Mathematics for an A-level student

THE SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

A. Simultaneous Linear equations with two unknowns

Case I: A pair of linear equations in two variables

𝒂𝟎 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟎 𝒚 + 𝒄𝟎 = 𝟎 , 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒚 + 𝒄𝟏 = 𝟎

NOTE: 𝑥 and 𝑦 are two variables and the unknowns.

Methods to be used
 Solution by substitution
 Solution by eliminating coefficients (Elimination method)
 Matrix method
 Crammer‟s rule method
 Determinant method
 Graphical method
The last four methods have not been discussed, but the first two are to be
reviewed in the subsequent examples below.
Examples
Solve the pair of simultaneous equations
a) 5𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14 , 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 24
b) 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 9 = 0 , 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 8
Solution
Solution by substitution
a) 5𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14………………………………. (1)
3𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 24 ……………………………… (2)
From eqn. (1), making 𝑥 the subject
14−2𝑦
⇒𝑥= ……………………………….. (3)
5
Substituting eqn. (3) in to eqn. (2)
14−2𝑦
⇒3 − 4𝑦 = 24………………………… × 5
5
⇒ 3 14 − 2𝑦 − 20𝑦 = 120
⇒ 42 − 6𝑦 − 20𝑦 = 120 𝑜𝑟 − 26𝑦 = 78
∴ 𝑦 = −3
Substituting 𝑦 = −3 in two eqn. (3) (either of the original equations)
14−2×−3 20
⇒𝑥= = =4
5 5
∴ 𝑥 = 4 , 𝑦 = −3
Solving by equating coefficients
5𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14………………………………. (1)
3𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 24 ……………………………… (2)
Multiplying both sides of eqn. (1) by 3 (the coefficient of 𝑥 in eqn. (2)) and
multiplying both sides of eqn. (2) by 5 (the coefficient of 𝑦 in eqn. (1))
⇒ 15𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 42
⇒ 15𝑥 − 20𝑦 = 120
Now subtracting the equations,
26𝑦 = −78 ∴ 𝑦 = −3
Substituting 𝑦 = −3 in either of the original equations

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5𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14 , 𝑦 = −3
⇒ 5𝑥 − 6 = 14 ∴ 5𝑥 = 20 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 4
∴ 𝑥 = 4 , 𝑦 = −3
b) Left as an exercise. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = −𝟓 , 𝒚 = 𝟔
Try also to solve simultaneously
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 16 , 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 10 = 0. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = −𝟓 , 𝒚 = 𝟔

Case II: A pair of simultaneous equations in two variables, one

Quadratic and one Linear
Example
Solve the pair of simultaneous equations
a) 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 1 , 12𝑥𝑦 + 13𝑥 2 = 25
b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 13 = 0 , 2𝑥 = 3𝑦 − 1
Solution
a) 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 1………………………………… (1)
12𝑥𝑦 + 13𝑥 2 = 25 ……………….……….. (2)
From eqn. (1)
4𝑥−1
𝑦= …………………………………….. (3)
3
Substitute eqn. (3) in to eqn. (2)
4𝑥−1
⇒ 12𝑥 + 13𝑥 2 = 25 ……………………… × 3
3
⇒ 48𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 39𝑥 2 = 75
∴ 87𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 75 = 0 …………………………… ÷ 3
⇒ 29𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 25 = 0
⇒ 29𝑥 + 25 𝑥 − 1 = 0
25
∴ 𝑥 = 1 , − 29 ………………………………………….. (4)
Eqn. (4) in to eqn. (3) yields
100
4−1 − −1 25
𝑦= = 1 , for 𝑥 = 5 and 𝑦 = 29
for 𝑥 = − 29
3 3
25 43
∴ 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑦 = 1 ; 𝑥 = − 29 , 𝑦 = − 29
3𝑦−1
b) 2𝑥 = 3𝑦 − 1 ⇒ 𝑥 = ……………………………… (1)
2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 13 = 0 ……………………….. (2)
Substitute eqn. (1) in to eqn. (2)
3𝑦−1 2 3𝑦−1
⇒ 2
+ 𝑦2 − 6 2
+ 4𝑦 − 13 = 0
9𝑦 2 −6𝑦 +1
⇒ 4
+ 𝑦 2 + 3 − 9𝑦 + 4𝑦 − 13 = 0 …………….. × 4
⇒ 9𝑦 − 6𝑦 + 1 + 4𝑦 2 + 12 − 36𝑦 + 16𝑦 − 52 = 0
2

⇒ 13𝑦 2 − 26𝑦 − 39 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 4 = 0
⇒ 𝑦−3 𝑦+1 =0
∴ 𝑦 = −1 , 3
Substitute eqn. (3) in to eqn. (1)
3×−1−1
For 𝑦 = −1 , 𝑥 = 2
= −2
3×3−1
For 𝑦 = 3 , 𝑥 = 2
=4
∴ 𝑥 = −2 , 𝑦 = −1; 𝑥 = 4 , 𝑦 = 3

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Other techniques of solving specific set of simultaneous equations

Solve:
a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 185 , 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3
b) 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 4914 , 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 18
c) 𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 = 218 , 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2
d) 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5 , 𝑥𝑦 = 1
e) 5𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3 , 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 2 = 25
f) 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 7 , 𝑥𝑦 = 20
NOTE:
The above equations can also be solved using substitution as in the
previous examples.
Solution
a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 185……………………………………. (1)
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3 …………………………………………… (2)
From eqn. (2), squaring both sides
𝑥 − 𝑦 2 = 32
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 = 9
But from eqn. (1), 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 185
⇒ 185 − 2𝑥𝑦 = 9 𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝑦 = 88 …………… (3)
Again 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦
From eqn. (1) and eqn. (3)
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 185 + 2 × 88
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 361
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = ±19 ……………………………… (4)
Now solving eqn. (2) and eqn. (4) simultaneously
Adding the equations,
⇒ 2𝑥 = ±19 + 3
∴ 2𝑥 = 19 + 3 = 22 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 11
∴ 2𝑥 = −19 + 3 = −16 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −8
From eqn. (2), 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3
For 𝑥 = 11 , 𝑦 = 11 − 3 = 8
For 𝑥 = −8 , 𝑦 = −8 − 3 = −11
∴ 𝑥 = 11 , 𝑦 = 8; 𝑥 = −8 , 𝑦 = −11
b) 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 4914 …………………………………….. (1)
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 18 ……………………………………………. (2)
From eqn. (2), cubing both sides
𝑥 + 𝑦 3 = 183
⇒ 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 = 5832
⇒ 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5832
But from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2), 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 4914 , 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 18
⇒ 4914 + 3𝑥𝑦 18 = 5832
∴ 𝑥𝑦 = 17 …………………………………………..…. (3)
Squaring eqn. (2) on both sides
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 182
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 = 324 …………………………………… (4)
Substitute eqn. (3) in to eqn. (4)
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 34 = 324

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∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 290 …………………………………….………… (5)

Also from 𝑥 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑦 2 = 290 − 34 = 256
∴ 𝑥 − 𝑦 = ±16 …………………………………………………. (6)
Solving eqn. (2) and eqn. (6) simultaneously
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 18 , 𝑥 − 𝑦 = ±16
Adding the equations,
⇒ 2𝑥 = ±16 + 18
∴ 2𝑥 = 16 + 18 = 34 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 17
∴ 2𝑥 = −16 + 18 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1
Also subtracting the equations,
⇒ 2𝑦 = 18 − ±16
∴ 2𝑦 = 18 − 16 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 1
∴ 2𝑦 = 18 + 16 = 34 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 17
∴ 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑦 = 17; 𝑥 = 17 , 𝑦 = 1

NOTE:
The equations have been reduced to a solution depending on the quadratic
equation.
c) 𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 = 218 ……………………………………………… (1)
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2 ……………………………..……………………… (2)
From eqn. (2), cubing both sides
𝑥 − 𝑦 3 = 23
⇒ 𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 = 8
⇒ 𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 8
But from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2), 𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 = 218 , 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2
⇒ 218 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 = 8
∴ 𝑥𝑦 = 35 …………………………………………………..…. (3)
Squaring eqn. (2) on both sides
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑦 2 = 22
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 = 4 …………………………………… (4)
Substitute eqn. (3) in to eqn. (4)
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 70 = 4
∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 74 ……….………………………….………… (5)
Also from 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 74 + 70 = 144
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = ±12 ………………………………………………. (6)
Solving eqn. (2) and eqn. (6) simultaneously
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2 , 𝑥 + 𝑦 = ±12
Adding the equations,
⇒ 2𝑥 = ±12 + 2
∴ 2𝑥 = 12 + 2 = 14 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 7
∴ 2𝑥 = −12 + 2 = −10 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −5
Also subtracting the equations,
⇒ 2𝑦 = ±12 − 2
∴ 2𝑦 = 12 − 2 = 10 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 5
∴ 2𝑦 = −12 − 2 = −14 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = −7
∴ 𝑥 = 7 , 𝑦 = 5; 𝑥 = −5 , 𝑦 = −7

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d) 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5 ……………………………………….. (1)
𝑥𝑦 = 1 ……..………………………………………… (2)
Re-writing eqn. (2) in terms of terms of eqn. (1)
⇒ 2𝑥. 3𝑦 = 6 (No change in the meaning in eqn. (2))
Now squaring eqn. (1)
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 2 = 52
⇒ 4𝑥 2 + 2.2𝑥. 3𝑦 + 9𝑦 2 = 25 , but ⇒ 2𝑥. 3𝑦 = 6………….. (*)
∴ 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 25 − 12 = 13 ………………………………..………. (3)
Also from 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 − 2.2𝑥. 3𝑦
But from eqn. (*) and eqn. (3), 2𝑥. 3𝑦 = 6 , 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 13
⇒ 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 2 = 13 − 12 = 1
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = ±1………………………………………………………………… (4)
Solving eqn. (1) and eqn. (4) simultaneously
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5 , 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = ±1
Adding the equations,
⇒ 4𝑥 = 5 ± 1
3
∴ 4𝑥 = 5 + 1 = 6 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
2
∴ 4𝑥 = 5 − 1 = 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1
Subtracting the equations,
⇒ 6𝑦 = 5 − ±1
3
∴ 6𝑦 = 5 − 1 = 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 =
2
∴ 6𝑦 = 5 − −1 = 6 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 1
3 2
∴𝑥= ,𝑦 = ;𝑥 = 1 ,𝑦 = 1
2 3
𝟖 𝟗𝟕
e) Left as an exercise. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = 𝟐 , 𝒚 = 𝟕 ; 𝒙 = − 𝟗 , 𝒚 = − 𝟏𝟗
𝟖 𝟏𝟓
f) Left as an exercise. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = 𝟓 , 𝒚 = 𝟒 ; 𝒙 = − 𝟑 , 𝒚 = − 𝟐
Task
𝟏 𝟐
Solve: 3𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 2 , 𝑥𝑦 = 8 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = 𝟒 , 𝒚 = 𝟐 ; 𝒙 = −𝟑 𝟑 , 𝒚 = −𝟐 𝟓

HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS
Homogeneous equations are equations in which all terms have the same
degree.
𝑒. 𝑔. 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑐𝑦 2 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 3 = 𝑓 , is a homogeneous of 30
𝑙𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑥𝑦 + 𝑛𝑦 2 = 𝑝 , is a homogeneous of 20
If the powers in every term in variables x and y are added, give a uniform
degree.

