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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seta

A comprehensive review analysis on advances of evacuated tube solar


collector using nanofluids and PCM
Amit Kumar a, Arun Kumar Tiwari a, *, Zafar Said b, c, *
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, Institute of Engineering & Technology, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226021, India
b
Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering Department, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box, 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
c
Center for Advanced Materials Research, Research Institute for Sciences and Engineering, University of Sharjah, 27272 Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Solar thermal energy is extensively used in industrial and domestic applications like solar drying operation, space
Solar Thermal energy heating, water heating, desalting of water, etc. A solar collector is used to convert solar irradiance into thermal
Evacuated Tube Solar Collector energy. By far, Evacuated tube solar collector is the most extensively used solar thermal collector in the market
Geometrical modification
due to less convective losses. Different types such as (heat pipe, thermosiphon, U-Tube) were used by different
Nanofluids
Phase change materials
researchers. Different geometrical modification techniques like integrating reflectors and fins integrated heat
Thermal performance pipes were used by various researchers for thermal performance enhancement, but the revolutionary enhance­
ment in its thermal performance was observed when nanofluids and Phase Change Materials were used with the
Evacuated tube solar collector. Different numerical models to calculate its energy and exergy performance as well
as economic and environmental impacts of the Evacuated tube solar collector are summarized in this review.
Cogeneration, trigeneration, and poly-generation applications of the evacuated tube solar collector part will
motivate the researchers to generate multiple energy from a single input source simultaneously. Future scope and
recommendation part of this paper will help the researchers and practice engineers who want to work on the
Evacuated tube solar collector to improve its thermal performance.

eminent potential, leading world economies are adopting solar-based


energy so much up to they can. Two types of techniques are trending
Introduction
for effective solar energy utilization, i.e., solar photovoltaic and solar
thermal collectors [5].
The rapid growth in the world population is inherently increasing the
The solar thermal collector is a prominent renewal energy method
energy demand continuously. The developing countries are demanding
for solar energy harvesting to fulfil energy demands [6]. A solar collector
extra energy for their social and economic development, and according
is a heat exchanger device used to convert solar irradiance into thermal
to “The Global energy Report-2018”, it is expected an increment of 33%
energy [7]. The solar collector can be mainly categorized into three
by the year 2040 [1]. At present, over 80% of the total energy demand is
groups- Flat plate collectors (FPC) [8], Evacuated tube solar collector
fulfilled by fossil fuels [2], characterized by an increase in greenhouse
(ETSC) [9], and concentrating collector [10]. Flat Plate Solar Collectors
gases (GHG) and unwanted toxic air pollutants like carbon, sulphur, etc.
dominated the market in the past few years due to their simple design
These GHG and unwanted toxic air pollutants are resulting in global
[11]. But today, the market scenario has reversed completely. However,
warming. Therefore, to avoid the adverse and harmful consequences of
concentrating collectors can yield heat beyond 300 ◦ C temperature to
fossil fuels on the environment, green energy (i.e., renewable energy)
generate electricity [12]. But, due to the high cost-constrained, it is used
sources must be used [3]. Different types of sources available for
in limited applications only. Thus, ETSC (shown in Fig. 1) has captured
renewable energy on the earth like hydropower, geothermal, wind,
the market despite having low heat yields above 100 ◦ C compared to
tidal, solar power, bioenergy, etc. Solar energy is an extensively used
concentrating collectors. According to IEA (International Energy
renewable energy source due to its easy availability at each location
Agency) report published in 2019, the ETSC was the leading solar
globally. The net inexhaustible solar irradiance that reaches the earth
thermal collector technology with a global market share of 71% [6]. The
surface is around 8 × 104 TW of solar irradiance flux [4]. Due to this

* Corresponding authors at: Mechanical Engineering Department, Institute of Engineering & Technology, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh 226021, India (A.K. Tiwari).
E-mail addresses: aruntiwari@ietlucknow.ac.in (A.K. Tiwari), zsaid@sharjah.ac.ae (Z. Said).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2021.101417
Received 24 February 2021; Received in revised form 15 June 2021; Accepted 18 June 2021
Available online 1 July 2021
2213-1388/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Nomenclature Abbreviations
AI Artificial Intelligent
(↑) Increase ANN Artificial Neural Network
(↓) Decrease CFD Computational fluid dynamics
A Collector area (m2) DFR Diffuse flat reflector
Cp Specific heat capacity of water (kJ/kg.◦ C) DI Water Distilled Water
Ėxsc The absorbed exergy by the solar collector (kJ/s) EG-PW Ethylene Glycol-pure water
Ėxu Useful delivered exergy by the solar collector (kJ/s) ETSC Evacuated Tube Solar Collector
h Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 ◦ C) ELEGANT Electricity generation apparatus inside thermoelectric
I Solar irradiance (W/m2) FPC Flate Plate Collector
K Thermal conductivity (W/m. ◦ C) FR Filling Ratio (liquid volume to the whole volume of the
ṁ Mass flow rate (kg/s) evaporator tube)
Nu Nusselt Number. HP-ETSC Heat Pipe Evacuated Tube Solar Collector.
P Electrical power (kW) IEA International Energy Agency
Q(↑) Heat gain (kJ) l/h Liter per hour
Qloss Lost energy from the absorbers to the ambient (kJ) MWCNTs Multi-walled carbon nanotubes
Qglass Total heat transfer from the outer glass tube to the ambient Ne-PCM Nano-enhanced Phase change material
(kJ) PCM Phase change material
Qabs The total heat flux absorbed (kJ) RN Resistance network
R Thermal resistance (◦ C.m2/W) SWCNTs Single-walled carbon nanotubes
Rele Electric resistance (Ω) STEC Solar Thermoelectric Cogeneration
R1 The equivalent resistance of radiation losses (◦ C.m2/W) TSE Thermal storage system
Re Reynolds Number. WF Working fluid
Δs Entropy generation (J/◦ C)
Subscript
T4 Collector outlet temperature (◦ C)
a Ambient
T Temperature Range. (◦ C)
ab Absorber
Tmax Maximum Temperature. (◦ C)
air Air
Tp Plate temperature (◦ C)
cond Conduction
Greek letters Conv Convection
η Thermal efficiency (%) g Glass
ηele Electrical efficiency (%) gi Inner glass
β Tilted angle (in degree) go Outer glass
∅ vol% p Plate
τ Transmissibility rad Radiation
А Absorptivity w Water
ηsc Exergy efficiency (%)

Fig. 1. Evacuated Tube Solar Collector [28].

main reason for ETSC’s domination in the market is due to very minimal carrier etc., and [17] heating applications like air heating and water
losses in convective and radiative heat transfer with higher energy and heating. Ayompe et al. [17] analyzed the thermal performance of a heat
exergy efficiency [13-15]. pipe ETSC for water heating application throughout a year in Dublin,
Evacuated tube solar collector has a wide range of applications in Ireland. The maximum outlet fluid temperature they found was 70.3 ◦ C,
[16] cooling applications like air conditioning, refrigeration, vaccine and the bottom of the hot water tank was 59.5 ◦ C. They concluded that

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A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Table 1 to the heat pipe ETSC. It simultaneously supplies 0.19 kWh of electricity
Previous review study on ETSC. and 300 ltr of hot water per day. D.N.Nkwetta et al. [20] analyzed an
Reviewer Description internal low-concentrating evacuated tube heat pipe solar collector
designed to enhance solar irradiance collection for medium temperature
Aramesh et al. Focused Study on PCM integrated ETSC systems from different
[25] perspectives like integration type, design parameters, applications like solar air conditioning systems. Nowadays, the use of
performance index. They also discussed the advantages and ETSC is extended to electricity generation, solar cooling, drying of crops.
disadvantages of PCM and its properties. Wei He et al. [21] used the thermoelectric modules connected with heat
Olfian et al. [26] Focused study on ETSC classification and its water heating pipe ETSC. Their experimental and analytical study used an integrated
application using nanofluids. They analysed nanofluids’
properties, sizes, volume fraction, applications, advantages,
solar heat-pipe/thermoelectric module (SHP-TE) for simultaneous
and disadvantages. electricity generation and water heating. Roonak et al. [22] experi­
Muhammad et al. They discussed different types of solar collectors and the mentally analysed a heat-pipe evacuated tube solar dryer with a heat
[27] performance enhancement techniques of ETSC. recovery system to improve the system’s overall performance. Sokhan­
Chopra et al. [10] Focused on the classification of ETSC with financial
sefat et al. [23] used TRNSYS software for the thermo-economical
advantages. They also discussed the thermal analysis of every
part of ETSC and different ETSC applications. investigation of FPC and ETSC in different external cold climate condi­
Present Study Focused upon the performance enhancement techniques based tions and observed that the yearly energy gain is 30% higher in ETSC
upon design parameters, nanofluids, and PCM. Numerical and than FPC and found ETSC 41% better in cold climate conditions. Kabeel
experimental models of different researchers are discussed. et al. [24] designed and analysed an experimental model of modified
Future applications of ETSC in cogeneration and trigeneration,
its economic and environmental impacts are discussed
coaxial heat pipe inserted inside the evacuated glass for heating purpose
systematically with pertinent data. A summary review of each
partition is also provided in tabular form for better
understanding in less time. Novelty of the current study

