Founding

Myths

Pounding myths were encountered in several narratives presented

in preceding chapters. Here those separate strands w ill be brought to­
gether in conjunction with new material on the m otif o f founding a
city, a dynasty, a people, or a country. The myth o f the Lord o f the Gra­
nary relates the institution o f a city; that o f the Meng Hsi (or M eng
Shu) narrates the founding o f a new country; that o f P’an Hu recounts
the foundation o f a tribe; that o f Po Y i traces the divine ancestry o f
the dynastic line o f the Ch’in people; that o f Ts’an Ts’ung outlines the
divine ancestry o f the Shu kings; and that o f H ou Chi narrates the
divine origins o f the Chou people. In his monumental study, “Legends
and Cults in Ancient China,” Karlgren demonstrated that the great
clans and aristocratic families o f antiquity traced their descent from leg­
endary heroes, demigods, and gods, w ho were regarded as the founders
o f their noble house and family line (1946,213). Granet proposed a sim­
ilar thesis (1959, 39, 389).
Like the founding myth o f Rome, which relates that a she-w olf
sacred to Mars suckled the abandoned twins Romulus and Remus, C hi­
nese founding myths are characterized by bird and animal motifs. Chien
Ti became pregnant from the egg o f a dark or black bird sent by the
god T i K ’u and gave birth to the Shang ancestor, Hsieh. The divinely
born H ou Chi was abandoned by his mother, Chiang Yuan, but was

253
 254 Chinese Mythology

protected by birds and beasts and became the founder o f the Chou. P’an
Hu was a divine dog, w ho founded a new people o f canine and human
descent. Yii changed into a bear at the moment o f his courtship o f and
mating with the T ’u-shan girl, w ho gave birth to Ch’i, Yu and Ch’i
being the first founders o f the legendary Hsia.
Other motifs characterize founding myths. The person o f the
founder is invested with heroic qualities that mark him as a leader o f
men. Such a hero is shown to be favored by G od and endowed with the
power o f performing miracles, changing shape, invoking supernatural
aid, and conquering enemies obstructing his path to triumph. This
m otif is illustrated by the mythic narratives o f H ou Chi, T ’ang the C on­
queror, and King Wen and K ing Wu o f the Chou. The founder in the
heroic mold is also one w ho is distinguished by a gift for attracting or
winning over or selecting a wise adviser, a man often identified in a
divinely inspired dream and plucked out o f obscurity. Such is the case
with T ’ang the Conqueror with his brilliant minister Y i Y in, King Wen
with his supernaturally intelligent counselor, the Great Lord Chiang
(also known as the Great Lord Wang), and K ing Wu with his resource­
ful younger brother and adviser, the Duke o f Chou. Sarah Allan has ex­
plored this relationship between leader and adviser in The Heir and the
Sage (1981, 91-121).
Although various myths relate the founding o f a city or a dynasty
or a country, it is usually impossible to identify their location or exis­
tence. The Lord o f the Granary’s city o f Y i, for example, cannot be lo­
cated. N o evidence yet exists for the historicity o f the Hsia. Equally, no
archeological sites o f ancient Hsia or early Shang cities have yet been
identified. In archeological and historical terms, what was previously
thought to represent Hsia culture is now more cautiously referred to as
Erh-li-t’ou culture datable to the third to second millennium B.C. As far
as Shang cities are concerned, the location o f the ancient Shang capitals
o f Ao and Po, which are mentioned in Shang inscriptions, has yet to be
ascertained. The archeological and historical evidence for Shang cities
commences only with the late Shang capital city o f Yin, the last capital
o f the Shang, situated near An-yang in Honan province. The Y in site
yielded inscriptions identifying eight (or nine) Shang rulers from King
Wu, a period dating from circa 1200-1050 B.C. This amalgam o f arche­
ological evidence and a historical written record is the earliest for the
Shang state or city (Keightley 1983, 524).
N o known city o f ancient China’s legendary Hsia, protohistorical
early Shang and historical late Shang, or other city such as Y i is linked
 Founding Myths — 255

to an illustrious mythological founder, as Romulus and Remus are with

Rome. O n the link between mythic narratives and historical fact, Hsu
and Linduff conclude in their study o f the Chou that many Chinese
founding myths are based on migration myths or exodus myths that
tell o f a leader or hero who moves to a new region and is followed by
the entire population. This migration myth finds its historical expres­
sion in “the general pattern o f Chou expansionism” (Hsu C ho-yun and
Linduff 1988,163).