Solving Homogeneous Equations

The equations to be considered are:

𝒍𝒙𝟐 + 𝒎𝒙𝒚 + 𝒏𝒚𝟐 = 𝑨 Or 𝒍𝒙𝟐 + 𝒎𝒙𝒚 + 𝒏𝒚𝟐 = 𝑨

Both quadratic
𝒑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒒𝒙𝒚 + 𝒓𝒚𝟐 = 𝑩 𝒒𝒙𝒚 = 𝑩

, where 𝑙 , 𝑚 , 𝑛 , 𝑝 , 𝑞 , 𝑟 , 𝐴 , 𝐵 are constants.

Examples
1) Solve the pair of simultaneous equations.

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𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2 = 6 ……………………………………. (1)
3𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 = 14 ……………….……………………….. (2)
Solution
Re-writing the equations by factoring
𝑦 𝑦 2
⇒ 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥 + 4 𝑥
= 6 ………………………… (3)
𝑦 2
⇒ 𝑥2 3 + 8 = 14 ……………………………. (4)
𝑥
Eqn. (3) ÷ eqn. (4)
𝑦 𝑦 2
𝑥 2 1+ +4 6 𝑦
𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 2
= ; let 𝑚 =
𝑥 2 3+8 14 𝑥
𝑥
1+𝑚+4𝑚 2 3
⇒ = 7 𝑜𝑟 7 + 7𝑚 + 28𝑚 2 = 9 + 24𝑚 2
3+8𝑚 2
2
∴ 4𝑚 + 7𝑚 − 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 4𝑚 − 1 𝑚 + 2 = 0
1
∴ 𝑚 = 4 , −2
𝑦
But 𝑚 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥
𝑥
1
⇒ 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 …………………………………………………. (5)
⇒ 𝑦 = −2𝑥 ………………………………………………. (6)
Using any of the equations (3) or (4)
𝑦 2
From eqn. (4) 𝑥 2 3 + 8 = 14
𝑥
2 2
⇒ 𝑥 3 + 8𝑚 = 14
For 𝑚 = −2,
14 2
𝑥 2 3 + 8 −2 2
= 14 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 = 35 = 5
2
∴𝑥=±
5

2
From eqn. (6), 𝑦 = −2𝑥 = −2 ±
5

2 2
∴𝑥= , 𝑦 = −2
5 5

2 2
∴𝑥=− ,𝑦 = 2
5 5
1
Now for 𝑚 = 4, equation 𝑥 2 3 + 8𝑚 2 = 14 becomes;
1 2
⇒ 𝑥2 3 + 8 = 14 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 = 4
4
∴ 𝑥 = ±2
From eqn. (6), 𝑦 = −2𝑥 = −2 ±2
∴ 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑦 = −4
∴ 𝑥 = −2 , 𝑦 = 4
2 2 2 2
∴𝑥= , 𝑦 = −2 ; 𝑥=− ,𝑦 = 2 ; 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑦 = −4 ; 𝑥 = −2 , 𝑦 = 4
5 5 5 5
2) Solve the pair of simultaneous equations.
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 13 ……………………………………. (1)
2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 = 8 ……………..…...……………………….. (2)
Solution
Re-writing the equations by factoring

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𝑦 𝑦 2
⇒ 𝑥2 1 + 4 + = 13 …………………… (3)
𝑥 𝑥
𝑦
⇒ 𝑥2 2 + 3 𝑥
= 8 …………………………………. (4)
Eqn. (3) ÷ eqn. (4)
𝑦 𝑦 2
𝑥 2 1+4 + 13 𝑦
𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = ; let 𝑚 =
𝑥 2 2+3 8 𝑥
𝑥
1+4𝑚+𝑚 2 13
⇒ = 𝑜𝑟 1 + 4𝑚 + 𝑚 2 = 2 + 3𝑚
2+3𝑚 8
2
∴ 8𝑚 − 7𝑚 − 18 = 0
7± 49+4 8 18 7±25
∴𝑚= =
16 16
9
∴ 𝑚 = 2,−
8
𝑦
From 𝑚 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 ……………………………………………………………. (5)
9
⇒ 𝑦 = − 8 𝑥 …………………..……………………………………. (6)
From equation (4)
𝑦
⇒ 𝑥2 2 + 3 = 8 ∴ 𝑥 2 2 + 3𝑚 = 8
𝑥
For 𝑚 = 2 , 𝑥 2 + 6 = 8 2

∴ 𝑥 2 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = ±1
But 𝑦 = 2𝑥
∴ For 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑦 = 2
∴ For 𝑥 = −1 , 𝑦 = −2
∴ 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑦 = 2 ; 𝑥 = −1 , 𝑦 = −2
9
Also for 𝑚 = − 8
From equation (4)
9 64
⇒ 𝑥2 2 + 3 − 8 = 8 ∴ 𝑥 2 = − 11 , hence roots are complex.
Alternatively
Dealing with question (1)
𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2 = 6 ……………………………………. (1)
3𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 = 14 ……………….……………………….. (2)
Eliminating constants 6 and 14
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 × 14 − 𝐸𝑞𝑛. (2) × 6
⇒ 14𝑥 2 + 14𝑥𝑦 + 56𝑦 2 = 84
⇒ 18𝑥 2 + 0𝑥𝑦 + 48𝑦 2 = 84
−4𝑥 2 + 14𝑥𝑦 + 8𝑦 2 = 0
𝑜𝑟 ⇒ 2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑦 − 4𝑦 2 = 0
Factorizing to linear factors gives
2𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 0
1
∴ 𝑦 = −2𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 4 𝑥
Eqn. (3) in to Eqn. (2) or (1), the original equations
3𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 = 14 , 𝑦 = −2𝑥 , gives
2 2
3𝑥 2 + 32𝑥 2 = 14 ∴ 𝑥 2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = ±
5 5

2 2
For 𝑥 = ,𝑦 = −
5 5

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2 2
For 𝑥 = − ,𝑦 =
5 5
1
Also 3𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 14 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 gives
2 2
4
1 2
2
3𝑥 + 8 4
𝑥 = 14 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = ±2
1 1
Now for 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑦 = 4 × 2 = 2
1 1
Also for 𝑥 = −2 , 𝑦 = − 4 × 2 = − 2
Dealing with question (2)
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 13 ……………………………………. (1)
2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 = 8 ……………..…...……………………….. (2)
Eliminating constants 13 and 8
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 × 8 − 𝐸𝑞𝑛. (2) × 13
8𝑥 2 + 32𝑥𝑦 + 8𝑦 2 = 104
26𝑥 2 + 39𝑥𝑦 + 0𝑦 2 = 104
−18𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑦 + 8𝑦 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 18𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑦 − 8𝑦 2 = 0
Factoring in to linear factors
2𝑥 − 𝑦 9𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 0
9
∴ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = − 8 𝑥
Eqn. (3) in to Eqn. (2) or (1), the original equations
2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 = 8 , 𝑦 = 2𝑥
⇒ 2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 2 = 8 ∴ 𝑥 2 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = ±1
∴ For 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑦 = 2 ; 𝑥 = −1 , 𝑦 = −2
9
Also 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 = 8 , 𝑦 = − 8 𝑥
27 64
⇒ 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 = 8 ∴ 𝑥 2 = − 11 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥
8
NOTE:
1. The second alternative gives rise to a quadratic equation in terms of x and y
which is factorisable to linear factors after eliminating the constant terms.
2. Substitution method can also be applicable to solve homogeneous
simultaneous equations.
Task
Solve the pair of simultaneous equations
a) 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 8 , 𝑥𝑦 = 6
b) 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 35 , 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 = 30
c) 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 8𝑦 2 = 8 , 3𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 = 4
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑𝐒: 𝒂) 𝒙 = ±𝟑 ; 𝒚 = ±𝟏 𝒄) 𝒙 = ±𝟐 , 𝒚 = ±𝟏 ; 𝒙 = ±𝟏 , 𝒚 = ±𝟏𝟐

Simultaneous Linear Equations with three unknowns

𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒚 + 𝒄𝟏 𝒛 = 𝑨

𝒂𝟐 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒚 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒛 = 𝑩

𝒂𝟑 𝒙 + 𝒃𝟑 𝒚 + 𝒄𝟑 𝒛 = 𝑪

Methods to be considered are;

 Elimination method
 Reducing to roe Echelon form

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

Elimination method of solving linear set of equations

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝐴 ……………………………………………… (1)
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝐵 …………………………………………….. (2)
𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 = 𝐶 …………………….………………………….. (3)
a) Eliminating any variable 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 from any pair of equations
Eliminating 𝑥 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
𝒂
Multiply 𝒂𝟐 by eqn. (1) and subtract the result from eqn. (2)
𝟏

The resulting equation is of the form

𝑷𝒚 + 𝑸𝒛 = 𝑹 ……………………………………………….. (4)

b) Eliminating the same variable 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 from any other pair of equations

Eliminating 𝑥 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (3)
𝒂
Multiply 𝒂𝟑 by eqn. (1) and subtract the result from eqn. (3)
𝟏

The resulting equation is of the form

…………………………….……………… (5)
𝒎𝒚 + 𝒏𝒛 = 𝒓
Now solving eqn. (4) and eqn. (5) as discussed earlier (i.e. solving set of
linear equations in two variables), this gives y and z values.
Now substituting y and z values in any of the original equations . 𝑖. 𝑒. (1) or
(2) or (3), the value of 𝑥 can be obtained.
Examples
Solve the linear set of equations simultaneously
𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 7
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 6
9𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 14
Solution
𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 7 ………………………………………….. (1)
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 6 ………………………………………… (2)
9𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 14 ……………………………………… (3)
Eliminating 𝑥 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
3
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 × 1
− 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
3𝑥 + 12𝑦 + 12𝑧 = 21
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 6
10𝑦 + 10𝑧 = 15 𝑜𝑟 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3………… (4)
Eliminating 𝑥 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (3)
9
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 × 1
− 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3)
9𝑥 + 36𝑦 + 36𝑧 = 63
9𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 14
30𝑦 + 34𝑧 = 49 …………………………………… (5)
Now eliminating 𝑦 from eqn. (4) and eqn. (5)
30
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 4 × 2
− 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (5)
30𝑦 + 30𝑧 = 45
30𝑦 + 34𝑧 = 49
−4𝑧 = −4 ∴ 𝑧 = 1
Put 𝑧 = 1 in to eqn. (4) or (5)

