Short-circuit Currents / Dangerous States

Causes of dangerous states in electrical system operation: Inverse

time-current
a). Faults (short-circuits), lightning strikes characteristic
question: equipment design vs protection (MOV vs circuit breaker)
b). Inadequate system control & operation (e.g. overloading)

Dangerous states in electrical system operation:

a). Overcurrent - effects: insulation material stress due to high temperature,
large electromagnetic forces
b). Overvoltage and voltage dip - effects: load equipment malfunction, stress of
insulation (breakdown)
c). Frequency fluctuation
CES4VO - 7 1

Short-circuit Currents
Why computing short-circuit currents?
a) Choice of a suitable power system arrangement (structure) → configuration of the
transmission or distribution network
b) Determination of the required short-circuit ratings of the power system plant (thermal
ratings)
c) Determination of the breaking capacity required of the power system switchgear and
fuses
d) Design and application of equipment for the control and protection of the power system
(including earthing system)
e) Operation of the system, with particular reference to security of supply and economic
considerations
f) Investigation of unsatisfactory performance of the power system or of individual items of
power system plant CES4VO - 7 2
 Short-circuit Currents

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Short-circuit Currents / Fault Types

L1 L1 L1 L1
L2 L2 L2 L2
L3 L3 L3 L3

3ph short-circuit 2ph short-circuit without earth fault 2ph short-circuit with earth fault 1ph short-circuit to earth

Three-phase short circuit : Three voltages at short-circuit point all zero

Two-phase short circuit fault with and without earth : results in initial AC short-circuit currents
which are less than in three-phase short-circuit.
Single-phase short circuit to earth :
most common fault, under certain conditions the earth fault current can exceed the largest short-
circuit current produced by a three-phase short-circuit.
Open-circuited phases
Simultaneous faults: a combination of two or more faults at the same time
Winding faults: short-circuited turns, open-circuited winding, winding-to-winding and winding-to-
earth CES4VO - 7 4
Short-circuit Currents
Fault Causes
Overhead lines / fault causes:
- Pollution , Fog
- Birds
- Lightning strikes
- Ice and snow loading
- Broken insulators
- Abnormal loading

Transformers, machines and cables fault causes:

- Failure of insulation (aging, moisture)
- Mechanical damage
- Accidental contact with earth
- Flashover caused by overvoltage
- overloading CES4VO - 7 5

Short-circuit Currents
Factors affecting fault severity
a) Source conditions
- relate to the amount and disposition of all connected generation (including
interconnections with other systems)
- minimum and maximum connected load being of interest
b) Power system configuration: network topology, may change during/after a fault
c) Neutral earthing
- faults which involve the flow of earth current are influenced
- single-point or multiple-point earthed / direct (solid earthing) or via impedance
d) Nature and type of fault
- position
- fault impedance (arc resistance, resistance of metallic or non-metallic fault path)
- the most severe are: 3Ф and 1Ф in a solidly earthed network
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 Short-circuit Currents / Standards
IEC 60909 : Short-circuit current in three-phase A.C. systems
Part 0 : Calculation of currents
Part 1 : Factors for the calculation of short-circuit currents according to IEC 60909-0
Part 2 : Electrical equipment data for short circuit current calculations
Part 3 : Currents during two separate simultaneous line-to-earth short circuits and
partial short-circuit currents flowing through earth
(equivalent to European Standard EN 60909, German National Standard DIN VDE 0102)
IEEE STANDARD 551-2006 - Recommended Practice for Calculating AC Short-Circuit
Currents in Industrial and Commercial Power Systems

IEC 60865 Short-circuit currents – Calculation of effects

Part 1: Definitions and calculation methods
Part 2: Examples of calculation
CIGRE brochures 105 and 214: The mechanical effects of short-circuit currents in open
air substations CES4VO - 7 7

Short-circuit Currents / Videos

• Top 5 Dangerous Short Circuit Videos
https://youtu.be/gOT8jx4jEzM

• Top 10 DANGEROUS Short Circuit

https://youtu.be/ZNfedRe6dd0

• CIGRE - Busbar Forces

https://youtu.be/GZkVGOtTlq8

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 = 2 ( )

• REPRESENTING: short-circuit in a single-phase system, remote from

generator and without load

• Current in the circuit is assumed to be zero before SW closes.

