt will be
as well as the confidence that comes from a thorough resolved in favor of the many outing participants, who may
knowledge of the material. The best way to learn what rely on the candidate for their safety.
is required in a checkout is to attend one or more LTP Candidates must demonstrate knowledge of basic and
rock practices where the exercises will be explained and technical rock-climbing details (for M and E respectively)
demonstrated by examiners and practiced by participants. contained in the references listed in the Bibliography, plus
Climbing helmets and harnesses are required of all relevant material from this chapter.
participants at all LTP rock practices and checkouts. LTP If the candidate is successful, the examiner will forward
provides climbing ropes and gear for participants’ use at the signed-off checkout form to the Rock Chair, who will in
practices, but checkout candidates must use their own rope turn forward the candidate’s name to the LTC Administrative
and gear. It is unrealistic to assume that a candidate has the Chair. No action is required by the candidate.
knowledge and experience necessary to be an effective rock The candidate must complete all checkout procedures
leader without ever owning his or her own rope and gear. at a single checkout. Failing this, the candidate must repeat
LTP does not provide a list of gear or materials necessary to all procedures at a future checkout. As soon as candidates
complete the checkouts; however, all of the materials needed demonstrate that they are unable to complete correctly any
for a checkout will be demonstrated at LTP rock practices. checkout procedure, they will be told that the procedure has
Putting together your own rack of gear for the checkout, or been failed, that the checkout may be attempted again on a

114
future date, and that the rest of the day may be spent in rock Top-Roped Climbing
practice specifically designed to help develop the necessary The top-roped climbing exercise will evaluate a
skills. The trip leader will endeavor to assign assistants for candidate’s climbing ability on the more vertical terrain of
this purpose if available, but the first priority is given to the 4th and low 5th Class rock. The candidate will demonstrate
checkout. how to belay a climber with a belay device, and how to
Candidates are expected to be ready for the checkout catch a falling climber with the device. The candidate will
procedures. Formal checkouts require a considerable also instruct a climber in the proper belay technique, safety
amount of volunteer time from the limited list of certified checks, and climbing commands.
rock examiners, and candidates are requested not to use Instruction, teaching a participant a technical
formal checkouts as de facto practice climbs. component, is an often-overlooked leadership quality. Even
The LTC Rock Chair has the final approval of an LTC experienced outing participants can have memory lapses
rock checkout but welcomes correspondence relating to the under duress. Fear and uncertainty often adversely affect
effectiveness of the rock checkouts. concentration. Participants may have trouble remembering
The following paragraphs describe the requirements how to tie a particular knot; they may fumble with belay or
and standards for M and E-level checkouts. This material rappel set ups; they may lose confidence in their climbing
plus the checkout forms themselves should give the ability. Taking the time to teach them effectively through
candidates enough insight to evaluate their readiness for the these incidents, rather than just doing something for them,
checkout or to identify areas which require more practice. is time well spent in context with the outing as a whole.

M- and E-Rock Requirements and Standards Unanchored Belay

The checkouts are structured so that the belays,
Candidates are required to wear a climbing helmet and anchors, and rappelling progress from using the least
climbing harness during the checkout. Candidates must amount of gear to more complex scenarios requiring more
use their own ropes and gear for the checkout. Examiners gear. Rock leaders need to know when a quick sitting hip
must insure that whenever candidates and participants are belay is sufficient and when situations demand more secure
climbing, rappelling, or being lowered from a belay, they are anchors. Saving time by using just the right amount of gear
secured with a backup belay. can be a safety factor in getting the group back to camp
quickly, but real safety should never be compromised by
Knots time constraints.
A rock candidate will need to know about eighteen Throughout the checkouts there will be repeated flaking,
climbing-related knots. Many more knots are used in rock uncoiling, throwing, and coiling the climbing rope, done in
climbing, but these are some of the most commonly used. the context of a climbing scenario. Rope management is an
Candidates will not only need to demonstrate how to tie important time saving factor in the mountains. Time spent
each knot, but they will be asked to explain their primary untangling a rope mess is time wasted. Candidates must
use in rock climbing. demonstrate proficient rope handling during each exercise.
Considerations for a secure sitting hip belay include a
Climbing and Downclimbing secure position where the belayer can be braced with one or
Many of the checkout exercises involve rock climbing. both feet, a stable area where rocks and debris will not be
Candidates will be evaluated throughout the checkout released on climbers below, and an area sufficient to manage
on their climbing ability as well as their comfort level on all of the participants comfortably and safely.
the rock. M- and E-level Sierra peaks typically require During all of the belaying and rappelling exercises, the
just as much downclimbing as climbing up. For some candidate must verify safety checks, utilize proper climbing
less experienced outing participants, downclimbing can commands, and demonstrate good rope handling and group
be daunting and unnerving. Rock leaders will need to be management.
able to guide participants of varying ability over difficult
terrain by identifying unsteady participants and giving them Anchors
the confidence they need to get down safely and quickly. Proficiency at anchor building comes first from
This may involve demonstrating how to downclimb a knowledge—learning how to build anchors and learning
difficult section, identifying where the good hand and foot how to find them in the mountains—and second, from lots
holds are, and providing a comforting spot and assuring of practice.
encouragement from below. A multipoint anchor is one that utilizes more than one

115
anchor point. A natural anchor is any suitable object found undo the tie-off and re-establish the belay, without ever
in nature, such as a large tree or a large rock. An equalized compromising the climber’s safety.
anchor is one that ties two or more anchor points together (E) Before establishing a redundant anchored belay,
in such a way that the down force from a falling climber E-level candidates must be belayed while leading a class
is equal on each anchor (which also achieves redundancy). 4 pitch up to a suitable belay site. A class 4 pitch requires
A master point is the equalized knotted loop where the protection placements to insure the leader’s safety in the
climber ties in to the anchor. A redundant master point has event of a fall. Protection placements may be natural anchors
more than one loop so that if one fails, the other will back it such as slings around a secure rock formation or tree and/
up–it can be easily achieved with a BHK knot. or any number of nuts, chocks, or camming devices placed
in cracks or pockets in the rock. E-level candidates will be
Anchored Belay evaluated on the effectiveness of their protection placements
Anchored belays are required when the terrain or by their choice of location as well as the correctness and
exposure is such that the belayer might be at risk of being security of each piece. Use of extensions is important to keep
pulled off when belaying a falling climber. This is a judgment the rope running as straight as possible to reduce rope drag.
call that the rock leader must make based upon knowledge
and experience; when in doubt, build an anchored belay. Rappelling
Another important reason to use an anchored belay is In the mountains, rappels are usually not belayed. For
that there is a possibility that the belayer will need to tie the purpose of the checkouts, however, all rappels must be
off the belayed climber and escape from the anchor. This belayed. The belay is a safety precaution that is easily achieved
may be required if a climber falls and is injured and cannot in the context of the checkout environment. Typically, the
continue; the leader (belayer) must then secure the climber examiner will belay the candidate during rappels.
to the anchor and effect a rescue. On an outing with several participants, belaying
An anchor is simply a way to tie the belayer and the rappellers is unnecessary and can use up twice as much time.
climber securely to the earth. An anchor can be a large tree, If the leader or a climber is unsure of the climber’s ability to
a large rock, a piece of climbing protection securely placed, complete a rappel safely, the leader should lower the climber
or a combination of all three tied together at a master point. from the anchor with a Münter hitch.
A redundant anchor is more than one anchor tied Rappelling is arguably the most dangerous thing
together at a master point. It could consist of a rope tied climbers will do in the mountains. During rappels, climbers
around a tree and a runner looped around a rock; when must surrender their hold on the rock and put their trust
tied together at a master point, one of the anchors may fail solely in the equipment they use and their ability to use
under a heavy load from a falling climber, but the other it. When climbers have their hands and feet on the rock,
anchor will hold. climbing or downclimbing, roped or unroped, they are able
The master point is where the redundant anchors to make choices, sometimes taking calculated risks, other
are tied together, where the belayer secures himself to times retreating to safer, more comfortable ground. During
the anchor (clove hitch), and where the belay is attached a rappel, the choices a climber can make are severely limited.
(Münter hitch). Redundancy at the master point is achieved If something goes wrong during a rappel, such as anchor
by tying a BHK knot instead of a simple overhand knot failure, a climber is at the mercy of gravity.
Redundant anchors may not always be necessary on The most dangerous part of a rappel is at the anchor
an outing. Just as the leader must make a judgment call when the climber must insert the rope into the rappel
about whether to use a sitting hip belay or an anchored device. It takes two hands to do this, which leaves the
belay, he or she must also decide if the anchored belay climber vulnerable because the feet are the only two
requires redundancy. This decision must also be made from points of contact on the rock. This precarious situation
a knowledge and experience base; when in doubt, build is compounded by the fact that rappels are usually set up
a redundant anchor. For the purpose of the checkout, all because of steep or unstable terrain that is deemed unsafe to
anchors must be redundant. downclimb. Climbers can minimize their risk at this time
Tying off a fallen climber with a Münter-mule knot can by first securing themselves to the anchor with a personal
be one of the most challenging hitch-knot configurations to anchor tether.
learn, but once learned, it is one of the easiest to remember. Commercially made personal anchor tethers are
The Münter hitch has become the standard in the rock available with different names and configurations, but one
climbing community for belaying a climber up from below can easily be made with a double length sling girth hitched to
to an anchor. The belay can be tied off securely, allowing the harness with a locking carabiner to clip in to the anchor
the belayer to leave the anchor, and the belayer can easily master point. When the rappeller clips into the anchor, he

116
or she will have hands free to set up the rappel device safely. top, if the rope is weighted tight against the rock the prusiks
When the climber is ready to rappel, with the break hand may not slide up the rope; it may be necessary to attach a
securely on the rope, he or she unclips the carabiner from third prusik above the overhang to unweight the rope.
the anchor.
The Dulfersitz rappel is a very old, minimalist, but Fixed Lines (E)
effective rappel technique that does not utilize a harness or (E) E-level candidates must set up a horizontal fixed
a rappel device. It can save a lot of time but should only be line for a traverse. A fixed line is a climbing rope that is
used on short, relatively low angle rappels. For the purposes anchored at both ends of the traverse or ascent. There must
of the checkout, a harness and personal anchor tether must also be several interim protection placements (or anchors)
be used, as well as a backup belay. at various points along the rope. Leaders must demonstrate
An Auto Block is a safety system used during rappels and instruct a climber on how to travel along the rope
that backs up the break hand and locks onto the rope, with a self-belay. A self-belay on a fixed line traverse may
halting descent if a rappeller loses control of the break hand. be achieved by attaching a personal anchor tether to the
The Münter hitch is a versatile configuration that is rope with a locking carabiner. Passing the anchor points
most commonly used for belaying but can also be used to may be achieved by clipping the tether through the anchor
rappel if a climber loses his or her belay/rappel device. carabiner, or by using an additional tether on the rope; a
(E) E-level candidates must not only rappel over an lead tether is clipped ahead of the anchor point before the
overhang, but they must also ascend the rope over the trailing one is removed and reattached. The climber must
overhang with friction hitch prusiks. Prusiking is a term never be unattached to the rope until the end of the traverse
used to describe a way of ascending a climbing rope with or ascent.
two or more friction hitches attached to the rope and the (E) E-level candidates must also set up a fixed line for
climber’s harness. Prusiking can be done with a prusik an ascent. Leaders must demonstrate and instruct a climber
hitch or a klemheist hitch. Rock leaders should be familiar on how to travel along the rope with a friction hitch self-
with both hitches. A hitch, unlike a knot, is releasable and belay. Unlike a traverse, a fixed line ascent may have the
moveable, allowing a climber to ascend a rope by weighting potential for a lengthy fall. A tethered carabiner self-belay
a waist prusik, thus unweighting the foot prusik to allow would not stop such a fall. A friction hitch, such as a
the foot prusik to be moved up the rope. Then, the climber prusik or klemheist attached to the rope and clipped to the
stands up on the foot prusik, unweighting the waist prusik harness with a locking carabiner, must be used on vertical or
so that it can then be moved up the rope. This process is ascending fixed lines, or whenever there is the potential for
repeated until the climber reaches safety at the top. Near the an unrecoverable fall.

SUGGESTED READING
American Alpine Club, Accidents in North American Mountaineering. Golden, CO: American Alpine Club, annually.

Eng, Ronald C., ed. Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 8th ed. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2010.

Long, John. How to Rock Climb. 5th ed. Guilford, CT: Falcon, 2006.

Long, John, and Bob Gaines. Climbing Anchors. 2nd ed. Guilford, CT: Falcon, 2006.

Long, John, and Bob Gaines. Climbing Anchors Field Guide. Guilford, CT: Falcon, 2007.

Luebben, Craig. Rock Climbing Anchors: A Comprehensive Guide. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2006.

Luebben, Craig. Rock Climbing: Mastering Basic Skills. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2004.

Luebben, Craig, and Clyde Soles. Knots for Climbers. 3rd ed. Guilford, CT: Falcon, 2011.

Soles, Clyde. The Outdoor Knots Book. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2004.

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8
Snow Climbing

C
hapter 8 discusses some aspects of snow climbing with information drawn principally from the references listed
in the Bibliography, especially Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills. This chapter is not a substitute for the
information in the references; therefore leaders are urged to study the references and become familiar with them.
Snow climbing leaders need to understand that there are many variations in techniques. This particularly can apply to
simplified methods sometimes taught by guide services to clients so as not to overwhelm the novice with many techniques
or ways to react. The novice climber in this situation may come away with a rather distorted view of proper technique in
some situations, thinking that what has been taught is the “best” and not realizing that compromises were made.
Notably, leaders should consider that just because something is described in print does not mean it is without potential
hazard. Leaders are likely to encounter various opinions about attaching, grasping, and using the ice axe for climbing and
glissading. Climbers will invariably argue that their own preferences are the safest. Each practice may offer benefits and
potential risks. Leaders should understand these issues thoroughly, gain practical experience using the various options, and
make sure methods employed by trip participants are used correctly.
This chapter represents a compilation of “standard of care” techniques for most climbing situations encountered by
the M- or E-rated leader. Those sections relevant to E candidates are prefaced with an (E).

M AND E SNOW CLIMBING

“Snow climbing” and “ice climbing” are sometimes discussed separately, but the line of separation is somewhat arbitrary
since snow is really ice mixed with air and can be found in various conditions ranging from fluffy new powder to hardened
snow pack barely penetrable with the axe. Several terms may be helpful in understanding the terminology in the literature.
Alpine ice (AI) is frozen precipitation (snow) that has undergone a metamorphosis under the influence of time, pressure,
and temperature changes. Water ice (WI) has frozen directly from a liquid state, even though it may have originated from
snow or alpine ice before it became liquid. Technical ice climbs may be rated with a prefix AI or WI followed by a number 1

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through 8. For purposes of M and E snow climbing, which
is done usually as part of climbing a peak in the Sierra E Category (class 4 or 5)
Nevada, most climbs would be rated AI1 or less (unrated).
The reference books discuss snow climbing with crampons E category snow climbing should be synonymous
in the chapters on ice climbing. As the term is used here, with class 4 or class 5 rock climbing. This extends snow
“snow climbing” includes travel over very hard snow where climbing conditions beyond the M level, in which use
crampons may be used. of a rope becomes necessary for most climbers and/or
A distinct difference in snow climbing compared to exposure becomes significant. The E level also includes
rock climbing is the increased importance of judgment. A glacier travel with crevasse hazard and bivouac survival risk;
rock route typically will have a rating of class 3, class 4, or the therefore crevasse rescue is a required skill. E trips may use
various subdivisions of class 5. Given constant good weather simultaneous roped travel or fixed ropes for ascending, and
conditions, this rating and the associated degree of difficulty belay of a leader who is above the belayer may occur.
will be virtually the same day after day. Snow climbs do not
fit so nicely into these categories. For example, the lowest Route Selection, Planning, and Survival
rating for a snow climb would be AI1, which would include
slopes up to 50 degrees. Most climbs on Sierra peaks are Selection of climbing route, terrain, weather,
not this steep. Also complicating the issue is that the same importance of speed, and alpine (pre-dawn) starts are
route will change from hour to hour during the day with important considerations for the leader. References in
fluctuations in temperature and weather. The leader must the bibliography discuss these variables and how each
recognize that climbing conditions vary with hardness of will affect the climb. The snow climbing leader should be
snow as well as steepness of the slope. A 45 degree slope knowledgeable of these variables and the hazards associated
with soft snow may be much less difficult than a 30 degree with them.
slope with an icy surface and no run out. A route climbed These hazards may contribute to a forced bivouac.
in the cold morning may be more—or less—difficult in Because a bivouac is a possibility, the leader must know
the warm afternoon sunshine. Because of these variables, what to do. This includes seeing that participants have
leader experience and judgment are especially important on proper clothing and equipment prior to starting the trip.
snow slopes. The leader’s experience is more important than A snow shovel may be a great help. Bivouac gear includes
knowing the degree measure of the slope. As a result, it is means for isolating the climber from the snow and gear that
best not to judge differences in M- and E-level snow slopes provides a windbreak and chill protection. A snow cave or
based only on slope steepness. Some guidelines, however, other emergency shelter may need to be constructed.
may be presented to distinguish between the two levels (M
and E) for the purpose of training, checkouts, trip listing, Leading
participant screening, and chapter approval of trips. The
actual climbing of snow or ice may be fairly straightforward, The snow climbing leader must have the personal
but judging the conditions can be difficult. skill to climb under varied conditions. Much of the M or
E snow checkout pertains to these skills. Snow climbing
M Category (class 3) skill, however, is not sufficient; the leader must also have
leadership ability and sound judgment. The leader observes
M category snow climbing should really be synonymous trip participants, corrects improper techniques being used,
with class 3 rock climbing. The kind of climbing envisioned gives encouragement, and stops any dangerous activities
as the core of the M level is that found in the High Sierra or moves. Requiring each individual to demonstrate the
from late spring into summer on slopes that without snow necessary skill before entering hazardous terrain may be
cover would be class 1 or 2. M-level snowfields would warranted. When in doubt, the leader should modify the
generally be consolidated with negligible avalanche or objective or route, turn people back, or cancel the trip.
crevasse hazard. M trips typically require skill with an ice axe
and ability to use crampons in the flat foot technique. Rope TREKKING POLES
use would be equivalent to that in 3rd class rock climbing,
and rappelling may be done using the same techniques as in Use of trekking poles for hiking has become more
rock climbing. Belaying the lead climber during the ascent, common in recent years. They are effective tools for
as would occur in class 4 or exposed climbing, is for the maintaining balance and can absorb some of the shock
most part beyond the M level. delivered to the knees during descents. They are not,