ETSC is a new emerging renewable energy-based technology used in


this system fulfils 33.8% of annual hot water demand. Felinski et al. [18]
various applications like water heating, desalination, space heating etc.
used the Phase Change Material (PCM) inside the glass tube of ETSC.
A few review papers are available on ETSC and its applications (Table 1).
They used commercial-grade paraffin as PCM and experimentally
The present review study is focused on different techniques that support
concluded that the amount of useful heat gain was 45–79% higher and
enhancing its thermal performance. Different thermal enhancement
the heat loss reduced by 32%. Zhang [19] constructed a solar thermo­
techniques like structural modification, nanofluid and PCM integration
electric cogenerator (STECG) model by adding thermoelectric modules
with ETSC are reviewed in this paper. Different numerical and

Fig. 2. (a) (Ti – Ta)/I vs Exergy efficiency graph at a different mass flow rate [35]. (b) Reynolds number vs Exergy efficiency graph at different vol% [36].

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A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of a setup used by Qiong et al. [40].

experimental models are reviewed here to benefit the researchers and experimentally investigated the ETSC two conventionally finned and
practice engineers. Future applications of ETSC like cogeneration and helically finned heat pipe. Their result reported the efficiency
tri-generation with its economic and environmental impact are also enhancement of the helical fin 15% and 13.2% at a mass flow rate of
discussed, motivating the researchers to advance ETSC further. 0.165 lpm and 0.664 lpm, respectively. Sadeghi et al. [35] experimen­
tally evaluated the exergy performance of the ETSC by using Cu2O/
Thermal analysis of evacuated tube collector water as a working fluid. Their experimental study concluded that the
enhancement in exergy efficiency was not significant with increasing
The collector’s thermal performance is referred to as the amount of mass flow rate (shown in Fig. 2a), but it was significant with an
useful energy to the total available energy. The following two ap­ increasing volume concentration of nanofluid [36].
proaches are mentioned below to evaluate the thermal performance of Algarni et al. [37] experimentally studied the U tube ETSC with 10
the evacuated tube solar collector. nano-PCM (a mixture of paraffin wax and copper nanoparticles) filled
evacuated tubes and aluminium fins between the U tube and absorber
Experimental investigation tubes. Based on the results, they concluded that the nano-enhanced PCM
improves the system’s efficiency up to 32%. Sadeghi et al. [38] experi­
Naik et al. [29] experimentally calculated the useful heat gain, en­ mentally evaluated the thermal performance of ETSC by using copper
ergy, and exergy performance of a U tube ETSC to validate the numerical oxide/distilled water (Cu2O/distill water) nanofluid. They concluded
model results. They concluded the maximum error of ±12.7%, ±6.9%, that the collector’s thermal performance could increase the nanofluid’s
and ± 7.8% for the working fluid transition time, energy efficiency, and mass flow rate and concentration. Eidan et al. [39] used two different
exergy efficiency, respectively. Singh and Tiwari [30] used series- working fluid (Acetone and Al2O3, CuO/acetone-based nanofluid) in
connected U tube ETSC with N tubes with 150 slopes from horizontal their experimented setup of ETSC and concluded that HP-ETSC systems
to calculate energy performance for climate conditions like New Delhi. should be charged with nanofluids for the thermal performance
They calculate the optimum number of collectors as 12 at 0.016 kg/s enhancement (20–54%) and efficiency (15–38%). Felinski et al. [18]
mass flow rate based on their experimental study. Kumar and Mylsamy carried out an experimental study to define the working condition of
[31] used CeO2-Parafins (a nano-enhanced PCM) in a thermosiphon PCM-integrated ETSC by determining the heating medium’s tempera­
ETSC to calculate the thermal storage properties. They determine the 1% tures and the paraffin, the heat losses, and the quantity of useful heat
CeO2-nanoparticles as the optimum composition of NEPCM. Elsheniti received. The result shows that the heat losses were reduced by 31%–
et al. [32] experimented with a setup consisting of 3 series connected 32% while the amount of useful heat gain of ETSC with paraffin was
ETSC with 15 tubes and constant inlet manifold temperature. Experi­ 45%-79% higher than the conventional system.
mentally, they added a new term of thermal mass for the collector and Qiong et al. [40] studied the instantaneous efficiency of the hori­
concluded that the collector’s performance highly depends upon the zontal double row all-glass ETSC system (shown in Fig. 3) with constant
inlet water and ambient temperatures, the number of evacuated tubes, inlet manifold temperature and analysed the effects of declination angle
water mass flow rate, and solar irradiance on both the exit water tem­ on heat transfer and temperature distribution. Chopra et al. [41]
perature and collector efficiency. Essa et al. [33] carried a comparative attached the aluminum fins to the heat pipe and compared the thermal
study of finned U-tube ETSC system with and without PCM integration. performance of ETSC with and without PCM integration. They achieved
Their study obtained the best thermal efficiency on PCM’s complete the maximum daily thermal efficiency of 87.80% and 55.46% for ETC-B
phase change process under low flow rates. Essa et al. [34] and ETC-A, respectively, at a flow rate of 20. Overall, a gain of 32% to

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A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Fig. 4. Daily energy usages [42].

Table 2
A summary review of the experimental investigation.
Investigator Heat Operating ETSC Findings
transfer conditions Dimension
medium

Li et al. Expanded I = 800 W/ D = 47 mm, 58 ●η=


[44] gra-phite m2Tamb = mm, 70 mmL 55.24%.●
+ 35–40 ◦ Cṁ = = 1700 mm Tmax =
erythritol 2lpm 172.6 ◦ C.
Eidan et al. DI water FR = 40, 50, Copper HPA = ● Optimum
[39] and 60, 70, 80%.∅ 0.06912 m2.L performance at
acetone- = 0.25, 0.50 = 1200 FR = 70% and
based vol%. mm.τ = 0.93 β = 450.● At
Al2O3 and ∅ = 0.5 vol%η Fig. 5. Resistance Network [45].
CuO (Al2O3) =
64%η (CuO) =
37% in thermal efficiency was obtained. Abo-Elfadl et al. [42] attached
56%
2 two glass reflectors in their ETSC setup at different angles and compare
Sadeghi DI Water T= A = 0.85 m .D ● At ṁ =
et al. + Cu2O 75–85 ◦ C.β = = 59 mm.L = 50lph, ∅ = the thermal performance with and without glass reflectors. They
[38] 350.∅ = 0.4, 1800 mm 0.08vol%, concluded that using upper, lower, and the two reflectors, the input
0.08 vol% ηmax = 60%. energy to the collector raised by about 15.3%, 22.5%, and 37%,
Qiong Li Water Re < 2500. A = 3.27 m2L ● This study respectively, and the output daily storage energy by 14%, 22.1%, and
et al. Tamb = = 1800 mmD shows that the 35.7%, respectively (as shown in Fig. 4). Chopra et al. [43] conducted a
[40] 17–24 ◦ C = 58 mm(out), β has a greater
comparative study on ETSC with and without using energy storage
47 mm(in)α = impact on the
0.92 thermal material and experimentally concluded that the maximum daily average
performance of efficiency was 78.36% and 54.10% at a mass flow rate of 24 lph for ETSC
the solar with and without heat storage, respectively. For further experimental
collector.
study Table 2 summary review of experimental investigation is provided
Algarni Ne-PCM T= Copper U-tube ● For ṁ =
for better understanding.
et al. (0.33% Cu- 20–80 ◦ C.β = integrated with 0.08 lpm ETSC
[37] Paraffin 180heating aluminium fins with Ne-PCM
mixture) rate = 10 ◦ C were used.α = can retain Numerical investigation
/min 0.95L = 700 water
mm temperature up
to 50 ◦ C for 3 Naik et al. [29] developed a numerical model for a single evacuated
h.● By using U tube collector and compared it from existing data available. They
Ne-PCMη (↑) developed a 3D numerical model using COMSOL 5.3a simulation soft­
= 32%
ware. To simulate working fluid behaviour inside U-tube the continuity
Essa et al. Paraffin β = 350ṁ = Helical copper ● Helical Finns
and Naiver – stokes momentum equations are solved, and the maximum
[34] wax 0.165, 0.33, fins were achieved
0.5, and 0.66 attached to higher Tmax
and average collector efficiency found 72% and 51%, respectively.
lpm heat pipe than the Elsheniti et al. [32] develop the mathematical model to study the
instead of conventional thermal performance heat pipe ETSC. They added a new term collector
conventional one.● At ṁ = thermal mass, in their mathematical model. In their study, they also
Al fins.A = 0.5lpm , η (↑)
presented the electric-thermal analogy model (shown in Fig. 5). It is
0.47 m2 = 15.13%
shown in the graph that the exit temperature depends upon the mass
flow rate and intensity of irradiance and has a maximum value from
14:00 hr to 16:00 hr.