( )
• When SW closes at = 0 : = 2 ( )
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• Solution: = sin sin exp( )

initial ac and
dc are equal
/ inductive
inertia
where:

= ( )

= =

= arctan

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R-L circuit transients also represent time variation of a three-phase short-circuit
currents in a three-phase symmetrical system, remote from generator and
without load.

+
= 2 ( )

2
= 2 ( )
+

2
+

= 2 ( )
3

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The short-circuit currents are:

Sufficient to study a
= sin sin exp( ) , reference phase and omit
subscript a, = ( )

= sin sin exp( ),

= sin sin exp( ).

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 peak of

In practice the extreme values of fault current are of interest.

Components
CES4VO
of Electrical
- 7 Systems 13

• The highest magnitude of the dc component is obtained with

the switching angle = Τ2 : = 2 exp( / ).

• Magnitude of the first peak of the short-circuit current depends upon

switching angle and the ratio R/ (i.e. = arctan / ).

• Ratio of the (asymmetrical) short-circuit current to the ac component

peak value 2 = 2 / in terms of time and switching angle:

, = / 2 = sin sin exp( / )

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, = sin sin exp( / )

• Transmission
network, = 0.03

• Peak for = 0
(t = 0.0098 < 0.01s)

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, = sin sin exp( / )

• Distribution
network, = 1

• Peak for = 0
(t = 0.0073 < 0.01s)

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 not examinable

used instead of

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• PEAK FACTOR: the ratio of the

maximum (asymmetrical) short-
circuit current to the peak value
of the ac component 2 .

• Practical empirical formula

(IEC60909-1):
= 1.02 0.98exp( 3 / )

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 not examinable

used instead of

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• Three-phase system: After a bolted three-phase fault is initiated, the

peak current occurs in one phase during the first half-cycle.

• Wrong assumption: the peak occurs when the symmetrical ac current

component is at its peak.

• In purely inductive circuits, the first cycle peak current occurs at one
half-cycle in the phase that has the maximum initial dc component.

• For circuits with resistance, the asymmetrical short-circuit current

peak occurs before the symmetrical ac current component peak and
before one-half cycle.
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 - The largest peak occurs for
switching angle = 0 → the short
circuit starts at zero voltage.
- Initial short-circuit current is zero,
due to the assumption of no pre-
fault load current.
- At the instant of fault (t = 0), the
dc component is equal in
magnitude to the ac component
but with opposite sign.
- The maximum short-circuit
current peak occurs before the first
positive ac component peak.
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IEC peak current formula:

= 2 ,
where peak factor is
= 1.02 0.98exp( 3 / ).
Exact peak current.
IEC RMS that correspond to :

= ,
where =( 1) 2 .

IEEE peak current formula:

= 2 (1 exp( 2 / )),
where
= 0.49 0.1exp( /3 ).
CES4VO - 7 22
 not examinable

used instead of

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F System equivalent at F:

= ( )
= 2 ( ) = arctan
SW

( + )
Complete circuit impedance : = ( ) [ ( )] , = arctan
+

• Fault current when SW closes at = 0:

= sin [sin sin( φ)]exp( )

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Example 1 assumptions
peak current

= = 0.03 and

→ = 1/(1 )

=1

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Example 2 assumptions

= = 1 and
peak current

=1

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 not examinable

used instead of

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( )

A short circuit is considered to be

( ) “near generator” when the
magnitude 2 of the symmetrical
AC component of the prospective
fault current decays with time:

= 2 sin ( )
( )

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( )

- Fault currents near generator may

contain an aperiodic (DC) component
that decays to zero from an
( )
initial value.