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however, substitutes for an ice axe. When the snow is hard consequences. The LTC requires some form of attachment
or the slope steepens, one must ask if an arrest can be to the axe. This is not simply an “idiot” attachment to
accomplished with trekking poles. If the answer is no, put prevent losing the tool, but a very useful piece of gear. A
the poles away and get out the axe. leash connects the axe to the wrist. A tether connects the
When traversing slopes with trekking poles, some axe to the waist or other fixed body part, typically a sling
participants forget to adjust the length of their poles or around the upper body or a harness. A leader should know
choke up on a pole. This means that the uphill hand is held the advantages and disadvantages of each technique since
high. Because this position can be quite fatiguing over time, participants may prefer one to the other. Always use anchor-
a good rule of thumb is to hold the poles in a way that keeps worthy materials for attaching the ice axe.
the hands below the level of the heart. A wrist leash is typically long enough so that the axe
Holding the uphill pole perpendicular to the slope, can be carried in either hand with the leash attached to
rather than vertically, improves balance on a traverse only one wrist. This allows the climber to move the axe
because the pole keeps the climber from falling inward on from hand to hand on switchbacks without removing the
the slope. When a climber falls inward, the feet tend to lose leash. Step chopping or technical climbing may call for a
traction and slip outward. Grasping the pole along the shaft leash that is long enough to support the hand and prevent
(choking up) and holding it perpendicular to the slope or dropping the axe. Support is provided by passing the leash
more horizontal helps maintain balance and tends to engage around the shaft of the axe, making a hitch near the spike,
the pole in the snow if the climber slips. and attaching the loose end to the wrist.
Some climbers use an axe with a short leash attached
ICE AXE to a glide ring that slides up and down the shaft. Glide
rings tend to interfere with rope handling during boot axe
General belays. A short leash that is wrapped around the head of the
axe keeps the axe head firmly in the climber’s grasp, even if
Climbers have differing views on using and holding the grip is lost during a fall. A short leash, however, must
the ice axe. Most issues have several sides. Proper resolution be changed from wrist to wrist when the climber changes
or compromise depends upon snow conditions, slope, direction on switchbacks, temporarily breaking the climber’s
individual skill, climbing experience, exposure, and safety attachment to the ice axe. This constant switching
personal preference. The LTC avoids rigid prescriptions causes delay in the climb as the climber pauses to shift the
but offers some summary observations and urges leaders leash from hand to hand with gloves.
to try the various techniques and use those appropriate Leashes can be used for belays, provided the leash
to the circumstances. Leaders should be able to observe webbing is anchor-worthy and proper knots are tied. Long
participants who utilize a number of techniques and know leashes can be attached directly to the climber, while short
the strengths and limitations of each technique. The leader leashes require separate slings to give the necessary length.
also should know the ice axe parts and variations in styles A long wrist-type leash is often used with the wrist loop
and design. carabiner-clipped to a separate sling that runs around the
climber’s body.
Length A tether is tied to the axe head at one end and attached
to the climber’s body at the other. The tether should be
A long axe is hard to handle, particularly on steep slopes, long enough to permit unrestricted use of the axe in any
and is awkward to carry on a pack. On the other hand, a grasp, but not so long as to be a trip hazard. A tether allows
short axe is a less secure self-belay device for an anchor when the climber to move the axe from hand to hand. A tether,
using the shaft. It is hard to use in the cross-body position however, can interfere with clothing changes, pack straps,
and is a poor cane for all around use, especially when going and the climbing rope. Regaining control of a tethered ice
downhill facing forward. For M and E snow climbing in the axe can be difficult if the climber lets go during a fall.
Sierra Nevada, an axe long enough to reach from the palm
of the hand to about the ankle is a good compromise. Sharpness of Edges
Tether and Leash For typical snow climbing in the Sierra, the edges of
the axe may be somewhat dull and still be quite functional.
A climber should never drop the axe. On even moderate Obviously, the more ice-like the surface, the sharper the
slopes, a dropped axe may be a lost axe with serious edges must be to be useful. In LTP arrest practice sessions,

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the use of protectors on the adze is mandatory. planting the feet and the axe firmly. If a slip occurs, the
climber should immediately use the self-belay with the
Grasp properly planted axe.

How should one grasp the axe? The answer depends Self-Arrest
on many factors, including the climber’s preference. The
reference books have figures showing various techniques. Self-arrest is a learned technique that should be
Much hiking and climbing is done with the axe in the mastered in all its possible modes of occurrence. This
cane position. The self-belay grasp has the palm of the hand includes holding the axe in the right or left hand. The arrest
over the adze. This is a good grasp on the axe because the pick should be practiced from a fall resulting in slides with head
is pointed away from the body. The self-belay grasp allows first, with feet first, on one’s back, on one’s belly, with and
firm placement of the axe for self-belay, particularly on long without pack, and with different grasps of the axe when the
sustained snow climbs where the hand can tire. If a climber slide begins. One must also know how to arrest without the
slips, a self-belay is the first line of defense. If the self-belay axe. Normally, one should strive to achieve an arrest quickly
fails, the climber must switch over to the self-arrest grasp before picking up much speed in the fall.
in order to arrest. The preferred grasp should be practiced
until self-belays and self-arrests are accomplished reliably Self-Arrest with the Ice Axe in Soft Snow
and immediately under stressful, real-world conditions.
If a fall occurs in soft snow on moderate slopes and the
self-belay gives way or is not used for some reason, an arrest
SNOW CLIMBING must be initiated. The pick of the axe alone may not arrest
a slide in soft snow. In soft snow it is desirable to use the part
Step Kicking, Ascending, and Descending of the ice axe with the most surface area to engage the snow,
namely the shaft. The general idea is to end up in a sitting
Kicking steps is an integral part of a snow climb. position facing down the slope as in a sitting glissade.
Changes due to snow conditions happen as weather changes The hand on the spike end of the shaft presses the
and the sun warms the snow. The leader is constantly shaft of the axe into the snow, while the hips and body push
evaluating the snow and the team as the climb proceeds. On against the shaft to engage the broad side. The upper hand
descent, the leader must be competent in use of the plunge grasps the axe head in the preferred grasp with the pick
step, self-belay while heel kicking, and step kicking when pointing away from the body, and the heels of the feet dig
facing into the slope using the axe in stake position or low in.
dagger position. This arrest technique has several advantages. First,
the widest part of the axe shaft is contacting the snow.
Step Cutting Second, the climber is facing down the slope, seeing what is
happening and where he or she is going rather than facing
The leader must be able to cut steps with reasonable directly into the snow. Finally, the heels of the feet can dig
facility. Occasionally in making a snow climb, a small patch into the snow very effectively due to the strength of the leg
of ice or hard snow may be encountered. The party may not muscles.
have crampons, or it may be quicker to chop steps rather
than to put on and take off crampons. Sometimes a snow Self-Arrest with the Ice Axe in Hard Snow
slope is topped by a short pitch of a steeper slope or small
cornice. The leader may need to chop comfortable steps up Self-arrest while wearing crampons is done by lifting
the short pitch for the party. the feet up so that the crampons do not touch the snow.
When practicing a hard snow arrest, one should not wear
Self-Belay crampons and must have a safe runout. A technique for
hard snow arrest while wearing crampons is to be on one’s
A self-belay is an ice axe planted with the shaft in the side with the knees slightly bent, looking down the slope for
snow, which is used for support and to which the climber upcoming obstacles with feet up off the snow. The pick of
clings if a slip occurs. The first line of defense regarding a the axe is engaged into the hard snow; the shaft is held by
slip is not to fall at all. This means that during the climb the other hand up off the snow surface, forcing the pick into
the climber pays attention continuously to balance and the hard snow. The advantage to this technique is that the

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climber now sees where he or she is going.
Self-arrest from a fall on hard snow or when the climber
is wearing crampons is well described in Mountaineering: The Flat Footing
Freedom of the Hills. All techniques should be practiced in the
various starting positions until they become second nature. The flat foot (or French technique) uses ice axe
placement and direction changes that are similar to those
Glissading for step kicking, with the exception that the feet are flat on
the snow so that all crampon points are utilized. Flat footing
Glissading is a fast and enjoyable way to descend, but requires bending the ankles. As the slope becomes steeper,
control must be maintained. Visibility of a safe descent to the toes point more downhill. On moderate slopes, the axe
the bottom of the slope is essential. Three postures are used: is used in the cane position. As the slope steepens, other
standing, crouching, and sitting. The standing glissade techniques with the axe should be used, such as the stake
is the hardest to learn. The crouching glissade keeps the position or cross-body position.
climber dry but is tiring to the legs. The sitting glissade is Descending while wearing crampons is done with
easy but wet. a variety of foot and ice axe techniques that match the
In the sitting glissade, the ice axe may be held in the conditions. For easy slopes one simply walks down using
self-belay or self-arrest grasp. The other hand engages the the ice axe in the cane position. On steeper slopes, a
shaft into the snow. If the self-belay grasp is used, the pick diagonal path using the cane or cross-body position may
points away from the climber’s body, and the fingers of the be better. Other ice axe techniques for descent include the
hand grasping the head of the axe wrap nicely around the support and banister positions. The leader should be aware
adze. This position protects the climber from the points of additional techniques shown in the reference books and
of the adze and is a very natural position. If the snow their accompanying advantages and disadvantages.
consistency or slope suddenly changes, however, a self-arrest
may be necessary, and the grasp must be switched over to Front Pointing
the self-arrest grasp to perform the arrest.
Using the self-arrest grasp during the glissade allows the (E) On very steep hard snow, front pointing (or German
climber to arrest immediately without changing the grasp. technique) may be the preferred technique. The ice axe can
Using this grasp during a sitting glissade, however, creates an be used in the low dagger position, high dagger position,
awkward hand position and requires considerable attention traction position, or anchor position. Front pointing may
to keeping the pick pointed safely away from the body. The be useful for one or two steps in changing direction in a
choice of grasp is up to each climber. Leaders must know normal flat-footed zigzag ascent. A useful compromise
the ramifications of each grasp and make sure participants between flat footing and front pointing is the three o’clock
know how to glissade and arrest correctly. (or American) technique, in which one foot is in a front
point position while the other is in a flat footed placement.
The feet can be switched as needed and should be changed
CRAMPONING frequently before extensive fatigue occurs.

Usage Mixed Climbing

When the steepness of the slope and hardness of the Frequently, a snow climb will require some scrambling
snow do not permit secure footing by kicking steps, steps can over rock while wearing crampons. Although this dulls the
be cut or crampons can be used. Step cutting for extended crampons, the dulling usually is not significant for most
periods is very slow and requires a great deal of energy. snow climbs done in the Sierra. With modern alloy steel,
Unless only a few steps need to be cut or crampons must the points should not bend or break. This is not true for
be put on and taken off repeatedly, crampons are generally aluminum crampons. Because putting on and taking off
safer and faster than step cutting. At the other extreme, the crampons is very time consuming, keeping crampons on
snow can be so soft that it balls up under crampons, making over short distances on rock is a significant time-saving
cramponing slower than climbing without crampons and practice.
increasing the chance of a fall.

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 two or more independent anchors whenever possible and
ROPED TRAVEL reasonable. To keep shock loads to a minimum, dynamic
belays are preferred. Slack in the rope system is another
Simultaneous Roped Travel critical factor that can increase the shock load to an anchor
or a climber trying to hold an arrest. For this reason, slack
(E) Ascending or descending snow slopes should be kept to a minimum for most roped travel.
simultaneously while roped is faster than climbing by a
succession of belays, but it has the hazard of the domino Anchored Sitting Hip Belay
effect of “one fall, all fall.” If a climber falls, he or she should
yell “falling,” and the other climbers should go into an arrest (E) The anchored sitting hip belay is a secure belay and
position. Simultaneous roped travel is used primarily on fairly easy to do for most leaders. Its disadvantages include
glaciers with crevasses; however, it can be useful in aiding a the time necessary for preparation, cold conditions of sitting
tired, weak, injured, or inexperienced climber. Unanchored in the snow, and difficulty in exiting the belay hook-up if a
rope travel on snow slopes other than glaciers is discouraged belayed climber needs help.
except when there is sound reason for roping and traveling
together. Another alternative is for the leader to fix the rope Boot Axe Belay
as he or she moves up or down the pitch. The rope can be
fixed with anchors in the snow, such as pickets, and fixed at The boot axe belay technique is quick. It has several
each end. The members of the team then clip onto the rope variations: the “C” or the “S” technique, depending on how
with a friction knot or ascending device and move along the the rope is wrapped around the boot. The “C” and the “S”
rope. The trailing climber then cleans the gear as he or she variations differ significantly in the rope handling, but not
follows. This technique requires carrying some extra gear, much in the actual anchor performance since the weakness
and climbers should be reminded not to step on the rope in this belay is not the rope friction across the axe and the
with crampons. boot, but the tendency of the axe to come out of the snow.
This means that placement and control of the axe during
Glacier Travel the belay or holding a fall are critical.

(E) For glacier travel the entire team must pay Standing Carabiner-Ice Axe Belay
attention to rope management. All climbers should use a
proper body harness. Each climber should carry friction The standing carabiner-ice axe belay has easy rope
knots or ascenders attached in a ready position on the rope. handling, uses the dynamic addition of the belayer’s body,
Depending on the climber’s position on the rope team, and is more secure than the boot axe belay. It takes slightly
methods of attaching to the rope vary. The E leader needs to longer to set up than the boot axe belay, and a carabiner and
know the different set-ups in tying a leader, middle person, sling are required. If the climber uses a properly tied leash
or trailing climber into the rope. on his or her axe, it can immediately become the sling, and
all that is needed is the carabiner. Both the boot axe and
standing carabiner belays require sinking the length of the
ice axe shaft, which may not always be possible.
BELAYS AND ANCHORS
Planted Ice Axe
Belayed climbing can be done when the climbing
slope dictates, a climber is nervous, or the consequences of A planted ice axe can be used with the leash or tether
falling are serious. A variety of belay positions and anchors for a quick self-belay. When ice axes are planted vertically
can be used, each with advantages and disadvantages. in the snow for use as anchors, however, they tend to pop
The appropriate anchor to use and its security are highly out under load, so the axe must be held firmly in place by
dependent on the particular snow conditions, the equipment hand or some other means. The anchor’s strength is also
available, the skill of the team, and the expected load the dependent on the snow conditions.
anchor might need to handle. Most snow anchors compared
to those used on rock are relatively weak, but generally so
are the forces generated by a fall. For snow it is best to use

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Bollard topography, weather, snow accumulation, recent snow
activity, and a host of other issues. A leader should study
A bollard can be an excellent anchor with the advantage the references and be thoroughly familiar with the various
that no extra equipment is needed, although padding may conditions that can change a safe slope to an unsafe one.
be useful to keep the rope from slicing off the bollard or
freezing in place. It usually takes a long time to set up.
The strength of a bollard varies greatly, depending on SNOW CHECKOUT
the hardness of the snow, especially the underlying layers
where the rope engages the snow. If a bollard is used as an For the purposes of snow checkouts, snow consistency
anchor for a rappel, a separate sling should be used, not the is identified as soft or hard, the difference being that on
climbing rope because it could freeze in place. hard snow secure boot steps cannot be easily stomped into
the snow and step cutting or crampons may be required for
Buried Ice Axe safe travel.
Snow slopes are identified as low, moderate, and high
An ice axe buried horizontally with a tie into the angle. On low-angle slopes that do not require the use of
middle of the shaft and the pick down can be a very secure an ice axe to arrest a slide, one may use trekking poles to
anchor, depending on snow conditions. It is another type of aid balance and ease travel. On high-angle slopes or hard
deadman anchor. snow it may be difficult or impossible to arrest a slide with
an ice axe. E-level exercises on high-angle slopes should be
Snow Pickets and Flukes performed with a rope belay. Climbing helmets must be
worn when using the ice axe and when arrests are practiced.
(E) Pickets and flukes are good anchors but require Snow checkouts, like any Sierra Club activity, should
carrying the extra gear. Snow flukes are difficult to place and be performed with safety as the foremost consideration. The
have few advantages over pickets and therefore are seldom snow checkout location is selected carefully with safety in
used. Pickets are versatile and can also be buried as deadman mind. Any self-arrest slope must have a safe runout in case
anchors. a candidate cannot arrest the slide. An experienced climber
should test the runout first by glissading to the bottom. If
Crevasse Rescue any danger is detected, another location should be chosen.
Arrests shall be performed and evaluated in conditions
(E) The first action following a crevasse fall is to where sufficient momentum can be achieved to require the
keep others from falling in. If roped, the other climbers use of an axe to arrest a slide. The ice axe pick must always
immediately go into self-arrest. It must then be determined be pointed away from the body. The adze of the axe during
whether the fallen climber can climb out on his or her own practice or a checkout should be covered with a thick layer
or must be rescued. Anchors are placed, and rope team of duct tape or some other suitable material to prevent
members have specific roles to assist the fallen climber or set possible injury.
up a rope system for hauling. If the fallen climber is unable
to help, he or she must be hauled out using a system of
pulleys. Leaders should know the single pulley, “Z” pulley, Leadership
and the “CZ” pulley techniques. Because these techniques
may be quite complicated and time-consuming to use in a The LTP candidate is required to have leadership
real situation, practice is mandatory to maintain a level of ability and judgment sufficient to lead a party safely with
proficiency with these techniques. Redundant anchors with reasonable speed. The candidate is expected to have read
belays and in-crevasse assistance to the victim should be and be familiar with the material in the reference books.
used if equipment and personnel are available. The candidate may be confronted with situations to sort
out during the checkout. The snow examiner will evaluate
all pertinent aspects of the candidate’s knowledge, skill,
AVALANCHES judgment, and leadership ability. Also evaluated are basic
skills with ropes, knots, belaying, rope handling, and
Snow climbing leaders must be able to identify rappelling, as well as the speed and expertise with which all
avalanche hazards. These include local conditions, of the above are accomplished.

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E-Level Requirements to come up with feasible solutions. In most cases these will
be created by the checkout leader in a realistic way so that
The E-level leader is expected to be more skillful, the situations will be self-evident. The candidate is then
knowledgeable, and experienced with snow climbing than expected to use available resources and people to solve the
the M-level leader. In particular, this applies to arrests, problem(s) presented. The element of time is stressed, and,
rope handling, anchors, bivouacs, avalanche, and general of course, there may be more than one solution to a particular
overall judgment on situations. The E checkout will include problem. The checkout leaders grade and observe candidates
situation responses. The checkout examiner will give each E for accuracy, speed of response, technical competence,
candidate a variety of situations that require the candidate decisiveness, and awareness of other factors which may be
present (rock fall, weather, and party condition).

SUGGESTED READING
Eng, Ronald C., ed. Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 8th ed. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2010.

Lowe, Jeff. Ice World: Techniques and Experiences of Modern Ice Climbing. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1996.

Moynier, John. Avalanche Aware: Safe Travel in Avalanche Terrain, 2nd ed. Helena, MT: Falcon, 2006.

Westwide Network: Avalanche forecasts and safety information. Website: http://www.avalanche.org

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9
Additional Outings Notes

M
ost of the material in the preceding chapters is applicable to general outing situations, but emphasis in chapters
six through eight has intentionally been placed on hiking and mountaineering. This section includes some
leadership information and guidelines for conducting bus trips, ski tours, bicycling tours, and sailing outings.

BUS TRIPS
Bus trips have certain recognized advantages over carpools in terms of expense, comfort, convenience, and smaller
carbon footprint. Besides the net savings of gasoline, participants avoid the effort of driving. On a bus, the entire group
can get acquainted quickly, and plans can be made and coordinated with participants. But getting a group of thirty-five to
forty people together and managing them do have their own unique aspects which must be handled. Bus trip leaders will
doubtless develop their own methods, but experience shows that good planning, organization, and cooperation from the
participants are essential to a successful trip.