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A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the heat pipe and thermosiphon ETSC [28].

manifold with PCM. The 2nd order steady-state temperature distribution


linear partial differential equation with non-homogeneous boundary
conditions was used to find the temperature by neglecting radial heat
transfer and find the fin efficiency of HPC is about 90% for copper
material. In their review study, Bayrak et al. [49] analysed the exergy of
different solar collector systems by using nanofluid and PCM for elec­
tricity generation applications.
The thermal performance of the ETSC can be analysed by two
methods viz. steady-state and transient method. To solve the steady-
state model, the following assumption and boundary conditions are
taken into consideration.

• Temperature variation is to be assumed in the radial direction only.


So that temperature gradient in the longitudinal direction is
neglected.
• Heat lost into the surrounding from the manifold is neglected.
• Heat loss coefficient between collector and ambient is constant.

Fig. 7. Cross-sectional view of ETSC.


Fig. 7 shows the cross-sectional view of the evacuated tube with a
heat pipe. The collector absorbs some part of the incident solar
Pawar et al. [46] used ANSYS software to analyze the thermal per­ irradiance.
formance of the ETSC. Their CFD model compared the ETSC perfor­ From the energy balance equation for the collector [47]:
mance with and without the integration of PCM (Tritriacontane paraffin
[C33H68]). The result showed improved thermal performance with Q̇u = Q˙in − Qloss
˙ (1)
maximum 30 ◦ C temperature differences during evening peak hours and
The amount of energy enter into the collector is given by [47]:
described the further need for experimental investigation of ETSC
integration with PCM. Sobhansarbandi et al. [45] studied two model Q˙in = τgo τin αab Nnh I (2)
resistance network (RN) model and resistance network-based proper
While the heat lost to the ambient due to the temperature difference
orthogonal decomposition (RNPOD) model. They concluded that the RN
between absorber and surroundings is given by [47]:
model (to calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient) is the most
suitable tool to study and thermal performance of the ETSC. Sadeghi ˙ = T∑
ab − Ta
Qloss (3)
et al. [35] used Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) method to predict the Rloss
suitable efficiency and performance parameters by providing pressure,
The thermal resistance network system (shown in Fig. 8) between
volume, and temperature variation to the input layer. Daghigh et al.
absorber and ambient can be written as [50]:
[47] presented a mathematical model to evaluate the thermal perfor­

mance of the heat pipe ETSC (Fig. 6). Based on the previous research Rloss = Rrad conv cond
+ Rrad cond rad conv
(4)
ab− gi + Rab− gi + Rgi gi− go + Rgo + Rgo− a + Rgo− a
data available, they simulate their model using MATLAB software and
simulate the model’s thermal performance to calculate the system effi­ Where Radiative thermal resistance between inner glass surface to
ciency. The energy and exergy equations were derived by using energy ambient is given as [50]:
conservation equations. Naghavi et al. [48] design a theoretical model
consisting of an array of heat pipe ETSC connected to a standard

Fig. 8. Resistance network model [50].

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A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Table 3
A summary review of numerical investigation.
Author Correlation of important finding Assumption Result

Naik et al. [29] ∂Vwf,x ∂Vwf,y ∂Vwf,z i. The working fluid is incompressible and Develop a 3D, unsteady-state
Continuity equationρ +ρ +ρ = 0Momentum equation
∂x ∂y ∂z Newtonian.ii. The temperature is considered model to evaluate performance
∂Vwf ∂Vwf,x ∂Vwf,y ∂Vwf,z 1 ∂P to be uniform over the length of the U tube and got ηmax = 72%.
in x-direction + Vwf,x + Vwf,y + Vwf,z = − +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂x collector.iii. The Boussinesq approximation
( )
μ ∂2 Vwf,x ∂2 Vwf,x ∂2 Vwf,x is used to quantify the buoyancy effect.iv.
+ + Energy Convective heat transfer is negligible in the
ρ ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z 2
( ) evacuated space.
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T
equationρCp,wf +Vwf,x +Vwf,y +Vwf,z =
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
[ ( )]
T0
( 2 ) ṁCw (T0 − Ti ) − T0 log
∂ T ∂2 T ∂2 T Ti
k + + Exergy efficiencyηex = [ ( ) ( )]
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 1 T0 4 4 T0
AI 1 + −
3 Tsr 3 Tsr
Elsheniti et al. Tp − Tamb R(go− amb) Rconvloss i. Neglect the natural convection losses The efficiency of the collector
Qloss = R1 = + R(gi− go) + R(p− gi) η =
[32] R1 R(go− amb) + Rconvloss between the evacuated space and inner glass reduces at high inlet
ṁCp (Texit − Tin ) tube.ii. Neglect the thermal resistance across temperature.Introduces a new
IAb the water-vapour interface in both term, collector thermal mass.
evaporator and condenser.iii. The surface
temperature of the absorber and evaporator
assume to be the same.iv. Conduction
thermal resistance in glass thickness is
neglected.
Sobhansarbandi qglass = qa− + qa− glass,rad qabs = qabs− glass,Conv + qabs− glass,rad +
glass,Conv i. Heat transfer processes in the collector are The new model developed by
( )
et al. [45] considered to be steady state.ii. Temperature the researcher gave approx.,
Qloss qa− = σDg πεg T4g − T4a qabs− glas,Conv =
variations along the length of the collector the same result compared to the
glass,rad
( )
σDabs π T4g − T4a can be neglected.iii. Thermophysical previous study.
((5.8V) +3.8 )πDg qa− glass,rad = ( (( ) )) properties of the collector materials remain
1 1 − εg Dabs
+ constant.iv. Due to the thin thickness of both
εabs εgDg
the inner and outer tubes, conduction effects
can be ignored.
Daghigh et al. Tab − Tamb i. Heat transfer in radial direction only.ii. The maximum outlet
Qloss = Ėxu =
[47] Rab−
+ Rgl + Rgl− go + Rgo + Rgo− amb
gl Constant heat loss coefficient between temperature was 64 ◦ C.
[ ( )]
[ (
T0
)] ( )
1 T0 4 4 T0 environment and collector.iii. Heat loss from
ṁCw (T0 − Ti ) − T0 log Ėxsc = AI 1 + − ηsc = the manifold to the environment is
Ti 3 Tsr 3 Tsr
negligible.
Ėxu
Ėxsc
Kotb et al. [56] Tr − Ta i. Conduction thermal resistance of glass Atṁ = 0.2 kg/s, I = 700 w/m2,
Heat lost to ambientQ1 = Equivalent resistancer1 =
r1 walls is neglected.ii. Thermal resistances Ti = 65 ◦ C andΔT = 5 ◦ C
r(g2 − a) rConv across the water-vapour interface in both reduction in 41% of total tubes
+ r(g1 − g2 ) + r(r− g1 ) Overall collector efficiencyη =
r(g2 − a) + rConv evaporator and condenser are small can lead to save in initial cost.
m˙w Cpw (Texit − Tin ) compared to other resistances and therefore
GAb N neglected.iii. Heat loss by natural convection
between the inner glass and the evaporator is
neglected.iv. Temperature drop between
absorber and evaporator is neglected.v.
Thermal resistance due to the pressure drop
of the vapour flow is neglected.
Jowzi et al. [57] The energy efficiency of the modified ETSCη1 = i. Laminar flowii. The solar irradiance on the η (↑) = 11%. Increment in
( * ) ( * ) collector surface is modelled on the basis.iii. useful heat gain = 25%
T − Ta 2 T − Ta
− 6.883 − 0.516 + 0.77The energy efficiency of the Constant ambient temperature.iv. Time-
G G
( * )
T − Ta 2
( *
T − Ta
) dependent solution of actual environmental
typical ETSCη1 = − 0.983 − 0.419 + 0.66 conditions (34.2◦ Latitude, 47.1◦ Longitude,
G G
and in June).v. The density differences are
modelled based on Boussinesq
approximation.