The Founding Myth o f the Shang

Several motifs appear in narratives o f the founding o f the Shang.
The readings are taken from the main accounts in The Classic o f Poetry,
circa 600 B .C ., the Annals o f Master Lit, o f the third century B .C ., and the
Historical Records, o f the late second century B.C. The m otif o f the black
bird in the poetry is taken up by the two prose narratives. They contain
the motifs o f a tall tower protecting the virginity o f two well-born
girls, a feast with drum music presaging a wedding, a swallow l a y i n g
two eggs, and, in the second prose passage the fertility act o f the g i r ls
bathing, pregnancy following the act o f swallowing the egg o f the black
bird, divine birth, the hero’s success in accomplishing his tasks, the gift
o f the territory o f the Shang, and the popularity o f the hero with the
people.
Sarah Allan argues that “the Shang rulers had a totemic relation­
ship with the ten suns which were also thought to be birds” (1991, 46).
Her definition o f totemism in this context, however, is too vague to
serve as evidence for her argument: “ ‘totemism’ [is] a system o f classifi­
cation rather than a social institution” (ibid., 46, 172). To substantiate
her argument, Allan combines the myth o f the ten suns with the myth
o f a crow bearing the sun to the top o f Leaning M ulberry each dawn.
From this amalgamation o f separate myths she deduces that just as
there are ten suns, so there are ten birds, one in each sun, representing
the power o f the sun and, ultimately, representing the totemic relation­
ship between the Shang, the ten suns, and the ten birds. The textual evi­
dence does not support such a deduction, however, for the various ver­
sions o f the myth o f the suns and crow are as follows: (1) a sun bears a
crow; (2) a crow bears one sun each dawn to the top o f the world-tree;
and (3) the crow is sometimes said to be three-legged. It should be
made clear that nowhere in the classical or postclassical texts are ten
crows in the ten suns ever specified or implied. Thus the transforma­
 256 — Chinese Mythology

tional theory Allan uses to force the conclusion that the Shang had a
totemic relationship w ith the ten suns believed to be birds is invali­
dated, since it is not justifiable to merge several myths and to inject a
totally new m otif (ten birds) to create a neomyth to suit one’s theory. I
have discussed the motifs o f the readings in chapter 5.

Heaven ordered the Black Bird

To come down on earth and give birth to the Shang.
(Shih ching, Hsuan niao, 303, SPPY 23.9a)

The Yu-Sung clan had two glamorous daughters. They built a nine-
story tower for them. When they ate and drank, drum music was
always played for them. God ordered a swallow to go and look at
them, and it sang with a cry like “Yee-yee!” The two daughters fell
in love with it and each tried to be the one to catch it. They covered
it with a jade box. After a moment they opened it up and looked at
it. The swallow had laid two eggs. It flew away to the north and
never came back. The two daughters composed a song, a line o f
which went, “Swallow, Swallow, you flew away!” This is, in fact, the
first composition in the style o f Northern Music. (Lii-shih ch’un-ch’iu,
Yin ch’u, SPTK 6.6b)

Yin Hsieh’s mother was called Chien Ti. She was the daughter o f the
Yu-Sung clan and the second concubine o f Ti K’u. Three o f them
went to bathe. They saw a black bird drop its egg. Chien Ti picked
it up and swallowed it. Then she became pregnant and gave birth to
Ch’i. Ch’i grew up and gave meritorious service in helping Yii con­
trol the floodwater. Emperor Shun therefore gave this command to
Ch’i: “The people do not have close family relationships, and the five
social relationships are in disorder. You will serve as my director o f
retinue.” He gave him the Shang fiefdom and conferred on him the
surname Tzu-shih. Hsieh flourished in the reigns o f Yao T ’ang, Yii
Shun, and Yii the Great. His accomplishments were well known
among the people, and so the people became peaceable. (Shih chi, Yin
pen chi, SPPY 3-ia-b)