- This aperiodic component will have

to be taken into account for assessing
breaker interrupting requirements
( ) and the potentially damaging
mechanical effects of the short-circuit
currents.
CES4VO - 7 29

Structure of a two-pole,
three-phase, salient-
pole synchronous
machine

How does an Alternator Work?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tiKH48EMgKE

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Schematic diagram of a synchronous machine

q-axis
d-axis
ROTOR
L L

L L L
L

SHORT-CIRCUITED
FIELD
STATOR DAMPER WINDINGS
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Subtransient process superimposed on the transient process

due to RL transients in damper and field windings.
Transient process superimposed on the continuous
component due to RL transients in the field winding.

Continuous (steady-state) component

2 2 ′′ ( ), stator RL transients
2 2

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Expression for three-phase short-circuit current at a generator terminals:

= 2 sin ( )

→ The switching angle is assumed to be 0° → to get peak current

→ Stator resistance is negligible in comparison with the reactance → =

The short-circuit current expression becomes:

= 2 cos ( )
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Practical expression (approximation) for three-phase short-circuit current:

′′
= 2 cos 2 ,

′′ ′ ′
- where decaying ac component is: =
′′ = ′′ / ′′ - subtransient component
′ = ′ / ′ - transient component
= / - continuous (steady-state) component

′′ ′′
- initial dc component is: = /
“0” indicates open-circuit / not loaded operation
no stator voltage drops → EMF equal to the pre-fault terminal phase voltage
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 ′′
→ subtransient time constant / relates to very rapid decaying component of
the ac short-circuit current, depends on rotor damper winding L/R ratio, the same
value for all types of short-circuits
′′ ′′ ′′
= , where is subtransient open-circuit time constant
(characterising transients when loaded machine is suddenly open)
′′ ′′
≈ 50 → ≈ 30
′
→ transient time constant / relates to considerably slower decaying,
depends on the field L/R ratio, different values for three-phase, two-phase and
single-phase short circuits (≈ 1 for round-rotor and ≈ 2 for salient-pole)
′ ′ ′
= , where is transient open-circuit time constant
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→ armature dc time constant / depends upon the L/R ratio of the armature,
the same for all kinds of short-circuits

= , where is the armature resistance

- high-voltage generators = 0.007 0.4

- low-voltage generators = 0.01 0.1

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Positive-sequence reactances during the short circuit period:

′′
→ subtransient reactance (also referred as the initial reactance) / embraces
leakage reactances of stator and rotor windings, including effects of rotor
damper windings or bars and solid rotor construction

′
→ transient reactance (also referred as the total leakage reactance)
consists of leakage reactances of stator and field windings ( ≈ 1.2 1.6)

→ synchronous reactance / sum of stator leakage reactance and armature-

reaction reactance

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What is the meaning of the term positive-sequence?

positive sequence abc negative sequence acb
vA vB vC vA vA vC vB vA
Related to phase sequence :
order in which three-phase
t t
voltages (or currents) reach
their peak

VC VB
phasors
120 always 120
rotate anti-
VA clockwise VA
n n

VB VC
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 Three-phase currents in armature windings create rotating magnetic field at
synchronous speed (armature-reaction).
Positive-sequence currents → clockwise rotation of magnetic field
Negative-sequence currents → anti-clockwise rotation

phase A phase A
negative sequence ACB
positive sequence ABC

phase B phase C phase B

phase C

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Synchronous machine is designed with three-phase symmetrical armature

→ induced EMFs on the armature (Faraday's law) are in positive sequence

→ the EMFs drive the positive-sequence armature currents if the machine

load is balanced
phase A
→ armature currents produce field
(armature reaction) that rotates at
synchronous speed in the same direction
as rotor, i.e. it is stationary with respect to
phase B
rotor excitation field
phase C

positive sequence ABC CES4VO - 7 40

→ the induced EMFs (positive-sequence) drive also the negative-sequence
armature currents if the machine load is unbalanced (i.e. a single-phase
short-circuit)
→ Armature rotating field is created which
phase A
rotates in the opposite direction to that of
the positive sequence field and, therefore,
at double synchronous speed with respect
to rotor.

