Spatial Data Analysis

Spatial Data
Data connected to a place on the Earth (having location/coordinates)
Spatial Data
Components
Elements of Spatial Data
Spatial Data Components
 Objects/features on earth's surface
are defined geometrically and
thematically.

Data Analysis in
All GIS software are designed to
GIS handle spatial data along with non-
spatial characterstics /attributes
Spatial Data Analysis?
Spatial Analysis
Analysis is the process of inferring/extracting meaning from data.
Spatial analysis is the process by which we turn raw data into useful information
Spatial analysis is the crux of GIS because it includes all the transformations,
manipulations, and methods that can be applied to geographic data to add value
to them, to support decisions, and to reveal patterns and anomalies that are not
immediately obvious.
Spatial Analysis
In a narrow sense, spatial analysis has been described as a method for analyzing
spatial data, while in a broad sense it includes revealing and clarifying processes,
structures, etc., of spatial phenomena that occur on the Earth’s surface.
Ultimately, it is designed to support spatial decision-making, and to serve as a
tool for assisting with regional planning and the formulation of government
policies, among other things.
Why do we perform Spatial Data Analysis?
Data Analysis Application
Spatial Analysis Leads to Insight
Used for planning and site selection
By considering all relevant factors, recommendations are produced for next
steps.
A valuable tool for data-driven decision-making.

In which fields of Civil Engineering can we use GIS for planning?

Data Analysis Application
• Road construction
• Obligatory Points, origin to destination studies
• Construction in mountainous areas is complex
engineering task, Cost factors, such as the number
of tunnels & bridges to be constructed
• Volume of rock & soil to be removed.
• GIS can help to compute such costs based on DEM and
soil map.
Data Analysis Application
Highway Engineering
GIS in road and highway planning helps to visualize and understand the condition of your
existing assets and the performance of your transportation network.
Wastewater Management
Water Resources Management
Solid waste Management
Town Planning
Data Analysis Application- Forecasting
• A forecast is made of the likelihood of future events.
• Various spatial data layers used (raster or vector).
• Analytical questions, such as why or what if.
• It is intended to construct models and perform predictions.
• Examples???
Environmental Pollution, Erosion, Landslides, Agricultural Yield
How do we carry out spatial analysis?

Analysis is carried out Visually in GIS

Analysis is carried out by measurements,

statistical computations, fitting models to
data values, other operations
Visual Analysis
Visualize spatial patterns, trends, outliers, and anomalies.
https://www.esri.com/en-us/arcgis/products/spatial-analytics-data-
science/capabilities/visualization-exploration
https://carto.com/blog/popular-thematic-map-types-techniques-spatial-data
•Mapping
•Charting
•Animation
Point Map
Where would we use
these maps?
 It’s useful for showing distribution and density patterns of
things.
Point Mapping Town Planning
Industrial area planning
Heat Maps
Visualizing the intensity of occurrence using a heat map is a
technique commonly used when tracking weather and natural
phenomena in which established borders and boundaries are less
useful for understanding impact areas
Proportional Symbol Map
A proportional symbol map can represent data tied to
a specific geographical point or data that is
aggregated to a point from a wider area.
Charting
Animation !
Computational Analysis in GIS

MEASUREMENTS QUERY EXTRACTION PROXIMITY CLASSIFICATION TOPOLOGY

NETWORK SPATIAL ANALYSIS

ANALYSIS AND MODELLING
Measurements
Measurements are simple numerical values that describe aspects/features of geographic
data.
Measurement functions in GIS includes
Distance
Perimeter
Area
Measurements
Many types of interrogations ask for measurements
We might want to know the total area of a parcel of land, or the distance between two
points, or the length of a stretch of road and all of these measurements are obtainable by
simple calculations inside GIS.
Comparable measurements by hand from maps can be very tedious and error-prone.