[( ) ( )]
1− εab 1− ε outer glass is given as [50]:
+ Aab Nhp1Fab− gi + ∊gi Agigi
∊ab Aab Nhp [( ) ( )]
Rrad = ( )( ) (5) 1− εgi 1− ε
ab− gi
σ Tab + Tgi T2ab + T2gi ∊gi Agi
+ Agi F1gi− go + ∊go Agogo
Rrad
gi− go = ( )( ) (8)
Convective thermal resistance between inner glass surface to σ Tgi + Tgo T2gi + T2go
ambient is given as [50]:
The conductive thermal resistance of outer glass is given as [50]:
1
Rconv = ( ) (6) tgo
ab− gi
Aab Nhp +Agi Rcond
go = (9)
hair 2
Ago Kgo

The radiative thermal resistance between outer glass surface to


The conductive thermal resistance of inner glass is given as [50]:
ambient is given as [50]:
tgi
Rcond = (7) 1
gi
Agi Kgi Rrad
go− a = ( )( 2 ) (10)
σεgo Ago Tgo + Ta Tgo + T2a
Radiative thermal resistance between the inner glass surface to the

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A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

The convective thermal resistance between outer glass surface to


ambient is given as [50]:
1
RConv
go− a = (11)
Ago ha

Eltaweel et al. [51] and Sharafeldin et al. [52] used the energy bal­
ance equation to calculate the useful energy and calculate heat loss using
the eq. (12)
˙ = UL AC (Tm − Ta )
Qloss (12)
As the collector temperature (Tm) is not uniform through the area,
where a new term heat removal factor (FR) is used to solve this issue
[51]
ṁCp (Tout − Tin )
FR = (13)
Ac [I(τα) − UL (Tin − Tamb ) ]
Fig. 9. Performance Parameters of ETSC [10].
And useful energy Q̇u is calculated by [51]:

Q̇u = Ac FR [I(τα) − UL (Tin − Tamb ) ] (14) The momentum equation is given as [46]:

Only energy analysis is not sufficient to define all the performance ∂ →


v ) = − ∇p + ∇→
(ρ v ) + ∇(ρ→ τ + ρ→
g + Sg (20)
aspects of ETSC because energy analysis only quantifies the various ∂t
energy performance. It is the exergy analysis that defines the direction or
quality of performance. For exergy analysis, a lot of researchers [53,54 Where ρ is the density, τ is stress tensor, and g is the acceleration due to
29] used the following equation for useful exergy- gravity.
The energy equation is given as [29]:
ΔEx = ṁf [(hout − hin ) − T0 (Sout − Sin ) ] (15) ( ) ( 2 )
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂ T ∂2 T ∂2 T
( ) ρCp,wf + Vwf,x + Vwf,y + Vwf,z =k + 2+ 2 (21)
(hout − hin ) = Cp,f Tf,in − Tf,out (16) ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y
2 ∂z

and Where Cp is the specific heat capacity of the working fluid, k is the
Tf,out Pout thermal conductivity. Table 3 further explained different experimental
(Sout − Sin ) = Cp,f ln
Tf,in
− Rf ln
Pin studies in a summerize way.
Sharafeldin et al. [52] analyzed the solar collector system’s eco­
from the above equations, change in exergy can be written as [54]: nomic and environmental impact by considering every component of the
[
( ( ))
( )] system. They calculated the system’s total weight, cost, embodied en­
Tf,out Pout
ΔEx = ṁf Cp,f Tf,in − Tf,out − T0 Cp,f ln − Rf ln ergy associated with the system, and embodied CO2 emission. These
Tf,in Pin
parameters are further used to calculate several factors like CPBT, ACER,
The above energy and exergy equations were used by the different EPBT, and EYF.
researchers with different experimental setup and parameters to en­ Carbon Payback Time (CPBT) is defined as the number of years taken
hances the thermal performance of the ETSC. to offset the carbon emission. Eq. (22) is used to calculate CPBT [52].
Pawar et al. [46] developed a numerical model using computational
Total calculated Embodied CO2 emission (kg)
fluid dynamics (CFD) equations to analyze system performance analyt­ CPBT = (22)
Annual CO2 emission mitigation (kg)
ically. The following assumptions are considered while developing the
model. Annual Certified Emission Reduction (ACER) is defined as the
amount of money that can be saved by avoiding the one-ton equivalent
• Working fluid is considered as the Newtonian fluid. of CO2 emission through the solar energy system [52].
• Thermophysical properties are assumed to be constant.

ACER = (Monetary value of one carbon credit)(Annual CO2 emission mitigation (kg) ) (23)

• The flow is laminar and incompressible.


• The Boussinesq approximation is used to quantify the buoyancy Energy Payback Time (EPBT) is defined as the ratio of total
effect. Embodied energy needed to establish the system to the useful annual
heat produced by the evacuated tube solar collector [55].
Continuity and Navier-Stokes equations are solved simultaneously to
Total calculated Embodied energy (MJ)
predict the behaviour of the system and working fluid- EPBT = (24)
Annual useful thermal energy (MJ)
The continuity equation in three dimensions is given as [29]:
Energy Yield Factor (EYF) is the ratio between the solar system’s cost
∂Vwf ,x ∂Vwf ,y ∂Vwf ,z
+ρ +ρ =0 (19) and the solar collector’s lifetime [55].
∂x ∂y ∂z
The total calculated cost of the system (USD)
Where ρ is the density, t denotes time, and V denotes working fluid EYF = (25)
Solar energy system useful lifetime (years)
velocity in ×, y, z directions.

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A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Fig. 10. Design Parameters of ETSC [42,61,62].

Fig. 11. Sectional view of a heat pipe ETSC [27].

Simple Payback Period (SPP) is defined as the ratio of total calcu­ Performance enhancement of ETSC
lated cost of the system to the useful thermal energy in terms of cost. It is
used to calculate the capital recovery duration [55]. An ETSC generally has three major elements- ETSC geometry, Heat
transfer medium, and Selective Coating. The modification in these ele­
The total calculated cost of the system (USD)
SPP = (26) ments leads to enhance the thermal performance of the ETSC. Fig. 9
Useful thermal energy in term of cost
demonstrates the performance enhancement parameters.
Where useful thermal energy in term of cost can be written as [52]

Useful thermal energy in term of cost = (Annual useful thermal energy)(cost of electricity (USD)) × 0.2778 (27)

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A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Table 4 Table 5
Limitations of heat pipes. A summary review of different performance enhancement techniques of ETSC.
Heat pipe Description References Enhancement Working Study type Outcomes
limitation technique fluid