phase B
→ Currents at double the stator frequency are
phase C
therefore induced in rotor field and damper
windings.
negative sequence ACB
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Negative-sequence reactance during an unsymmetrical short circuit:

+ ′′
- Round-rotor machines: = ≈
′′
- Salient-pole machines: about 20% greater than

′′
Zero-sequence reactance ≈
- Depends only upon leakage fields, since a zero-sequence system produces
no rotating field.
- Significant only for earth faults at a generator terminal when the stator neutral
point is connected to earth.
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Since ′′ ≪ ′ , the ac component can be approximated using simplified
expressions in three characteristic periods:
′′ ′′
, 0≤ ≤ /5
′′
Subtransient period ( < 3 ): =ቐ
′′ ′ ′ ′′ ′′
, /5 < < 3

′ ′′ ′
, 3 ≤ ≤ /5
′′ ′
Transient period (3 ≤ ≤3 ): =ቐ
′ ′ ′
, /5 < < 3
′
Continuous (steady-state) period : = , ≥3
′′ - initial ac component
′
- initial ac component when there are no damper windings
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subtransient
transient

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 − Τ
Approximation is based on the following properties of = (0) :

( ) ≤ 0.05 (0) for ≥3

( ) ≥ 0.85 (0) for ≤ /4.8 ≈ /5

Leading to the following expressions in three time periods:

0 , 0 ≤ ≤ /5
( )≈൞ 0 − Τ
, /5 < < 3
0 , ≥3
CES4VO - 7 45

Phasor diagram of loaded

cylindrical-rotor synchronous
generator / pre-fault stator
voltage drop equations (neglecting
resistance):

′′ ′′ ′′
= ( sin ) ( cos )

′ ′ ′
= ( sin ) ( cos )

= ( sin ) ( cos )

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 • Assuming a loaded machine pre-fault condition: rated terminal voltage
= (phase voltage) and rated load current = .

• Using pu for reactances ( = ) the expressions of the effective voltages

related to are:
′′ ′′ ′′
- Subtransient voltage → = 1 2 sin ( )

′ ′ ′
- Transient voltage → = 1 2 sin ( )

- Field voltage → = 1 2 sin ( )

CES4VO - 7 47

• Examples:
′′ ′ ′′ ′
Generator cos / / /
Cylindrical 0.2 0.3 1 0.8 (ind.) 1.13 1.2 2.72
Salient-pole 0.2 0.26 1.1 0.95 (ind.) 1.08 1.11 1.7

• Typical ranges: ′′ / ′/
Generator /
lower limit /air-cooled
Cylindrical 1.05 - 1.23 1.08 – 1.36 1.97 - 3.2
upper limit / water-cooled
Salient-pole 1.09 – 1.28 1.13 – 1.4 1.6 – 2.44

Practical assumption: = 1.1 and = 1.2 - phase voltage

• Short-circuit in no-load operation: ′′ = ′ = =

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LINE 3 L
VOLTAGE

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CES4VO - 7 51

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subtransient
transient

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CES4VO - 7 55

not examinable

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 All shunt
circuit
elements
L are omitted.

= / sum of all impedances between gen. terminal and C

The expression for a three-phase short circuit current at a generator

terminal can be used but the parameters will include .

CES4VO - 7 57

′′
Three-phase short-circuit current: = 2 cos 2

where decaying ac component is: = ′′ ′ ′

′′ ′′ / ′′ ′ ′/ ′ ′′ ′′
= , = , = / , = /

Include = in the parameters:

′′ ′′ ′ ′
= , = , = , =

′′ ′′ ′ ′
= , = , =
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Modelling effect of network resistance is important for cable networks.

Fault current will have lower value when resistance is not omitted ( ≠ ).

−
′′
= 2 sin 2 sin( )

→ argument of the short-circuit impedance (varies in time)

= arctan → calculated for the subtransient period

(important for selecting equipment)

CES4VO - 7 59

− − −
′′ ′ ′ ′′
= 2 sin 2 sin( )

Include network resistance:

′′ ′
= = , = = ,
+ +

′′ ′′
= / , = /

′′ ′
Effect of network resistance on and is negligible, = .