Can you tell one field of Civil Engineering where measurements are particularly important?
Surveying it is!
Measurement Tools
Query
Queries are the most basic of analysis operations, in which the GIS is used to
answer simple questions posed by the user.
No changes occur in the database, and no new data are produced with these
type of selection.
The operations vary from simple and well-defined queries like ‘how many houses are found
within 1 km of this point’, to vague questions like ‘which is the closest city to Los Angeles
going north’
SQL (Structured Query Language )
Query expressions are used in ArcGIS to select a subset of features and table records.
Queries are expressed in a formal way using Structured Query Language (SQL).
This language is composed of a set of commands and rules that are used to ask questions of
a database.
 Attribute Query (Boolean Selection)
It involves picking features based on query
expressions, which use :
Boolean algebra (and, or, not),
Attribute Set algebra (>, <, =, >=, <=),
Query Arithmetic operators (=, -, *, /),
User-defined values.
Simply put, the GIS compares the values in an
attribute field with a query expression that you
define
Attribute Query
For example, if you want to select villages having agricultural area > 10000
Hectares:
One will use a query expression like “AREA > 10000Ha” where “AREA” is the
attribute field under investigation, “>” is the set algebra operator, and “1000
Ha” is the value.
Spatial Query-Query by Geography
While attribute queries select features by sorting through records in
Attributes Table, spatial selection chooses features from the map interface.
In most cases, it selects features from one layer that fall within or touch an
edge of polygon features in a second layer (or an interactively drawn graphic
polygon).
Spatial Query
There are many types of spatial selection like:
Point in Polygon
It is a spatial operation in which points from one feature
dataset are overlaid on the polygons of another to determine
which points are contained within the polygons.

Can you tell an example from CE where these spatial queries are
frequently used?
Classification
Classification is the procedure of identifying a set of features as belonging to
a group and defining patterns.
When you perform a classification, you group similar features into classes by
assigning the same symbol to each member of the class. Aggregating features
into classes allows you to spot patterns in the data more easily.
One of the important functions of a GIS is to assist in recognizing new
patterns.
Classification
Bhuvan –land Use & Land cover
https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/2dresources/thematic/LULC503/MAP/HP.jpg
Classification
Classification can be done:
1. Manually in GIS
2. Standard classification tools
Topology
Topology is the arrangement that defines how point, line, and polygon features share
coincident geometry.
Topological or topology-based data are useful for detecting and correcting digitizing errors
(e.g. two lines in a roads vector layer that do not meet perfectly at an intersection).
Common errors in Digitization
Digitization error
Digitization error
Topology
Spatial relationships between adjacent or neighboring features which do not change under any
transformation.
Adjacency and containment describe the geometric relationships which exist between area features. Areas can be
described as being adjacent when they share a common boundary.
Containment is an extension of the adjacency that describes area features which may be wholly contained within another
area feature, such as, an island within a lake.
Connectivity is a geometric property used to describe the linkages between line features, like road network.
Topology
Why topology is essential in spatial analysis?
One can easily find out the length of shared boundaries
between two areas without any error.
Any query related to Pipe network, road network
Overlay Analysis
Overlay is one of the most common and
powerful GIS functions.
Vertical Stacking of feature layers to
investigate geographic patterns and
determine locations that meet specific
criteria.
Feature layers to be overlaid must be
spatially registered (coordinates
should be defined in same units) .
 Overlay Analysis
Overlay is a GIS operation that superimposes
multiple data sets (representing different themes)
together for the purpose of identifying
relationships between them.
An overlay creates a composite map by combining
the geometry and attributes of the input data sets.
Tools are available in most GIS software for
overlaying both Vector or raster data
Classification of Overlay operations
Polygon on Polygon Overlay
Overlay Methods
Overlay methods are based on the Boolean connectors AND, OR and
XOR
Intersect uses the AND connector
Union uses the OR connector.
Differences uses XOR connector
Union preserves all features from the inputs
The area extent of the output combines the area extents of both input layers
AND Operation- Intersection
AND -Intersect Tool
OR -Union
Union Tool
Union requires that both input
layers be polygon layers
Intersect preserves only those
features that fall within the area
extent common to the inputs
XOR-Symmetrical difference preserves features that fall within the area
extent that is common only to one of the inputs.
Applications of Overlay
An overlay operation combines features and attributes from the input layers
The overlay output is useful for query and modelling purposes.