Types of Trips
Almost any type of outing can be run as a bus trip. Some successful examples include cross-country or downhill ski
trips, bicycle trips, sightseeing tours, camping trips, day hiking, nature study trips, and even backpacking trips.

Insurance
According to the California Vehicle Code, a bus is “any motor vehicle, other than a motortruck or truck tractor,
designed for carrying more than ten persons including the driver, and used or maintained for transportation of passengers.”
Therefore, minibuses and some vans are legally buses. Sierra Club insurance carriers require that ALL buses be chartered.
Outings cannot use a rented, leased, or lease-chartered bus. The insurance carriers also require that the chartering company
carry the Sierra Club on their liability insurance as an “additional insured.” The chapter has a list of the charter bus

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companies that currently have a certificate of insurance Applicant Reservations
naming the Sierra Club as added to their policy. Any of
these companies may be used. A leader may call, e-mail, or A “C” (conducted) trip does not require a rated
request this list by mail from the person listed as handling leader, only someone to supervise bus activities. Other
bus insurance under the Outings Management Committee. outings need a properly rated leader and an assistant for
each activity group or subgroup within the outing. It is
Trip Planning best also to list a reservationist in the trip announcement
to handle reservations and the wait list. This person will
Advance planning includes scouting the route and keep the records of who is on the trip and what each
destination(s), if possible, and knowing road conditions; has paid, answer phone calls about the trip, and assist in
location of diesel fuel stops, rest areas, food stops, finding replacements for cancellations. The trip should
campgrounds and other accommodations; and telephone have a clearly stated and well-publicized reservation and
numbers of highway departments, local sheriff, and cancellation policy. Sometimes a leader leaves one or two
the highway patrol for assistance. When looking for seats open to carry refreshments for the drive. Some trips
campgrounds, a leader must ensure that they are accessible have a cook appointed to plan and supervise the preparation
by bus. Roads into and within the campground should not of meals en route or at the destination.
be too steep or the curves too sharp, and any bridges must
support the weight of the bus, usually twenty tons. Cost
Time Scheduling The most important rule is always to have a trip that
supports its expenses. In planning, one should list all the
The leader should have a detailed schedule for each expected expenses such as the bus, driver’s tip, lodging
day, including driving times, length of and time for meals, (including the driver’s room, if necessary), meals and food
departure, length of each activity, and arrival at lodging. (including on-board refreshments), entrance fees, phone,
Plan at least fifteen minutes just to load and unload forty and mailing expenses. Either by a refundable contingency
people from the bus at each stop. Having made the plan a fee or an understanding about possible increase due to higher
realistic one, the leader should try to stay with it; otherwise, bus, fuel, or lodging costs, a leader should be prepared to
the group may take advantage by prolonging the stops. cover contingencies. To determine the price per participant,
the total costs are divided by the number of paying
Bus Arrangements participants. Then the price is adjusted so that the trip can
still go if not all the seats are sold. Leaders sometimes add
When the trip is scheduled, the leader should also 10% for non-members. Is the trip competitive with similar
reserve a bus by calling several approved companies and trips? Unless the trip is advertised as a fund-raiser, any extra
describing the trip, including camping conditions and the money should be refunded to the participants or spent on
possibility of dirt roads, snow, and the like. The leader the participants, perhaps by paying for an extra meal or
should request a written quote including the cost, number a party. On some bus trips, a cook plans, purchases, and
of seats on the bus, dates and times, due dates for the deposit prepares meals for the group (up to forty people). When
and balance, and firmness of the quote. this affects the cook’s participation in daily trip activities,
it is reasonable to reduce or even eliminate the fee the cook
Driver pays for the outing. In even rarer cases, the leaders may have
such a burden of planning and administration that they too
The bus driver can make or break a trip. The more receive a reduction. In these cases, the paying participants
primitive the outing, the more important it is to get a driver should know that they are being charged extra to make up
who enjoys or at least is willing to endure the anticipated the difference.
outing conditions. If it is a camping trip, the leader may
need to furnish the driver with necessary equipment, food, Seat Selection
and supplies. If it is a snow trip, the leader should ensure
that the driver has experience in snow and that the bus Seat selection is a matter that can be easily settled. At
is equipped with snow chains. The leaders should try to the final pick-up point, the bus should be emptied. The
establish a rapport with the driver and be aware of and look leaders are called first, and then the participants in the
after his or her comfort. order that their reservations were received. They board
the bus in this order and select their preferred seat for the

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trip. Some leaders prepare a seating chart and send it to all Narrow width Nordic skis are classified as light touring for
participants prior to the trip. If the trip consists of many in-track or trail touring, while general touring skis are wider
travel days, the passengers may be given the opportunity for better stability and flotation in off-trail conditions.
to rotate seats occasionally. The smoking policy should be Primarily for off-trail use, backcountry skis are wider still
firmly determined, announced, and enforced. If a toilet is and heavier. They may have full or partial length metal edges
available, participants should be advised to use it only in and greater sidecut for turning. Nordic skis are available in
case of real need. waxable and no-wax style bases. The traditional waxed skis
require carrying a waxing kit and having knowledge of snow
compositions and waxing techniques. No-wax skis are built
BACKCOUNTRY SKIING with a pattern of fish scales underneath to allow climbing up
moderate slopes without sliding backwards. No-wax skis are
Many possible types of backcountry ski trips exist, easier to use, especially for beginners and in changing snow
largely determined by the type of equipment used and the conditions, but are generally slower than a well-prepared
terrain covered. The leader’s responsibility is to determine waxable ski.
that all participants have suitable ski equipment and the Ski mountaineering is a choice between telemark
skills necessary to use their gear in the conditions expected (free heel) or alpine touring (AT or randonnée) gear for its
during the proposed outing. durability and performance on downhill runs. At one time,
weight, cost, and skiability were considerable differences in
Trip Ratings these two methods of backcountry travel. The differences
have almost disappeared, except that heels are either free
Many of the ski trips run by the Sierra Club (many of or locked down on the downhill ride. Plastic boots and
which are bus trips) take place where there are set tracks in wider skis provide both kinds of gear with equal control
the snow. These trails are often marked by colored markers and skiability. Weight and cost factors are also very much
in the trees and usually have some terrain suitable for the same. Free heel skiers enjoy the option of the telemark
beginners. Because leading such trips is not much different turn and continuous free heel versatility, while AT skiers
from leading a hike on a trail, such tours are generally rated appreciate releasable bindings and the added control of
O. Leaders need mainly to watch out for the problems of locked down heels. Climbing skins, made from fuzzy nylon
fatigue caused by unfamiliarity with equipment (hence or mohair, are attached to the ski bases for a secure uphill
extra effort) and temperature problems. People on these climb over variable snow conditions and are easily removed
trips may need a lot of help with equipment problems and for the downhill run.
advice about drinking enough water, eating enough food,
and dressing properly. Participants should be encouraged to Skills
carry warm clothes, but to dress lightly, especially during
periods of heavy exertion. Backcountry ski leaders should possess the same skills
More difficult trips are led away from prepared required of a backpacking or climbing leader, such as
trails. The group must break trail and often returns down group control, navigation, route finding, and first aid. In
moderately steep and untracked slopes. Such trips, generally addition, they must be knowledgeable of winter survival
rated I, are for more experienced skiers. skills, avalanche avoidance, and snow evaluation. Current
The most difficult trips are ski assaults of mountain weather information is more important during winter since
peaks and ski traverses over high Sierra passes. These are weather changes can more sharply affect the group’s safety
rated T (technical) and often require ice axe and crampons, and comfort.
thus making them restricted mountaineering outings,
in addition to skis and climbing skins. T ratings are not Snow Conditions
covered by the LTP.
Because some snow conditions are easier to ski than
Equipment others, the skilled leader can find the good spots by “reading”
the snow. One thing to look for is the slope’s exposure to the
Due largely to changing ski technology, there has sun. The north-facing slopes often have different conditions
been much discussion about backcountry ski equipment. than south-facing slopes, and this may change as the sun
Generally speaking, Nordic gear (lightweight boots, bindings advances during the day. Timing of a ski descent can make
and non metal-edge skis) is the lightest, lowest in cost, the difference between ice, ideal snow, breakable crust, or soft
and most flexible for use on gradual up and down terrain. and mushy snow. Especially if open slopes are wind-blown,

128
the skiing may be better in the trees, or the tree route may be locations can be avoided. Information on expected terrain
clogged with deep banks and low branches. The leader must can be obtained from personal accounts, scouting the area,
think about the strength of the group when deciding when or consulting guide books and maps. Snow conditions
to start the tour and when to turn back. Will icy or difficult and depths can be obtained from published reports and
snow conditions endanger, delay, or exhaust the group? telephone calls to the Park Service, Forest Service, Highway
Department, and private resorts. The Eastern Sierra
Avalanches Avalanche Bulletin web site is quite helpful: http://csac.org/
Bulletins/Calif/esierra.php With this information, the trip
Avalanche evaluation is a very involved science, but leader can guide the group to the safest slopes best suited to
general guidelines are available so that dangerous times and their skill levels.

SKI MOUNTAINEERING QUALIFYING TEST

The Ski Mountaineering Qualifying Test is administered to determine the candidate’s competence to engage in
easy cross-country ski trips. Good form is desirable but is not insisted upon. Certification shall be by a qualified ski
mountaineering leader.

Required Demonstrations

1. Good form and effective propulsion on the level with the proper use of the poles
2. Kick-turns to the right and left on the level
3. Side-step up a steep slope
4. Herringbone 50 feet up a 20-degree slope
5. Traverse up a slope of 100 feet, using a kick turn between traverses
6. Snowplow 50 feet on a 15-degree slope to standstill at a designated point from a direct descent
7. Four connected snowplow turns on hard snow
8. Straight running in a downhill position for not less than 100 yards on a 10-degree slope, either direct descent
or diagonal, under complete control (time not to exceed 20 seconds on the course)
9. Side-slipping for 20 feet to the right and to the left over a hard-packed surface, on a 15- to 20-degree slope.
Controlled side-slipping to be either down the fall line or diagonal on both sides
10. Four linked stem or telemark turns on a 10- to 15-degree slope, each through at least 120 degrees, executed
slowly under complete control and separated by long traverses with skis parallel, upper ski leading
11. Ascent and descent of approximately 500 feet vertical elevation, with a pack as described below, to test
reasonable climbing and downhill running ability. Proper right and left kick-turns must be demonstrated on
the climb. Climbing aids are permitted. Proper use of the ski poles expected throughout the test. Time limits,
depending upon snow conditions, will be fixed by the judges. Alternative: a cross-country tour of from three
to four miles in length, during which the candidate must demonstrate to the accompanying judge his or her
ability to cope with ordinary obstacles, to use poles properly to climb, to do kick-turns, and to run downhill
for considerable distance with steadiness proportionate to Fourth Class proficiency. The number of falls must
not be so great as to tire the candidate nor to slow up the tour. Climbing aids are permitted. The candidate
must carry a pack of at least 10 pounds containing the requirements for an easy day’s tour.

Alternative

This test may be passed in the course of a ski tour involving the ascent of at least 500 vertical feet with an average
slope of 15 degrees or more. A skier who exhibits adequate climbing techniques and who skis down without
delaying the party and without the need for excessive kick-turns and traverses shall be deemed to have passed the
test. In marginal cases, the specific skills listed above should be checked.

129
Participant Selection head count can be confirmed. At regrouping points, the
leader tells riders where the next regrouping point will be.
An essential job of a backcountry ski leader is to select An assistant is always at the rear to take care of problems and
participants who can ski well enough. Evaluation of the help stragglers.
participant’s skill level without previous observation can If an emergency arises at the rear, the assistant should
be difficult. People tend to overestimate their ability, but send a strong rider forward to notify the leader. The leader
with a few questions, a good idea can be obtained. If they should call a halt and investigate if the sweep takes too long
ski downhill, what specific ski areas or slopes do they ski? to reach the regroup point or is conspicuously absent for a
What type of ski gear do they own? Where have they skied long period.
in the backcountry and how often? If the outing involves a
snow camp, what previous experience do they have? Have At the Finish
they skied with a pack before, and can they make downhill
turns? Can they supply references of others with whom At the conclusion of the ride, the leaders must wait
they have skied? for the last riders to come in. If necessary, a sag wagon may
Further evaluation of participant skiing skills may be go back along the route to pick up slow or disabled riders.
based on application of the Ski Mountaineering Qualifying This may be especially necessary if it becomes dark before
Test (Sierra Club 4th Class Test), shown in the sidebar. they arrive.
Leaders of mountain bike trips should be sensitive to
conditions of the trails and roads they ride and make certain
BICYCLE TOURS that trip participants ride with consideration for the trail
and for others using the trail.
A bicycle outing can vary from a social day ride to a
multi-day tour covering hundreds of miles over a wide range Sierra Club Mountain Bicycle Policy
of conditions. Outings can be on a bike path, city streets, or
highways or can be mountain bike rides on trails or fire roads. As adopted by the Sierra Club’s Board of Directors
in May 1985, the basic background and specific policy
Planning regarding mountain bicycles in wilderness and on other
public lands are as follows.
The leader should be familiar with the route planned,
the road conditions, and the locations of emergency Mountain Bicycles in Wilderness
facilities, food stops, and repair facilities. After planning the
route, the leader should provide a route sheet and map for Background: The 1964 Wilderness Act calls for
each rider on the outing. exclusion of mechanized vehicles from wilderness. A bicycle,
though non-motorized, gives a mechanical advantage
Equipment (wheels and gears) and is therefore clearly covered by the
exclusionary clause. In addition, in many states, bicycles
All riders should have a tire patch kit or spare tube, are covered by vehicle codes, being required to travel in the
a tool kit, and a tire pump. The leader must ensure that same direction as other vehicles and having similar rights
each rider knows the type of outing, the kind of bicycle and for occupancy of space. The Sierra Club strongly supports
special gear, if any, that are required. Equipment should the exclusion of bicycles from all state and congressionally
be in proper mechanical condition. The leader should be designated wilderness.
skilled in a variety of repairs but should avoid becoming Policy: The Sierra Club reaffirms its support of the
a rolling repair stand for the unprepared. The ride leader Wilderness Act’s prohibition of “mechanized modes of
must require the wearing of appropriate safety helmets on transport,” including non-motorized bicycles, from entry to
all rides. designated wilderness.

Regroup Points Mountain Bicycle Use on Other Public Lands

In order to keep together, the leader should establish Sierra Club policy on mountain bicycle use on other
and announce regroup points. At each regroup point, public lands recognizes that a quiet sightseeing or exercise
everyone waits for the followers to catch up, so that the experience on a bicycle is a legitimate use of certain public

130
lands. The Sierra Club expects the managers of public lands Trip Ratings
to assume the responsibility for analysis and designation
of bicycle trails and will expect to participate in the public Sailing trips are rated T (technical), except for
process preceding those decisions. conducted trips, rated C, in which professionals do the
sailing. Each T sailing trip requires a leader and assistant.
Each boat requires a skipper and a mate and possibly other
SAILING skilled crew members.

Sailing is a complex team sport requiring coordination Skills

between the skipper and crew. Seafaring tradition has it
that the skipper’s word is law. In modern practice, a leader/ The skipper of each boat must have the skills of a
skipper will seldom need to throw his or her weight around. yachtsman, including navigation, piloting, small boat
Generally, the leader need do nothing more than keep a handling, sailing knowledge; an understanding of maritime
quiet eye on things while others sail the boat. They manage law and the rules of the road; and knowledge of fire safety,
the boat, however, with the leader’s permission, and the etc. The skipper must be able to demonstrate the ability
leader is still the one who has taken responsibility for the to use this knowledge, possibly in a tight spot. Skippers
success and safety of the trip. With experience and good usually must pass a checkout conducted by the chartering
judgment comes a firm confidence, which people will organization.
instinctively follow.

131
APPENDIX A:
MAPPING SYSTEMS AND UTM COORDINATES

L
atitude and longitude have been used to locate positions on the earth for centuries. While most people learned
about latitude and longitude in school, the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system, which is an
important feature on USGS topo maps, may be relatively unfamiliar. UTM references were indicated by tick marks
in the margins of USGS topos prior to 1989. Maps printed since then are often overlaid with a grid of UTM reference lines,
which are spaced in metric intervals. Learning the UTM system goes hand in hand with adapting to the metric system: both
offer convenience and can be learned with a little effort.

Latitude and Longitude

Any point on the earth can be located by measuring two geographic coordinates, latitude and longitude, which are
actually angles. Latitude is the angle between the point in question and the equator; longitude is the angle between the
point and the prime meridian, which runs through Greenwich, England (see Figure A-1).
Latitude and longitude are measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc either north or south of the equator and
either east or west of Greenwich. Latitude parallels are always true east and west, and meridians of longitude are always true
north and south. USGS topo maps use latitude parallels and meridians for their borders, and the slight distortion of the
meridians, which converge at the poles, can be seen on a 7.5 minute map, where the upper border is slightly shorter than
the bottom.

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

UTM offers several benefits over latitude and longitude. The system is based on a square grid with linear dimensions
rather than angular relationships; the basic unit is the meter rather than degrees, minutes, and seconds. This means that
the distance between any two points is always described in terms of distance instead of angles. The UTM grid is printed in
one-kilometer squares on many newer USGS topo maps, and coordinates describe the distance east, then north of certain
reference points (see Figure A-2). All coordinates are positive numbers, and because they are metric, they use convenient
decimal units rather than sixty seconds, sixty minutes, and 360° of arc.

132
 The UTM system can be N N
Prime Meridian
used without understanding Parallel of latitude
the details of its creation, but
knowing how the scheme
works is important. Imagine Equator
slicing the earth like an orange 68°
into sixty equal wedges. Peel
106°
the skins away and lay them
flat. These flattened skins are
the basic representations of
the earth’s surface used in the S S
UTM. Notice that imaginary Longitude Latitude
lines running up the center
of each section are the only
straight north-south lines
(meridians) on the map slices Figure A-1. Latitude and longitude are angles or arcs
(see Figure A-3). Every other measured from the equator and the prime meridian.
north-south line curves from
the equator toward the poles. Likewise, the equator is the grid lines run with the designation “GN” (grid north) in the
only true east-west line; all other east-west lines are slightly magnetic declination legend on the lower margin.
distorted when the orange peels are flattened.
A UTM rectangular grid, measuring one million Zones, Eastings and Northings, and Bands
meters wide by twenty million meters tall, is laid on top
of each section. These dimensions are slightly larger than The earth’s surface has now been divided into sixty
the slices of the earth, so the rectangle is positioned dead equal segments and each segment has a metric grid overlay.
center over the orange peel slices with the straight meridian Making each point on the earth unique, however, requires
line at the rectangle’s half way (500,000-meter) mark (see a bit more. Each strip of earth surface is called a “zone,”
Figure A-4). The rectangle is divided into 1km squares. and the zones are numbered from 1 to 60 beginning at the
USGS topo maps indicate how far from true north the local international date line (180° longitude) and proceeding
easterly. Zone 1 covers 180° to 174° W longitude; zones 10
and 11 cover California.
UTM grid lines
The coordinates of any point within a zone are simply
the distances in meters from certain reference points. The
distances are referred to as “northings” and “eastings.”
Northings are measured from the equator and eastings are
Grid North

measured from the 500,000m meridian at the center of the

zone.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the northing values are
natural measurements north of the equator, which is zero.
To avoid negative numbers in the Southern Hemisphere,
Northing northings decrease from 10,000,000 meters at the equator.
Since eastings are measured from the 500,000m meridian,
locations west of the meridian are less than 500,000; those
east are more than 500,000 (see Figure A-5). Because the
UTM rectangular grid is wider than the orange peal slice of
earth, eastings can never be close to zero.
The Northern and Southern Hemispheres are further
differentiated by a series of horizontal bands, which are 8°
Easting of latitude high. These begin at 80°S latitude (the Polar
Regions are ignored). The southernmost band is labeled
Figure A-2. UTM coordinates are distances
“C,” and the bands progress alphabetically northward
referenced to a grid overlaid on a map.
through band “W” at 72°N (the letters “I” and “O” are

133
 N

N S

.
. .