T’ang the Conqueror Attacks the Hsia

The image o f the hero is more developed w ith the mythical figure
o f T ’ang, a later founder o f the Shang. The mythological line moves
from the divine bird to the girl Chien Ti, from her to her son, Hsieh,
 Founding Myths ~ 257

and then to a later Shang king, T ’ang. With this mythical figure the epic
o f the Shang evolves from a people descended from God to a dynasty
founded by a hero. Whereas the demigod, Hsieh, or Ch’i, belongs to
archaic mythological time, T ’ang is closer to historical time. He is an
earthly ruler w ho wrests power from the evil tyrant, Chieh o f the Hsia,
and goes on to overthrow the Hsia and establish a glorious dynasty.
T ’ang’s qualities as a hero are as numerous as Chieh’s qualities as a vil­
lain. The casus belli between the two is projected in the mythic narratives
as a moral campaign, a point emphasized in the first o f the following
readings, from Annals o f Master Lii. The second reading is from Histori­
cal Records. The third is from a first-century a .d . chapter o f The Classic
o f Mountains and Seas. The last is from Biographies o f Women, dating from
about the third to the fourth century.
The narratives relate that T ’ang was a military hero whose army
was ready to fight and die for him, while Chieh’s army refused to
eng age in battle. They show that T ’ang was an exemplar o f moral virtue
who attracted men o f worth, such as Y i Yin, and who, when he became
king, offered himself in sacrifice for rain during a drought o f many
years. In many o f these narratives several figures are dramatically polar­
ized: T ’ang against Chieh, Y i Y in against the favorite, M o Hsi, and M o
Hsi in the end against Chieh. These polarities create patterns o f binary
opposition in the mythic struggle between good and evil. Sarah Alla n
has analyzed this myth in The Heir and the Sage (1981, 77-101).

Chieh committed more and more wrongdoing and transgressed the

right way o f the ruler, bringing harm and destruction to his country
and his people. So T ’ang, in anxious concern for the stability o f the
empire, ordered Y i Yin to go and observe the mighty Hsia. But he
was afraid that the Hsia would not trust him, so T ’ang personally
shot at Y i Yin, and then Y i Yin fled to the Hsia. Three years later, he
returned and reported in Po, the Yin [Shang] capital. He said, “Chieh
used to be bewitched by Mo Hsi, and now he is in love with Wan and
Yen. He shows no pity toward the masses, and the will o f the people
is that they won’t endure it. Everyone from the top level o f society
to the bottom loathes him. The people’s hearts are full o f resentment,
and they all say, ‘Unless Heaven up above is without pity, the days
o f the Hsia will come to an end.’ ” T ’ang said to Y i Yin, “What you
tell me about the mighty Hsia is just what I want.” T ’ang swore an
oath with Y i Yin to show that they would destroy the Hsia. Y i Yin
went back again to observe the situation in mighty Hsia and learn
 258 ~ Chinese Mythology

w hat Mo Hsi h a d to te ll h im . (Lu-shih ch’un-ch’iu, Shen ta, SPTK

I 5 .ib -2 a )

Then T ’a n g raised an army and took command o f the nobles. Y i Yin

went with T ’ang’s army, and T ’ang himself held the great ceremonial
ax, to attack K ’un-wu and then to attack Chieh. (Shih chi, Yin pen chi,
SPPY 3.3b)
There was a headless person called the Corpse o f Hsia Keng, who
stood holding a spear and shield. Long ago, when T ’ang the Con­
queror attacked Chieh o f the Hsia at Mount Chang and captured
Mount Chang, he cut Keng in two in front o f the mountain. When
Keng stood up, he was headless, so he ran away to hide his shame and
then sank without a trace into Mount Wu. (Shan hai ching, Ta huang
hsi ching, SPPY 16.7a)

Then T ’a n g received the mandate to rule, and he attacked the Hsia,

and the battle was fought at Ming-t’iao. Chieh’s army refused to do
batde, so T ’ang sent Chieh into exile. Chieh sailed out to sea in the
same boat as M o Hsi and his other favorites. He died on the Moun­
tain o f Nan-ch’ao. (Lieh nii chuan, Hsia Chieh Mo Hsi, SPPY 7.1b)

Hou Chi, Founder o f the Chou

The mythic motifs o f the founding o f the Chou people were dis­
cussed in several early chapters. The most significant are: divine de­
scent, miraculous birth, the trials o f the hero as an infant, divine
intervention through the charity o f simple folk and the creatures o f
nature, and the success and popularity o f the hero. The reading is from
Historical Records, o f the late second century B.C.