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2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3 , 𝑧 = 1
1
⇒ 2𝑦 + 2 = 3 ∴ 𝑦 = 2
1
Now substitute 𝑧 = 1 , 𝑦 = 2 in to eqn. (1) or eqn. (2) or eqn. (3) the original
equations
Using eqn. (1)
𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 7 ∴ 𝑥 + 2 + 4 = 7 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1
1
∴ 𝑥 = 1,𝑦 = ,𝑧 = 1
2
Task
Solve the simultaneous equations
a) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 3
2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 11 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = 𝟐 , 𝒚 = −𝟒 , 𝒛 = −𝟑
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = −5
b) 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 19
4𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 4 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = 𝟑 , 𝒚 = 𝟒 , 𝒛 = −𝟐
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 32

Solving Linear set of equations in 3 unknowns by reducing to Row

echelon form
Consider the equations to be solved
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝐴 ……………………………………………… (1)
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝐵 …………………………………………….. (2)
𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 = 𝐶 …………………………………………….. (3)
Writing the equations in matrix form
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥 𝐴
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑦 = 𝐵 , which may be written in short form 𝐏. 𝐕 = 𝐊
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑧 𝐶

Constant matrix
Coefficient
matrix Variable matrix
Writing elements of K in P matrix, the augmented matrix is formulated as;
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝐴
𝑄 = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝐵
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝐶
Eliminating elements beow the major diagonal in the coefficient matrix gives
rise to a triangular matrix
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝐴
𝒂𝟐 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝐵 , elements to be zeroed/ eliminated are 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3
𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝑐3 𝐶
𝒂
To eliminate 𝑎2 , subtract 𝟐 times first row from the 2𝑛𝑑 row, and to
𝒂𝟏
𝒂𝟑
eliminate 𝑎3 , subtract times first row from 3𝑟𝑑 row . 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝒂𝟏

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝐴 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1 = 𝑅1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝐵 𝑅𝑜𝑤 2 = 𝑅2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝐶
𝑅𝑜𝑤 3 = 𝑅3

Now eliminating using the formulae

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𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝐴 𝑅1 ⟶ 𝑅1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝐵 𝑅2 ⟶ 𝑅2 − 𝑎2 /𝑎1 𝑅1
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝐶 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑎3 /𝑎1 𝑅1
This gives 
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝐴
0 𝑑 𝑒 𝐷
0 𝑓 𝑔 𝐸

𝒇
Now eliminating f, subtract times 2𝑛𝑑 row from the 3𝑟𝑑 row
𝒅

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝐴 𝑅1 ⟶ 𝑅1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝐷 𝑅2 ⟶ 𝑅2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝐻 𝑅3 → 𝑅3

, which is a triangular matrix
Finally detach the right hand column back to its original position
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥 𝐴
0 𝑑 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝐷
0 0 𝑕 𝑧 𝐻
Multiplying the matrices, the result will be;
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝐴 …………… (i)
𝑑𝑦 + 𝑒𝑧 = 𝐷 …………… (ii)
𝑕𝑧 = 𝐻 …………… (iii)
From equation (iii) and by back substitution, values of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 can be
evaluated.
Examples
Solve the linear set of equations by reducing to row echelon form
𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 0
3𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2
Solution
𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 0
3𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2
Writing the equations in matrix form
1 −2 −3 𝑥 0
3 5 2 𝑦 = 0
2 3 −1 𝑧 2
Formulating the augmented matrix
1 −2 −3 0 𝑅1
3 5 2 0 𝑅2
2 3 −1 2 𝑅3
Now eliminating 3 and 2 from column 1
1 −2 −3 0 𝑅1 → 𝑅1
3 5 2 0 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3/1𝑅1
2 3 −1 2 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2/1𝑅1
This gives
1 −2 −3 0 𝑅1 → 𝑅1
0 11 11 0 𝑅2 → 𝑅2
0 7 5 2 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 7/11𝑅2

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Now eliminating 7 from 3𝑟𝑑 row

1 −2 −3 0
0 11 11 0
0 0 −2 2
Detaching the matrices back to their original positions
1 −2 −3 𝑥 0
0 11 11 𝑦 = 0
0 0 −2 𝑧 2
𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 0 ……………….…… (i)
11𝑦 + 11𝑧 = 0 …….…… (ii)
−2𝑧 = 2 …………… (iii)
From eqn. (iii), 𝑧 = 1
Put 𝑧 = 1 in to eqn. (ii)
⇒ 11𝑦 − 11 = 0 ∴ 𝑦 = 1
Put 𝑧 = 1 , 𝑦 = 1 in to eqn. (i)
𝑥 − 2 + 3 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = −1
∴ 𝑥 = −1 , 𝑦 = 1 , 𝑧 = −1
Task
1. Solve the equations simultaneously using row- echelon method
a) 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −4
4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = −11 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = −𝟑 , 𝒚 = 𝟐 , 𝒛 = −𝟏
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −3
b) 2𝑎 + 𝑏 + 3𝑐 = 11
𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 2𝑐 = 3 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒂 = 𝟏, 𝒃 = 𝟑 , 𝒄 = 𝟐
4𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 𝑐 = 15
c) 2𝑝 + 3𝑞 + 4𝑟 = 8
3𝑝 − 2𝑞 − 3𝑟 = −2 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒑 = 𝟏 , 𝒒 = −𝟐 , 𝒓 = 𝟑
5𝑝 + 4𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 3
2. Simplify and solve the following set of simultaneous equations
a) 4 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2 4𝑥 + 3𝑧 − 3 𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 17
2 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 5 𝑥 − 4𝑧 + 4 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 23
3 𝑦 + 4𝑧 + 4 2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 + 2 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = 𝟏 , 𝒚 = 𝟑 , 𝒛 = −𝟓
b) 5 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4 3𝑥 + 4𝑧 − 2 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 16
2 3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3 𝑥 − 4𝑧 + 4 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = −16
4 4 − 2𝑧 + 2 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 3 − 3 𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −62
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = 𝟐 , 𝒚 = 𝟒 , 𝒛 = −𝟑

Other 𝟑 − unknown simultaneous equations

Solve the equations
𝑦 −1 𝑧−5
i). 𝑥+3= 2
= −2
, 11𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 8
4𝑥−3𝑦 2𝑦 −𝑥 𝑧+4𝑦
ii). = = , 6𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 6 (𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟓)
4 3 2
Solution
𝑦−1 𝑧−5
i). Let 𝑥 + 3 = = =𝜆
2 −2
⇒𝑥+3=𝜆 ∴𝑥=𝜆−3
𝑦 −1
⇒ = 𝜆 ∴ 𝑦 = 2𝜆 + 1 ……………………….……………….. (1)
2
𝑧−5
⇒ = 𝜆 ∴ 𝑧 = −2𝜆 + 5
−2

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Substituting eqn. (1) in to the 2𝑛𝑑 equation 11𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 8

⇒ 11 𝜆 − 3 − 3 2𝜆 + 1 + 7 −2𝜆 + 5 = 8
⇒ 11𝜆 − 6𝜆 − 14𝜆 − 33 − 3 + 35 = 8
⇒ −9𝜆 = 9 ∴ 𝜆 = −1
Substituting 𝜆 = −1 I to eqn. (1) gives
𝑥 = −4 , 𝑦 = −1 , 𝑧 = 7
4𝑥−3𝑦 2𝑦−𝑥 𝑧+4𝑦
ii). Let 4
= 3
= 2
=𝜆
4𝑥−3𝑦
⇒ = 𝜆 ∴ 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 4𝜆 …………………………….. (1)
4
2𝑦−𝑥
⇒ = 𝜆 ∴ 2𝑦 − 𝑥 = 3𝜆 ………………………….…….. (2)
3
𝑧+4𝑦
⇒ = 𝜆 ∴ 𝑧 + 4𝑦 = 2𝜆 ………………………….…….. (3)
2
Expressing 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 in terms of 𝜆
Eliminating 𝑥 from eqn. (1) and (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 + 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2) × 4
⇒ 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 8𝑦 − 4𝑥 = 4𝜆 + 12𝜆
16𝜆
∴ 5𝑦 = 16𝜆 ⇒ 𝑦 = …………………….…………………. (4)
5
Eqn. (4) in to (2) to find 𝑥 in terms of 𝜆
32𝜆
⇒ 2𝑦 − 𝑥 = 3𝜆 ∴ 𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 3𝜆 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = − 3𝜆
5
17𝜆
⇒𝑥= ………………………………………….………………… (5)
5
Eqn. (4) in to (3) to find 𝑧 in terms of 𝜆
𝑧 + 4𝑦 = 2𝜆 ⇒ z = 2𝜆 − 4𝑦
64𝜆 54𝜆
⇒ 𝑧 = 2𝜆 − =− ………………….………………….. (6)
5 5
Substituting eqn. (4), (5), (6) in to 6𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 6
17𝜆 16𝜆 54𝜆
⇒6 +6 +2 − =6
5 5 5
1
⇒ 9𝜆 = 3 ∴ 𝜆 = 3
1
Substituting 𝜆 = 3 in to eqn. (4), (5) and (6) gives
17 1 17
𝑥= 5
× 3 = 15
16 1 16
𝑦= × 3 = 15
5
54 1 18
𝑥=− ×3 = −
5 5
17 16 18
∴𝑥= ,𝑦 = ,𝑧 = −
15 15 5

Task
Solve the simultaneous equations
𝑥 𝑦+2 𝑧−1
a) = = and 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 25 = 0 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = 𝟓 ,𝒚 = 𝟎 , 𝒛 = 𝟓
5 2 4
𝑥+2𝑦 𝑦 +2𝑧 2𝑥+𝑧
b) −3
= 4
= 5
and 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = 𝟏 , 𝒚 = −𝟐 , 𝒛 = 𝟑
𝑥+4𝑧 𝑦 +𝑧 3𝑥+𝑦
c) = = and 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 15 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = 𝟎 , 𝒚 = 𝟓 , 𝒛 = 𝟏
4 6 5
𝑥−𝑦 𝑧−𝑦
d) 4
= 3
= 2𝑧 − 𝑥 and 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 4 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 = 𝟑, 𝒚 = −𝟏 , 𝒛 = 𝟐

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SURDS AND INDICES

Indices:
When a quantity 𝒂 multiplies it self 𝑛 − times . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … … … . . 𝑛 − times, the
product is called a power of a . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑛
Definition:
Let 𝒂 , 𝑥 and 𝑦 be real numbers such that 𝒂 𝑥 = 𝑦, then 𝑦 is a power of 𝒂, 𝑥 is called
index and 𝒂 is the base.
1
1
For example in 24 , 32 , 5 2
, 2 , 3 and 5 are the bases and 4 , 2 and 2 are indices.
Laws of indices:
If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are integers then
i) 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
ii) 𝑎𝑚 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
𝑎𝑚
iii) = 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛
𝑎𝑛
iv) 𝑎. 𝑏 𝑚
= 𝑎 𝑚 . 𝑏𝑚
1
v) 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎 𝑛
vi) 𝑎0 = 1
𝑝
vii) If 𝑎𝑞 = 𝑏, then 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑏𝑞 for 𝑞 > 0
viii) If 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛 then 𝑚 = 𝑛

Proof of the laws:

i)
𝑎 × 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑚 +𝑛
𝑚 𝑛

Several cases arise,

Case I: 𝑚 > 0 and 𝑛 > 0 . 𝑖. 𝑒. both 𝑚 and 𝑛 are positive.