UTM Zone Numbers

9

7
8

6 (Each zone is 6° wide)

123 45
International Date Line
The center of each zone is a meridian

123456789 . . .
UTM Zones

Figure A-3. Slicing the earth like an orange and

pealing away the skins creates 60 UTM zones.

omitted to avoid confusion with the numbers “1” and “0”). is not the only datum that hikers are likely to encounter.
Band “X,” which is wider than the other bands (12°), is the Two other systems, the North American Datum 1983
northernmost and terminates at 84°N latitude (see Figure (NAD83) and North American Datum 1927 (NAD27)
A-6). California is in two bands, with S changing to T at are commonly seen on the margins of USGS topo maps.
40° N latitude, about 70 miles north of Lake Tahoe. Band NAD27 is gradually being phased out.
references prevent any ambiguity as to northings, but can Selecting the correct datum for use with a GPS receiver
be ignored for most navigation. GPS receivers will usually is important; otherwise, coordinates may be off by tens or
interpret bands automatically once the proper hemisphere even hundreds of meters. USGS topo maps often indicate
is specified. how to convert their coordinates from one system to the
other. For example, for a map using an NAD27 grid,
Datums “move the projection lines 10 meters north and 84 meters
east to place on the North American Datum 1983.” GPS
The map datum is the final complexity backcountry receivers may allow selection from as many as 100 different
navigators need to understand. The earth is not a perfect datum systems and usually make the necessary conversions
sphere, so a datum, which is a mathematical model of automatically. Hikers using GPS receivers to navigate in the
the earth, describes exactly how a map’s grid overlay is field must select the datum specified on their maps.
positioned on the globe. Most GPS receivers default to the For example, consider how the location of Mt.
World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84) datum, but it Whitney is represented by different datums. The geographic

134
 The zone meridian is the centerline of each
UTM grid, and it is the only straight north-south
grid line in each zone.

500,000m meridian
(true north)

Zone boundary
(true north)

UTM grid line

(grid north)
10,000,000m

Enlarged View

The equator is the centerline in the north-south direction.

1,000,000m

One Zone With UTM Grid Overlay Figure A-4. Each zone is overlaid
(Southern Hemisphere Not Shown) with a rectangular grid measuring
1,000,000m wide x 20,000,000m tall.

coordinates of the summit are Shorthand Notation Used With UTM Coordinates
36° 34’ 45” N and 118° 17’ 33”W. The complete location of Mt. Whitney summit,
according to the NAD 83 datum, would be written as
In UTM coordinates it is in zone 11, band S. At this
point it is necessary to pick a datum. With the NAD83 11S 384356 mE 4048961 mN.
datum the location is
Easting is always given first. Some GPS receivers drop
Easting 384,356 meters and the band letter (S in this case) and display the location as
Northing 4,048,961 meters. follows:

With the NAD27 datum, the location is 11 3 84 356

40 48 961.
Easting 384,436 meters and
Northing 4,048,764 meters. The final digit, representing meters, will be dropped if
the precision is only to within ten meters. Likewise, the last
These two points appear to be 212 meters (about 700 two digits will be dropped if the precision is only to within
feet) apart if the wrong datum is used. 100 meters.

135
 N N
N 84°
X
N 72°
W
N 64°
V
N 56°
U

Zone Meridian
N 48°
T
Decreasing from 10000000mN Increasing from 00000000mN

N 40°
S
N 32°
R
N 24°
Q
N 16°
P
N 8°
NORTHINGS

Equator N
Equator
M
S 8°
L
S 16°
K
S 24°
J
S 32°
H
S 40°
G
S 48°
F
S 56°
E
S 64°
D
S 72°
C
S 80°
Decreasing Increasing S
from 500000m
EASTINGS

Figure A-5. References for eastings and northings Figure A-6. UTM bands (the zone diagram
(the zone diagram has been widened for clarity) has been widened for clarity)

A USGS topo map would show a tick mark along the Locating a Point on a Map Using UTM Coordinates
edge of the map area at the 384th 1km easting grid line and
at the 4048th 1km northing grid line in the zone, among Here is where the UTM system shows its convenience.
others. These ticks would be marked The summit of Mt. Whitney is located to the east (right) of
the 384 grid line, about 1/3 of the way to the 385 grid line.
384 and 4048 respectively on a 7.5 minute map. This establishes the east-west location. Whitney summit
is also above the 4048 grid line, almost to the 4049 grid,
The superscripted numerals indicate resolution that is which gives the north-south position. If the UTM grid lines
too coarse to be useful on this particular map. If these ticks are printed on the map, the location is easy to plot by eye.
happen to be cardinal on a particular topo, they might be The 1:24,000 (or 1:25,000 metric scale) scale on compass
marked more completely as follows to emphasize the 1 km base plates, or the 1,000 meter scale in the map’s margins
grids and their principal digits. can also be used to plot the position accurately.

384000 mE and 4048000 mN

136
 Appendix B:
Illustrations
Knot Completion and Inspection

C
asual knot tying creates unnecessary hazards. A loose or sloppy knot is liable to come untied during a climb or
under the sudden force of a fall. Strands may slip, become crossed, and even twist into unintended knots. Poorly
tied knots, furthermore, can be difficult to inspect.
Dressing knots and tying proper finishing knots are fundamental principles of safe climbing. Dressing means working
all the parts together, aligning the strands correctly and pulling everything tight. A finishing knot, such as the double
overhand (half a double fisherman), provides a safety lock and reinforces reliable completion habits.

137
 Load Load

Münter Hitch Clove Hitch

Girth Hitch

138
1

3a - view from the other side

Double Fisherman's Knot

(also called the "Barrel Knot")

Prusik Knot

139
 1

Finishing Knot

Figure 8 Followthrough
(Knots are drawn to show how they are tied, so the knots are not always shown fully dressed.
Be sure all the parts are properly placed and tightened and the rope does not cross itself unnecessarily.)

140
1

Figure 8 On A Bight

Finishing Knot

Bowline
(Tighten and dress the bowline and finishing knot)

141
 1

Finishing Knot

Bowline on a Coil
(Always leave long tails on knots and finishing knots.)

142
1

Overhand Followthrough
(also called the "Water Knot")

143
 1 2

3 4

Clip to locking carabiner

on seat harness

Parisian Baudrier
(also called the "Parisian Chest Harness")

144
 Dulfersitz Rappel
(Clothing with neck covering must be worn to prevent severe rope burn.)

145
 Anchor

Pulley
(The prusik and pulley may share
one carabiner, but two are suggested
to minimize tangles)

Rescuers pull here

to raise the fallen
climber

Prusik "b" slides along

the rope as the climber is
raised, then cinches to
hold the rope as the
rescuers reposition
prusik "a" for
the next pull

Ice axes, packs, or

pads keep the rope
on the surface
Prusik "a" cinches on the
rope when the rescuers
pull to raise the fallen climber

Lip of the crevasse

(the rope drops away)

Z-Pulley System
(Distances between components have been shortened to show the entire system.
In addition, use a separate, independent backup belay for the fallen climber.)

146
 Appendix C:
Official Forms

M
ost of these forms, which are revised often, are available from the LTC web site (http://angeles2.sierraclub.org/
leadership_and_outings_resources_forms) or the National Sierra Club’s leaders’ extranet site (http://clubhouse.
sierraclub.org/outings). Leaders should use the current forms at these web sites. The Outings Chair of your
group, section, committee, or task force can also direct you to the appropriate form(s).

Forms are organized into three sections:

Sign-in Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

See http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org/outings/local/forms if you have questions about which sign-in
form(s) to use for various outings.

Forms to Carry on All Outings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Forms for Restricted Outings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Leadership Training Program Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

147
 Sierra Club Sign-in Sheet and Liability Waiver

Use for regular outings (Page 1 of 2)

Outing: Date(s): Page of
Leader: Assistant Leader:
Sign-In Sheet & Acknowledgment of Outing Member Responsibility, Express Assumption of Risk, and Release of Liability
I understand that during my participation in this Sierra Club Outing, I may be exposed to a variety of hazards and risks, foreseen or unforeseen, which are inherent in
each Outing and cannot be eliminated without destroying the unique character of the Outing. These inherent risks include, but are not limited to, the dangers of serious
personal injury, property damage, and death (“Injuries and Damages”) from exposure to the hazards of travel and the Sierra Club has not tried to contradict or minimize
my understanding of these risks. I know that Injuries and Damages can occur by natural causes or activities of other persons, animals, trip members, trip leaders and
assistants or third parties, either as a result of negligence or because of other reasons. I understand that risks of such Injuries and Damages are involved in adventure
travel such as Sierra Club Outings and I appreciate that I may have to exercise extra care for my own person and for others around me in the face of such hazards. I
further understand that on this Outing there may not be rescue or medical facilities or expertise necessary to deal with the Injuries and Damages to which I may be
exposed.
In consideration for my acceptance as a participant on this Outing, and the services and amenities to be provided by the Sierra Club in connection with the Outing, I
confirm my understanding that:
• I have read any rules and conditions applicable to the Outing made available to me; I will pay any costs and fees for the Outing; and I acknowledge my participation is
at the discretion of the leader.
• The Outing officially begins and ends at the location(s) designated by the Sierra Club. The Outing does not include carpooling, transportation, or transit to and from
the Outing, and I am personally responsible for all risks associated with this travel. This does not apply to transportation provided by the Sierra Club during the
Outing.
• If I decide to leave early and not to complete the Outing as planned, I assume all risks inherent in my decision to leave and waive all liability against the Sierra Club
arising from that decision. Likewise, if the leader has concluded the Outing, and I decide to go forward without the leader, I assume all risks inherent in my decision to
go forward and waive all liability against the Sierra Club arising from that decision.
• This Agreement is intended to be as broad and inclusive as is permitted by law. If any provision or any part of any provision of this Agreement is held to be invalid or
legally unenforceable for any reason, the remainder of this Agreement shall not be affected thereby and shall remain valid and fully enforceable.
• To the fullest extent allowed by law, I agree to WAIVE, DISCHARGE CLAIMS, AND RELEASE FROM LIABILITY the Sierra Club, its officers, directors, employees,
agents, and leaders from any and all liability on account of, or in any way resulting from Injuries and Damages, even if caused by negligence of the Sierra Club its
officers, directors, employees, agents, and leaders, in any way connected with this Outing. I further agree to HOLD HARMLESS the Sierra Club, its officers,
directors, employees, agents, and leaders from any claims, damages, injuries or losses caused by my own negligence while a participant on the outing. I understand

Sign-In Sheet and Liability Waver

and intend that this assumption of risk and release is binding upon my heirs, executors, administrators and assigns, and includes any minors accompanying me on
the Outing.
• I have read this document in its entirety and I freely and voluntarily assume all risks of such Injuries and Damages and notwithstanding such risks, I agree to
participate in the Outing.
I have read the attached Sign-In Sheet & Acknowledgment of Outing Member Responsibility, Express Assumption of Risk, and Release of Liability in its
entirety and I freely and voluntarily assume all risks of such Injuries and Damages and notwithstanding such risks, I agree to participate in the Outing.
Home Phone Emergency Phone SC Early
Mem- Car
Printed Name Signature** Home Address Sign-
Email Address* Name/Relation ber Plate
Out
Yes
No

148
Revised: June, 2010 ** If a minor is going on the trip, the minor's guardian must sign on the minor's behalf.
 Sierra Club Sign-in Sheet and Liability Waiver

Home Phone Emergency Phone SC Early

Mem- Car
Printed Name Signature** Home Address Sign-
Email Address* Name/Relation ber Plate
Out
Yes
No

Yes
No

Use for regular outings (Page 2 of 2)

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

Yes
No

* Supply your email address to receive periodic communications from the Sierra Club.

Sign-In Sheet and Liability Waver

149
Revised: June, 2010 ** If a minor is going on the trip, the minor's guardian must sign on the minor's behalf.
 Use where liability waivers are prohibited (Page 1 of 2)
Outing: Date(s): Page of
Leader: Assistant Leader:
Sign-In Sheet & Acknowledgment of Risk
In consideration of the services of the Sierra Club and its officers, directors, employees, agents, and leaders, I agree as follows:
Although Sierra Club Outings has taken reasonable steps to provide me with appropriate equipment and skilled guides so I can enjoy an activity for which I may not
be skilled, Sierra Club Outings has informed me this activity is not without risk. Certain risks are inherent in each activity and cannot be eliminated without destroying
the unique character of the activity. These inherent risks are some of the same elements that contribute to the unique character of this activity and can be the cause
of loss or damage to my equipment, or accidental injury, illness, or in extreme cases, permanent trauma or death. Sierra Club Outings does not want to frighten me
or reduce my enthusiasm for this activity, but believes it is important for me to know in advance what to expect and to be informed of the inherent risks. The following
describes some, but not all, of those risks:
• These risks include, but are not limited to, the dangers of serious personal injury to my person or property, or my death (“injuries and damages”) from exposure
to the hazards of travel in the areas the Outing will visit.
• I know that injuries and damages can occur by natural causes or activities of other persons, animals, trip members, trip leaders and assistants or third parties,
and such injuries and damages can occur as a result of negligence or because of other reasons.
• I understand that risks of such injury and damages are involved in adventure travel such as Sierra Club Outings and I appreciate that I may have to exercise
extra care for my own person as well as for others around me in the face of such hazards.
• I further understand that on Sierra Club Outings there may not be rescue or medical facilities or expertise that may be necessary to deal with the injuries and
damages to which I may be exposed.
I am aware that Sierra Club Outings entail risks of injury or death to any participant. I understand that the description of these inherent risks is not complete and that
other unknown or unanticipated inherent risks may result in injury or death. I agree to assume and accept full responsibility for the inherent risks identified herein and
those inherent risks not specifically identified. My participation in this activity is purely voluntary, no one is forcing me to participate, and I elect to participate in spite
of and with full knowledge of the inherent risks.
I acknowledge that engaging in this activity may require a degree of skill and knowledge different than other activities and that I have responsibilities as a participant.
I acknowledge that the staff of Sierra Club Outings has been available to more fully explain to me the nature and physical demands of this activity and the inherent

Sign-In Sheet and Acknowledgment of Risk

risks, hazards, and dangers associated with this activity.
I certify that I am fully capable of participating in this activity. Therefore, I assume and accept full responsibility for myself, including all minor children in my care,
custody, and control, for bodily injury, death or loss of personal property and expenses as a result of those inherent risks and dangers identified herein and those
inherent risks and dangers not specifically identified, and, as a result of my negligence in participating in this activity.
I have carefully read, clearly understood and accepted the terms and conditions stated herein and acknowledge that this agreement shall be effective and binding
upon myself, my heirs, assigns, personal representative and estate and for all members of my family, including minor children.
Emergency Car Early
Name Signature Address Home Phone Phone License Sign-Out

150
Revised: July 2001 *If a minor is going on the trip, the minor's guardian must sign on the minor's behalf.
 Sign-In Sheet & Acknowledgment of Risk
I have carefully read, clearly understood and accepted the terms and conditions stated in the attached Sign-In Sheet & Acknowledgment of Risk and
acknowledge that this agreement shall be effective and binding upon myself, my heirs, assigns, personal representative and estate and for all members of my family,
including minor children.

Emergency Car Early

Name Signature Address Home Phone Phone License Sign-Out

Use where liability waivers are prohibited (Page 2 of 2)

Sign-In Sheet and Acknowledgment of Risk
151
Revised: July 2001 *If a minor is going on the trip, the minor's guardian must sign on the minor's behalf.
Outing: Date(s): Page of
Leader: Assistant Leader:

Use for restricted mountaineering outings (Page 1 of 1)

Sign-In Sheet & Acknowledgment of Outing Member Responsibility, Express Assumption of Risk, and Release of Liability
I understand that during my participation in this Sierra Club Outing, I may be exposed to a variety of hazards and risks, foreseen or unforeseen, which are inherent in
each Outing and cannot be eliminated without destroying the unique character of the Outing. These inherent risks include, but are not limited to, the dangers of
serious personal injury, property damage, and death (“Injuries and Damages”) from exposure to the hazards of travel and the Sierra Club has not tried to contradict or
minimize my understanding of these risks. I know that Injuries and Damages can occur by natural causes or activities of other persons, animals, trip members, trip
leaders and assistants or third parties, either as a result of negligence or because of other reasons. I understand that risks of such Injuries and Damages are involved
in adventure travel such as Sierra Club Outings and I appreciate that I may have to exercise extra care for my own person and for others around me in the face of
such hazards. I further understand that on this Outing there may not be rescue or medical facilities or expertise necessary to deal with the Injuries and Damages to
which I may be exposed.
In consideration for my acceptance as a participant on this Outing, and the services and amenities to be provided by the Sierra Club in connection with the Outing, I
confirm my understanding that:
• I have read any rules and conditions applicable to the Outing made available to me; I will pay any costs and fees for the Outing; and I acknowledge my participation
is at the discretion of the leader.
• The Outing officially begins and ends at the location(s) designated by the Sierra Club. The Outing does not include carpooling, transportation, or transit to and from
the Outing, and I am personally responsible for all risks associated with this travel. This does not apply to transportation provided by the Sierra Club during the
Outing.
• If I decide to leave early and not to complete the Outing as planned, I assume all risks inherent in my decision to leave and waive all liability against the Sierra Club
arising from that decision. Likewise, if the leader has concluded the Outing, and I decide to go forward without the leader, I assume all risks inherent in my decision
to go forward and waive all liability against the Sierra Club arising from that decision.
• This Agreement is intended to be as broad and inclusive as is permitted by law. If any provision or any part of any provision of this Agreement is held to be invalid
or legally unenforceable for any reason, the remainder of this Agreement shall not be affected thereby and shall remain valid and fully enforceable.
• To the fullest extent allowed by law, I agree to WAIVE, DISCHARGE CLAIMS, AND RELEASE FROM LIABILITY the Sierra Club, its officers, directors,
employees, agents, and leaders from any and all liability on account of, or in any way resulting from Injuries and Damages, even if caused by negligence of the
Sierra Club its officers, directors, employees, agents, and leaders, in any way connected with this Outing. I further agree to HOLD HARMLESS the Sierra Club, its
officers, directors, employees, agents, and leaders from any claims, damages, injuries or losses caused by my own negligence while a participant on the outing. I
understand and intend that this assumption of risk and release is binding upon my heirs, executors, administrators and assigns, and includes any minors
accompanying me on the Outing.
• I have read this document in its entirety and I freely and voluntarily assume all risks of such Injuries and Damages and notwithstanding such risks, I agree to

Sign-In Sheet and Liability Waver

participate in the Outing.
Name Address Member No Emer Phone Car License Signature Sign-Out
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

152
Revised: November 1, 2001 MOUNTAINEERING WAIVER *If a minor is going on the trip, the minor's guardian must sign on the minor's behalf.
 