Consider a case study of identification of dumping site for solid waste .

Proximity Analysis
One of the most basic questions asked of a GIS is "what's near what?"
For example:

How close is this well to a landfill?

Do any roads pass within 1,000 meters of a stream?
What is the nearest or farthest feature from something?
What is the distance between each feature in a layer and the features in
another layer?
What is the shortest street network route from some location to another?
Proximity Analysis
In proximity computations, we use geometric distance to define the
neighborhood of one or more target locations.
All GIS programs provide some neighborhood/proximity analysis,
which include:
1. Buffering
2. Interpolation

And there's one method from hydrology where we need proximity

analysis???
Interpolation- From point data to surface
data
Answer Theisen Polygons !
Thiessen Polygons
Creates polygons from point input features.
Each Thiessen polygon contains only a single
point input feature. Any location within a
Thiessen polygon is closer to its associated point
than to any other point input feature.
It divide the area covered by the point input
features into Thiessen or proximal zones.
Thiessen Polygons in Hydrology
Thiessen
Polygons
Thiessen polygons are
generated from a set of
sample points such that
each polygon defines an
area of influence around its
sample point, so that any
location inside the polygon
is closer to that point than
any of the other sample
points.
Can elevation be represented in vector
form(Line, Point, Polygon)?
Different ways of representing Elevation
TIN (Triangular
Irregular
Network)
TIN
TIN is a way of storing continuous surfaces. It is vector based, and works in
such a way that it connects known data points with straight lines to create
triangles, often called facets. These facets are planes that have the same
slope and aspect over the facet.
Collectively, these hypothetical lines form a network covering the whole
surface.
TIN can be more detailed where the surface is complex (high variation) by
using smaller facets, and less detailed where the surface is more
homogeneous by using larger facets.
Buffering/ Buffer Zones
Buffer is an area drawn of uniform distance around any
geographical feature.
Feature for buffering may be points, lines or polygons .
Buffering around point create a circle .
Around lines a series of elongated buffer zones around each line segment .
A buffer around a polygon creates an extended area from the polygon boundaries .

Buffers are usually used to delineate protected zones around features or to show areas of
influence. Buffering uses distance measurements from selected features .
Examples from CE where buffers can be used?
Buffer Applications
Landfills

Flooding

Water Distribution Planning

Identifying suitable sites for different purpose

Sampling Methods
Buffer Applications
The applications of this buffering operations also include:
Identifying protected zone around lakes and streams,
Zone of noise pollution around highways
Service zone around bus route
Groundwater pollution zone around waste site.
Thiessen polygons are generated from a set of sample points such that each polygon defines an area of influence
around its sample point, so that any location inside the polygon is closer to that point than any of the other
sample points.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rr7_tIWVPv8
Clip Tool
Clip Tool
Clip Tool
Clip Tool
Split Tool
SPLITS AN INPUT W ITH
O V E R L AY I N G F E AT U R E S T O
C R E AT E A S U B S E T O F
O U T P U T F E AT U R E
C LASSES. THE INPUT
F E AT U R E S A R E S P L I T I N T O
F O U R O U T P U T F E AT U R E
CLA SSES BA SED ON FOUR OF
S I X O VE R LAYI NG
S P L I T F E AT U R E S . T H E S E S I X
S P L I T F E AT U R E S
C O R R E S PO ND TO S I X U N I QUE
S P L I T F I E L D VA L U E S .
Select Tool
Extracts features from an input feature class or input feature layer, typically using a select or
Structured Query Language (SQL) expression and stores them in an output feature class.
Life before GIS !
Life After GIS !