By definition,
𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … … … . . 𝑚 − times and
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … … … . . 𝑛 − times
⇒ 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … … … . . 𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … … … . . 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
= 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … … … . . 𝑚 + 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
= 𝑎𝑚 +𝑛
𝑚 𝑛 𝑚+𝑛
∴𝑎 ×𝑎 =𝑎

Case II: 𝑚 < 0 and 𝑛 < 0 . 𝑖. 𝑒. both 𝑚 and 𝑛 are negative

Let 𝑚 = −𝑘 and 𝑛 = −𝑙 where 𝑘 , 𝑛 > 0
⇒ 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎−𝑘 × 𝑎−𝑙
1 1
= ×
𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑙
1
= , by first case
𝑎 𝑘 +𝑙
1
∴ 𝑎−𝑘 × 𝑎−𝑙 = 𝑎 − 𝑘+𝑙
= 𝑎−𝑘−𝑙 = 𝑎 𝑘 +𝑙

Case III: 𝑚 > 0 and 𝑛 < 0 . 𝑖. 𝑒. both 𝑚 − positive and 𝑛 − negative

Let 𝑛 = −𝑙 , 𝑙 > 0
⇒ 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎−𝑙
1
= 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎 𝑙

14
 Mathematics for an A-level student

1
∴ 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎−𝑙 = 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎 𝑙
Now if 𝑚 = 𝑙, then
1
𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎−𝑙 = 𝑎𝑙 × 𝑎−𝑙 = 𝑎𝑙 × 𝑎 𝑙 = 1
But by first case,
𝑎𝑙 × 𝑎−𝑙 = 𝑎0 = 1

∴ 𝑎0 = 1

Also from 𝑎𝑙 × 𝑎−𝑙 = 1, then

𝑎−𝑙 =
1 , showing that 𝑎−𝑛 is the reciprocal of 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑙
1
Further simplification of 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎−𝑙 = 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎 𝑙 , for 𝑚 > 𝑙

1 1
⇒ 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎−𝑙 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … … … . 𝑙 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … … … . 𝑚 − 𝑙 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
= 1 × 1 × … … … … 𝑙 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 × 𝑎𝑚−𝑙 = 𝑎𝑚 −𝑙
𝑚 −𝑙 1
∴𝑎 ×𝑎 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 𝑙 = 𝑎𝑚 −𝑙
𝑚

Now again for 𝑚 < 𝑙, then

1 1 1 1
𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎−𝑙 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … … … . 𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 × 𝑎
× 𝑎 × … … … … . 𝑙 − 𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
1
= 1 × 1 × … … … … … … 𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 × 𝑎 𝑙−𝑚 = 𝑎− 𝑙−𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 −𝑙
∴ For any integer m and n, 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 +𝑛 holds.

ii)
𝑎𝑚 𝑛
= 𝑎𝑚 .𝑛

Case I: let 𝑚 , 𝑛 > 𝑜 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑚 and 𝑛 are positive.

𝑎𝑚 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑚 × … … … … … … .× 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
= 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … … . 𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … . 𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 × … … . 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
= 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … … … … . … . 𝑚𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
= 𝑎𝑚 .𝑛
Now if 𝑚 > 0 , 𝑛 < 0, put 𝑛 = −𝑙 where 𝑙 > 0
1 1
⇒ 𝑎𝑚 𝑛
= 𝑎𝑚 −𝑙
= 𝑎𝑚 𝑙
= 𝑎 𝑚𝑙 = 𝑎−𝑚𝑙
∴ 𝑎𝑚 −𝑙 = 𝑎𝑚 −𝑙 = 𝑎 ,for 𝑛 = −𝑙 𝑚 .𝑛

Also if 𝑚 > 𝑜 and 𝑛 = 0, then

𝑎𝑚 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 0 = 𝑎0 = 1
iii)
𝑎𝑚
= 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 −𝑛
𝑎𝑛

𝑎𝑚 𝑎×𝑎 ×𝑎 ×………………………𝑚−𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
=
𝑎𝑛 𝑎×𝑎 ×𝑎 ×………………………𝑛−𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
= 𝑎. 𝑎. 𝑎 … … … … … … … . 𝑚 − 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
𝑎𝑚
= 𝑎𝑚 −𝑛 ∴ 𝑎𝑛
= 𝑎𝑚−𝑛
iv) 𝑚
𝑎. 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑚 . 𝑏 𝑚

15
 Mathematics for an A-level student

𝑚
𝑎. 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 × 𝑎𝑏 × 𝑎𝑏 … … … … … … … . 𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
= 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … … … … … . 𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 × 𝑏 × 𝑏 × 𝑏 × … … … … … . 𝑚 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
∴ 𝑎. 𝑏 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 . 𝑏𝑚

NOTE:
The above laws hold for rational/ fractional indices.
𝑝 𝑚
Consider 𝑎𝑟 and 𝑎 𝑠 where 𝑟 = 𝑞 and 𝑠 = 𝑛
with 𝑝, 𝑚 , 𝑞 , 𝑛 are integers and 𝑝, 𝑞 > 0
Let 𝑎 = 𝑏 and 𝑎 = 𝑐
𝑟 𝑠
𝑝
⇒ 𝑎 𝑞 = 𝑏 ∴ 𝑎 𝑝 = 𝑏𝑞
𝑚
⇒ 𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑐 ∴ 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑐 𝑛
Making powers of b and c the same
⇒ 𝑎𝑝 𝑛 = 𝑏𝑞 𝑛 ∴ 𝑎𝑛𝑝 = 𝑏𝑞𝑛
Also 𝑎𝑚 𝑞 = 𝑐 𝑛 𝑞 ∴ 𝑎𝑚𝑞 = 𝑐 𝑛𝑞
Now multiplying
⇒ 𝑏𝑞𝑛 . 𝑐 𝑛𝑞 = 𝑎𝑛𝑝 . 𝑎𝑚𝑞
⇒ 𝑏. 𝑐 𝑛𝑞 = 𝑎𝑛𝑝 +𝑚𝑞
𝑛𝑝 +𝑚𝑞 𝑚 𝑝
+
∴ 𝑏. 𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑛𝑞 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑞
𝑚 𝑝
+
⇒ 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎 𝑠 = 𝑎 𝑛 𝑞 = 𝑎𝑟+𝑠

Illustrative examples
1. Simplify
𝑥 𝑚 +2𝑛 .𝑥 3𝑚 −8𝑛
a)
𝑥 5𝑚 −6𝑛
b) 𝑏 −3 −2
.𝑥 ÷ 4𝑏2 𝑥
3 2 𝑛 +1 −4 2 𝑛−1
c)
2 𝑛 +1 −2 𝑛
1
− 𝑛
d) 9 2 × 3𝑛+2 × 27𝑛+1
−5
𝑎 −1 𝑏 2 7 𝑎 3 𝑏 −5
e) ÷
𝑎 2 𝑏 −4 𝑎 −2 𝑏 3
Solution
𝑥 𝑚 +2𝑛 .𝑥 3𝑚 −8𝑛
a) = 𝑥 𝑚+2𝑛+ 𝑚 −8𝑛 − 5𝑚−6𝑛
𝑥 5𝑚 −6𝑛
𝑚 +3𝑚−5𝑚 + 2𝑛−8𝑛+6𝑛
=𝑥
1
= 𝑥 −𝑚 +0 = 𝑥 −𝑚 =
𝑥𝑚
𝑏 −3 .𝑥 −2
b) 𝑏−3 . 𝑥 −2 ÷ 4𝑏2 𝑥 = 4𝑏 2 𝑥
𝑏 −3 𝑥 −2 1 𝑏 −3−2 .𝑥 −2−1
= 𝑏2
. 𝑥
.4 = 4
𝑏 −5 .𝑥 −3 1
= =
4 4𝑏 5 .𝑥 3
3 2 𝑛 +1 −4 2 𝑛−1 3 2 𝑛 .21 −4 2 𝑛 .2−1
c) 2 𝑛 +1 −2 𝑛
= 2 𝑛 .2 1 −2 𝑛
, let 2𝑛 = 𝑥
𝑥
3 2𝑥 −4 6𝑥−2𝑥 4𝑥
2
= = = =4
2𝑥−𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
3 2 𝑛 +1 −4 2 𝑛 −1
∴ =4
2 𝑛 +1 −2 𝑛
1 1
− 𝑛 − 𝑛
d) 9 2 × 3𝑛+2 × 27𝑛+1 = 32 2 × 3𝑛+2 × 33 𝑛+1
1
−2× 𝑛+𝑛+2+3𝑛+3
=3 2 = 33𝑛+5

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

−5
𝑎 −1 𝑏 2 7 𝑎 3 𝑏 −5 𝑎 −7 𝑏 14 𝑎 −15 𝑏 25
e) ÷ = ÷
𝑎 2 𝑏 −4 𝑎 −2 𝑏 3 𝑎 14 𝑏 −28 𝑎 10 𝑏 −15
𝑎 −7 𝑏 14 𝑎 −15 𝑏 25
= . ÷ .
𝑎 14 𝑏 −28 𝑎 10 𝑏 −15
−7−14 14− −28 −15−10
=𝑎 .𝑏 ÷𝑎 . 𝑏25− −15