I understand that during my participation in this Sierra Club Outing, I may be exposed to a variety of hazards and risks,
foreseen or unforeseen, which are inherent in each Outing and cannot be eliminated without destroying the unique
character of the Outing. These inherent risks include, but are not limited to, the dangers of serious personal injury,
property damage, and death (“Injuries and Damages”) from exposure to the hazards of travel and the Sierra Club has
not tried to contradict or minimize my understanding of these risks. I know that Injuries and Damages can occur by
natural causes or activities of other persons, animals, trip members, trip leaders and assistants or third parties, either as
a result of negligence or because of other reasons. I understand that risks of such Injuries and Damages are involved in
adventure travel such as Sierra Club Outings and I appreciate that I may have to exercise extra care for my own person
and for others around me in the face of such hazards. I further understand that on this Outing there may not be rescue
or medical facilities or expertise necessary to deal with the Injuries and Damages to which I may be exposed.

In consideration for my acceptance as a participant on this Outing, and the services and amenities to be provided by the
Sierra Club in connection with the Outing, I confirm my understanding that:
• I have read any rules and conditions applicable to the Outing made available to me; I will pay any costs and fees for
the Outing; and I acknowledge my participation is at the discretion of the leader.
• The Outing officially begins and ends at the location(s) designated by the Sierra Club. The Outing does not include
carpooling, transportation, or transit to and from the Outing, and I am personally responsible for all risks associated
with this travel. This does not apply to transportation provided by the Sierra Club during the Outing.
• If I decide to leave early and not to complete the Outing as planned, I assume all risks inherent in my decision to
leave and waive all liability against the Sierra Club arising from that decision. Likewise, if the leader has concluded
the Outing, and I decide to go forward without the leader, I assume all risks inherent in my decision to go forward
and waive all liability against the Sierra Club arising from that decision.
• This Agreement is intended to be as broad and inclusive as is permitted by law. If any provision or any part of any
provision of this Agreement is held to be invalid or legally unenforceable for any reason, the remainder of this
Agreement shall not be affected thereby and shall remain valid and fully enforceable.
• To the fullest extent allowed by law, I agree to WAIVE, DISCHARGE CLAIMS, AND RELEASE FROM LIABILITY
the Sierra Club, its officers, directors, employees, agents, and leaders from any and all liability on account of, or in
any way resulting from Injuries and Damages, even if caused by negligence of the Sierra Club its officers, directors,
employees, agents, and leaders, in any way connected with this Outing. I further agree to HOLD HARMLESS the
Sierra Club, its officers, directors, employees, agents, and leaders from any claims, damages, injuries or losses
caused by my own negligence while a participant on the outing. I understand and intend that this assumption of risk
and release is binding upon my heirs, executors, administrators and assigns, and includes any minors
accompanying me on the Outing.
• I have read this document in its entirety and I freely and voluntarily assume all risks of such Injuries and Damages
and notwithstanding such risks, I agree to participate in the Outing.
• I have read, I understand, and I agree to the enclosed Sierra Club Outings Reservation and Cancellation Policy.

Name:

Signed: Date:

Outing Name: Outing Date (s):

If you are a minor (under age 18), your parent or legal guardian must sign this Agreement on your behalf.

I hereby agree and consent to the foregoing Agreement on behalf of the minor below.

Name and Age of Minor:

(Please Print) (Age)

Signature of Parent or Guardian: Date:

Please complete this form and return it to your trip leader

Revised: January 14, 2004

To be used in advance of the outing if so desired (Page 1 of 1) Individual Liability Waiver 153
 Acknowledgment of Risk

In consideration of the services of the Sierra Club and its officers, directors, employees, agents, and leaders, I agree as follows:

Although Sierra Club Outings has taken reasonable steps to provide me with appropriate equipment and skilled guides so I can enjoy an
activity for which I may not be skilled, Sierra Club Outings has informed me this activity is not without risk. Certain risks are inherent in
each activity and cannot be eliminated without destroying the unique character of the activity. These inherent risks are some of the same
elements that contribute to the unique character of this activity and can be the cause of loss or damage to my equipment, or accidental
injury, illness, or in extreme cases, permanent trauma or death. Sierra Club Outings does not want to frighten me or reduce my
enthusiasm for this activity, but believes it is important for me to know in advance what to expect and to be informed of the inherent risks.
The following describes some, but not all, of those risks:

•• These risks include, but are not limited to, the dangers of serious personal injury to my person or property, or my death (“injuries and
damages”) from exposure to the hazards of travel in the areas the Outing will visit.

•• I know that injuries and damages can occur by natural causes or activities of other persons, animals, trip members, trip leaders and
assistants or third parties, and such injuries and damages can occur as a result of negligence or because of other reasons.

•• I understand that risks of such injury and damages are involved in adventure travel such as Sierra Club Outings and I appreciate
that I may have to exercise extra care for my own person as well as for others around me in the face of such hazards.

•• I further understand that on Sierra Club Outings there may not be rescue or medical facilities or expertise that may be necessary to
deal with the injuries and damages to which I may be exposed.

I am aware that Sierra Club Outings entail risks of injury or death to any participant. I understand that the description of these inherent
risks is not complete and that other unknown or unanticipated inherent risks may result in injury or death. I agree to assume and accept
full responsibility for the inherent risks identified herein and those inherent risks not specifically identified. My participation in this activity
is purely voluntary, no one is forcing me to participate, and I elect to participate in spite of and with full knowledge of the inherent risks.

I acknowledge that engaging in this activity may require a degree of skill and knowledge different than other activities and that I have
responsibilities as a participant. I acknowledge that the staff of Sierra Club Outings has been available to more fully explain to me the
nature and physical demands of this activity and the inherent risks, hazards, and dangers associated with this activity.

I certify that I am fully capable of participating in this activity. Therefore, I assume and accept full responsibility for myself, including all
minor children in my care, custody, and control, for bodily injury, death or loss of personal property and expenses as a result of those
inherent risks and dangers identified herein and those inherent risks and dangers not specifically identified, and, as a result of my
negligence in participating in this activity.

I have carefully read, clearly understood and accepted the terms and conditions stated herein and acknowledge that this agreement shall
be effective and binding upon myself, my heirs, assigns, personal representative and estate and for all members of my family, including
minor children.

Name: Signed: Date:

If you are a minor (under age 18), your parent or legal guardian must sign this Acknowledgement on your behalf.

I hereby agree and consent to the foregoing acknowledgment of risk of the minor below.

Name and Age of Minor:

(Please Print) (Age)

Signature of Parent or Guardian: Date:

Please complete and return this form to your trip leader

154 Individual Acknowledgment of Risk To be used in advance of the outing if so desired (Page 1 of 1)
    
   Medical Treatment
  Authorization & Consent
  Form


I, the parent or guardian of:

1) (minor child name)

2) (minor child name)

3) (minor child name)

authorize (accompanying adult name or trip leader name) to:

 arrange or provide medical treatment for the minor(s), including but not limited to helicopter evacuation,
ambulance service, medications, first aid, hospitalization, and surgery;
 execute any forms, consents, and releases as may be useful under the circumstances; and
 delegate the authority granted herein to any other person(s).

I understand that efforts will be made to contact me if medical treatment should be needed. I will ensure that the
minor will bring any necessary medications on the trip.

Parent or Guardian Name (print) Signature Date

Trip Name Trip Leader Name Trip Dates

(Page 1 of 1) Minor Medical Release 155

 85 Second Street, Second Floor
San Francisco, CA 94105
Phone: 415-977-5522
Fax: 415-977-5795
outings.sierraclub.org

Angeles Chapter - Sierra Club Incident Report Instructions

The Incident Report provides the Sierra Club with the information it needs to monitor and learn from
incidents throughout the outings programs and to determine whether additional investigation is
required. Trip leaders are responsible for reporting all incidents and illnesses immediately after the
outing using this Incident Report Form. Failure to report incidents may jeopardize the leader and the
Club. During the time of the incident, use the Patient Report or similar medical field assessment form.
You can download both the Incident Report and Patient Report from the following extranet site:
https://angeles2.sierraclub.org/leadership_and_outings_resources_forms

An Incident Report must be filed for:

Sierra Club • A fatality.
Incidents • Any incident that requires search, rescue or evacuation.
• Any injury that requires advanced first aid.
• Any injury or illness that could have future complications or require
medical attention after the outing (i.e. animal bite, severe sprain).
• Any act of suspected sexual harassment or child abuse.
• Any act that violates the law.
• Any act that results in property damage that could result in a claim.

Angeles Chapter Additional Angeles Chapter-only requirements: Any other incident that
Incidents compromises the outing's objective for all or some participants, including:
• lost person(s)
• altitude sickness or heat illness
• a problem participant
• recurrence of a prior condition.

• An Incident Report does not need to be filed for minor injuries such as scratches and blisters,
or other personal illnesses that will not likely have future complications even if the illness
causes the person to leave the trip.

Reporting Sierra Club Incidents Reporting Angeles Chapter Incidents

Incident Report form with Sign-in Sheet or Individual Liability Waiver, and Participant Medical Form,
and/or Patient Report if applicable.
Original – mail to Sierra Club Outings, 85 Second Original – mail to Outings Chair of sponsoring
Street, 2nd Floor, San Francisco, CA 94105 entity
Email: [email protected]
or Fax to (415) 977-5795
• [email protected] Keith Martin 530 S. Lake Ave. Box 708, Pasadena, CA 91101 626-
Email: 396-9701 for Angeles Chapter Safety Committee
• [email protected] Jane Simpson for Angeles Chapter Outings Mgmt Committee
• Chair of the sponsoring Group, Section, Committee
• Outings Chair of the sponsoring Group, Section, Committee
Life-threatening incidents/emergencies/fatalities that require rescue or evacuation should be reported
immediately by telephone to the Sierra Club Outings Department at:
1-888-OUTINGS (888-688-4647); after business hours press #6. International: 001-715-852-1701

Revised: February 2015

156 Incident Report Form for Angeles Chapter Outings (Page 1 of 3)

Sierra Club Incident Report Form
Include the participant’s waiver and medical form with this report.

Person making report : Date: / /

Address: Phone: ( )

Outing Details:
 National Trip Number: Subcommittee:

 Inner City Outing Name: ICO Group:

 Local Outings Outing Name: Chapter/Entity Name:

Leader Name:

Copy of report sent to: Chair name and phone number:

 Group Chair
 Chapter Outings Chair
 ICO Group Chair
 Chapter Chair
 Subcommittee Chair
 Group Outings Chair

Identity of ill, injured, or affected person: Age (check one):  30 - 39  60 - 69

Name:  Under 18  40 - 49  70 - 79
 18 - 29  50-59  80 +
Address:
 Female  Male Height: Weight

Phone: ( ) Sierra Club member?  Yes  No

Family of injured contacted?  Yes  No If yes, by whom?

Family
Relationship:
contact:
Phone: ( )
Address:

Public agencies contacted regarding this incident:

Date: Agency:
/ / am pm
Location: Contact:

Phone: ( )
By:

Evacuation / Search & Rescue The incident required:

 Immediate evacuation  Assistance (search & rescue)  Neither  Continued outing  Ended outing early
Names of all other witnesses or persons involved in the evacuation or search and rescue:
Name: Address: Phone:
( )

( )

( )

( )

Revised: February 2015

(Page 2 of 3) Incident Report Form for Angeles Chapter Outings 157

 Incident Details
Date of Incident: / / Time : am pm Weather Conditions:

Location:
Brief factual description of injury or illness: First aid provided (including any medication):

By whom:
Provide full description of the incident including preceding events and conditions, and all measures taken after the
incident. Do not state any opinions regarding the cause (use additional sheets if necessary).

Activity participant was doing when incident occurred

 Car Camping  In camp  River activity:  Sledding
kayak raft canoe
 Cycling  International trip  Service Trip
 Hiking  Skiing:  Swimming
 Kayaking:
x-country alpine
 Hiking with pack sea lake  Other:
 Mountaineering

I have supplied the confidential information requested above for the Sierra Club, its insurance
company, and its attorneys.

Signed Date

Email reports to: [email protected]

Fax Report to: (415) 977-5795

After emailing or faxing, mail original report, medical forms & participant waivers to:
Sierra Club Outings
85 Second Street, 2nd Floor
San Francisco, CA 94105
This report is intended to be confidential for transmission to and use by Sierra Club attorneys for litigation arising out of claims.

Revised: February 2015

158 Incident Report Form for Angeles Chapter Outings (Page 3 of 3)

 EMERGENCY RESPONSE – PATIENT REPORT (ERPR) FORM USER’S GUIDE

Term on ERPR Form Explanation

Mechanism of Injury A description of the physical circumstances of the accident, e.g., “The patient fell
backwards and struck his head.”

Chief Complaint What the patient tells you when asked “what hurts?”

Cleared C-spine Answer “XT” (see Note below) unless you have taken 16 hours or more of wilderness
first aid and are trained in this assessment.

Disability (c-spine) Immobilize c-spine if you are trained to do so. Otherwise, tell patient to lie still and not
move head or neck.

Release Spinal Precautions See “Cleared C-spine” above.

Neurological Exam Memory–give the patient a number or color to remember and ask five minutes later what
it is.
Orientation–Who are you? Where are you? When is it? What is your situation?
Pupils–Are they equal, round, and reactive to light?
Sensation–can patient tell you when you pinch his little or big toe (making sure he can’t
see what you are doing)? Strength–can patient squeeze your hands with both of his
using appropriate strength? Can patient push up/down/in/out against your hands using
his feet with appropriate strength?

Note: Keep in mind that this form with your answers could become a legal document. If you do not understand a
term on the form or you are not trained in the assessment required, write “XT.” Then on the bottom margin, write
“XT–exceeds training.”

159
 Emergency Response – Patient Report
Include several copies of this form in your first aid kit
Patient Name Sex Age Weight Height Date Time
M F
Consent to treat? Mechanism of Injury Chief Complaint
Y N
Cleared-Spine?
Y N
S Life Threatening Conditions (A B C D E) T
T R
O Airway Breathing Circulation/Severe Bleeding E
P A
Disability (c-spine) Environment (cold/heat) Shock
T
NOTE: See Back for Continuing Monitoring
Allergies (medications, food, stings)
Time
P Pulse
Medications (dose, frequency)
A V Respiratory
T I Rate/Quality
I T W P D W P D W P D
Skin
E Past Injury/Illness A Pupils E R R L E R R L E R R L
N L (PERRL)
T Mental Alert x __ Alert x __ Alert x __
Last Oral Intake Status V P U V P U V P U
H Skin – Is it Warm, Pink and Dry?
I S Pupils – Are the Equal, Round, and Reactive to Light?
S I Mental Status – Does patient know the 4 questions?
Events Leading to Incident 1. Who they are? 3. What Happened?
T G
2. Where they are? 4. What time/day is it?
O N If patient is not Alert X 4, does he/she respond to
R S Verbal command or Pain? If not, then patient is
Y Unconscious.
Results of Head-to-Toe Exam:

Spinal Assessment:
Release Spinal Precautions Neurological Exam Range of Motion Test

Summary of Assessment:

Treatment Plan:
Stabilize Cervical Spine Prevent Heat Loss Cool (if appropriate)
Treat for Shock Circulation/Sensation/Motion Check
Specific Treatments:

160 Emergency Response – Patient Report (Page 1 of 2)

 Vital Signs & Continued Care (Minimum Information Necessary, add as needed)
Time
Pulse
Respiratory
Rate/Quality
Skin W P D W P D W P D W P D W P D W P D W P D

Pupils E R R L E R R L E R R L E R R L E R R L E R R L E R R L
(PERRL)

Mental Alert x __ Alert x __ Alert x __ Alert x __ Alert x __ Alert x __ Alert x __

Status V P U V P U V P U V P U V P U V P U V P U

Heat/
Cool

Treatment
Site
Evacuation Plan
Exact Location of Patient __Marked Map Attached Helicopter Site
(100’ X 100’ Clear)

Resources on Site Messengers to notify Terrain

(tents, bags, food, water, technical
equipment, etc.) Rescue Agency:

Distance to Roadhead:
Phone # :

Personnel on Site Communication Equipment on Site? Current Weather

Cell Phone#
Do you have reception at the site?

2 Way Radio?___ Type:

freq/channel:

Assistance Needed __ Medical __ Helicopter __ Carry-out __ Search __ Backboard

__ Technical Evacuation: Raise or Lower __ Other:

Patient’s Family Member ___ Please contact

_ _
Name Address Phone Relation

Message

For life threatening emergencies or fatalities contact the Outings Department as soon as possible at:
1-888-OUTINGS (1-888-688-4647) or 01-715-852-1701 if calling internationally. Also send an Incident
Report form to the Outings Dept. following the incident.

(Page 2 of 2) Emergency Response – Patient Report 161

WFA Refusal of First Aid - Against Medical Advice (AMA)
Patient (Pt) Name: First Aider (FA) Name:

Pt Phone Number: FA Phone Number:

Pt Street Address: FA Street Address:

Pt City, State, Zip: FA City, State, Zip:

Date:
Time:
Location of Incident:

What Happened:

I have been advised by the first aider named above that I should receive medical
attention for the following condition: ___________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

The specific procedure or treatment which has been recommended is:

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Having been advised of the possible consequences of not having immediate

medical attention, I hereby release the Sierra Club and the first aider(s) named
above of any and all responsibility for my refusing first aid and/or leaving at this
time. I understand that I am leaving of my own volition and am assuming
responsibility both for safely reaching the roadhead, and for my own
transportation.

Comments:

Pt Name: FA Name:

Pt Signature: FA Signature:

Date: Date:

Witness Name:
Witness Address:

Witness Phone Number:

162 Refusal of First Aid (Page 1 of 1)

 Sample Form

Safety Management/Emergency Response Plan

Using this form: This form will help you capture information before beginning your outing. It is generic – make
adjustments as needed.

Basic Trip Information

Trip name Start date End date Total # of days

Primary outdoor activity Number of leaders Number of participants

Total: M: F: Total: M: F:

Leader roles Leader names Cell phone # Entry location and time:
1. 1. 1.
2. 2. 2. Exit location and time:
3. 3. 3.
For Entry & Exit - give enough detail to locate on a map – such as map quad
name, nearest road, name of trailhead. Use approximate times.

Public/Private Land Use and Agency Information

Location Name Agency who manages this area Agency contact person Agency location

(e.g., Ventana Wilderness) (e.g., United States Forest Service)

Agency phone Hours Ranger station or outpost facility information

Medical Facilities
Medical facility #1 Medical facility #2

Name

Address

Phone Hours Hours

Services

Additional Emergency Contacts

Sheriff Police EMS or fire department

Name

Address

Phone

OVER 

(Page 1 of 2) Safety Management/Emergency Response Plan 163

 Sample Form
Itinerary
Route: Include intended campsites and alternates, mileage, off-trail or on-trail, direction of travel,
known hazards, map names, trail names, and landmarks.
Day Date
Evacuation: Include distance and type of help available (roadhead, ranger station, etc.).