CES4VO - 7 60
 ′′
Component /
Turbogenerator < 100 MW 15 – 85
Turbogenerator 100 – 500 MW 100 – 140
Hydro generator / no damper windings 40 – 60
Hydro generator / with damper windings 60 – 90
/
Transformer 5 – 30 MVA 7 – 17
Transformer 60 – 500 MVA 20 – 50
Overhead lines ACSR > 110kV ( 3 - line voltage) 3 /40
Cables 6 – 35 kV 0.2 – 1,5
CES4VO - 7 61

Impact of Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)

VT

AVR

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 Impact of Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)

− −
′′ ′ ′
= 1 1 ( )

where = Τ ≤ 2 → maximal field voltage / pre-fault field voltage

−
≈1 exp( )

Impact of AVR is negligible in subtransient and transient periods because ≈ 0.

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Impact of AVR

CES4VO - 7 64
 L

′′ ′
Parameters: G → = 0.495Ω, = 0.745Ω, = 2.98Ω
′′ ′
= 0.04 , =1 , = 0.15
′′ = 9.27 , ′ = 9.49 , = 14.2
AVR: = 1.6

T → 100MVA, 15.75kV/231kV, = 0.1 and = 0.05

L → 200km, = 0.08 0.4 Ω/

CES4VO - 7 65

Derive and plot expression for time-variation of fault current at the

generator terminals for a three-phase short-circuit at .

a) Generator AVR is not active.

b) Including operation of the AVR.

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CES4VO - 7 67

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 “
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 - -

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a) no AVR

b) with AVR

CES4VO - 7 72
Maximal electromagnetic forces are proportional to the square of peak short-circuit
current.
Permitted mechanical stress of a electrical system component is specified using
maximum permitted peak fault current.
Peak current will occur in the subtransient period, hence we use the following
expression:
′′ ′ ′ ′′
= 2 sin 2 sin( )
Assume that the maximum fault current corresponds to the peak of ac component
(approximation) and it sums up with dc component:

′′ ′ ′ ′′
= 2 2 sin( ) ,
where is found from: = /2
CES4VO - 7 73

Peak current: = 2 ′′ ,

where the peak factor: = 1 sin( )

Including = ൘ = ≈ (approximation),
.

( )
the peak factor is: = 1
.

For the inductive network, = /2, and = 50 → = 0.01 and

. .
the peak factor is = 1

CES4VO - 7 74
 Joule integral and thermal equivalent short-time current
For a proper rating of power conductors and equipment the thermal effects of short-
circuit currents have to be considered.
In the majority of cases the three-phase short-circuit currents have the highest
magnitudes and produce the most pronounced thermal stresses → relevant for thermal
sizing.
Under assumption that the heating of current conducting elements during short-circuit is
practically adiabatic owing to short fault duration (no time to transfer energy), the
thermal stresses of these elements are closely related to the Joule integral (energy
released in 1Ω resistance),
=‫׬‬ , /Ω = /Ω = , where is short-circuit duration.

Instead of B, the thermal equivalent short-time current is commonly used,

= / , [A]
CES4VO - 7 75

Joule integral and thermal equivalent short-time current

The three-phase short-circuit current flowing from the generating unit side to the fault
point in radial scheme is:
= ( ) ≈ 0 (periodic)

The Joule integral is: =‫׬‬ 2‫׬‬ ‫׬‬

Thus, = ,

′′ ′′
where =‫׬‬ 2 sin( ) exp = 1 exp( 2 / ) sin( )

′′
In practice we can round to higher value = 1 exp( 2 / )

′′
For faults far from generator ≥ → =
CES4VO - 7 76
 Joule integral and thermal equivalent short-time current

AC Joule integral: =‫׬‬ 2 sin ≈ 0 (periodic)

Technical staff:
=‫׬‬ 2 cos =‫׬‬ ( ) ‫׬‬ ( ) cos(2( ))