Sonic When vapour velocity at the throat of the nozzle could not Abokersh Finned U tube Water Experimental ● The results
exceed the local speed of sound. This results in choking the flow et al. [61] + PCM (ALEX obtained from
condition known as a sonic limitation. WAX600) the simulation
Entrainment In the heat pipe vapour and liquid from the evaporator and showed an
condenser moves in the opposite direction. So, a shear force enhancement
exists at the liquid–vapour interface. At relatively high velocity, in the
the liquid turns into vapour, and the evaporator drys out. The efficiency of
heat transfer rate at which this occurs is called the inlet limit. 47.7% and
Boiling At higher temperatures, the temperature difference through the 35.8% for the
wick increases. This creates vapour bubbles, which can be Finned and un-
trapped in the wick, blocking fluid flow, leading to dry-out the finned system,
wick of the evaporator. respectively.
Capillary During the heat pipe operation, the working fluid evaporates Gao et al. U-tube solar Antifreeze Numerical ●
from the evaporator and condenses in the condenser, [70] collector fluid (40% and Thermosiphon
transferring latent heat from one end of the heat pipe to the glycol by Experimental ETSC store
other. Condensate liquid is returned to the evaporator by volume) about 25–35%
capillary power through the wick. The maximum power that the energy
heat pipe can carry and still return the condensate liquid by compared to U-
capillary forces is the capillary limit. tube ETSC at
∅ = 10 – 70 kg/
h-m2
Structural modification Felinski PCM (technical Water Experimental ● ETSC
et al. [71] grade paraffin) integration
Different researchers used different geometry modification tech­ with PCM
enhanced the
niques (as shown in Fig. 10) to improve the thermal performance of the solar fraction
ETSC. Many types of research have been conducted on the integration of by 20.5% for
reflectors, different no. of evacuated tubes, and tilted angles. E.Azad the household
et al. [58] presented a comparative analysis of two ETSC with different water heater in
the annual
no. of evacuated tubes and flow through the collector. They concluded
report.
that two methods could enhance heat pipe collector efficiency; the first Naik et al. U-tube solar Water Experimental ● ηmax =
is the increment in the no. of the heat pipe and the second one in the [29] collector 72%● Solar
increment in collector effective area by proper design of heat condenser. intensity and
Elsheniti et al. [56] worked on optimizing no. of evacuated tubes and mass flow rate
have a greater
their array arrangement at high inlet temperature and concluded that influence on
59% of the total no. of tubes reduced the considerable amount of initial energy
cost. M.M. Sarafraz et al. [59] used the response surface methodology efficiency.
for the performance optimization of a collector, calculated the instal­ Kabeel et al. Coaxial heat Air, R22, Experimental ● η (↑) =
[24] pipe R134a 67%● Both
lation angle and Optimum filling ratio, and identified the relationship
refrigerants
between parameters. Qiong et al. [40] worked on horizontal double row showed almost
all-glass ETSC and concluded that the declination angle significantly the same
affects the temperature distribution and velocity field inside the tubes. experimental
Bracamonte et al. [60] worked on the effect of tilt angle on the perfor­ results.
Selvakumar Parabolic Therminol Experimental ● At I = 540
mance of ETSC and concluded that tilt angle significantly affects the et al. [72] trough D-12 W/m2
energy gain and flow parameters. maximum
temperature of
Integration of fins with heat pipe the water with
Parabolic
A heat pipe is a hollow tube generally made of copper material (as
trough was
shown in Fig. 11). The upper part of a heat pipe is called a condenser, 68 ◦ C, while it
while the lower is an evaporator. The heat pipe is filled with low boiling was just 40 ◦ C
point fluid. When heat is transferred to the evaporator section of the heat for ETSC
pipe, the low boiling fluid gets vaporized and rises to the heat pipe’s without
Parabolic
condenser section (cooling zone). Hence flowing fluid in manifold trough.
gained heat from condenser sections of heat pipes [10]. Besides having Chopra et al. PCM + Water Experimental ● η (↑) = 30 –
advantages of the heat pipe, it has some operating limitations discussed [43] Aluminium 53%.●
in Table 4. Abokersh et al. [61] experimentally compared the forced Finned pipe Obtained
maximum
circulation finned and unfinned U-pipe ETC with the phase change
exergy
material under identical external conditions and concluded the efficiency of
enhancement in system and heat stability transfer characteristics in the 23.15%.
developed finned system. Ayompe et al. [63] used the system simulta­ Milani et al. Integration of Water Experimental ● The daily
neously investigated under real water consumption profile as well as on- [67] diffuse flat and average of
reflector at the Numerical collectible solar
demand operation. back of ETSC irradiance and
The enhancement in heat transfer properties and stability of the array performance of
system was observed in the developed finned system. Abo-Elfadl et al. solar water
[42] experimentally evaluated direct flow ETSC integrated with phase heater increase
change material and concluded that fins enhance the heat transfer (continued on next page)

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A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Table 5 (continued ) ETSC integration with reflectors


References Enhancement Working Study type Outcomes Chunliu Mao et al. [65] used a bottom mirror reflector integrated
technique fluid with ETSC to harness an extra amount of sunlight, especially in winters.
in the presence
Abo-Elfadl et al. [42] attached two glass reflectors in their ETSC setup at
of DFR different angles and compare the thermal performance with and without
Mao et al. Bottom mirror Water Numerical ● Enhanced glass reflectors. They concluded that using upper, lower, and the two
[65] reflectors solar irradiance reflectors, the input energy to the collector raised by about 15.3%,
integration from 40% to
22.5%, and 37%, respectively, and the output daily storage energy by
with ETSC 80%.●
Reduces the 14%, 22.1%, and 35.7%, respectively. Olczak et al. [66] used a heat pipe
risk of with aluminium film and a parabolic glass mirror reflector and experi­
overheating in mentally found the enhancement of solar irradiance. Milani et al. [67]
summer by used diffuse flat reflector (DFR) backside of the ETSC tubes to amplify
20%.
Nkwetta Heat pipe + Water Experimental ● Minimum
solar irradiance.
et al. [73] internal heat loss
concentrator coefficient and Absorber coating
higher Sobhansarbandi et al. [68] used dry-drawable Carbon Nanotube
efficiency were
(CNT) sheet coatings to integrate PCM to enhance the heat absorption
observed for
ETSC with the rate. Based on their experimental results, they concluded that CNT
internal significantly increases water heater performance. Banthuek et al. [62]
concentrator. applied a thin Ni-pigmented alumina (Ni-Al2O3) layer over the Al fin by
Chopra et al. PCM + Finned Water Experimental ● ηmax = using the anodic anodization process. Based on their experimental study
[74] pipe 72.57%.●
Payback
demonstrated that the coatings have very low reflectivity (~0.05) and
period = 6 high absorptivity (~0.94). Zheng et al. [69] derived a heat pipe ETSC
years model with radiative characteristics of the receiver’s opposite surface,
Tamuli et al. Co-axial tube Water Experimental ● At I = 1000 and to change the emissivity, a method is proposed by performing
[75] with TiNOx w/m2ηmax =
roughness treatment. He concluded that increasing the emissivity of the
coated flat 80%.
absorber plate receiver’s back surface can significantly result in reducing heat loss.
Liang et al. Filled type Water Experimental ● For filled Table 5 showed the further performance enhancement techniques.
[76] ETSC with a layer double U-
double U-tube tube ETSC they
Performance enhancement using nanofluids
obtained η =
80% at I = 900
W/m2. Nanofluids are one of the most extensively used techniques (Fig. 12
Sadeghi Integration of Cu2O + Experimental ● At ∅ = 50 shows the benifits of nanofluid) to enhance solar collector’s perfor­
et al. [77] Concentrating distilled lph, η = 60% mance [78,79]. Fig. 13 shows the engineering approach of nanofluid
reflector water while exergy
efficiency was
selection. So far, many experimental studies have been conducted
6%. focused on nanofluids (Some of them are shown in Fig. 16) [80,81].
Some good review studies [82-85] have been published on the potential
application of nanofluid in solar energy so far. Ghaderian et al. [86] and
during the discharging phase. Zhang et al. [64] analysed the thermal H.Kaya et al. [87] used Al2O3/water nanofluid and experimentally
performance of direct flow coaxial ETSC with and without a heat shield calculated the performance of ETSC at the different mass flow rate. They
and concluded that the efficiency of ETSC with heat shield at 123.9 ◦ C concluded that Al2O3/water nanofluid has a maximum efficiency of
inlet temperature was 54.70% as compared to 23.21% without a heat 57.63% (at 0.06 vol% and 60 L/h) and 67.1% (at 4 vol% and 0.025 kg/
shield at the same temperature. Essa et al. [34] experimentally investi­ s), respectively. Ghaderian et al. [88] used CuO/distilled water nano­
gated the two conventionally finned and helically finned heat pipe fluid and concluded the 14% enhancement of ETSC efficiency when
ETSC. The authors reported an efficiency enhancement of the helical fin nanofluid was used in an absorption medium. Sadeghi et al. [35] used
15% and 13.2% at a mass flow rate of 0.165 lpm and 0.664 lpm, Cu2O/water nanofluid and got the enhanced thermal characteristics
respectively. experimentally. Sharafeldin et al. [89] used CeO2/water nanofluid with
25 nm nanoparticles with different %vol fraction water. At 0.017 kg/s.

Fig. 12. Benefits and challenges of nanofluids [104].