Hou Chi o f the Chou was named Ch’i, the Abandoned. His mother,
the daughter o f the Yu-t’ai clan, was called Chiang Yuan. Chiang
Yuan was Ti K ’u’s first consort. Chiang Yuan went out to the wild
fields and she saw the footprints o f a giant. Her heart was full o f joy
and pleasure, and she felt the desire to tread in the footprints. As she
trod in them there was a movement in her body as if she were with
child. She went on until her due time and gave birth to a baby boy.
. . . Chiang Yuan thought he might be a god, so she took him up at
once and brought him up until he was fully grown. Because she had
wanted to abandon him at first, his name was Ch’i. When Ch’i was
a child, he looked imposing, as if he had the bold spirit o f a giant.
 Founding Myths ~ 259

When he went out to play, he liked planting hemp and beans, and his
hemp and beans were very fine. When he became an adult, he also
grew very skilled at plowing and farming. He would study the
proper use o f the land, and where valleys were suitable he planted
and he reaped. Everyone went out and imitated him. Emperor Yao
heard about him and promoted Ch’i to master o f agriculture, so that
the whole world would benefit from him and have the same success.
Emperor Shun said, “Ch’i, the black-haired people are beginning to
starve. You are the Lord Millet [Hou Chi]. Plant the seedlings in
equal measure throughout the hundred valleys.” He gave Ch’i the
fiefdom o f T ’ai with the title o f Lord Millet, and he took another sur­
name from the Chi clan. (Shih chi, Chou pen chi, SPPY 4.1a, 4.1b)

King Wen o f the Chou

As the Shang had divine origin through miraculous conception
and divine birth and emerged as a conquering people, so too did the
Chou. The ancestors o f the Shang and the Chou, Hsieh and Hou Chi,
are parallel figures. In the same way the triumphant conquerors o f the
Shang and the Chou, T ’ang and K ing Wen, are complementary hero
figures. But whereas T ’ang is a mythical figure, King Wen belongs to
the historical era, though this does not mean that his character and his
career are not imbued with mythological features. Thus both historical
dynasties possess their myths o f divine kingship and o f temporal
power. The myths surrounding King Wen emphasize his wisdom in ac­
quiring an adviser, the Great Lord Chiang (also known as the Great
Lord Wang, Lii Wang, or Wang the Counselor). He was a man chosen
by God, as discovered through divination or a dream, to steer the king
through successive campaigns against the Shang, whose last ruler was
a tyrant. In fact, some accounts tend to portray the character o f this
adviser in such sympathetic terms that he threatens to upstage the
heroic figure o f the king himself. The first reading below, from the
fourth-century B.C. text “Questions o f Heaven,” marks the earliest ver­
sion o f the mythic encounter between K ing Wen and the counselor.
This version alludes to the fact that the future Great Lord Chiang
(known as the Great Lord Wang) had the low status o f a butcher. In the
second reading, taken from Historical Records, the social status o f the
adviser becomes that o f a fisherman. Although this appears to be lowly,
it is enhanced by the noble my thos o f the fisherman in the Songs of C h’u
(Hawkes 1985, 206-7). The third reading is a late fictional narrative,
 z6 o —- Chinese Mythology

based on early mythical material, from Kan Pao’s collection o f the

fourth century a . d . Here the adviser acquires the supernatural power to
deflect a goddess’s elemental force, which might otherwise have de­
stroyed his city.

When Wang the Counselor was in the market, how did Ch’ang [King
Wen] recognize him? (Ch’u Tz’u, T ’ien wen, SPTK 3.31a)

King Wen intended to go hunting, so he had his augurer prepare div­

ination for it. It said: “What you will catch won’t be a dragon, and it
won’t be a hornless dragon. It won’t be tiger and it won’t be a bear.
What you will catch is one who will help the mighty King.” So King
Wen drove toward the west and went hunting. It did indeed turn out
that he met the Great Lord north o f the River Wei. After having a dis­
cussion with him, he was very pleased and said to him, “Ever since
the time o f his lordship my late father, it has been said that ‘when the
wise man goes to the Chou, the Chou will prosper.’ Are you really
that man? His lordship my father was a long time hoping for you!”
He therefore gave him the title o f the Great Lord Wang [Hope]. Get­
ting into the carriage, they returned together. King Wen installed
him as his guiding mentor. (Shih chi, Ch’i T ’ai-kung shih chia, SPPY
32.1b)

King Wen made the Great Lord Wang the Great Lord Governor of
Kuan-tan. After a year o f his being governor, even the wind did not
make a noise in the branches o f trees. King Wen dreamed that an
extraordinarily beautiful woman was standing on the road weeping.
He asked her why, and she said, “I am the daughter o f the spirit o f
Mount T ’ai, and I became the wife o f the spirit o f the East Sea. I want
to go back home, but my road is blocked because o f the governor o f
Kuan-tan. He is a good man, but even if he obstructs me in my jour­
ney I shall have to continue my journey, but there is bound to be a ter­
rible storm. And then his good reputation will suffer.” When King
Wen woke up he summoned the Great Lord to question him. On that
very same day it turned out that there was a terrible storm, but it
passed by the Great Lord’s city and broke out over the outskirts o f
the city. Then King Wen honored the Great Lord by making him his
commander in chief. (Sou shen chi, T S C C 4.25)
 Founding Myths ~ 261