′ ′′ ′ ′
Since in practice exp( / )≈1 → =‫׬‬ ( ) =‫׬‬

′
Solving the integral: = ( ∆ ),
where time correction
′′ ′′ ′′
∆ = 1 1 exp( 2 / ) 2 1 1 exp( / )

Complicated! CES4VO - 7 77

Joule integral and thermal equivalent short-time current

For typical system parameters, term ∆ is very low compared to for all faults at the
higher voltage side (network faults) and can be ignored.
′′
For short-circuit at generating unit terminals, the approximation ∆ ≈ yields upper safe
value for ∆ .
′ ′′
,
Thus, =൝ ′
,

′
Thermal equivalent short-time current: =

where = ቐ1 , = 1 exp( 2 / )
1 ℎ

For faults far from generator ≥ → =

CES4VO - 7 78
 Short-circuit Breaking Current
It is the RMS value of a three-phase short-circuit current (averaged over ac component
period T) at the instant of contact separation of the first pole to open a switching device
→ intended for rating switching devices

+ + +
= ‫׬‬ ( ) ( ) ≈ ‫׬‬ ‫׬‬
− − −

Practical simplifications:
+ +
‫׬‬ ≈ ‫׬‬ sin = Assume ( ) and
− −
will not
+ ′′ change much in T
‫׬‬ ≈ 2 sin =
−

CES4VO - 7 79

Short-circuit Breaking Current

Thus, = ( ) → = ( )

IEC60909 defines only symmetrical short-circuit breaking current: _ = ( )

Minimum time delay ( ): shortest time between the beginning of the short-circuit
current and the contact separation of the first pole to open the switching device

 Phase voltages before, during three-

phase short-circuit (including
breaker opening) and after breaker
opening
ARC = sum of shortest operating time
of protection (0.01s) and
shortest operating time of
CES4VO - 7 circuit breaker 80
 Characteristic Short-circuit Current Values

Knowing the fault current at the generator terminals for a three-phase short-circuit
at ( ′′ = 8.31 , ′ = 6.95 , = 3.94 , ′′ = 8.16 , ′′ = 0.049 ,
′
= 1.52 , = 0.037 ), calculate:
a) Peak current (assume inductive network)
b) Joule integral and thermal equivalent short-time current (use fault duration 0.3s)
c) Breaking current (use breaker delay time = 0.09 )
CES4VO - 7 81

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CES4VO - 7 83

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Problem: For the three-phase short circuit at location F, calculate: peak
current, Joule integral and thermal equivalent short-time current (fault
duration is 0.2s), and breaking current (minimal breaker delay time is
0.09s). Solve using Thevenin’s equivalent on 231kV voltage level.

CES4VO - 7 85

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CES4VO - 7 87

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 Assumptions in Transmission Network Fault Analysis
To simplify analysis of short-circuit currents in transmission networks (efficiently
earthed) we'll make several assumptions:

1. Transmission lines are represented by their series reactance.

2. Transformers are represented by their leakage reactance.

3. Synchronous machines are modelled as a constant voltage behind a reactance.

4. Induction motors are ignored or treated as synchronous machines (if large rating).

5. Other (non-spinning / static) loads are ignored.

CES4VO - 7 93

Solution Techniques
Models used during a fault allow network to be represented as a linear circuit.

There are two main methods for solving for fault currents:
a) Direct method (reduction / back-substitution)
Use pre-fault conditions to solve for the internal machine voltages; then
apply fault and solve directly. → only for the systems with single voltage
source
b) Superposition / Thevenin’s equivalent
Fault is represented by two opposing voltage sources; solve system by
superposition → split the system in two circuits:
– Pre-fault circuit: voltage source represents the pre-fault operating point
– Delta circuit: it has only a single (remaining) voltage source

CES4VO - 7 94
 Superposition / Thevenin’s equivalent
Faulted system

Generator Motor

Exact equivalent to the faulted system

Fault is represented
by two equal and
opposite voltage
sources, each with
a magnitude equal
to the pre-fault voltage.