Safety Management Checklist (all must be completed/packed before outing departs)

 Does the proposed itinerary identify potential dangers and expected countermeasures?
 Participant roster (or Sign-in Sheet and Liability Waiver)*
 Signed liability waivers for each participant (or one Sign-in Sheet and Liability Waiver signed by all)
 Two sets of Participant Medical Forms (One set for leaders and a copy with each participant. Leaders
should fill these out too. Form should include emergency contact information.)
 Copy of Safety Management Plan left with a designated contact person (e.g., Outings Chair)*
 Patient Assessment Forms
 Copies of permits
 Group equipment list
 Communication device (whistles, cell phones, etc. Will it work in the field? Extra batteries on hand?)
 Emergency Response Card (from the outings leader handbook)
*Make multiple copies of these forms.

For life threatening emergencies or fatalities, after contacting the proper authorities, contact
the Outings Department:
1–888–OUTINGS (1–888–688–4647)

Last updated 6/2011

164 Safety Management/Emergency Response Plan (Page 2 of 2)
 SIERRA CLUB
Application for Mountaineering Outing Approval
NON-TRAINING TRIPS

This Application must be sent to the person in your group or subcommittee designated to review
mountaineering outings. That person will then send your approved application to:
Ron Hudson, [email protected]
Mountaineering Oversight Committee Chair
1590 Avenida del Manzano, Camarillo, CA 93010
e-mail submission is preferred

APPLICATIONS WILL NOT BE ACCEPTED DIRECTLY FROM LEADERS,

each must be submitted and approved by your group designee.

1. Name of Sponsoring Entity (chapter, group or section): ___________________________________

2. Trip Name:___________________________________Trip Dates: __________________________
3. Names of Leaders: _______________________________________________________________
4. Email / postal address of primary leader: ____________________________________________
Leader phone________________________ Email:_______ ____________
5. On a separate sheet of paper, fully describe the qualifications of each leader, including experience,
first aid, mountaineering certification, and Sierra Club membership number. New descriptions are not
required if the leader has already led a trip this year.

6. PLEASE CHECK ONE: Leader description included Leader description previously submitted

7. Describe the intended route:

____________
8. Describe the conservation theme of the trip:

9. Describe the technical difficulty of trip:

Over >

(Page 1 of 2) Restricted Mountaineering Outing Application for Non-Training Trips 165

 10. Describe the participant screening process, including experience requirements:

11. Will any paid guides or concessionaires be used? If yes, you must obtain a certificate of
insurance naming the Sierra Club as additional insured and send it to the Outings Department.

If your outing is approved, you will need to send the following to the Outings Department within
30 days or sooner of the completion of the trip:

 the Acknowledgment of Outing Member Responsibility, Express Assumption of Risk, and Release of
Liability form from each participant signed prior to the outing.
 a complete trip roster/sign-in sheet of all participants, including addresses and membership numbers
 the Medical Screening Form for each participant.
 send in an Incident Report Form asap to report any serious incidents, injuries or illnesses.
Leaders who do not turn in the above documents will not be approved to lead future restricted outings

Please allow at least four weeks for the approval process

4/11/2011

166 Restricted Mountaineering Outing Application for Non-Training Trips (Page 2 of 2)

 SIERRA CLUB
Application for Mountaineering Outing Approval
TRAINING TRIPS

This Application must be sent to the person in your group or subcommittee designated to review
mountaineering outings. That person will then send your approved tapplication to:
Ron Hudson, [email protected]
Mountaineering Oversight Committee Chair
1590 Avenida del Manzano, Camarillo, CA 93010
e-mail submission is preferred

APPLICATIONS WILL NOT BE ACCEPTED DIRECTLY FROM LEADERS,

they must be submitted and approved by your group designee.

1. Name of Sponsoring Entity (chapter, group or section):

2. Trip Name: Trip Dates:
3. Names of Leaders:
4. Email or postal address of primary leader:
Leader Phone: Email
5. On a separate sheet of paper, fully describe the qualifications of each leader, including experience,
first aid, mountaineering certification, and Sierra Club membership number. New descriptions are not
required if the leader has already led a trip this year.

6. PLEASE CHECK ONE: Leader description included Leader description previously submitted

7. Estimated number of participants: Minimum: Maximum:

8. Describe the type of training that will occur:

9. Describe the intended route:

10. Describe the technical difficulty of trip:

Over >

(Page 1 of 2) Restricted Mountaineering Outing Application for Training Trips 167

 11. Describe the participant screening process, including experience requirements:

12. Describe the conservation theme of the trip:

13. Will any paid guides or concessionaires be used? If yes, you must obtain a certificate of
insurance naming the Sierra Club as additional insured and send it to the Outings Department.

If your outing is approved, you will need to send the following to the Outings Department within
30 days or sooner of the completion of the trip:

 the Acknowledgment of Outing Member Responsibility, Express Assumption of Risk, and Release of
Liability form from each participant signed prior to the outing.
 a complete trip roster/sign-in sheet of all participants, including addresses and membership numbers.
 the Medical Form for each participant.
 send in an Incident Report Form asap to report any serious incidents, injuries or illnesses.
Leaders who do not turn in the above documents will not be approved to lead future restricted outings

Please allow at least four weeks for the approval process

4/11/2011

168 Restricted Mountaineering Outing Application for Training Trips (Page 2 of 2)

 ABOUT THE MEDICAL FORM

The Medical Form is designed to be used by trip leaders to find out in advance of special medical conditions the
participant may have, rather than learning about them in a crisis. Also, in the event of serious injury or illness, the
Medical Form provides emergency medical personnel with useful medical history information. After reviewing the
form, the leader might need to contact the participant to discuss whether the trip will be safe and enjoyable for him
or her considering his or her medical history.

By law, medical information must be kept confidential. It should be seen on a “need to know basis” by only the
trip leaders, medical personnel, or others who know and understand its confidential nature. The medical form will
be retained along with the participant’s liability waiver for a period of time following the trip, after which it will be
destroyed. If the participant chooses not to go on the trip, this form will be destroyed immediately.

Just remember, as the leader you are in charge of your trip, and you decide who is appropriate to participate on it.
You need to be as best-informed as possible so that you can make excellent decisions. ,

Leaders also should complete and carry a Medical Form.

Why is it important to obtain medical information?

• You are gathering information to ensure the trip is appropriate for each participant, to help you be better in-
formed, and to be a more prepared leader. More information allows you and potential medical personnel to
make better decisions and provide better treatment in the event of a medical emergency.

• You are not gathering information to exclude people from the trip, although that may be necessary in some
cases.

• Knowing a participant’s prior medical history can help you determine whether this trip is appropriate for him or
her. The trip could be too physically challenging (due to poor fitness) or could cause the participant harm (due
to a dangerous medical issue).

• Knowing a participant’s prior medical history also helps promote group safety. A medical condition that inca-
pacitates a group member could impact your ability to manage the group safety.

• In addition to being helpful to you in the event of an emergency, the medical history of your participants, the
medications they take, and any allergies they have can be very helpful to advanced medical personnel.

For further help with information you may receive on a Medical Form, see http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org/outings/
forms/ or http://clubhouse.sierraclub.org/outings/medical/forms/how-to-use-medical-form.pdf

169
 Medical Form
Please complete this form and return it to your leader within 30 days.
We ask for this information so that the trip leaders will know in advance of special medical conditions you may have, rather than learning
about them in a crisis. Also, in the event of serious injury or illness, this form provides emergency medical personnel with a useful medical
history. After reviewing this form, the leader may contact you to discuss whether the trip will be safe and enjoyable for you considering your
medical history.

We will keep the information on this form confidential. It will be seen only by the trip leaders, medical personnel, or others who know and
understand its confidential nature. The form will be retained along with your liability waiver for a period of time following the trip, after which it
will be destroyed. If you choose not to go on the trip, this form will be destroyed immediately.

General Information

Name: Gender:  Male  Female

Address:
City: State: Zip:
Home: ( ) Work: ( ) Cell: ( )

E-mail address: Date of Birth:

Height: Weight: Blood Pressure: Resting Pulse:

Primary Emergency Contact: Relationship:

Home: ( ) Work: ( ) Cell: ( )
Secondary Emergency Contact: Relationship:
Home: ( ) Work: ( ) Cell: ( )

Evacuation and Medical Insurance

We strongly encourage you to have medical and evacuation insurance and to bring your insurance card or other
documentation with you on the trip.
Evacuation Insurance  NONE Medical Insurance  NONE

Company Name: Company Name:

Policy Number: Policy Number:
Contact Phone Number: Contact Phone Number:
Coverage Amount:

Allergies  NONE
Include allergies to medicines, foods, insect bites and stings, animals and environment (dust, pollen, etc.).

Allergy Reaction Medication Required (if any)

OVER

170 Medical Form (Page 1 of 2)

 Medications  NONE
Please list all prescription, over-the-counter, and natural medications you are taking. Use a separate sheet if necessary.

Medication Name Dosage Frequency Side Effects (known & potential) Reason for Taking

Medical History
Please answer the following medical history questions. Use a separate sheet to explain history in more detail.
¡ Recent illness within the last 12 to 18?  Yes  No If yes, please explain.
¡ Have you had surgery or been hospitalized in the last year?  Yes  No If yes, please explain.
¡ Recent exposure to infectious diseases within 12 to 18 months?  Yes  No If yes, please explain.
¡ Do you have asthma?  Yes  No If yes, please list any medications above and explain on separate sheet.
¡ Do you have diabetes?  Yes  No If yes, please list any medications above and explain on separate sheet.
¡ Do you have a history of high blood pressure?  Yes  No
¡ Do you have a history of heart disease?  Yes  No If yes, please explain.
¡ Do you wear glasses?  Yes  No (If you wear prescription glasses or contacts, we recommend bringing a spare set.)
¡ Any history of eye or vision problems (e.g. glaucoma, detached retina)?  Yes  No If yes, please explain.
¡ Do you have any problems with your hearing?  Yes  No If yes, please explain.
¡ If female, are you pregnant?  Yes  No
¡ Do you have any bone, joint, or muscle problems?  Yes  No If yes, please explain.
¡ Have you ever had a seizure?  Yes  No If yes, please explain.
¡ Have you ever experienced altitude problems?  Yes  No If yes, please explain.
¡ Do you have any other medical issues that might affect your participation in this trip?  Yes  No
If yes, please explain:
¡ The outing may require vigorous activity, extended climbing and hiking, and other physically and mentally
demanding exertion in isolated areas without medical facilities, medical providers, or means of contacting rescue or
medical personnel. Please state below all physical or mental limitations and restrictions of which you are aware:
If you have no such limitations, please initial here:

¡ Tetanus: It is strongly advised that you are inoculated against this fatal disease and you obtain a booster within
every 10 years. The date of your most recent tetanus inoculation or booster: / /

Physical Examination
Date of most recent physical: / / Physician's name:
Address: Phone Number:
Physician's signature (if required):

± Please notify your trip leader immediately if any information on this form changes. ±

Trip Name: Trip Dates:

Signature (required): Date: / /

Last updated 3/2012

(Page 2 of 2) Medical Form 171

 Assistant Leader's Evaluation for O-Level Provisional Leaders
Sierra Club -- LEADERSHIP TRAINING PROGRAM -- Angeles Chapter
This completed form should be sent to the provisional leader, who will keep a copy and mail the original,
along with his or her self-evaluation, to the LTC Administrative Chair. The evaluating leader should be
familiar with the LTP requirements and guidelines for provisional outings as contained in the LRB,
especially the Provisional Lead Pointers document. The evaluating leader is to fill out this form with
information that will help the LTC and Safety Committee evaluate the leadership skills demonstrated by the
new leader candidate and offer teaching moments and skill improvement suggestions to further the
leadership growth of the provisional leader. Please avoid responses such as "fine" or "good," which do not
give an adequate picture of the candidate's skills; please add specifics.

Provisional Leader's N ame (Please Prin t)

Name of Evaluator (Assistant Leader)
with e-mail or phone
Trip Location Trip D ate(s)
Did the trip meet National leader standards Level 2 outing
requirements (overnight trip away from cars, such as a backpack)?
Please evaluate the leader's performance
Trailhead stagesetting: introductions, pertinent trip data, special regulations, equipment required, rules and
sign-ins, proper waiver forms used.

Was any trailhead or pre-trip screening done to make sure participants were well matched to trip difficulty?

Pace setting, keeping the group together, rest stops.

172 Assistant Leader’s Evaluatation for O-Level Provisional Leaders (Page 1 of 2)

Camp area selection, leadership in camp (if applicable). Leave No Trace principles demonstrated and
enforced during hike and breaks?

Trip plan, route selection, trail junction, or other navigation decisions?

Awareness of risk situations, safety precautions taken.

Sensitivity to physical and emotional status of participants

Were educational or conservation elements included? How were these handled?

Were the number and range of participants enough for the candidate to demonstrate leadership skills?

Date Signatur e
LTC form 107 (Rev Feb 2008)

(Page 2 of 2) Assistant Leader’s Evaluatation for O-Level Provisional Leaders 173

 O-Level Provisional Leader's Self-Evaluation
Sierra Club -- LEADERSHIP TRAINING PROGRAM -- Angeles Chapter
To receive credit for a provisional lead, the Provisional Leader is to complete this self-evaluation form and
send it to the LTC Administrative Chair. The assistant leader is also to submit an Assistant Leader's
Evaluation.

Provisional Leader's N ame (Please Pr int)

Name of Evaluator (Assistant
Leader)
Trip Location Trip D ate(s)
Trip N ature (daypack, b ackpack)
Overnight backpack away from
cars? (Level 2 ou ting, per N ational leader standards)
Attendance
Sponsoring Group or (aside from
Section leaders)
Trip Announced in
Publication Issue/month Page
Altitude Gain Distance Duration

Please give a self-evaluation of your leadership (use additional sheets if necessary):

Roadhead orientation

Your confidence as a leader

Did any problems or unexpected events happen? How did you handle them?

174 Self-Evaluation for O-Level Provisional Leaders (Page 1 of 2)

What did you learn?

Describe the route used.

Planned time compared to actual?

Planned route OK?

How effective was the trip description or participant screening in matching the skill level and conditioning
of participants to that of the planned trip?

Date Signatur e
LTC form 106 (Rev Feb 2008)

(Page 2 of 2) Self-Evaluation for O-Level Provisional Leaders 175

 Assistant Leader's Evaluation for I, M, and E-Level Provisional Leaders
Sierra Club -- LEADERSHIP TRAINING PROGRAM -- Angeles Chapter
This completed form should be sent to the provisional leader, who will keep a copy and mail the original,
along with his or her self-evaluation, to the LTC Administrative Chair. The evaluating leader should be
familiar with the LTP requirements and guidelines for provisional outings as contained in the LRB,
especially the Provisional Lead Pointers document. The evaluating leader is to fill out this form with
information that will help the LTC and Safety Committee evaluate the leadership skills demonstrated by the
new leader candidate and offer teaching moments and skill improvement suggestions to further the
leadership growth of the provisional leader. Please avoid responses such as "fine" or "good," which do not
give an adequate picture of the candidate's leadership skills; please add specifics.

Provisional Leader's Name___________________________________________________ (Please Print)

Name of Evaluator (Assistant Leader) with e-mail or phone______________________________________

Trip Location _____________________________________Trip Date(s) ______ Trip rating (I, M, or E)__

Please evaluate the leader's performance

Trailhead stagesetting: introductions, pertinent trip data, special regulations, equipment required, rules and
sign-ins, proper waiver forms used.

Was any trailhead or pre-trip screening done to make sure participants were well matched to trip difficulty?
How well did the leader do in matching skill and conditioning levels to trip difficulty?

Pace setting, keeping the group together, rest stops

Camp area selection, leadership in camp. Leave No Trace principles demonstrated and enforced during hike
and breaks?

Trip plan, route selection other navigation decisions? Did the leader demonstrate to you the navigational
skills required for I or M navigation? Were they able to answer questions and make demonstrations of
navigational difficulties of the trip?

How did the candidate demonstrate good route-finding skills (as opposed to navigation) while on cross-
country travel?

Awareness of risk situations, safety precautions taken (i.e., rockfall hazard, stream crossings, etc.)
Sensitivity to physical and emotional status of participants

176 Assistant Leader’s Evaluatation for I-, M-, and E-Level Provisional Leaders (Page 1 of 2)
Were educational or conservation elements included? How were these handled?

Problem management

Questionable decisions, actions, or plans?

Trip objective met?

Were the number and range of participants enough for the candidate to demonstrate leadership skills?

General leadership evaluation. Is this leader ready to lead at this level?

For M and E only

How did the leader do in leading the technical snow or rock?

How did the leader manage the group in this terrain?

Sensitivity to rockfall, snow conditions, or other technical hazards

Were club policies for restricted mountaineering outings followed (when appropriate)?

Date________________________ Signature__________________________________________
LTC form 112 (Feb 2008)

(Page 2 of 2) Assistant Leader’s Evaluatation for I-, M-, and E-Level Provisional Leaders 177
 I-, M-, and E-Level Provisional Leader's Self-Evaluation
Sierra Club -- LEADERSHIP TRAINING PROGRAM -- Angeles Chapter

To receive credit for an experience trip, the Provisional Leader is to complete this self-evaluation form and
send it to the LTC Administrative Chair. The assistant leader is also to submit an Assistant Leader’s
Evaluation.

Name of Leader___________________________________________ Leader Category_______________

(Please Print) (I, M, E)

Name of Evaluator ________________________________________________Trip Rating ___________

(Assistant Leader) (I, M, E)

Trip Location ______________________________________ Trip Date(s) _________________________

Trip Nature (backpack, snow, rock?) ________________________________________________________

Sponsoring Group or Section ______________________________ Attendance (aside from leaders)______

Trip Announced in Schedule: Number _________ Page _________ Other__________________________

Altitude Gain _____________ Distance _____________________ Duration_________________________

Please give a self evaluation of your leadership:

Pre-trip plan and screening of participants

Roadhead orientation

Your confidence as a leader

Did any problems or unexpected events happen? How did you handle them?

What did you learn?

Describe the route used.

178 Self-Evaluation for I-, M-, and E-Level Provisional Leaders (Page 1 of 2)
How did this route meet the requirements for navigation and route finding?

Planned time compared to actual

Planned route ok?

How effective was trip description or participant screening in matching skill level/conditioning of
participants to that of the planned trip?

For M and E only

What was the technical portion of the trip that complied with the rock or snow criteria?

How was this terrain handled by your group?

Your confidence in leading this terrain?

________________________ __________________________________________
Date Signature
LTC form 111Feb 2008)

(Page 2 of 2) Self-Evaluation for I-, M-, and E-Level Provisional Leaders 179
 M-LEVEL ROCK CHECKOUT FORM
Sierra Club – LEADERSHIP TRAINING PROGRAM – Angeles Chapter
(Climbing helmet and harness are required. Candidates must use their own ropes and gear.)