King Wu o f the Chou

The mythological accounts o f the successful military campaigns
that led to the founding o f the Chou dynasty again polarize the protag­
onists in a great moral crusade: King Wu carries on the task o f his
father, K ing Wen, w ith the help o f a brilliant and wise adviser, the
Duke o f Chou, King Wu’s younger brother. The names o f the two
kings are also polarized: King Wen means ‘King C ivility’, and King Wu
means ‘K ing Military’ . King Wu’s adversary is King Chou, the last
ruler o f the Shang. The readings accentuate the moral prerogative o f
King Wu, w ho is aided by supernatural powers, such as a river god, and
is guided by his brother, w ho demonstrates resourcefulness and cun­
ning in tactical and psychological warfare. Again, as with the Chou
King Wen and his adviser, the roles o f K ing Wu and the Duke o f Chou
are at times complementary, at times ambiguous. For example, in the
first and fourth readings below, from two Han sources, K ing Wu is por­
trayed as a subordinate character and even appears ridiculous in his in­
ability to lead men or to control events.
The first reading is from Wang Ch’ung’s Disquisitions, o f the first
century a . d . The second is from the Six Sword Bags, a fragmentary work
attributed to the Chou hero the Great Lord Chiang but more likely to
date from the late C h’in to early Han era (ca. late third century B.C.).
The third reading is from Huai-nan Tzu, o f the late second century B.C.
The fourth is from Han Y in g’s commentary on and exposition o f The
Classic o f Poetry, o f the second century B.C. The fifth and sixth readings
belong together: the fifth is a citation o f an old text by Yii Shih-nan
(a . d . 558-638) in his Collation from the North Hall; the sixth is a narrative
o f King Wu’s divine mandate to commence his campaign against the
Shang, aided by the wisdom and divine percipience o f the Duke o f
Chou.

When King Wu o f the Chou was about to attack King Chou o f the
Shang, he had divination made using stalks, but the result was neg­
ative, and the diviner declared, “Very bad luck.” The Great Lord
pushed aside the milfoil stalks and trod on the tortoises and said,
“What do withered bones and dead plants know about good luck or
bad luck!” (Lun heng, Pu shih, SPTK 24.9b)

When King Wu was going to attack the Yin, he boarded a boat and
crossed the river. The troops and carriages set off and then smashed
their boats up in the river. The Great Lord said, “The heir apparent
 262 — Chinese Mythology

will avenge his father. Today they will all die—let there be no survi­
vors!” As the troops passed the bridges o f the ferry port, they burned
them all down. (T ’ai-p’ing yii-lan, citing Liu t’ao, SPTK 482.1a)

King Wu went to attack King Chou. As he was crossing the river at

Meng Ford, the river god, Lord Yang, made strong waves turn the
current and dash against the boats. A fierce wind blew up and it grew
pitch dark, so that men and horses could not see each other. Then
King Wu held the yellow ax in his left hand and clenched the white
command spear in his right hand. His eyes glared. Brandishing his
spear, he said, “I have been entrusted with the defense o f the world.
Who dares to oppose my will?” At this, the wind died down and the
waves subsided. (Huai-nan Tzu, Hsien ming, SPPY 6.1b)

King Wu went to attack King Chou. When he reached Hsing-ch’iu,

his shield broke in three and the heavens poured with rain continu­
ously for three days. King Wu’s heart was filled with dread. He sum­
moned the Great Lord and asked him, “Does this mean that King
Chou cannot be attacked yet?” The Great Lord replied, “Not at all.
The fact that your shield broke in three means that the army ought
to be divided into three sections. The fact that the heavens poured
with rain continuously for three days means that it will freshen up
our troops.” King Wu said, “If you are right, how will we do what
you suggest?” “If people like a man, they will even like the crow on
the top o f his house. But i f they hate him, they will also hate the very
walls o f his house. Let everyone slaughter the enemy! Let there be no
survivors!” (Han shih wai chuan, T S C C 3.32)