CES4VO - 7 95

Superposition / Thevenin’s equivalent

Since this is a linear network, the voltages and currents in the faulted system
are just the sum of the pre-fault values (1) and the remaining values
calculated using the Delta circuit (2).

Pre-fault circuit solutions (1) equal to the pre-fault power flow solution.

The pre-fault
( )
“fault current” =0
is zero!

CES4VO - 7 96
 Superposition / Thevenin’s equivalent
Fault current component (2) in the Delta circuit (a single voltage source at the
fault location with a magnitude equal to the negative of the pre-fault voltage
at the fault location):

Superposition:

I g = I (1) + I g(2) Im = I m(1) + I m(2)

g

I f = I (1)
f + If = 0+ If
(2) (2)

CES4VO - 7 97

Superposition / Thevenin’s equivalent

Example Before the fault we had E f = 1.050,
I (1) = 0.952 − 18.2 and I m(1) = −0.952 − 18.2
If we know the system g
pre-fault operating point Solving for the (2) network we get
(pre-fault voltage at the
Ef 1.050
fault location) and I g(2) = = = − j7
current (power) flows j0.15 j0.15
through the circuit, E f 1.050
calculate the fault I m(2) = = = − j 2.1
j0.5 j0.5
current and distribution
of this current through I (2)
f = − j 7 − j 2.1 = − j 9.1
the system. I g = 0.952 − 18.2 − j 7 = 7.35 − 82.9
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 Analysis of Unsymmetrical Fault Types
Except for the three-phase fault, short-circuit faults result in an unsymmetrical
system.

Assumption:
The system with unsymmetrical fault is only unsymmetrical at a point of fault!

→ 0, 1, 2 circuits are decoupled (independent) for pre-fault system and become

coupled only at a fault location for the faulted system

The method to analyze unsymmetrical system operation due to unsymmetrical

faults is based on the use of the symmetrical components that result in system
decoupling (0,1,2 circuits) if we assume that the only source of asymmetry is a
fault.
CES4VO - 7 99

Analysis of Unsymmetrical Fault Types

Pre-fault network: Fault location

Symmetrical
and passive
network

Faulted network:

Symmetrical
and passive
network

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 Analysis of Unsymmetrical Fault Types
Faulted network: Fault location

Symmetrical
and passive
network

Sequence networks:

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Analysis of Unsymmetrical Fault Types

Sequence networks:

Reference phase (R) / single-line circuits:

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 Analysis of Unsymmetrical Fault Types
In practice we do not know driving voltages of all generators, therefore
→ knowing pre-fault voltage at a fault location (or assuming 1pu) we can use
Thevenin’s equivalent (Thevenin voltage = pre-fault voltage)
→ distribution of a fault current in network braches can be calculated using the
superposition theorem.

Pre-fault positive-sequence Thevenin’s The same positive-sequence Thevenin’s

equivalent at fault location F: equivalent during fault conditions:

Pre-fault voltage (or 1pu)

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Boxes = Thevenin’s
Analysis of Unsymmetrical Fault Types equivalents

Positive- Negative- Zero-

sequence sequence sequence

Symmetrical components equations (decoupled)

at the point of fault (6 unknowns – 3 equations).

3 additional equations are describing how

symmetrical components networks couple at the
point of fault for different fault types.

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Analysis of Unsymmetrical Fault Types

symmetrical

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Analysis of Unsymmetrical Fault Types

All sequence networks are connected in parallel.

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Analysis of Unsymmetrical Fault Types
phase-to-
phase fault

Positive and negative sequence networks are connected in parallel.

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Analysis of Unsymmetrical Fault Types

All sequence networks are connected in series.

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Algorithm
Input:
sequence
networks
Thevenin
impedances

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Algorithm
/ Example

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Effect of fault impedance / Algorithm extension

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Effect of fault impedance / Algorithm extension

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Effect of
fault
impedance
/ Algorithm
extension

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Effect of fault impedance / Algorithm extension

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