𝑎 −21 .𝑏 42
= 𝑎 −25 .𝑏 40 = 𝑎−21− −25 . 𝑏42−40 = 𝑎4 . 𝑏2
2. Simplify
1 1
−
𝑥 2 𝑥 2 +1 2− 𝑥 2 +1 2
a) 𝑥2
1 1 2
−
1+𝑥 3 − 𝑥 1+𝑥 3
b) 3
2
1+𝑥 3
1 1 1 1
− −
1−𝑥 . 1+𝑥 2+ 1−𝑥 2. 1+𝑥
c) 2 2
1−𝑥
3
𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑦 𝑥
d) −
𝑥𝑦 −𝑦 3 𝑥−𝑦
2 2𝑛 −3.2 2𝑛 −3 3 𝑛 −2.3𝑛 −2
e)
3 𝑛 −4 4 𝑛 +8 −2 2𝑛
Solution
1 1
−
𝑥 2 𝑥 2 +1 2− 𝑥 2 +1 2
a) , let 𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝑎
𝑥2
1 1 1
𝑥 2 .𝑎 −2 −𝑎 2 𝑎 −2 𝑥 2 −𝑎 1
⇒ 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = (Factoring term with smallest power)
𝑥2 𝑥2
1 1
𝑎 −2 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 +1 𝑥 2 +1 −
2. −1
= =
𝑥2 𝑥2
1 1
−
𝑥 2 𝑥 2 +1 2− 𝑥 2 +1 2 1
∴ 𝑥2
=− −
1
𝑥 2 𝑥 2 +1 2
1 1 2
−
1+𝑥 3 − 𝑥 1+𝑥 3
b) 3
2 , let 𝑏 = 1 + 𝑥
1+𝑥 3
1 2 2 1
1 − −
𝑏 3 − 𝑥𝑏 3 𝑏 3 𝑏− 𝑥
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 3
2 = 2
3
(Factoring term with smallest power)
𝑏3 𝑏3
2 2 4
1 1
= 𝑏 −3−3 . 𝑏 − 3 𝑥 = 𝑏−3 . 𝑏 − 3 𝑥
4 4
− 1 − 2
= 1+𝑥 3 . 1+𝑥 −3𝑥 = 1+𝑥 3 . 1+3𝑥
1 1 2
−
1+𝑥 3 − 𝑥 1+𝑥 3 3+2𝑥
3
∴ 2 = 4
1+𝑥 3 3 1+𝑥 3
1 1 1 1
− −
1−𝑥 . 1+𝑥 2+ 1−𝑥 2. 1+𝑥
c) 2 2
1−𝑥
, let 1 − 𝑥 = 𝑎 , 𝑏 = 1 + 𝑥
1 1 1 1 1 1 −1 1 −1 1
𝑎 . 𝑏 − 2+ 𝑎 − 2. 𝑏 .𝑎 2 .𝑏 2 + 𝑎 2 .𝑏 2
2 2 2 2
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝑎 𝑎
1 1
𝑎 − 2 .𝑏 −2 1+𝑏 1
− −1
1
= 2
. 𝑎
=𝑎 2 . 𝑏−2 . 1 + 𝑏
3 1
= 𝑎−2 . 𝑏−2 . 1 + 𝑏
3 1
− −
= 1−𝑥 2 . 1+𝑥 2 . 1+1+𝑥
3 1
− − 2+𝑥
= 1−𝑥 2 . 1+𝑥 2 . 2+𝑥 = 3 1
1−𝑥 2 . 1+𝑥 2
2+𝑥 2+𝑥
= 1 1 = 1
1−𝑥 1−𝑥 2 . 1+𝑥 2 1−𝑥 1−𝑥 2 2

17
 Mathematics for an A-level student

1 1 1 1
− −
1−𝑥 . 1+𝑥 2+ 1−𝑥 2. 1+𝑥 2+𝑥
2 2
∴ =
1−𝑥 1−𝑥 1−𝑥 2
3 3 1
1
𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑦 𝑥2
d) − = − 1 , let 𝑥 2 = 𝑎 , 𝑥 = 𝑎2
𝑥𝑦 −𝑦 3 𝑥−𝑦 𝑥𝑦 −𝑦 3 𝑥 2 −𝑦
𝑎 3 +𝑎 2 𝑦 𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎 +𝑦 𝑎
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = − = −
𝑎 2 𝑦 −𝑦 3 𝑎 −𝑦 𝑦 𝑎 2 −𝑦 2 𝑎−𝑦
𝑎 2 𝑎+𝑦 𝑎
=𝑦 𝑎 +𝑦 𝑎−𝑦
− 𝑎−𝑦
𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
=𝑦 𝑎 −𝑦 𝑎 −𝑦
− = 𝑎 −𝑦 𝑦
−1
𝑎 𝑎−𝑦 𝑎
= =
𝑎 −𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
1
𝑥2 𝑥
= =
𝑦 𝑦
3
𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑥
∴ 𝑥𝑦 −𝑦 3 − =
𝑥−𝑦 𝑦
2 2𝑛 −3.2 2𝑛 −3 3 𝑛 −2.3𝑛 −2 2𝑛 2 −3 2𝑛 2 .2 −3 3 𝑛 −2.3 𝑛 .3 −2
e) = let 2𝑛 = 𝑎 , 3𝑛 = 𝑏
3 𝑛 −4 4 𝑛 +8 −2 2𝑛 3 𝑛 .3−4 . 2 2 𝑛 +2 − 2𝑛 2

1 1 8𝑎 2 −3𝑎 2 9𝑏 −2𝑏
𝑎 2 −3 𝑎 2 . 𝑏−2.𝑏. 8
.
9
8 9
= 1 2 𝑛 +2 2
= 𝑏
𝑏. .
81
2 −𝑎 . 2 𝑛 2 .2 4 −𝑎 2
81
5𝑎 2 7𝑏 5𝑎 2 7𝑏
. .
8 9 8 9
= 𝑏 = 𝑏
. 𝑎 .16−𝑎 2
2 .15𝑎 2
81 81
5𝑎 2 7𝑏 81 5×7×81 21
= . . 15𝑎 2 𝑏 = 8×9×15 =
8 9 8
2 2𝑛 −3.2 2𝑛 −3 3 𝑛 −2.3𝑛 −2 21
∴ 3 𝑛 −4 4 𝑛 +8 −2 2𝑛
= 8
3. Simplify
5
81 −
a)
4
256
1 1 1 2
1 4
0.3 3 . . 9 6. 0.81 3
b) 2
27
1 1 −2 1
0.9 3 . 3 −2 . . 243 −4
3
3 −2 ×6 2 × 48
c) 3 1 4 1
−
52 × × 15 3× 3 3
25
2 3
8 3 +4 2
d) 3
16 4
1 1
8 6× 4 3
e) 1 1
32 6 × 16 2

Solution
5 5 5
81 − 3 4 −4 3 4×−4 3 −5 45 1024
a)
4
256
= 44
= 4×−
5 = 4 −5 = 35 = 243
4 4
1 1 2 1 1 1 81 2
1 1 3 3 1 4
4 3
0.3 2 . . 9 6. 0.81 3 . 3 . 32 6 .
b) 2
27
1 1 −2 1 = 10
2
3
1
100
1
0.9 3 . 3 −2 . . 243 −4 9 3
. 3 −2 . 3 −1 −2 . 3 5 −4
3 10
2
1 1 3 134 3
− − 1 3 1 8 1 4
3 3 . 10 3. 3 4. 3 3. 33
+− + +
4 3 3 .10 3
− +−
102 3
= 2 2 1 5 = 4 1
+ − +2+ −
5
−
2
− −
32 3 . 10 −1 3 . 3 2 . 32 . 3 4 33 2 4 .10 3
31 5
− 31 19 5 2
3 12 10 3
= 19 × −
2 = 312 −12 × 10−3+3
3 12 10 3
3
= 31 × 10−1 =
10

18
 Mathematics for an A-level student

1
3 −2 ×6 2 × 48 3 −2 × 3×2 2 × 3×16 2
c) 3 1 4 1 = 3 1 4 1
− −
52 × × 15 3× 3 3 52 × × 15 3× 3 3
25 25
1 1 1
3 −2 × 3×2 2 × 3×16 2 3 −2 ×3 2 ×2 2 ×3 2 × 2 4 2
= 1
−
4 1 = −
2
−
4
−
4 1
52 × 5 −2 3 × 3×5 3× 3 3 5 2 ×5 3 ×3 3 ×5 3 × 3 3
1 1
3 −2+2+2 ×2 2+2 32 1
= 2 4
2− −
4 1
− +
= 3−1 × 24 × 50
5 3 3 ×3 3 3
1
+1
=3 2 × 16 = 16 27
2 3 2 3
8 3 +4 2 23 3 + 22 2 2 2 +2 3 4+8 12 3
d) 3 = 3 = 23
= 8
= 8
=2
16 4 24 4
1 1 1 1 3 2
8 6× 4 3 23 6 × 22 3 2 6 ×2 3
e) 1 1 = 1 1 = 5 1
32 6 × 16 2 25 6 × 24 2 2 6 ×2 3
1 2 5 1
+ − −
=2 2 3 6 3 = 20 = 1

PROOFS IN INDICES
1. If 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = 3 , show that 𝑎3 𝑏2 𝑐 3 2
𝑎−3 𝑏−4 𝑐 6 = 144 2. 𝑐 9
Solution
1
𝑎 3 𝑏2 𝑐 3 2
𝑎−3 𝑏−4 𝑐 6 = 𝑎6 𝑏4 𝑐 6 . 𝑎−3 𝑏−4 𝑐 6 2
3
= 𝑎6 𝑏4 𝑐 6 . 𝑎−2 𝑏−2 𝑐 3
3
= 𝑎6−2 . 𝑏4−2 . 𝑐 3+6
9
= 𝑎 2 . 𝑏2 . 𝑐 9
9 9 1
⇒ 𝑎2 . 𝑏2 . 𝑐 9 = 2 2 . 3 2 . 𝑐 9 = 29 2 . 9𝑐 9
1 1
= 28 × 2 2 . 9𝑐 9 = 24 × 22 . 9𝑐 9 = 16 × 9 2𝑐 9 = 144 2. 𝑐 9
1 1

2. If 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑎2 + 𝑏3 3
+ 𝑎 − 𝑎2 + 𝑏3 3 , show that 𝑥 3 + 3𝑏𝑥 − 2𝑎 = 0
Solution
Let 𝑎2 + 𝑏3 = 𝐵
1 1
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎+𝐵 3 + 𝑎−𝐵 3