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A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Fig. 13. Engineering approach of nanofluid [105].

heat transfer coefficient for the Cu nanofluid than the base fluid.
Huseyin et al. [94] used a U-Tube ETSC with ZnO/Etyelene Glycol-pure
water nanofluid. They concluded that 3.0 vol% ZnO/EG-PW and 0.045
kg/s mass flow rate, the collector efficiency was 62.87%, which is
26.42% higher than EG-PW nanofluid. Chen et al. [95] used LiBr/water
mixture, calculated the vaporization rate and total energy absorbed, and
summarized thermal collecting efficiency. Sharafeldin et al. [96] used a
good stability WO3/water nanofluid of different volume at different
mass flow flux rates. They concluded that the heat gain was raised to
23% at 900 W/m2 solar irradiances when WO3/water nanofluid was
used. The thermal-optical efficiency of the ETSC they achieved was
72.8%. Seyed et al. [97] used TiO2/water nanofluid to enhance the ef­
ficiency of U tube ETSC. Choi and Jang [98] used water base nanofluids
containing multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and concluded to
enhance solar thermal energy absorption and experimentally shown the
relationship between the absorption characteristics and suspension
stability in nanofluids. Sarafraz et al. [99] used graphene nanoplatelets
to evaluate the thermal performance of solar collector. Kanti et al. [100]
used fly ash-based nanofluid to compare fly ash-based nanofluid’s
thermophysical properties and stability with previous existing litera­
ture. Said et al. [101] used rGO-Co3O4 hybrid nanofluid to improve the
heat transfer of a linear Fresnel reflector (LFR) and concluded that the
Fig. 14. Classification of PCM [143].
mean thermal efficiency is enhanced up to 31.95% at ∅ = 0.2 wt%.
Tiwari et al. [102] conducted the experimental and theoretical study to
m2 mass flux rate, they obtained the maximum value of the removable analyse the effect of WO3/water nanofluid on the performance of the
heat factor with the 34% improvement in the thermo-optical properties triple tube heat exchanger equipped with different inserts. Pandya et al.
of ETSC. Shafiey et al. [90] used MgO/water nanofluid with varying [103] used CeO2 + MWCNT/ water based hybrid nanofluid to analyse
concentrations and concluded that the ETSC efficiency with MgO/water the thermal performance of axial grooved heat pipe. Based on their
nanofluid was higher than the pure water. Sabiha et al. [91] used single- experimental study, they obtained a 61.27% enhancement in heat
walled carbon nanotubes(SWCNTs) with different volume concentra­ transport capacity. Table 6 further summerize the performance
tions and 0.025 kg/s mass flux and determined the maximum efficiency enhancement of ETSC using nanofluids.
as 93.43% at 0.2 vol% SWCNT nanoparticles. Mahbubul et al. [92] used
Single-walled Carbon nanotubes(SWCNTs) water nanofluids to enhance
ETSC performance. Javier et al. [93] used the biphenyl and diphenyl Performance enhancement using thermal energy storage
oxide eutectic mixture with Ni and Cu nanoparticles. They concluded
that the Cu nanoparticles-based nanofluid showed a dramatic To improve the performance of ETSC many researchers are using
improvement in the thermal properties with an increment of 11% in the thermal energy storage (TSE) materials as integration with ETSC [123].
Coupling the TSE with ETSC can reduce the gap between On-peak load

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A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Fig. 15. Properties of a good PCM [144].

insert the PCM unit inside the ETSC manifold and calculate the thermal
efficiency of the collector. Koca et al. [126] used Calcium Chloride
Hexahydrate (CaCl2⋅6H2O) PCM to evaluate the energy and exergy
performance of the solar collector and obtained 45% energy efficiency
from the collector. Papadimitratos et al. [125] used Tritriacontane and
Erythritol (dual-PCM) material and experimentally concluded the 26%
efficiency improvement for normal operation and 66% for stagnation
mode. Abokersh et al. [127] used paraffin wax PCM in U tube ETSC for
an un-finned collector and found a 14% improvement in the efficiency.
Varol et al. [128] used different software-based computing techniques
like Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), Adaptive-Network-Based Fuzzy
Inference System (ANFIS) and Support Vector Machines (SVM) method
to forecast the thermal performance of the solar collector using PCM.
Chopra et al. [41] experimentally investigated thermosiphon ETSC with
and without PCM and concluded the ETSC with PCM as a highly efficient
system.
The use of Nano-enhanced Phase change materials (Ne-PCM) can
further enhance the thermal conductivity of PCM. Wang et al. [129]
mixed β-AlN nanoparticles with poly-ethylene glycol and silica gel and
concluded the enhancement in thermal conductivity from 30.22% to
156.6%. Wang et al. [130] mixed multi-walled carbon nanotubes
(MWCNT) in palmitic oil based PCM and got a 30% enhancement in
Fig. 16. Different Nanofluids medium [19]. thermal conductivity at 1 wt% MWCNT. Kim et al. [131] mixed silver
nanoparticles with paraffin wax and got a 19.78% increment in the
demand to the off-peak period by absorbing the excess amount of heat thermal conductivity. Safaei et al. [132] used graphene oxide/paraffin
during Sunshine hours and release during off sunshine hours (Fig. 15 Ne-PCM to calculate the solar still efficiency of solar collectors and ob­
shows the properties of good PCM). There are two thermal heat energy tained a 25% enhancement in efficiency when Ne-PCM was used.
storage types, i.e., latent heat storage (LHS) and sensible heat storage Table 7 and Table 8 further summerize the performance enhancement of
SHS). ETSC using Ne-PCM and PCM materials respectively.
Based on the different research studies, it is observed that most of
TES were latent heat storage materials. These materials are also called Economic and environmental impact
Phase Change Material (PCM), as energy interaction occurs during phase
change (Fig. 14 shows the classification of PCM). Different PCM mate­ The fossil energy used in water heating applications results in
rials used in ETSC so far, as shown in Fig. 17. There are different ways of harmful gas emissions like CO2 [148,149]. This problem can be resolved
integrating PCM with ETSC. Investigators [39 40] experimented with by using a solar water heating system, which reduced CO2 emissions
PCM-filled U tube ETSC to analyse the collector performance. Re­ [150-152]. The solar water heating system involves only embodied en­
searchers [41,71,124,125] experimentally analysed the collector ther­ ergy and embodied CO2 emissions (shown in Table 9). Balaji et al. [153]
mal performance of the PCM filled heat pipe ETSC. Naghavi et al. [48] followed the ‘‘Cradle to Gate” macro approach, which describes
embodied energy and embodied CO2 emission. The embodied energy is

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Table 6
A summary review of ETSC thermal performance enhancement using nanofluids.
Author Type of ETSC Nanofluid Average size Vol% Remark
(nm)