In the capital city o f King Wu o f the Chou, the snow was more than
ten inches deep. The Revered Father [the Duke o f Chou] [textual
lacuna: ? was informed o f strangers] riding horse-drawn carriages.
He sent a messenger to hold a vessel o f rice gruel and go out to them.
He opened the gates and admitted them. He said, “It is cold today, so
why don’t you come in for some hot rice gruel to ward off the cold?”
(Pei-t’ang shu-ch’ao, sub commentary o f K ’ung Kuang-t’ao, referring to
T ’ai-kung chin kuei, K C 144.12b)

King Wu o f the Chou attacked King Chou o f the Shang. King Wu

was establishing his capital, Lo City, but before it was completed,
there were storms for over ten days with ice-cold rain and snow over
ten inches deep. On the day o f chia-tzu, just as day was about to
break—no one knows who they were, but five officers riding in
 Founding Myths ~ 263

horse-drawn carriages with two horsemen riding behind halted out­

side the royal palace gates and expressed their wish to have an audi­
ence with King Wu. King Wu was about to refuse to go out and see
them, but the Revered Father [the Duke o f Chou] said, “You must
not do that. The snow is over ten inches deep, but the carriages and
riders have left no tracks. They are probably wise men.” The Grand
Master and Revered Father then sent a messenger to go outside and
hold a vessel o f rice gruel. He opened the gates and admitted the five
carriages and two horsemen and said, “His Majesty is in his private
rooms and does not wish to come out for the time being. But the
weather is cold, so why don’t you come in for some hot rice gruel to
ward off the cold? I’m sorry, but I do not know how you gentlemen
are ranked in precedence?” The two horsemen said, “Our senior man
is the Lord o f the South Sea, next is the Lord o f the East Sea, then the
Lord o f the West Sea, then the Lord o f the North Sea, then the River
Earl with the Rain Master and the Earl o f the Winds.”
When they had finished their rice gruel, the messenger told the
Revered Father everything in detail. The Revered Father said to King
Wu, “You may now have an audience with your visitors. The occu­
pants o f the five carriages and the two horsemen are the gods o f the
Four Seas, besides the River Earl, the Rain Master, and the Earl o f
the Winds. The God o f the South Sea is called Chu Yung, the God
o f the East Sea is called Kou Mang, the God o f the North Sea is called
Hsuan Ming, and the God o f the West Sea is called Ju Shou. The
River Earl’s name is Feng Yi, the Rain Master’s name is Yung, and the
Earl o f the Winds’s name is Yi. Please ask our Guest Master to sum­
mon each o f them in by his name.” So when King Wu was at the top
o f the hall, the Guest Master stood outside the gates leading into the
lower end o f the hall and called for Chu Yung to enter. The five gods
were all amazed, and they looked at one another and sighed. Chu
Yung made a deep bow. King Wu said, “You have come from far in
dire weather; what instructions do you wish to give me?” They all
said, “Heaven is going to attack the Y in dynasty and establish the
Chou dynasty. We have come here humbly to receive your com­
mands. Please advise the Earl o f the Winds and the Rain Master of
your wishes, and they will each carry out their duties.” (Yuan K’o,
SHHYPT 88.247-48)
 264 — Chinese Mythology

The Beginning o f the Yao People

The myth o f the inception o f the Yao people was discussed in chap­
ter 5 with reference to the miraculous conception o f P’an Hu, the divine
dog. Franz Boas recorded a similar dog myth among the D og-Rib Indi­
ans o f North America (1966, 438). The narrative o f the reading is from
Kan Pao’s collection, o f the fourth century a .d .

Kao Hsin had an old wife who lived in the royal palace. She devel­
oped an earache. After some time the doctor cleared her ear out to
cure her and he removed a knob-worm as big as a cocoon. After the
wife had gone out, she put it in a gourd basket and covered it with
a plate. Soon the knob-worm changed into a dog and it had five-
color markings. So it was named P’an Hu, Plate-Gourd, and she
looked after it. . . . [The king] ordered his youngest daughter to be
a dutiful wife to Plate-Gourd.
Plate-Gourd led the girl up South Mountain. The grass and trees
were thick and bushy and there was no trace o f human footprints.
Then the girl took her clothes off and became bonded to him as his
servant, wearing clothes that she made as best she could, and she fol­
lowed Plate-Gourd up the mountain. They entered a valley and
stopped in a stone house. The king was sorrowful when he thought
about it, and he sent his men to go and look out for her. But the sky
at once grew stormy, the mountain ranges thundered and the clouds
grew black. Those who had set out refused to go any further. After
three years or so had passed, she had given birth to six sons and six
daughters. After Plate-Gourd died, they paired off as mates and
became husbands and wives for each other. (Sou shen chi, T S C C 14.91)