Cubing both sides

1 1 3
𝑥3 = 𝑎+𝐵 3 + 𝑎−𝐵 3

1 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 3
= 𝑎+𝐵 3 +3 𝑎+𝐵 3 𝑎−𝐵 3 + 3 𝑎 + 𝐵 3. 𝑎 − 𝐵 3 + 𝑎−𝐵 3

2 1 1 2
= 𝑎 + 𝐵 + 3 𝑎 + 𝐵 3. 𝑎 − 𝐵 3 + 3 𝑎 + 𝐵 3. 𝑎 − 𝐵 3 +𝑎−𝐵
1 1 1 1
= 2𝑎 + 3 𝑎 + 𝐵 . 𝑎 − 𝐵 3 3 𝑎+𝐵 3 + 𝑎−𝐵 3

1
= 2𝑎 + 3 𝑎 + 𝐵 𝑎 − 𝐵 3 .𝑥
1
= 2𝑎 + 3 𝑎2 − 𝐵2 . 𝑥 3
1
= 2𝑎 + 3 𝑎2 − 𝑎2 + 𝑏3 3
.𝑥 ∵ 𝑎 2 + 𝑏3 = 𝐵
1
3×
= 2𝑎 + 3 −𝑏 3 .𝑥
= 2𝑎 − 3𝑏𝑥
∴ 𝑥 3 − 2𝑎 + 3𝑏𝑥 = 0
2 2
3. If 𝑥 = 33 + 3− 3 , show that 9𝑥 3 − 27𝑥 = 82

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Solution
2 2
𝑥 = 33 + 3− 3 , cubing both sides,
2 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 2
⇒ 𝑥 3 = 33 + 3− 3 = 33 + 3− 3 + 3. 33 . 3− 3 33 + 3− 3
3
∵ 𝛼+𝛽 = 𝛼 3 + 𝛽3 + 3𝛼𝛽 𝛼 + 𝛽
1
⇒ 𝑥 3 = 32 + 3−2 + 3𝑥 = 9 + + 3𝑥
9
82
∴ 𝑥3 = + 3𝑥 𝑜𝑟 9𝑥 3 − 27𝑥 = 82
9
1 1 1 22 7 7 7
4. If 2𝑥 = 4𝑦 = 8𝑧 and + + = , show that 𝑥 = ,𝑦 = and 𝑧 =
2𝑥 4𝑦 8𝑧 7 16 32 48
Solution
2𝑥 = 4𝑦 ⇒ 2𝑥 = 22𝑦 ∴ 𝑥 = 2𝑦 …………………………..…… (1)
Also 2𝑥 = 8𝑧 ⇒ 2𝑥 = 23𝑧 ∴ 𝑥 = 3𝑧 ………………………… (2)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. (1) = 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
2𝑦
⇒ 2𝑦 = 3𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = ……………………………………………… (3)
3
1 1 1 22
From + 4𝑦 + 8𝑧 =
2𝑥 7
1 1 1 22
⇒ 2𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 7
4 8
2 3
1 1 1 22
⇒ 2𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 =
4 8 × 7
2 3 2
1 1 3 22
⇒ 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 8𝑥 = 7
11 22 7 11 7
⇒ 8𝑥 = ∴ 𝑥 = 22 × = 16
7 8
From eqn. (1), 𝑥 = 2𝑦
𝑥 7 1 7
⇒ 𝑦 = 2 = 16 × 2 = 32
From eqn. (2), 𝑥 = 3𝑧
𝑥 7 1 7
⇒𝑧= = × =
3 16 3 48
7 7 7
∴ 𝑥 = 16 , 𝑦 = 32 , 𝑧 = 48
𝑚
𝑥 𝑧 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑦 𝑚 +𝑧 𝑚 +𝑤 𝑚
5. If = 𝑤 , show that = 𝑤𝑥𝑦𝑧 2
𝑦 𝑥 −𝑚 +𝑦 −𝑚 +𝑧 −𝑚 +𝑤 −𝑚
Solution
𝑥 𝑧
Let 𝑦 = 𝑤 = 𝑘
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦𝑘 , 𝑧 = 𝑤𝑘
𝑥 𝑚 +𝑦 𝑚 +𝑧 𝑚 +𝑤 𝑚 𝑦 𝑚 𝑘 𝑚 +𝑦 𝑚 +𝑤 𝑚 𝑘 𝑚 +𝑤 𝑚
⇒ 𝑥 −𝑚 +𝑦 −𝑚 +𝑧 −𝑚 +𝑤 −𝑚 = 𝑦 −𝑚 𝑘 −𝑚 +𝑦 −𝑚 +𝑤 −𝑚 𝑘 −𝑚 +𝑤 −𝑚
𝑦 𝑚 𝑘 𝑚 +1 +𝑤 𝑚 𝑘 𝑚 +1
= 𝑦 −𝑚 𝑘 −𝑚 +1 +𝑤 −𝑚 𝑘 −𝑚 +1
𝑘 𝑚 +1 𝑦 𝑚 +𝑤 𝑚
=
𝑘 −𝑚 +1 𝑦 −𝑚 +𝑤 −𝑚
𝑘 𝑚 +1 𝑦 𝑚 +𝑤 𝑚
= 1 1 . 1
+1 +
𝑘𝑚 𝑦𝑚 𝑤𝑚
𝑘 𝑚 𝑘 𝑚 +1 𝑦 𝑚 +𝑤 𝑚 𝑦 𝑚 .𝑤 𝑚
= .
1+𝑘 𝑚 𝑦 𝑚 +𝑤 𝑚
= 𝑘 . 𝑦 . 𝑤 𝑚 = 𝑘. 𝑦. 𝑤 𝑚
𝑚 𝑚
𝑥 𝑧 𝑥 𝑧
But from 𝑦 = 𝑤 = 𝑘 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑘 , 𝑤 = 𝑘, multiplying the equations
1
𝑥𝑧 𝑥𝑧 2
⇒ 𝑘 2 = 𝑦𝑤 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 𝑦𝑤

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1 𝑚
1 𝑚
𝑚 𝑥𝑧 2
∴ 𝑘. 𝑦. 𝑤 = 𝑦𝑤
. 𝑦. 𝑤 = 𝑥. 𝑧. 𝑦 −1 . 𝑤 −1 2 . 𝑦. 𝑤
1 1 1 1 𝑚 1 1 1 1 𝑚 𝑚
= 𝑥 2 . 𝑧 2 . 𝑦1−2 . 𝑤1−2 = 𝑥2 . 𝑧2 . 𝑦2 . 𝑤2 = 𝑤𝑥𝑦𝑧 2

1 1 1 1
6. If 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑧 = 𝑑𝑤 and 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑐𝑑 , show that + = +
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑤
Solution
Let 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑧 = 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑘
1
⇒ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑘 𝑥
1
⇒ 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 𝑘 𝑦
1
⇒ 𝑐 𝑧 = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 = 𝑘 𝑧
1
⇒ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑑 = 𝑘 𝑤
From 𝑎. 𝑏 = 𝑐. 𝑑
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+
⇒ 𝑘 𝑥 . 𝑘 𝑦 = 𝑘 𝑧 . 𝑘 𝑤 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑘 𝑤 +𝑧
1 1 1 1
∴ 𝑥 +𝑦 =𝑧 +𝑤
7. If 3𝑥 = 5𝑦 = 75𝑧 , show that 𝑥𝑧 = 𝑧 2𝑥 + 𝑦
Solution
Let 3𝑥 = 5𝑦 = 75𝑧 = 𝑘
1
⇒ 3𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 3 = 𝑘 𝑥
1
⇒ 5𝑦 = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 5 = 𝑘 𝑦
1
⇒ 75𝑧 = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 75 = 𝑘 𝑧
But 75 = 25 × 3 = 52 × 3
1 1 2 1
⇒ 𝑘𝑧 = 𝑘𝑦 × 𝑘𝑥
1 1 2
+
⇒ 𝑘𝑧 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑦

1 1 2 1 𝑦+2
∴ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑧
= 𝑥𝑦
∴ 𝑥𝑧 = 𝑧 2𝑥 + 𝑦
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 +1 𝑦 𝑛 +1 𝑧 𝑛 +1 𝑛 +1
8. If 𝑎𝑛
= 𝑏𝑛
= 𝑐𝑛
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐, prove that 𝑥 𝑛 +1 +𝑦 𝑛 +1 +𝑧 𝑛 +1 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
Solution
Let 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑘
𝑥 𝑛 +1 𝑥 𝑛 +1
⇒ 𝑎𝑛
= 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑘
1 𝑛+1
𝑥 𝑛 +1 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
∴𝑎= 𝑘
= 1
𝑘𝑛
Similarly
𝑛 +1 𝑛 +1
𝑦 𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
∴𝑏= 1 , 𝑐= 1
𝑘𝑛 𝑘𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 1 1 1 𝑛 +1
𝑛 +1
⇒ 𝑥 𝑛 +1 + 𝑦 𝑛 +1 + 𝑧 𝑛 +1 = 𝑎. 𝑘 𝑛 + 𝑏. 𝑘 𝑛 + 𝑐. 𝑘 𝑛
𝑛
1 𝑛 +1 𝑛 1
= 𝑎 +𝑏 +𝑐 .𝑘 𝑛 = 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑛 +1 . 𝑘 𝑛 +1
But 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑘
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 1
𝑛+1
∴ 𝑥 𝑛 +1 + 𝑦 𝑛 +1 + 𝑧 𝑛 +1 = 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑛 +1 . 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑛 +1

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𝑛 1
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 𝑛 +1+𝑛 +1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐
9. If 𝑎 = 𝑥𝑦 𝑝−1 , 𝑏 = 𝑥𝑦 𝑞−1 , 𝑐 = 𝑥𝑦 𝑟−1, prove that 𝑎𝑞−𝑟 × 𝑏𝑟−𝑝 × 𝑐 𝑝 −𝑞 = 1
Solution
𝑎𝑞−𝑟 × 𝑏𝑟−𝑝 × 𝑐 𝑝 −𝑞 = 𝑥𝑦 𝑝−1 𝑞−𝑟 × 𝑥𝑦 𝑞−1 𝑟−𝑝 × 𝑥𝑦 𝑟−1 𝑝−𝑞
= 𝑥 𝑞−𝑟 . 𝑦 𝑝 −1 𝑞−𝑟 × 𝑥 𝑟−𝑝 . 𝑦 𝑞−1 𝑟−𝑝 × 𝑥 𝑝 −𝑞 . 𝑦 𝑟 −1 𝑝−𝑞