Candidate Name: _____________________________________________________________________________________

Examiner Name: _____________________________________________________________________________________
Checkout Location: ______________________________________________________ Date: ________________________

(Examiners must insure that whenever candidates or participants are climbing, rappelling, or being lowered from an
anchor, they are secured with a backup belay.)

Examiner: Assign number for each task; 0 = fail, 1 = marginal, 2 = good

1. Knots

_____ BHK _____ Water Knot _____ Slip Knot _____ Figure 8 knot
_____ Figure 8 on a bight _____ Figure 8 follow through _____ Double Fisherman _____Triple Fisherman
_____ Bowline _____ Bowline on a coil _____ Bowline on a coil on another person
_____ Girth Hitch _____ Clove Hitch _____ Munter Hitch _____ Munter Mule
_____ Prusik _____ Klemheist _____ Auto Block
_____ Leadership (Visually verify that knots tied by others are correct)

2. Climbing, Downclimbing (May be demonstrated in Parts 3, 4, and 6)

_____ Friction, balance _____ Counterforce _____ Edging _____ Mantle _____ Jams: hand, foot, arm, leg
_____ Leadership (Demonstrate how to do the various techniques)

3. Top-Roped Climbing and Belaying (Climb a top-roped pitch rated between Class 4 and 5.2)

Candidate will climb a top-roped pitch. Candidate will belay a climber with a belay device and catch an unannounced fall.
Candidate will instruct a climber in the proper belay technique, safety checks, and climbing commands.

_____ Safety checks _____ Climbing commands _____ Climbing technique _____ Belay technique
_____ Judgment _____ Knowledge _____ Leadership

4. Unanchored Belay

_____ Flake the rope for climbing

_____ Coil the rope in a Mountaineers coil
_____ With full daypack and carrying the rope, climb a Class 3 pitch
_____ Uncoil and throw the rope down to a climber
_____ Establish a secure sitting hip belay and belay a climber up with a right hand brake
_____ Belay a climber down the pitch
_____ Belay a climber up with the left hand brake
_____ Use of appropriate climbing commands
_____ Coil the rope in a Butterfly coil
_____ Carrying daypack and rope, down climb the pitch
_____ Judgment _____ Knowledge _____ Leadership (Explain climbing signals to others, verify climbers are properly
tied in, demonstrate rope handling and group management)

5. Anchors

_____ Set up 2 multipoint natural anchors with an equalized redundant master point

180 M-Level Rock Checkout (Page 1 of 2)

6. Anchored Belay

_____ With a full daypack and trailing the rope, climb a Class 3 pitch
_____ Establish a redundant anchor with a redundant master point for belay
_____ Tie into the anchor with a clove hitch
_____ Belay a climber up using a Munter hitch
_____ Demonstrate a climber tie-off using a Munter Mule knot
_____ Untie the mule knot and lower the climber down the pitch
_____ Use of appropriate climbing commands
_____ Judgment _____ Knowledge _____ Leadership (Same as unanchored belay)

7. Rappelling

_____ Set up a redundant rappel anchor for a Class 3 rappel

_____ Clip into the anchor with a personal anchor tether
_____ Uncoil, flake, and throw the rope down for rappelling
_____ Descend the pitch with a Dulfersitz rappel
_____ Clip into the anchor with a personal anchor tether
_____ Rappel the pitch with a belay/rappel device backed up with an Auto Block
____ Clip into the anchor with a personal anchor tether
_____ Rappel the pitch with a Munter hitch backed up with an Auto Block
_____ Retrieve and coil the rope
_____ Use of appropriate climbing signals
_____ Judgment _____ Knowledge _____ Leadership (Teach a climber how to rappel, inspect different rappel set-ups
and devices for safety and proper use by participants)

8. Examiner’s Comments (Examiners are encouraged to write comments during the checkout)

I certify that the named candidate has demonstrated the skill, judgment, and knowledge required for M-level Rock LTP
checkout.

Signature: ________________________________________________________________Date: ______________________

Completed form with comments to be returned to the candidate, with copies to the LTC Rock Chair, and the LTC
Administration Chair.
LTC form 108-M (Rev. December, 2012)

(Page 2 of 2) M-Level Rock Checkout 181

 E-LEVEL ROCK CHECKOUT FORM
Sierra Club – LEADERSHIP TRAINING PROGRAM – Angeles Chapter
(Climbing helmet and harness are required. Candidates must use their own ropes and gear.)

Candidate Name: _____________________________________________________________________________________

Examiner Name: _____________________________________________________________________________________
Checkout Location: ______________________________________________________Date: ________________________

(Examiners must insure that whenever candidates or participants are climbing, rappelling, or being lowered from an
anchor, they are secured with a backup belay.)

Examiner: Assign number for each task; 0 = fail, 1 = marginal, 2 = good

1. Knots

_____ BHK _____ Water Knot _____ Slip Knot _____ Figure 8 knot
_____ Figure 8 on a bight _____ Figure 8 follow through _____ Double Fisherman _____ Triple Fisherman
_____ Bowline _____ Bowline on a coil _____ Bowline on a coil on another person
_____ Girth Hitch _____ Clove Hitch _____ Munter Hitch _____ Munter Mule
_____ Prusik _____ Klemheist _____ Auto Block
_____ Leadership (Visually verify that knots tied by others are correct)

2. Climbing, Downclimbing (May be demonstrated in Parts 3, 4, and 6)

_____ Friction, balance _____ Counterforce _____ Edging _____ Mantle _____ Jams: hand, foot, arm, leg
_____ Leadership (Demonstrate how to do the various techniques)

3. Top-Roped Climbing and Belaying (Climb a top-roped pitch rated 5.6)

Candidate will climb a top-roped pitch. Candidate will belay a climber with a belay device and catch an unannounced fall.
Candidate will instruct a climber in the proper belay technique, safety checks, and climbing commands.

_____ Safety checks _____ Climbing commands _____ Climbing technique _____ Belay technique
_____ Judgment _____ Knowledge _____ Leadership

4. Unanchored Belay

_____ Flake the rope for climbing

_____ Coil the rope in a Mountaineers coil
_____ With full daypack and carrying the rope, climb a Class 3 pitch
_____ Uncoil and throw the rope down to a climber
_____ Establish a secure sitting hip belay and belay a climber up with a right hand brake
_____ Belay a climber down the pitch
_____ Belay a climber up with the left hand brake
_____ Use of appropriate climbing commands
_____ Coil the rope in a Butterfly coil
_____ Carrying daypack and rope, down climb the pitch
_____ Judgment _____ Knowledge _____ Leadership (Explain climbing signals to others, verify climbers are properly
tied in, demonstrate rope handling and group management)

5. Anchors

_____ Set up a multipoint natural anchor with an equalized redundant master point
_____ Set up a multipoint gear and natural anchor with an equalized redundant master point
_____ Set up a three point gear anchor with an equalized redundant master point

182 E-Level Rock Checkout (Page 1 of 2)

6. Anchored Belay

_____ With full daypack lead a Class 4 pitch placing protection

_____ Establish a redundant anchor with a redundant master point for belay
_____ Tie into the anchor with a Clove hitch
_____ Belay a climber up using a Munter hitch
_____ Demonstrate a climber tie-off using a Munter Mule knot
_____ Untie the Mule knot and lower the climber down the pitch
_____ Use of appropriate climbing commands
_____ Climbing ability _____ Protection placements
_____ Judgment _____ Knowledge _____ Leadership (Same as unanchored belay)

7. Rappelling and Prusiking

_____ Set up redundant rappel anchor for a Class 3 rappel

_____ Clip into the anchor with a personal anchor tether
_____ Uncoil, flake, and throw the rope down for rappelling
_____ Descend the pitch with a Dulfersitz rappel
_____ Clip into the anchor with a personal anchor tether
_____ Rappel the pitch with a Munter hitch backed up with an Auto Block
_____ Set up a redundant rappel anchor for an overhanging rappel
_____ Clip into the anchor with a personal anchor tether
_____ Uncoil, flake, and throw the rope down for rappelling
_____ Rappel half way down the pitch with a belay/rappel device and let the Auto Block lock off
_____ Tie off short with a safety knot
_____ Attach a waist friction hitch prusik to the rope and harness
_____ Attach a foot sling friction hitch prusik to the rope and harness
_____ Ascend the rope with prusiks up and over the overhang, tying off short on ascent
_____ Retrieve and coil the rope
_____ Use of appropriate climbing signals
_____ Judgment _____ Knowledge _____ Leadership (Teach a climber how to rappel, inspect different rappel set-ups
and devices for safety and proper use by participants)

8. Fixed Lines

_____ Set up a fixed line for a traverse

_____ Instruct a climber in passing anchor points with personal anchor tethers
_____ Set up a fixed line for an ascent
_____ Instruct a climber in self belaying with a friction hitch

9. Examiner’s Comments (Examiners are encouraged to write comments during the checkout)

I certify that the named candidate has demonstrated the skill, judgment, and knowledge required for E-level Rock LTP
checkout.

Signature: ________________________________________________________________Date: ______________________

Completed form with comments to be returned to the candidate, with copies to the LTC Rock Chair, and the LTC
Administration Chair.
LTC form 108-E (Rev. December, 2012)

(Page 2 of 2) E-Level Rock Checkout 183

 SNOW CHECKOUT FORM
Sierra Club -- LEADERSHIP TRAINING PROGRAM -- Angeles Chapter

This Checkoff sheet is intended for use by LTC candidates to determine when they are ready for signoff, and by LTC Snow
Examiners in evaluating performance at the "M" and "E" levels. The techniques should each be performed with a degree of proficiency
appropriate to the desired level.

Completed forms should be returned to the candidate with comments. Names of successful candidates should be
forwarded to the LTC Administration Chair with copies to the LTC Snow Chair.

Ice axe demonstrations:

(M,E)___ Demonstrate ice axe short term storage. (requires day pack)
(M,E)___ Describe parts of the ice axe and various design trends.
(M,E)___ Discuss and contrast various ice axe attachment methods.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate and discuss the ice axe trail carry.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate and discuss self-belay and self-arrest grasps.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate ice axe self-arrest position and discuss technique.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate ice axe cross-body position and discuss use.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate ice axe stake position and discuss use.
(E)___ Demonstrate grip for step-cutting and discuss use of wrist loop.
(E)___ Demonstrate grip for ice axe traction and discuss wrist loop.

Ascent/descent demonstrations: (slope can be less than 34 degrees)

(M,E)___ Discuss edging vs step kicking, leading and following.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate step-kicking ascent with direction changes.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate/discuss rest step and forced breathing techniques.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate plunge step descent as on soft snow.

Self-arrest demonstrations:
(M,E)___ Demonstrate a fast sitting glissade, either hand.
(M,E)___ Arrest starting with self-belay and self-arrest grasps.
(M,E)___ Arrest a head first fall, face down, left hand.
(M,E)___ Arrest a head first fall, face down, right hand.
(M,E)___ Arrest a head first fall, face up, left hand.
(M,E)___ Arrest a head first fall, face up, right hand.
(M,E)___ Simulate crampons, arrest on a steep slope and recover.
(M,E)___ Secure ice axe for long term storage on day pack.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate self-arrest without an ice axe.

Knots and rope handling:

(M,E)___ Demonstrate rope uncoiling.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate and discuss two rope throwing techniques.
(M,E)___ Tie rope to yourself using a bowline on a coil.
(M,E)___ Join two rope ends using a figure eight followthrough.
(M,E)___ Join two rope ends using a double fisherman (barrel knot).
(M,E)___ Attach rope to an anchor using a bowline.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate a Munter hitch belay on a carabiner.
(M,E)___ Join webbing using an overhand followthrough (water knot).
(M,E)___ Tie a swami belt around yourself.
(M,E)___ Tie rope to the swami using a figure eight followthrough.
(M,E)___ Attach yourself to an anchor using a figure eight on a bight.
(M,E)___ Attach yourself to an anchor using a clove hitch, adjust length.
(E)___ Attach prussik loops for ascending. Discuss use.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate rope coiling.

Candidate:_________________________________ Level:_____

(Page 1 of 2)Snow Checkout

184 Snow Checkout
(Page 1 183
of 2)
Crampon demonstrations:
(M,E)___ Attach crampons to boots in a quick and efficient manner.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate that crampons are secure and properly adjusted.
(M,E)___ Discuss crampon fit, adjustment, and storage for travel.

Ascent/descent demonstrations: (slope should be more than 34 degrees)

(M,E)___ Demonstrate leading a diagonal ascent with direction changes.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate slip and recovery with self-belay/self-arrest grasps.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate direct ascent/descent with ice axe in stake position.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate slip and recovery with ice axe in stake position.
(M,E)___ Demonstrate traverse with ice axe in cross-body position.
(M,E)___ Measure angle of slope using a compass as a protractor.
(E)___ Demonstrate step-cutting.
(E)___ Demonstrate front point ascent/descent using anchor position.
(E)___ Demonstrate front point ascent/descent with 2 ice axe traction.

Snow anchor demonstrations:

(M,E)___ Construct and test a snow bollard anchor.
(M,E)___ Place and test a buried ice axe anchor.
(E)___ Place and test a snow fluke anchor.
(E)___ Place and test a multiple equalizing anchor.
(E)___ Demonstrate the "Z" pulley system using one of the above anchors.

Belay demonstrations: In groups of two, set up and test the following:

(M,E)___ Boot axe belay.
(M,E)___ Standing carabiner belay.
(M,E)___ Munter hitch belay.
(M)___ Sitting hip belay.
(E)___ Anchored sitting hip belay, fallen climber tieoff procedure.

Roped travel demonstrations:

(E)___ Discuss when to travel roped vs. setting up a belay.
(E)___ Discuss harness, spacing interval, and rope attachment.
(E)___ Discuss how to secure extra rope length and when to carry coils.
(E)___ Tie in to rope teams of three or four.
(E)___ Demonstrate diagonal ascent/descent with direction changes.
(E)___ Arrest a hard fall by a rope team member, recover.
(E)___ Simulate a snow bridge crossing.
(E)___ Simulate glacier with crevasses: lead a route to avoid dangers.

Situation responses: Examiner is to assign at least one situation to each candidate. Some examples are listed below:
(E)___ Climb down to a fallen climber and help him rejoin the group.
(E)___ Belay the party across a steep ice chute.
(E)___ Direct a simulated avalanche search.
(E)___ Direct a simulated helicopter evacuation.

Leadership element:
(E)___ Did candidate demonstrate superior personal skills and the ability help others with equipment and techniques?
(E)___ Was candidate able to critically evaluate standard equipment and techniques and offer alternatives?
(E)___ Did candidate demonstrate overall good judgement in dealing with demonstrations and problems?

Candidate:_________________________________________________ Level:____ # Missed:____ ( )Pass ( )Not Pass

Examiners:________________________________________________ Date:________ Location:____________________
Comments:_________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
LTC form 110 (Rev Oct 08)

184 Snow Checkout (Page 2 of 2)

(Page 2 of 2) Snow Checkout 185
 Trip Compass Trip Leg Cum. Elevation Trip Leg Trip Leg Average Naismith Squiggle Adjusted Cum Trip Cum Trip
Comments

186
Leg Description of Leg Rose Distance Distance (ft.) Elevation Elevation Slope Time Factor Time Time Time (hrs.)
& Break Times
Direction (mi.) (mi.) Gain (ft.) Loss (ft.) (XX º) (minutes) (%) (minutes) (minutes)

START – _____ AM

Trip Leg Table

3

10

11

12

13

14

15
+___% for Group Size
TOTAL
FINISH – _____PM Trip time = _____ Hours

Date
Start Time Finish Time
Sunrise Sunset
Moonrise Moonset Moon Phase
Weather Report Water Required

(Page 1 of 1)
187
 APPENDIX D:
SAMPLE ROUTE CARD
Background Information and Statistics for Mount San Antonio Climb from Manker Flat
The route to Mount San Antonio (Mt. Baldy) from Manker Flat via the San Antonio Ski Hut is used here to provide
a specific example of trip planning considerations and is the basis for an elaborate version of a route card. Ordinarily, the
climb is about as routine a day hike as one can imagine. Under good visibility conditions there are essentially no route
finding problems, and the climb is typically just a pleasant exercise. If something unexpected happens, however, to benight
the party or if the visibility or weather conditions change, the climber can be faced with some very difficult and dangerous
circumstances. Then this common walk in the park can become a survival and route-finding challenge.
The trip planning elements developed below are intended to take all these factors into some account and include the
leader’s homework in researching many of the interesting features encountered on the trip that can enhance the enjoyment
of the participants. Then, the example route card developed is deliberately made elaborate enough to account for worst-case
conditions, including such unexpected events as major changes in the weather and/or visibility. The example is overkill for
such a simple outing but is intended to illustrate the process.

Route Considerations— Manker Flat via the San Antonio Ski Hut
Route, Crux Points, Alternate Routes Down
All have all been incorporated into the route card.

Trip Statistics
• Data from HPS Guide: “8 miles round trip; 3900’ gain; 5-6 hrs r.t.; Strenuous”
• Data from MapTech, Route Profile: 7 miles round trip; 3892’ gain
• Energetics: E = 100[10+R+2C+4H] = 100[10+8+4(3.9)] = 3,360 kilocalories
• Time estimate by Naismith’s Rule: T = D/3+H/2 = 8/3+3.9/2 = 4.62 hrs = 4 hrs 37 minutes, all on trail, with
no allowance for cross country.
• Time estimate by 600 cal/hr: T = (3360)/(600) = 5.6 hrs = 5 hr 36 minutes
188
 UNITED STATES MOUNT SAN ANTONIO QUADRANGLE
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR CALIFORNIA
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 7.5 MINUTE (TOPOGRAPHIC)

440000mE 441000mE 442000mE

117° 40' 10" 117° 37' 27"

3794000mN
SUMMIT 3794000mN

SA SKI
SA SKI HUT
HUT

3793000mN 3793000mN

SOUTH RIDGE

SA FALLS
SA FALLS OVERLOOK
OVERLOOK
3792000mN 3792000mN

TRAIL
TRAIL
JUNCTION
JUNCTION

START

3791000mN 3791000mN

34° 15' 23" 34° 15' 23"

117° 40' 10" 440000mE 442000mE 117° 37' 27"
SCALE 1:24 000
1 1
2 0 1 MILE

1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 FEET

MN
GN 1 1
2 0 1 KILOMETER

13 1/2° CONTOUR INTERVAL 40 FEET

0° 23'
236 MILS NATIONAL GEODETIC VERTICAL DATUM OF 1927
7 MILS
DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL

Figure D-1. Sample route plan for Mt. San Antonio

189
 Mt. Baldy South Ridge
Manker Flat Trailhead

Ski hut Trail Junction

SA Falls Overlook

Ski Hut/Spring

Summit
(2.51 mi)

(3.16 mi)

(4.22 mi)
(.56 mi)

(.86 mi)
10,000'

9000'

8000'

7000'

6000'
0 km 1 km 2 km 3 km 4 km 5 km 6 km

Figure D-2. Sample trip profile: Manker Flat to Mt. San Antonio

TRIP TABLE: MT. SAN ANTONIO FROM MANKER FLAT VIA BALDY BOWL

Leg Destination Distance Gain Travel Time Additional Total Leg Elapsed Notes
(kilometers) (feet) (Naismith) Time Time Time

1 Mt. SA Falls .90 km 240 feet .35 hr .08 hr1 .43 hr .43 hr 1 5 min. clothing break
Overlook (.56 mi) (0:21 min) (0:05 min) (0:26 min) (0:26 min)

2 Ski Hut .50 km 200 feet .23 hr .00 hr .23 hr .66 hr

Trail Junction (.30 mi) (0:14) (0:00) (0:14) (0:40)

3 SA Ski Hut/ 2.65 km 1,600 feet 1.46 hr .17 hr2 1.63 hr 2.29 hr 2 2 - 5 min. rest/split
Spring (1.65 mi) (1:28) (0:10) (1:38) (2:18) breaks

4 Mt. Baldy 1.05 km 560 feet .54 hr .08 hr3 .62 hr 2.91 hr 3 5 min. rest break
South Ridge (.65 mi) (0:33) (0:05) (0:38) (2:56) (catch up)

5 Summit 1.70 km 1,340 feet 1.10 hr .00 hr 1.10 hr 4.01 hr4 4 Minor difference due
(1.06 mi) (1:06) (0:00) (1:06) (4:02)4 to rounding off

- Summary 6.80 km 3,940 feet 3.68 hr .33 hr 4.01 hr 4.01 hr5 5 25 min. longer than
(4.22 mi) (3:42) (0:20) (4:02) (4:02) Route Card (breaks)

6 On Summit .00 km 0 feet .00 hr .50 hr6 .50 hr 4.51 hr 6 Lunch, sign register
(0:00) (0:30) (0:30) (4:32)

7 Return to 6.80 km 0 feet 1.70 hr .17 hr7 1.87 hr 6.38 hr 7 2 - 5 min. rest breaks
Manker Flat (4.22 mi) (1:42) (0:10) (1:52) (6:24)

- Summary 13.60 km 3,940 feet 5.38 hr 1.00 hr 6.38 hr 6.38 hr8 8 Longer than in HPS
(8.44 mi) (5:24) (1:00) (6:24) (6:24) Guide & Route Card

Figure D-3. Sample Trip Table. Time estimates on this table were made using km for distance. Calculations made using
miles will differ slightly because the conversions in the Naithsmith Rules are rounded off. Rest breaks average 5 min./hour.