The Ancestor o f the Shu

The myth o f Ts’an Ts’ung, divine ancestor o f the kings o f Shu, was
discussed in chapter 2. The first tw o readings are from Basic Annals of
the Kings o f Shu, a fragmentary text dating from the Han period. The
third is from the tenth-century miscellany A Continuation o f “ The Origin
of Things, ” compiled by Feng Chien following on from The Origin o f
Things by Liu Ts’un, o f the T ’ang era. The fourth reading is from a late
source o f the Yuan dynasty, A Compendium o f Information on the Gods of
the Three Religions (Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism). This is an
illustrated source book o f popular hagiography recounting the lives o f
the gods and saints o f China’s three main traditions o f belief.
 Founding Myths ~ 265

The first ancestor o f the Shu kings was called Ts’an Ts’ung. In the
next era his descendant was called Po Huo, and in the era after that
his descendant was called Yii Fu. Each o f these three eras lasted sev­
eral hundred years. In each era they became gods and did not die.
Their people followed their kings, taking another shape and vanish­
ing like them. (T'ai-p’ing yti-lan, citing Shu wangpen chi, SPTK 888.2b)

The first ancestors o f Shu with the title o f king were Ts’an Ts’ung, Po
Huo, and Yu Fu. In the K’ai-ming reign people used to pile their hair
up, and they wore their collar on the left. They did not understand
writing and they did not yet have ritual or music. From the K’ai-ming
reign back to Ts’an Ts’ung was an aeon o f 34,000 years. (Ch’iian Shang-
ku, Ch’iian Han wen, citing Shu wangpen chi, 53.5a)

Ts’an Ts’ung set himself up as king o f Shu. According to tradition, he

taught the people about silkworms and mulberry. He made several
thousand golden silkworms. At the start o f each year, he took the
golden silkworms and gave the people one silkworm each. The silk­
worms the people raised always multiplied prolifically, so that in the
end they could return the gift to the king. When he went on a royal
tour o f his realm, wherever he stopped on his journey, the people
created a market town. Because o f his legacy people in Shu hold a
silkworm market every spring. (Hsu shih shih, citing Hsien chuan shih
yi, Shuo-fu 10.45a)

The god in the green clothes is Ts’an Ts’ung. According to tradition,

Ts’an Ts’ung began as the lord o f Shu and later took the title o f king
of Shu. He always wore green clothes. When he conducted a royal
tour o f the city limits and countryside, he taught his people the man­
agement o f silkworms. The countryfolk appreciated his kindness,
and so they set up a temple to sacrifice to him. Shrines to his name
spread all over the western region, and they proved without excep­
tion to have miraculous powers. He was generally called the god in
the green clothes, and that is how Green-God County got its name.
(San chiao sou-shen ta ch’iian, Lien-ching 316)

The Founding Myth o f the Pa People

The founding myth o f the Pa people and the migration o f the Lord
o f the Granary to found his new city o f Y i were discussed in chapter 9,
and also in chapter 12 in connection with the Goddess o f Salt River and
 266 — Chinese Mythology

his amorous encounter and battle with her. The first reading below is
a narrative collated from fragments o f The Origin o f Hereditary Families,
commentary by Sung Chung (ca. third century a . d .) and edited in a
reconstructed text by the Ch’ing scholar Ch’in Chia-mo. The second
reading is from A History o f the Chin [Dynasty] [a . d . 265-419] by Fang
Hsuan-ling (a . d . 578-648).

The ancestor o f the Lord o f the Granary originally came from Wu

Tan. The Man tribe o f Pa commandery and Nan commandery orig­
inally had five surnames: the Pa clan, the Fan clan, the Shen clan, the
Hsiang clan, and the Cheng clan. They all came from Mount Wu-lo
Chung-li. On this mountain there were two caves, one scarlet and
one black, like cinnabar and lacquer. The children o f the Pa clan were
born in the scarlet cave, and the children o f the other four surnames
were all born in the black cave. Before there were chieftains, they
were all subjects o f the spirits and gods. The Lord o f the Granary’s
given name was Wu-hsiang; his surname was that o f the Pa clan. He
set out together with the Fan clan, the Shen clan, the Hsiang clan,
and the Cheng clan—five surnames in all— and they all competed for
divine power to rule. Then they all together threw their swords at a
rock and agreed that whoever could hit the target would be elevated
to be their lord. When the son o f the Pa clan, Wu-hsiang, was the
only one to hit the target, they all sighed. Then he ordered each clan
to sail in an earthenware boat, carved with designs and painted, and
to float the boats in the river. They made an agreement that whoever
could stay afloat would become their lord. The other clans all sank,
and Wu-hsiang’s was the only one to stay afloat. So they unanimously
made him their chieftain. He became the Lord o f the Granary. Now
he sailed the earthenware boat from Y i River to Yen-yang. (Ch’in
Chia-mo’s reconstructed text, Shih pen, Shih hsing 1:93-94)