= 𝑥 𝑞−𝑟+𝑟−𝑝+𝑝−𝑞 × 𝑦 𝑝−1 𝑞−𝑟 + 𝑞−1 𝑟−𝑝 + 𝑟−1 𝑝−𝑞

= 𝑥 0 . 𝑦 𝑝𝑞 −𝑝𝑟 −𝑞+𝑟+𝑞𝑟 −𝑞𝑝 −𝑟+𝑝+𝑟𝑝 −𝑟𝑞 −𝑝+𝑞
= 𝑥0 . 𝑦0 = 1

Solving equations involving indices

𝑥
1. Find 𝑥 if 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
= 𝑥 𝑥 , where 𝑥 is a positive integer.
Solution
𝑥
1 1 𝑥
𝑥𝑥 𝑥
= 𝑥 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑥.𝑥 2 = 𝑥. 𝑥 2
3 3 𝑥 3
⇒ 𝑥 𝑥 2 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥 2𝑥
3
3
⇒ 𝑥 2 = 2 𝑥 , squaring both sides
9
⇒ 𝑥 3 = 4 𝑥 2 𝑜𝑟 4𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 = 0
9
⇒ 𝑥 2 4𝑥 − 9 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = 0 , 4
9
But 𝑥 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 = 4
2. Solve 4𝑥 . 2𝑦 = 128 and 32𝑥+2𝑦 = 9𝑥𝑦
Solution
4𝑥 . 2𝑦 = 128 ⇒ 22𝑥+𝑦 = 27
∴ 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 7……………..…………………………….……. (1)
Also 32𝑥+2𝑦 = 9𝑥𝑦 ⇒ 32𝑥+2𝑦 = 32𝑥𝑦
∴ 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦….……………… (2)
From eqn. (1), 𝑦 = 7 − 2𝑥………………………………… (3)
Eqn. (3) in to eqn. (2)
⇒ 𝑥 + 7 − 2𝑥 = 𝑥 7 − 2𝑥
⇒ 7 − 𝑥 = 7𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 7 = 0
8± −8 2 −4×2×7
∴𝑥=
2×2
8± 8 8±2 2 4± 2
= = =
4 4 2
From eqn. (3) 𝑦 = 7 − 2𝑥
4± 2 4± 2
For 𝑥 = ,𝑦 = 7−2 =7− 4± 2
2 2
4+ 2 4− 2
∴𝑥= ,𝑦 = 3 − 2 ;𝑥 = , 𝑦 = 11 + 2
2 2
3. Solve
i) 𝑎 𝑥−3 . 𝑎 𝑦 +2 = 𝑎2 . 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 𝑥 . 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎, where 𝑎 ≠ 0 , 1
𝑥+𝑦 𝑦+𝑧−1 𝑥+𝑧−2 5 𝑦 +𝑧 𝑦 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧
ii)
3 4 7
𝑎 = 𝑎 , 𝑏 = 𝑏 , 𝑐 = 𝑐
iii) 2𝑥+𝑦 +𝑧 = 8𝑥+𝑧−𝑦 , 53𝑦+2 = 25𝑥+𝑧 , 32𝑥+𝑦+2𝑧 = 93𝑥+𝑦
Solution
i) 𝑎 𝑥−3 . 𝑎 𝑦 +2 = 𝑎2 . 𝑎 𝑥
⇒ 𝑎 𝑥−3+𝑦+2 = 𝑎2+𝑥
⇒ 𝑥+𝑦−1 = 2+𝑥 ∴ 𝑦 =3

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Also 𝑎 𝑥 . 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑎
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 , but 𝑦 = 3
⇒ 𝑥 = 1 − 3 = −2
∴ 𝑥 = −2 , 𝑦 = 3
𝑥+𝑦 𝑦+𝑧−1
ii) 𝑎 = 3
𝑎
𝑥+𝑦 𝑦 +𝑧−1
⇒𝑎 2 =𝑎 3
𝑥+𝑦 𝑦 +𝑧−1
⇒ = 𝑜𝑟 3𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 2
2 3
∴ 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −2 ………………………………………. (1)
𝑥+𝑧−2 5 𝑦+𝑧
𝑏 = 𝑏
𝑥+𝑧−2 𝑦 +𝑧
⇒𝑏 2 =𝑏 5
𝑥+𝑧−2 𝑦 +𝑧
⇒ 2
= 5
𝑜𝑟 5𝑥 + 5𝑧 − 10 = 2𝑦 + 2𝑧
∴ 5𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 10 ………………………………………. (2)
4 𝑦 5 𝑥+𝑦 +𝑧
𝑐 = 𝑐
𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 +𝑧
⇒𝑐 =𝑐 4 7
𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 +𝑧
⇒4= 𝑜𝑟 7𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 4𝑧
7
∴ 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0 …………………………………………. (3)
Eliminating 𝑦 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
2 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛, 1 + 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
⇒ 6𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 + 5𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = −4 + 10
∴ 11𝑥 − 𝑧 = 6 ……………………...……………………………. (4)
Eliminating 𝑦 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (3)
3 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛, 1 + 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3)
⇒ 9𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 6𝑧 + 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −6 + 0
∴ 13𝑥 − 2𝑧 = −6 ………………….……………………………. (5)
Eliminating 𝑧 from eqn. (4) and eqn. (5)
2 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛, 4 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (5)
⇒ 22𝑥 − 2𝑧 − 13𝑥 − 2𝑧 = 12 − −6
⇒ 9𝑥 = 18 ∴ 𝑥 = 2
From eqn. (4), 𝑧 = 11𝑥 − 6
⇒ 𝑧 = 22 − 6 = 16
From eqn. (1), 𝑦 = −2 + 2𝑧 − 3𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 = −2 + 32 − 6 = 24
∴ 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑦 = 24 , 𝑧 = 16
iii) 2𝑥+𝑦 +𝑧 = 8𝑥+𝑧−𝑦
⇒ 2𝑥+𝑦 +𝑧 = 23𝑥+3𝑧−3𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3𝑥 + 3𝑧 − 3𝑦
⇒ 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
∴ 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 ……………………………………………………….. (1)
53𝑦+2 = 25𝑥+𝑧
⇒ 53𝑦+2 = 52𝑥+2𝑧 𝑜𝑟 3𝑦 + 2 = 2𝑥 + 2𝑧
∴ 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 2 ……………………………….………………….. (2)
32𝑥+𝑦 +2𝑧 = 93𝑥+𝑦
⇒ 32𝑥+𝑦 +2𝑧 = 36𝑥+2𝑦 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 6𝑥 + 2𝑦
∴ 4𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 0 ………………………………….………………….. (3)
Eliminating 𝑧 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
2 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛, 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)

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⇒ 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0 − 2
⇒ −𝑦 = −2 ∴ 𝑦 = 2
Eliminating 𝑧 from eqn. (2) and eqn. (3)
𝑒𝑞𝑛, 2 + 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3)
⇒ 6𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 2 , but 𝑦 = 2
⇒ 6𝑥 − 4 = 2 ∴ 𝑥 = 1
From eqn. (1), 𝑧 = 2𝑦 − 𝑥
⇒ 𝑧 =4−1 = 3
∴ 𝑥 = 1,𝑦 = 2,𝑧 = 3

Task
1. Show that
𝑥 3 +𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑥
i) − =
𝑥𝑦 −𝑦 3 𝑥−𝑦 𝑦

ii) If 𝑥 = 3
𝑝 + 𝑞 + 3 𝑝 − 𝑞 and 𝑝2 − 𝑞2 = 𝑟, then 𝑥 3 − 3𝑟𝑥 − 2𝑝 = 0
1 1 1
iii) If 2.381 𝑥
= 0.2381 𝑦
= 10𝑧 , then = +
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
1 1 1 1
− −
iv) If 𝑥 = 3 + 3 4 4 ,𝑦 = 3 − 3 4 4 , then 3 𝑥 + 𝑦
2 2 2
= 64
1 1 1
v) If 2 = 3 = 6 , then 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
𝑥 𝑦 −𝑧

2. Prove that
16 32 𝑚 −2 3𝑚 −2 .4𝑚 +1 5𝑚
a) − =1
15. 2 𝑚 −1 16 𝑚 5 2𝑚
1
𝑛+
9 4 . 3×3 𝑛
b) = 27
3 3 −𝑛
1 1 1
c) If 𝑝𝑞𝑟 = 1, then 1+𝑝+𝑞 −1 + 1+𝑞+𝑟 −1 + 1+𝑟+𝑝 −1 = 1
81 𝑛 .3 5 −3 4𝑛 −1 . 243 4.3 𝑛
d) − 3𝑛 +1 −3𝑛 = 4
92𝑛 .3 2
2 2
e) If 𝑥 = 33 + 3− 3 , then 9𝑥 3 − 27𝑥 = 82
3. Simplify
1 1 3
3 4
a) 𝑎6 𝑏−2 𝑐 −4 × 𝑎−6 𝑏4 𝑐 3 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑎2 𝑏3 𝑐 2
7 7
5 −1 .72 2 5 3 .7 −5 2
b) ÷ 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 175
5 2 .7 −4 5 −2 .73

24
 Mathematics for an A-level student

LOGARITHMS
Definition:
The logarithm of a positive quantity 𝑁 to any given base 𝑎 is defined as the
index of the power to which the base 𝑎 must be raised to make it equal to
the given quantity 𝑁. 𝑖. 𝑒. if 𝒂𝒙 = 𝑵 , then 𝑥 is called the logarithm of N
to the base a and is written as
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑵 = 𝒙

NOTE:
1. We notice that a logarithm is just a power, thus it can also be called an
index or an exponent. This implies that in the derivation of laws of
logarithms, laws of indices come in to use.
2. Logarithms are defined for only positive numbers.

PROPERTIES/LAWS/THEOREMS OF LOGARITHMS
1. The logarithm of unity to any base is zero.
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝟏 = 𝟎

Proof:
From 𝑎0 = 1 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑁 , then
0 = log 𝑎 1 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∴ log 𝑎 1 = 0

2. Logarithm of any number to the same base is 1

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒂 = 𝟏

Proof:
From 𝑎1 = 𝑎 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑁 , then
log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑁
∴ log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1

3. A number 𝑎 power logarithm of another number 𝑁 to base of a number 𝑎 is 𝑁

𝒂𝐥𝐨𝐠𝒂 𝑵 = 𝑵

Proof:
Let log 𝑎 𝑁 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑁
∴ 𝑎log 𝑎 𝑁 = 𝑁
In general,
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝑵
𝟏. 𝒂𝐥𝐨𝐠𝒂 𝒃 =𝑵
Proof:
Let 𝑎log 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑏
Now 𝑦 log 𝑏 𝑁 = 𝑏 log 𝑏 𝑁 = 𝑁
log 𝑁
1. 𝑎log 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 = 𝑁
4. The logarithm of a product is equal to the sum of logarithms of its factors. 𝑖. 𝑒.