190
Trip Table San Antonio Falls Overlook–The falls are a pleasant
For more extended trips a more elaborate breakdown sight, but the rocks about them are dangerous and somewhat
of the trip plan statistics can be useful. Typically this unstable areas to climb on. The springs above the ski hut are
is presented in a tabular form that might include time the main water source, reinforced by the drainages funneling
allowances for rest and split breaks, lunch, etc. A sample trip the waters from the bowl into this particular gulch.
table is given in Figure D-3. The careful reader will notice Geological Point of Interest–At the San Antonio Falls
that several time estimates for this trip are slightly different. Overlook and further along the lower Ski Hut Trail, the
These depend primarily on the estimation method used and view to the west shows the Vincent Thrust Fault, one of
whether or not breaks are included. the oldest faults within the San Gabriels. It is marked by a
southward and southwestward dipping zone of shear planes
Other Trails to/from San Antonio Summit and mylonitic rocks–exposed on the high ridges to the west.
Pelona Schist (from ocean floor sediments) is now on the
From Manker Flat via Devil’s Backbone (“Southeasterly” bottom, topped by about 2,000’ of mylonite, and then by
from the summit): The route up this trail from Manker Flat the Vincent Thrust migmatite. This appears to represent
starts as on the route card, but does not turn off on the ski northward thrusting of plutonic rocks over the Pelona
hut trail. Continue on ski lift access road to Baldy Notch Schist, probably in the early Tertiary (~60 million years
(7,802’). About 200 yd NE of the lodge is a junction. Left ago). The Vincent Thrust Fault exposed quartz veins with
turn (towards WNW) leads to the Devil’s Backbone Trail to some show of minerals within the vein. Gold and pyrite
the summit. A right turn (SE) is the road leading to Thunder have similar freezing points ~600 to 700ºC, so they tend to
Mtn. (14 mi r.t., 3,900’ gain; 6-7 hrs r.t.; E = 3,960 kcals) be close to each other along quartz veins that intrude joints
From Mount Baldy Village via Bear Canyon Trail as the last mobile melted material in the entire complex.
(“Southerly” from the summit): Parking area on Bear Not surprisingly, there was a series of little gold and silver
Canyon Road opposite the Mt Baldy Lodge (4,200). At 1.75 rushes in the San Gabriels near the turn of the 20th century.
mi (5,560’) Bear Flats stream crossing. Three miles further Gold Ridge Mine–This mine is near the head of San
(4.75 mi, 9,000’) pass the “narrows.” Another 1.62 mi, arrive Antonio Creek about 1.5 miles above the falls at about
at Baldy Summit (10,064). (6.37 mi one way, 12.75 mi r.t.; 7,400 feet, somewhat lower and across the canyon from the
5,864’ gain; 10-12 hrs r.t.; E = 4,620 kcals) Contrast this Ski Hut. It was started in 1897 by F. O. Slanker and W. I.
time with an early record set by a Pomona College athlete Grable, who had a crusher and other equipment packed in.
in 1904 of 1 hr, 49 minutes to the top. Someone has surely Claims were filed in July, and by August over one hundred
done even better since then because various competitive runs people were living in the area. A few buildings were built;
have been made up the peak along several trails. the fieldstone lower walls of one and the foundation of
From Blue Ridge, Wright Mountain Area via North another still exist. The ore was so low grade and the cost of
Backbone Trail (“Northerly” from the summit): From production so high that the project was shortly abandoned.
Blue Ridge Road junction with trail to Pine and Dawson In 1900 J. A. Way and C. R. Johnson took over the mine
(8310’) proceed up steep, unmaintained, trail for 5 mi. to and dug a 600-foot adit. They sold out to a Los Angeles
the summit. (10 mi. r.t., 1,754’ gain; E = 2,700 to 3,200 concern in 1904. The adit was drilled in the deformed
kcals because of cross-country aspects) rocks between the Pelona Schist and the mylonitic rocks of
the Vincent thrust fault zone. A rotary mill, powered by a
Interesting Points on the Way gasoline engine, was packed in to process the ore removed
from the adit. The higher production rate of low-grade ore
San Antonio Fault–Some evidence of the trace of still did not pay off well enough. The end came in 1907
the left-lateral strike slip San Antonio Fault is seen just when huge avalanches destroyed the Gold Ridge houses and
a few yards above the locked gate near the starting point. machinery, although some remains of the crusher and bits
The careful observer will note that some water-loving trees of the mill are still in place.
(anomalous vegetation) on the slope above the road appear San Antonio Ski Hut–This Sierra Club jewel is
to be quite out of place. Their water need is partially the result of some remarkably energetic and inspired ski
supplied by enhanced seepage through their base on mountaineers. Dr. Walter Mosauer, an Austrian professor
faulted rock. Examined in more detail, at the beginning of of zoology at UCLA and the “father of Southern California
the road is the mixed gneiss and migmatite characteristic alpine skiing,” was the teacher and guru of a small group of
of the San Antonio Canyon Group. A bit further along the mainly college students comprising the “Ski Mountaineers
roadcut shows an exposure of mylonite and then switches of California.” Starting in 1932 the group took many
to Pelona Schist. trips to the area of the Baldy bowl in pursuit of their

191
avocation. Mosauer suggested that a ski hut be built in the A fire in 1936 destroyed the hut, but it was rebuilt the same
area to provide overnight accommodations. He was also year. It has served the Club in many ways ever since.
instrumental in organizing the Ski Mountaineering Section Summit Lore (the Name)–Although uncertain just
of the Sierra Club. Under the Club’s auspices, a Forest when it was first given, Phil Townsend Hanna notes that
Service permit was issued, and the first San Antonio Ski Hut “Legend has it that it was named for Saint Anthony of
was built in 1935 with the volunteer labor of Sierra Club Padua second-handed through Antonio Maria Lugo (1778-
members. George Bauwens, who made the first ski ascent of 1860). Lugo was born at San Antonio de Padua Mission
San Antonio, designed the hut and supervised construction. and christened there with St. Anthony’s name by Junipero

ROUTE CARD: MOUNT SAN ANTONIO FROM MANKER FLATS VIA BALDY BOWL

Manker Flats, [6,160 ft; 11 442378 E, 3 791658 N] to the San Antonio Falls Overlook
[441821 E, 3792166 N] – 0.9 km (0.56 mi)
Proceed past the gate on the paved ski lift access road (initial bearing 280 deg). A few yds past the gate are
rock changes and vegetation signs of the left-lateral San Antonio Fault. The overlook provides an excellent
view of the falls.

San Antonio Falls Overlook to Ski Hut Trail Jct [6600 ft; 442208 E, 3791900 N] – 0.5km (0.3 mi)
Continue on the access road to the junction with the faint trail** to the Ski Hut on the left. [1.4 km (0.87 mi.)
total to this point]

Ski Hut Trail Jct to San Antonio Ski Hut and Spring [8,200 ft; 441359 E, 3793283 N] – 2.65 km (1.65 mi)
Steep trail proceeds past a trail register about 75 yds from the junction, then turns to a bearing on-average of
330 deg to the spring (last reliable water) and the Sierra Club San Antonio Ski Hut. On the way there are good
views of the Vincent Thrust Fault W across the canyon. At about the 7800 ft level one may be able to pick out
some of the remains of the Gold Ridge Mine across the canyon to the W.

Ski Hut to Mt Baldy South Ridge** [8760 ft; 440869 E, 3792850 N] – 1.05 km (0.65 mi)
Cross the Baldy Bowl on an occasionally ducked, easy-to-follow use trail on an average bearing ranging from
260 until about the middle of the bowl, shifting to about 200 deg up the steep switchbacks leading to the
ridge. (Back bearing from ridge jump-off to Ski Hut is 050°.)

Baldy South Ridge to the Summit [10064 ft; 440599 E, 3794245 N] – 1.7 km (1.06 mi)
Proceed up the ridge (bearing 322) along a use trail to about 9000 ft; [440502 E, 3793327 N], where the ridge
direction shifts, and continue along a bearing averaging 005 deg to the summit.

Ascent Summary Statistics 3900 ft gain, 6.8 km (4.25 mi) total; 3 hrs 35 min by Modified Naismith Rule.

Possible Crux Points (indicated by **):

Going up –
1. The junction with the faint trail (on the left) to the Ski Hut (0.87 mi from Manker Flats, 6,200’) is sometimes
missed.
Going down –
1. From the summit start off to the south, avoiding confusion with the other trails converging at the summit;
2. On the Baldy South Ridge the route overlooks San Antonio Canyon and the Ski Hut. In poor visibility
(weather, nightfall, etc.), depart from the ridge at 8,760’ and proceed down the steep switchbacks.

Alternative Routes Down

A viable shortcut to the level of the Ski Hut is a scree run down the Baldy Bowl on a SE heading. This is a run
of about 1,600-1,800 ft on generally good scree with many previously run routes.

192
Serra.” John Robinson found a reference to the name in the summit. The camp was open about sixteen weeks each
a Los Angeles newspaper of 1858. The Whitney Survey year in 1910-12. After a fire in 1913 destroyed nearly all
final report of 1865 provides the first official mention of the facilities, it was never rebuilt. Dewey made at least 133
the name. St. Anthony (1195-1231) was perhaps the most ascents of the peak, and photos show him on top as late as
famous follower of St. Francis. 1936, 54 years after his first ascent.
Summit Lore (First Ascents)–Louis Nell, chief
topographer of the Wheeler Survey, and a small group of Bearings and Distances to Surrounding Peaks
soldiers made the first recorded ascent on July 1, 1875. His from Mount San Antonio Summit
observations led to a calculation of the summit’s elevation as
10,191.9 feet, just 128 feet higher than the current value. Peak Elevation Bearing Distance
Apparently,George Bauwens, who later on was active in the Pine #1 9,648 ft 3° 1.7 mi
Sierra Club’s Ski Mountaineers, made the first ski ascent in Dawson 9,575 ft 30° 1.14 mi
1922. Harwood 9,552 ft 104° 0.77 mi
The Baldy Summit Inn–In 1910 William B. Dewey, Baldy Notch 7,779 ft 115° 2.3 (Can’t see)
who had first climbed the peak in1882, established the Telegraph 8,985 ft 124° 3.32 mi
Baldy Summit Inn, initially called Angel Camp, within Thunder 8,587 ft 125° 2.85 mi
eighty yards of the summit. The resort consisted of two Timber 8,303 ft 135° 4.3 mi
small stone storehouses and six tents nestled among the San Antonio Ski Hut 8,200 ft 140° 0.7 (Can’t see)
stunted pines, all securely anchored against the wind. Mrs. Cucamonga 8,859 ft 142° 5.74 mi
Nannie Dewey was the camp chef. Dewey operated a string Bighorn 8,441 ft 143° 4.72 mi
of pack animals to make three trips a week to Camp Baldy Ontario 8,693 ft 163° 4.42 mi
for supplies and mail; saddle horses and mules brought up Sugarloaf 6,924 ft 168° 3.37 (Can’t see)
those guests who did not prefer to climb the peak. Water Lookout #2 6,812ft 210° 3.25 (Can’t see)
was packed from a spring in Nail Keg Canyon, just east of Iron #1 8,007 ft 269· 3.8mi

ENERGETICS

More fundamental, accurate, and flexible approaches can be developed based on the expenditure of energy.
Gordon Waddell in 1965 developed an approximate formula for energy used on a one-day trip:

E = 100 (10 + R + 2C + 4H)

Here E is the energy expenditure in kilocalories (kcals), while R and C are the trail and cross-country distances in
miles, respectively, and H is the elevation gain in thousands of feet. The 100 times 10 base term is the catchall
estimate for basal metabolism for a day. As an example, for a day hike of 14 miles, with 11 miles on trail and 3
miles off trail, to a peak involving a total altitude gain of 2,000 feet, the energy needs are

E = 100 [10 + 11 + 2 x 3 + 4 x 2] = 100 [35] = 3,500 kcals

The basal metabolism component can be reduced when the trip is less than a full day. For instance, it would be
500 kcals for a half-day trip.

Much experience on Angeles Chapter trips has demonstrated that on typical HPS or DPS day trips a projected
energy expenditure of 600 to 700 kcals/hour gives good results when used for time estimates. Thus,

T = 100 [10 + R + 2C + 4H ] divided by

< 700 for well-conditioned folk or

< 600 for a fit but slower group

193
 can be used to give time estimates for planning. Some leaders and highly fit participants can develop 1,000 kcal/hr
or more. Because this is comparable to a well-conditioned athlete, values higher than 700 kcals/hr are inappropriate
for all but more extreme hikes with a very fit group.

The energy expenditure, E, is an excellent tool in other ways.

• The formula provides a means to calibrate the arduousness of the trip. Thus, trips that require

Fewer than 2,000 kcals Easy

2,400 – 2,800 kcals Moderate
2,800 – 4,000 kcals Moderately strenuous
More than 4,000 kcals Strenuous
More than 4,500 kcals Extreme*

*will almost certainly lead to exhaustion of someone in the party unless all have previously
demonstrated that fitness level.

• The formula can be a help for individuals in building and assessing their fitness. Thus, a conditioning program
starting with routes in the 2,400-2,800 kcals (moderate) level and gradually working up to 4,000-4,500 kcals can
be a well-monitored progression to a high level of fitness.

• The formula gives the leader another basis to assess unknown potential trip participants for more strenuous
trips. Many people who want to go on a trip tend to overplay their fitness in phone conversation; getting a few
specific examples of recent climbs on the climber’s resume can provide a more quantitative appreciation of just
where the potential participant stands relative to the trip requirements.

• The energy requirement of a trip provides a basis for water consumption requirements. About 3/4 pints of water
per 1,000 kcals energy expended is needed in winter, and about 3/4 quart in summer (more when very warm).

• When people are not drinking to the levels noted above, the leader should be aware that dehydration is a
possibility. A deficit of only five pints causes decreased efficiency; a deficit of twelve to twenty pints may cause
unconsciousness. Sometimes it is the leader who does not drink enough, thereby putting the whole party at risk.

194
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WINTER SKILLS AND SKI TOURING

Anderson, Daniel E. Ski Tours in Southern California. San Diego: Daniel E. Anderson, 2000.

Dawson, Louis W. Wild Snow: A Historical Guide to North American Ski Mountaineering. Golden, CO: American alpine
Club, 1998.

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Libkind, Marcus. Ski Tours in the Sierra Nevada. 4 vols. 2nd ed. Berkeley: Wilderness Press, 1995.

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Richins, Paul, Jr. 50 Classic Backcountry Ski & Snowboard Summits in California: Mount Shasta to Mount Whitney. Seattle:
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SEARCH AND RESCUE

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May, W. G. Mountain Search and Rescue Techniques. Boulder, CO: Rocky Mountain Rescue Group, 1973.

Setnicka, Tim. Wilderness Search and Rescue. Boston: Appalachian Mountain Club, 1980.

Smith, Bruce and Allen Padgett. On Rope: North American Vertical Rope Techniques for Caving, Search & Rescue, and
Mountaineering. Huntsville, AL: National Speleological Society, 1996.

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FIRST AID
American Red Cross and Kathleen A. Handal. The American Red Cross First Aid and Safety Handbook. Boston: Little,
Brown, 1992

WILDERNESS FIRST AID AND MOUNTAINEERING MEDICINE

Carline, Jan D., Martha J. Lentz, and Steven C. McDonald. Mountaineering First Aid: A Guide to Accident Response and
First Aid Care. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2004.

American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Wilderness First Aid: Emergency Care for Remote Locations. 2nd ed. Sudbury,
MA: Jones and Bartlett, 2015.

National Ski Patrol. McNamara, Edward C., David H. Johe, and Deborah A. Endly, eds. Outdoor Emergency Care. 5th
ed. Boston: Brady, 2012.

Schimelpfenig, Tod and Joan Safford. NOLS Wilderness Medicine. 5th ed. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 2012.

Wilkerson, James A. Medicine for Mountaineering and Other Wilderness Activities. 6th ed. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2010.

NAVIGATION
Burns, Bob, and Mike Burns.Wilderness Navigation: Finding Your Way Using Map, Compass, Altimeter, & GPS. 2nd ed.
Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2004.

Dept of the Army, U.S. Army Map Reading and Land Navigation Handbook. Guilford, CT: Lyons, 2004.

Fleming, June. Staying Found: The Complete Map and Compass Handbook. 3rd ed. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2001.

Kals, W. S., and Clyde Soles. Land Navigation Handbook: The Sierra Club Guide to Map, Compass & GPS. 2nd ed. San
Francisco: Sierra Club, 2005.

Kjellstrom, Bjorn, and Carina Kjellstrom Elgin. Be Expert with Map and Compass: The Complete Orienteering Handbook.
3rd ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.

Letham, Lawrence. GPS Made Easy: Using Global Positioning Systems in the Outdoors. 5th ed. Seattle: The Mountaineers,
2008.

Wells, Darren. NOLS Wilderness Navigation. 2nd ed. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2013.

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