Lin et al. [106] Thermosiphon CuO/water 50 0.8 to 1.5 ● h (↑) = 30%● Optimal FR = 60%
Mahendran et al. Thermosiphon TiO2/water 30 to 50 0.3 ● η (↑) = 16.7%● At∅ = 0.3%, ηmax = 73%
[107]
Sabiha et al. [91] Heat pipe SWCNT/water 1–2 0.05 and 0.25 ● ηcollector (↑) = 71.84%
Liu et al. [108] Thermosiphon CuO/water 50 0.8 to 1.5 ● ∅ = 1.2, obtained the optimal value of h
Kim et al. [109] U-Tube Al2O3/water 50 and 100 0.5, 1, 1.5 ● ∅ = 1, ṁ=0.047 kg/s and 20 nm size-η (↑) = 24.1%
Kim et al. [110] U-Tube MWCNT, CuO, Al2O3, SiO2, 1 to 100 – ● Reduced CO2 and SO2 emissions.● 6447 kWh electricity saving
TiO2 by using 50 collectors with 0.2 vol% MWCNT yearly.
Shahi et al. [111] Thermosiphon Cu/water 100 0 to 0.05 ● At β = 15–350, obtained optimum Nu andṁ(↑) = 40%
Iranmanesh et al. Heat pipe GNP (graphene 5 to 10 0.025, 0.05, 0.075, ● Atṁ = 1.5 lpm, and ∅ = 0.1wt% obtained ηmax = 90.7%.
[112] nanoparticle)/water 0.1 wt%
Daghigh et al. Heat pipe CuO/water, TiO2/water, – 0.1 ● η (↑) = 25% (CuO)● η (↑) = 12% (TiO2)● η (↑) = 5% (MWCNT)
[113] MWCNT
Kaya et al. [114] U-Tube Water-ethylene glycol/ – 1, 2, 3 and 4 ● At ∅ = 4 vol% with Ag/EG-PW they got ηmax = 68.7%
MgO, Ag and ZnO
Mahbubul et al. Heat pipe SWCNT/water 1–2 0.05, 0.1, 0.2 ● η (↑) = 9.3% at∅ = 0.2
[92]
Tong, Kim and Cho U Tube MWCNTs – – ● η (↑) = 4%.● Reduction in CO2 and SO2 emission.
[115]
-4
Navas et al. [93] – Cu, Ni/water 40 to 60 10 wt% ● h (↑) = 11%, which leads to enhancement in overall efficiency
Ghaderian et al. Thermosiphon CuO/distilled water – 0.03 to 0.06 ● In absorption medium η (↑) = 14% at∅ = 0.03
[88]
Ghaderian and Heat pipe Al2O3/distilled water 40 0.03 to 0.06 ● Max. value of η = 57.63% at∅ = 0.06
Sidik [86]
Kaya et al. [94] U Tube ZnO/EG-PW 30 1 to 4 ● η (↑) = 26.42% at ∅ = 3 andṁ = 0.045kg/s
Sharafeldin and Thermosiphon CeO2/water 25 0.015, 0.025, 0.035 ● η (↑) = 34% at mass flux rate = 0.017 kg/s-m2
Grof [89]
Peng et al. [116] U Tube Al2O3/Water – 0.1 to 4 ● CuO/Water nanofluid provided better efficiency than TiO2 and
CuO/Water Al2O3.
TiO2/Water
Sarafraz et al. Heat pipe Graphene/Methaol 123–423 0.025, 0.050, ● At ∅ = 0.1 wt% and β = 350 obtained ηmax = 95% and ΔTmax =
[117] 0.75,0.1 wt% 20 ◦ C
Sarafraz et al. Heat pipe Carbon nano powder + 4–50 0.025, 0.050, ● At ∅ = 0.1 wt%, FR = 60% and β = 300 obtained ηmax = 91%
[118] Aceton 0.75,0.1 wt%
Ozsoy et al. [119] Thermosiphon Silver/water 60 – ● η (↑) = 20.7% to 40%
Eidan et al. [39] Heat pipe Al2O3/Acetone 20 0.25 and 0.5 ● η (↑) = 34% (Al2O3)● η (↑) = 23% (CuO)
CuO/Acetone 25
Gen et al. [120] Thermosiphon TiO2/water 21 0.1 to 0.5 ● K (↑) = 7.28%●Δs(↓) = 16.5%
Natividade et al. U Tube Multilayer Graphene 3 to 6 0.00045 ● η (↑) = 31% (at ∅ = 0.00045)● η (↑) = 76% (at∅ = 0.00068)
[121] (MLG) 0.00068
Dehaj and Thermosiphon MgO/water – – ● ṁ(↑) = η (↑).● Efficiency was increased using MgO.
Mohiabadi [90]
Sadeghi et al. [77] Heat pipe Cu2O/distilled water – 0.01 to 0.08 ● At ∅ = 0.08Energy efficiency = 10%● Exergy efficiency =
12.7%
Yan et al. [122] Thermosiphon SiO2/water 30 5, 3, 1 wt% ● Heat transfer properties were enhanced.
Sharafeldin and Thermosiphon WO3/water 90 0.014, 0.028, 0.042 ● T4 (↑) = 21%● Q (↑) = 23%● η = 72.83%.
Grof [96]
Sharafeldin et al. Thermosiphon Cu/water 50 0.01,0.02,0.03 ● η (↑) = 51%● Increment in output temperature was 50%.
[52]

the energy consumed in manufacturing the system (solar collector), and Cogeneration and trigeneration applications of an ETSC
the Embodied CO2 emission is the amount of CO2 emission generated to
produce each material. The maximum amount of energy is spent during Cogeneration defines the combined production of two energies
the manufacturing stage of the solar collector. The solar collector is a simultaneously. The combined generation of heat and power is known as
renewable energy-based system so that the operational consumed en­ combined heating and power (CPH). It consists of all concepts and
ergy and CO2 emission can be neglected [55]. It is clearly shown from technologies used to generate heat and power as a single unit [139]. In
Fig. 18 that the collector Embodied energy is 2011.45 MJ, and the this process, the waste heat as a co-product of electricity generation
emitted CO2 is 252.55 kg (as shown in Fig. 19) during the manufacturing improves the system’s efficiency. Taking this one step further to include
of the collector. These values are very low in comparison to fossil the generation of cooling energy from waste heat is called trigeneration
energy-based water heating systems. Michael et al. [154] studied the or combined cooling, heating, and power (CCHP). Wei He et al. [21]
economic and environmental aspects of the solar collector. Faizal et al. develop an experimental prototype, consist of an HP-ETSC and a ther­
[155] made the economic comparison of solar collectors with different moelectric module. They calculate the thermal and electrical efficiencies
nanofluids. They also calculated the payback period by comparing it for the temperature range of 25 ◦ C – 55 ◦ C. The obtained results show
with the electric solar water heating system. The calculated payback that an increase in water temperature decreases both thermal and
period was 2.5 to 3 years approximately. electrical efficiencies. At 25 ◦ C, about 20–25% of the thermal energy
converted into electrical energy. Miao et al. [156] developed a solar
thermoelectric cogeneration system (STEC) containing an ETSC, a

14
A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Fig. 17. Different Phase Change Materials [18].

circuit voltage obtained from the system was 57 V DC. Zhang et al.
Table 7 [19] developed a STEC to supply hot water and electric energy simul­
A summary review of the effect of Ne-PCM on thermal conductivity of PCM. taneously. The prototype model supplied 0.19 kWh of electrical energy
References Ne-PCM material Melting Results and 300 L of hot water at 55 ◦ C in one day. At 1000 W/m2 solar irra­
point of diance, 1.3 m/s wind velocity, and 25 ◦ C ambient temperature, they
PCM obtained the collector efficiency and electric power of 47.54% and
Yang et al. Si3N4 + Paraffins 80 ◦ C ● K (↑) = 35%. 64.80 W, respectively. Zhang et al. [158] worked on the solar cogene­
[133] ration technique in their experimental study. The system consisting of
Shi et al. Exfoliated graphite 61.6 C

● at ∅ = 10 wt%, thermal
series and parallel mode of solar collector and an organic Rankine cycle.
[134] nanoplatelets conductivity of xGnP
(xGnP) + Paraffins increased by 10 times Their study concluded that the performance of ETSC depends upon the
Park et al. Fe3O4 + Paraffin 80 ◦ C ● At ∅ =6.6 wt%, K (↑) = temperature of return heating water. Song et al. [159] developed a STEC
[135] polyurea PCM nano 45%. system to generate two power thermal and electrical components
capsules simultaneously. Their experimental analysis concluded that at 700 W/
Nourani et al. Al2O3 + Paraffin 54–58 ◦ C ● At ∅ =6.6 wt%, K (↑) =
[136] 31%.
m2 solar irradiance and 130 ◦ C water temperature, the thermal and
Li [137] Nano- graphite (NG) 60 ◦ C ● at ∅ = 10 wt%, thermal electrical efficiencies were 57% and 3%, respectively. Marrasso et al.
+ Paraffin conductivity of NG-PCM [160] developed a solar trigeneration system having an evacuated tube
increased by 7.41 times. collector. The system was designed to fulfil the thermal, electrical, and
Jiang et al. Al2O3 + Paraffin 28 ◦ C ● K (↑) = 27%.
cooling demands of an office. They experimentally concluded that ETSC
[138]
Jesumathy CuO + Paraffin wax 58.2 ◦ C ● At ∅ =7.8 wt%, K (↑) = has an average efficiency of 44.2% in heating mode, while the micro-
et al. 10%. CHP has an electrical and thermal efficiency of 25.5% and 63.2%,
[139] respectively. Meng et al. [161] theoretically analysed a metal hydride
Fan et al. Graphene, MWCNT 59 ◦ C ● At ∅ =5 wt%, the based CCHP system driven by solar energy and industrial waste heat for
[140] + Paraffin thermal conductivity
increased by 1.64 times
both power generation and refrigeration. They found that the solar
the paraffin. CCHP they proposed has better performance than the traditional one.
Sarafraz et al. MWCNT + Paraffin – ● At ∅ =0.3 wt%, K (↑) = Mohan et al. [162] studied a solar thermal poly-generation system (as
[141] PCM 23%. shown in Fig. 20) consisting of ETSC, absorption chiller, membrane
Safaei et al. Graphene oxide + 44 ◦ C ● Enhancement in solar
distillation unit, and heat exchanger. This system was used to fulfil
[132] Paraffin still efficiency was 25%.
Sahan et al. Fe3O4 + Paraffin 46–48 ◦ C ● At ∅ =10 wt%, K (↑) = cooling demands, desalination of water, heating of water, and electricity
[142] 48%.● At ∅ =20 wt%, K demands. Kegel et al. [163] conducted a comparative experimental
(↑) = 60%. study by using the different combinations of solar thermal cogeneration
and trigeneration integration. TRNSYS software was used to analyse the
system. Their study achieved a 21% annual utility cost-saving and 16%
parabolic concentrator, and thermoelectric modules (TEMs) to provide
greenhouse gas (GHG) savings. Francesco et al. [164] conducted a
both electric and thermal energy. They obtained 69% solar to thermal
comparison study between ETSC and Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR)
conversion efficiency and 3.87% solar to electric conversion efficiency.
integrated poly-generation system to produce domestic water heating,
Faraji et al. [157] introduce a new solar cogeneration system consisting
space heating and cooling, and desalination of water. Their study
of 8 series–parallel connected ETSC and an electricity generation
concluded that ETSC based plants have higher energy savings of
apparatus inside thermoelectric (ELEGANT-24). The maximum open-
2099MWh/year with 2.5 years payback period than 894MWh/year with