The Lord o f the Granary once more sailed in his earthenware boat
and went downstream till he reached Y i City. At Y i City the rocky
cliffs zigzagged and the spring watercourse also meandered. The
Lord o f the Granary looked at what seemed like a cavern. He sighed
and said, “I’ve just come out o f a cave, if I go into another one now,
what will happen?” The cliff all at once collapsed thirty feet or more
across, but some steps were within reach o f him. The Lord o f the
Granary climbed up them. On the clifftop there was a flat rock, ten
feet square and five feet long. The Lord o f the Granary rested on it.
He threw bamboo slips to make calculations and they all touched the
 Founding Myths — 267

rock. So he established his city next to it and lived there. Later on all
manner o f people followed him there in crowds. (Chin shu, L i T ’e,
Tsai-chi 20, SPPY 120.1b)

The God Shao Hao Founds the Niao Kingdom

The myth o f Shao Hao was discussed in connection with his
mother, Huang O, and his father, the Son o f the White Emperor, in
chapter 12. The narratives are significant for the repetition o f the bird
m otif (Niao o f Niao Kingdom means ‘Bird’), which itself accentuates
the recurring pattern o f ornithological myths in the classical repertoire.
The first o f the readings in this section is from a first-century a . d . chap­
ter o f The Classic o f Mountains and Seas. The second is from Shih Tzu, a
fourth-century B.C. text. The last is from another fourth-century B.C.
text, the Chronicle o f Tso.

The great waterfall pool beyond the eastern sea is Shao Hao’s king­
dom. Shao Hao had the god Chuan Hsu suckled here, and he threw
away his lute and zither. (Shan hai ching, Ta huang tung ching, SPPY
14.1a)

Shao Hao, Master Metal Heaven, founded his city at Ch’iung Sang
[Exhausted Mulberry]. The five colors o f the sun’s light shone down
below on the radiance o f Ch’iung Sang. (Shih Tzu, SPPY 1.16a)

Autumn. The Duke o f T ’an came to court and Duke Chao o f Ch’in
held a banquet for him. The duke asked him, “Why were Shao Hao’s
government officials named after birds?” The Duke o f T ’an said, “He
was my ancestor, so I know about it. In olden times, the Yellow
Emperor used an auspicious cloud as his official emblem; that is why
he had a cloud minister and cloud for official titles. The Flame
Emperor used fire as his official emblem, so he had a fire minister and
fire for official titles. Kung Kung used water as his official emblem;
that is why he had a water minister and water for official titles. T ’ai
Hao used a dragon as his official emblem; that is why he had a dra­
gon minister and had the dragon for official titles. When my ancestor
Shao Hao came to the throne, phoenix birds suddenly appeared. He
therefore took the birds as his emblem, creating a bird minister and
the birds for official titles. The Phoenix Bird clan became astrono­
mers principal. The Primeval Bird clan became controllers o f the
equinoxes. The Po-ch’ao Shrike clan became controllers o f the sol-
 268 ~ Chinese Mythology

stice. The Green Bird clan became controllers o f [spring] inaugura­

tions. The Cinnabar Bird clan became controllers o f the [winter] clo­
sures. The Partridge clan became controllers o f retinue. The Vulture
clan became controllers o f the cavalry. The Wood Pigeon clan
became controllers o f the K’ung-harp. The Hawk clan became con­
trollers o f crime. The Falcon clan became controllers o f home affairs.
The Five Pigeons became assemblymen for the people. The Five
Pheasants became the five artisans principal, to create revenues from
the use o f tools, to regulate measures and weights, and to observe
order among the people. The Nine-Tailed Birds became the nine agri­
culture principals, to restrain people from vice.” (Tso chuan, Chao
kung Seventeenth Year, SPPY i7-7b-9a)