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A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Table 8
A summary review of ETSC integrated with PCM.
Author PCM Integration PCM Result Study type

Essa et al. [33] PCM filled in the Alexandria Wax η (↑) = 21.9% Experimental
evacuated tube
Sheng Xue [145] PCM filled in the (BaOH)2⋅8H2O and BaCO3 At constant flow test-η (↑) = 20% Experimental
evacuated tube
Chopra et al.[41] PCM filled in the Stearic acid η (↑) = 30 – 53% Experimental
evacuated tube
Chopra et al. [41] PCM filled in the Stearic acid (SA-67) η (↑) = 32 – 37%At∅ = 20 lph, ηmax = 87.8% Experimental
evacuated tube
Abokersh et al. [61] PCM filled in the ALEX WAX 600 η (↑) = 14% Experimental
evacuated tube
Papadimitratos et al. PCM filled in the Erythritol η (↑) = 26% Experimental
[125] evacuated tube
Felinski et al. [71] PCM filled in the hydrotreated technical grade paraffin η (↑) = 20.5% Experimental
evacuated tube
Bazri et al. [146] PCM filled in manifold Sigma Aldrich (ASTMD87).ClimSel (C58). η = 36–54% Numerical
Rubitherm (RT70HC).
Algarni et al. [37] PCM filled in the Nanoenhanced paraffin wax η (↑) = 32% Experimental
evacuated tube
Naghavi et al. [48] PCM filled in manifold Paraffin wax η = 55–60% Experimental
Chopra et al. [74] PCM filled in manifold Stearic acid[CH3(CH2)16COOH] Max η = 75.52% Experimental
Manoj et al. [31] PCM filled in storage tank CeO2- nano-embedded PCM η (↑) = 10.89% Experimental
Fang et al. [147] PCM filled in manifold PC210 (Ciba, BASF) η = 60–80% Experimental
Wei Wu et al. [124] PCM filled in the Paraffin wax Can sustain water temperature over 50 ◦ C in the Experimental
evacuated tube summer night.

a 5.27 years payback period LFR. Table 10 further summerize the poly-
Table 9 generation application of ETSC.
Data used for the analysis of the system [52].
System Total Total Energy Embodied CO2 Concluding Remark, research gap, and Future scope
component weight cost Embodied emission (kg of
(kg) (USD) (MJ) CO2/kg)
An evacuated Tube Solar Collector is a device to convert solar energy
Collector 51.8 242.1 2011.45 252.55 into thermal energy. Different types of ETSC integration with PCM and
Fan coil unit 15 120 900 69
Heat 10 50 600 46
nanofluids, their designs, different numerical and experimental model
exchanger are reviewed in this paper. The main conclusion derived from this study
Copper pipe 5 60 210 13 are given below:
Pipe 0.2 10.5 8 0.35
insulation
• It has been found that different geometrical modification like inte­
Support 6 12.4 78.55 4.1
frame gration of heat pipe, different fins geometry and integration of re­
Total 88 495 3808 385 flectors helps to increase its thermal performance up to a great
extent.
• It has been concluded from the numerical investigation that the
network resistance model (to calculate the overall heat transfer

Fig. 18. Embodied Energy of the collector [55].

16
A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Fig. 19. Embodied CO2 Emission of solar collector [55].

Fig. 20. Schematic diagram of a poly-generation unit of ETSC [162].

coefficient) is the best suitable tool to study the thermal behaviour of Finally, it can be concluded that extensive research works have been
ETSC. done globally by different researchers on different enhancement tech­
• The working fluid’s efficiency and temperature output have been niques of ETSC for different applications. This review study will help the
higher on introducing the nanofluids to the ETSC systems. A researchers figure out and compare them systematically and mesmerize
comprehensive analysis of the application of nanofluids is done in them for better understanding. Further, the following areas are still
this paper. needed more research.
• The evacuated tube collector integration with PCM is proved to be
highly efficient than without PCM. It also reduces the intermittency • The optical properties have a significant influence on the improve­
behaviour of solar energy. Due to thermal energy storage, it can ment of efficiency in solar collectors, but a few types of research have
maintain a significantly high water temperature at night also. covered this case, and it is recommended for future work.
• To improve ETSC waste heat, it can be converted into another form • The major drawback of ETSC is that the evacuated tubes are made of
of energy, i.e., electrical energy, by adding thermoelectric units to glass. Glass is fragile and easily breakable. So, the research should be
the system. Further collaboration of industrial waste heat with ETSC focused on the material with high strength to provide better
leads to generating cooling energy with electrical and thermal reliability.
energy.

17
A. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101417

Table 10
A summary review of applications of ETSC.
References Type of study Types of system Working fluid (WF) and dimensions Findings

Wei He et al. Numerical and Thermoelectric Cogeneration ● WF = Water● ETSC dimensionL = 1.8 m, D = ● The system was used for combined water heating
[21] Experimental system 57 mm, α = 0.95.● Bi2Te3 thermoelectric module and electrical generations.● Pelec = 10 W and ηelec =
used 3%● ηth = 57%
Miao et al. Experimental Thermoelectric Cogeneration ● WF = Water● αcollector = 0.93● τcollector = 0.91 ● A low-cost thermoelectric model is suitable for
[156] system large scale production.● ηele = 3.87%● η = 69%
Faraji et al. Experimental Thermoelectric Cogeneration ● WF = Water● ELEGANT-24 thermoelectric ● Waste industrial heat is coupled with solar
[157] system module was used.● Material = Bi2Te3 energy.● P = 22 W● Tmax = 90 ◦ C
Zhang et al. Experimental Thermoelectric Cogeneration ● WF = Water● ETSC dimensionL = 1.95 m, τ = ● Payback period = 8 years● P = 64.80 W● ηele =
[19] system 0.90, α = 0.86. 1.59%● η = 47.54%
Song Lv et al. Experimental Thermoelectric Cogeneration ● WF = Water● ETSC dimensionL = 1.5 m, D = ● Obtained 10 W of electrical power from solar
[159] system 57 mm, α = 0.93, τ = 0.92, KHP = 23000 W/m.K energy.● ηele = 3%● η = 57%
Marrasso et al. Experimental Solar assisted trigeneration ●WF = Water + glycol● Ac = 20.6 m2 In heating mode● ηcollector = 44.2%● ηele = 25.5%●
[160] system η = 63.2%
Meng et al. Numerical and Combined Cooling, Heating ● WF = Water● ETSC dimensionNo. of tubes = ● Solar energy and industrial waste heat were used
[161] experimental and Power (CCHP) system 700, L = 1.2 m, D = 47 mm, τ = 0.93, α = 0.95 to generate heating, cooling, and electrical energy.
Mohan et al. Experimental Novel solar thermal poly- ● WF = Water●Absorption chiller capacity = ● TDS 40,000 ppm sea water is desalinated to 30
[162] generation system 35.2 kW● Membrane area = 2.8 m2, porosity = ppm.● Produced 25 kW of cooling energy having 0.6
80%. COP.
Kegel et al. Experimental The solar thermal ● WF = Water● Ac = 172 m2● Storage tank ● GHG emission reduced by 16%
[163] trigeneration system volume = 5000 ltr.
Francesco Experimental LFR and ETSC integrated ● WF = LiBr + H2O● Rated COP of absorption ● ETSC is better than LFR● Payback period = 4.5
et al. [164] solar poly-generation system chiller = 0.8● ALFR = 4800 m2 years● ηETSC = 52%

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