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑴. 𝑵 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑴 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑵

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

Proof:
From LHS = log 𝑎 𝑀. 𝑁
Let log 𝑎 𝑀. 𝑁 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑀. 𝑁……………………… (1)
Let log 𝑎 𝑀 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑀………………………………... (2)
Let log 𝑎 𝑀 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑁…………………………………. (3)
Eqn. (2) , (3) in to eqn. (1)
⇒ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑥 . 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦
⇒𝑏=𝑥+𝑦
∴ log 𝑎 𝑀. 𝑁 = log 𝑎 𝑀 + log 𝑎 𝑁

NOTE:
 log 𝑎 𝑀 + 𝑁 ≠ log 𝑎 𝑀 + log 𝑎 𝑁
 log 𝑎 𝑀. 𝑁 = log 𝑎 𝑀 × log 𝑎 𝑁

5. The logarithm of a fraction is equal to the logarithm of numerator diminished

by the logarithm of the denominator . 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑴
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑴 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑵
𝑵

𝑀
Let log 𝑎 𝑀. 𝑁 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑁 ………………..………… (1)
Let log 𝑎 𝑀 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑀………………………………... (2)
Let log 𝑎 𝑀 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑁………………………….………. (3)
Eqn. (2), (3) in to eqn. (1)
⇒ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑥 ÷ 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥−𝑦
⇒𝑏=𝑥−𝑦
𝑀
∴ log 𝑎 = log 𝑎 𝑀 − log 𝑎 𝑁
𝑁

NOTE:
𝑀
 log 𝑎 ≠ log 𝑎 𝑀 ÷ log 𝑎 𝑁
𝑁
 log 𝑎 𝑀 − 𝑁 = log 𝑎 𝑀 − log 𝑎 𝑁

6. The logarithm of the 𝑝𝑡𝑕 power of a positive number is p times the logarithm of
that number. 𝑖. 𝑒.

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑴𝒑 = 𝒑 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑴
Proof:
Let log 𝑎 𝑀 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑀
Now powering by p on both sides
𝑎 𝑥 𝑝 = 𝑀𝑝 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑀𝑝
⇒ log 𝑎 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑝 log 𝑎 𝑀
∴ log 𝑎 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑝 log 𝑎 𝑀
1 𝟏
Similarly if 𝑝 = , then 𝟏
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑴𝒓 = 𝒓 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑴
𝑟

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

7. To transform a system of logarithms having a given base to a new system

with a different base. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒏 𝑵
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒎𝒏 𝑵 =
𝟏+𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒏 𝑴
Proof:
Let log 𝑎 𝑁 = 𝑥 be given and required log 𝑏 𝑁 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑁
⇒ log 𝑎 𝑁 = 𝑥 , becomes
log 𝑎 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑁
1
⇒ 𝑦 log 𝑎 𝑏 = log 𝑎 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = × log 𝑎 𝑁
log 𝑎 𝑏
log 𝑎 𝑁 1
∴ log 𝑏 𝑁 = = × log 𝑎 𝑁
log 𝑎 𝑏 log 𝑎 𝑏

NOTE:
1. To transform a logarithm from base 𝑎 to base 𝑏 we have only to multiply it
𝟏
by . This is known as Base changing formula
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒃
2. From the above base change of bases, if 𝑁 = 𝑎,
log 𝑎 𝑁 1
log 𝑏 𝑁 = = × log 𝑎 𝑁, becomes
log 𝑎 𝑏 log 𝑎 𝑏
log 𝑎 𝑎 1 1
log 𝑏 𝑎 = log 𝑏
= log 𝑏
× log 𝑎 𝑎 = log 𝑏
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

𝟏
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒂 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝒂𝒃

Proof:
Let log 𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑎
1
⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑥 , introducing logarithm to base 𝑎 on both sides
1
1 1
⇒ log 𝑎 𝑏 = log 𝑎 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥 log 𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑥
1 1
∴ log 𝑏 𝑎 = log 𝑜𝑟 log 𝑎 𝑏 = log
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎

8. A base and its reciprocal inverse as a base

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝑵 = − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏 𝑵
𝒃

Proof:
1
Let log 𝑏 𝑁 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 𝑁 𝑥
1
Introducing logarithm to base
𝑏
1
1
⇒ log 1 𝑏 = log 1 𝑁 𝑥 = log 1 𝑁
𝑏 𝑏 𝑥 𝑏
log 1 𝑁
𝑏
⇒ 𝑥 log 1 𝑏 = log 1 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
𝑏 𝑏 log 1 𝑏
𝑏

From change of base formula

log 𝑏 𝑏 1 1
⇒ log 1 𝑏 = 1 = log 𝑏 −1
= − log 𝑏
= −1
𝑏 log 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑏
log 1 𝑁 log 1 𝑁
𝑏 𝑏
⇒𝑥= = = − log 1 𝑁
log 1 𝑏 −1 𝑏
𝑏
∴ log 𝑏 𝑁 = − log 1 𝑁
𝑏

9. Logarithm of a number with a composite base

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑵 𝟏
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝑵 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒃
= 𝐥𝐨𝐠 × 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑵
𝒂𝒃

Proof:
1
Let log 𝑚𝑛 𝑁 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑚𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑁 𝑥
Introducing logarithm to base n on both sides
1
1
⇒ log 𝑛 𝑚𝑛 = log 𝑛 𝑁 𝑥 = log 𝑛 𝑁
𝑥
log 𝑛 𝑁 log 𝑛 𝑁 log 𝑛 𝑁
⇒𝑥= = =
log 𝑛 𝑚𝑛 log 𝑛 𝑚+log 𝑛 𝑛 log 𝑛 𝑚+1
log 𝑛 𝑁
∴ log 𝑚𝑛 𝑁 =
1+log 𝑛 𝑀

Application of laws of logarithms

A. Solving equations
1. Solve the equations:
i) log 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 0.9031
ii) log 𝑎 5𝑥 − 6 + log 𝑎 2𝑥 + 3 = log 𝑎 10𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6
iii) 2log 𝑎 𝑥 − 2 = log 𝑎 2𝑥 − 5
iv) log 𝑥 3 + log 𝑥 9 + 729 = 9
Solution
i) log 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 0.9031
⇒ log10 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 0.9031
⇒ 100.9031 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 (From the definition)
2
⇒ 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 8 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 − 2 = 0
∴ 𝑥 = −4 , 2
ii) log 𝑎 5𝑥 − 6 + log 𝑎 2𝑥 + 3 = log 𝑎 10𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6
⇒ log 𝑎 5𝑥 − 6 2𝑥 + 3 = log 𝑎 10𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6
Since the bases are the same, then also the numbers must be equal.
⇒ 5𝑥 − 6 2𝑥 + 3 = 10𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6
⇒ 10𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 18 = 10𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6
⇒ 6𝑥 = 12 ∴ 𝑥 = 2
iii) log 𝑎 𝑥 − 2 = log 𝑎 2𝑥 − 5
⇒ log 𝑎 𝑥 − 2 2 = log 𝑎 2𝑥 − 5
⇒ 𝑥 − 2 2 = 2𝑥 − 5
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 2𝑥 − 5
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 3 2 = 0
∴𝑥=3
iv) log 𝑥 3 + log 𝑥 9 + 729 = 9
⇒ log 𝑥 3 × 9 × 729 = 9
⇒ 𝑥 9 = 19683
1 1
⇒ 𝑥 9 9 = 19683 9
∴𝑥=3
Task
1. Solve the equations
i) ln 𝑥 2 − 1 − ln 𝑥 − 1 = ln 5 𝑥>0
3 3
ii) ln 4 + 2 ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 = ln 2 𝑥>0 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: i) ii)
2 2
NOTE: log 𝑒 𝑁 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑁

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

2. Solve that equations

i) 3log 3 2 + 5log 5 7 = 6log 6 𝑥
ii) 11log 𝑥 7 = 7
iii) log10 𝑥 − 2 + log 𝑥 10 = 0
21
iv) log 2 𝑥 + log 4 𝑥 + log16 𝑥 =
4
v) log 2 𝑥 − log 𝑥 8 = 2 (𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟕)
vi) log 4 6 − 𝑥 = log 2 𝑥 (𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟑)
vii) log 𝑛 4 + log 4 𝑛 2 = 3
viii) log 2 𝑥 + log 𝑥 64 = 5
3
ix) log 5 𝑥 − log 𝑥 5 = 2
Solution
i) 3log 3 2 + 5log 5 7 = 6log 6 𝑥
Using 𝑎log 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥,
⇒ 2+7 =𝑥 ∴ 𝑥 = 9
ii) 11log 𝑥 7 = 7
Let log 𝑥 7 = 𝑦 ⇒ 11𝑦 = 7
Introducing logarithm to base 11
⇒ log11 11𝑦 = log11 7 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = log11 7
But log 𝑥 7 = 𝑦 ∴ log 𝑥 7 = log11 7
Since numbers are the same, then 𝑥 = 11
Alternatively
From 𝑎log 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 , since 11log 𝑥 7 = 7, then 𝑥 = 11
⇒ 𝑎log 𝑎 7 = 7, also a must be 11
∴ 11log 11 7 = 7 ⇒ 𝑥 = 11
iii) log10 𝑥 − 2 + log 𝑥 10 = 0
⇒ log10 𝑥 + log 𝑥 10 = 2
Changing to base 10
log 10 10
⇒ log10 𝑥 + =2
log 10 𝑥
1
⇒ log10 𝑥 + log = 2 ; let log10 𝑥 = 𝑦
10 𝑥
1 2
⇒ 𝑦 + 𝑦 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 1 = 0 ∴ 𝑦 = 1
∴ log10 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 10
21
iv) log 2 𝑥 + log 4 𝑥 + log16 𝑥 = 4
Since 4 and 16 are multiples of 2, changing the base to 2
log 2 𝑥 log 2 𝑥 21
⇒ log 2 𝑥 + + =
log 2 4 log 2 16 4
log 2 𝑥 log 2 𝑥 21
⇒ log 2 𝑥 + + =
log 2 2 2 log 2 2 4 4
log 2 𝑥 log 2 𝑥 21
⇒ log 2 𝑥 + 2
+ 4
= 4
1 1 21
⇒ 1+ + log 2 𝑥 =
2 4 16
7 21
⇒ log 2 𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 log 2 𝑥 = 3
4 4
∴ 𝑥 = 23 = 8

v) log 2 𝑥 − log 𝑥 8 = 2, changing to base 2

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

log 2 8
⇒ log 2 𝑥 − =2
log 2 𝑥
3 log 2 2
⇒ log 2 𝑥 − log 2 𝑥
=2
3
⇒ log 2 𝑥 − log 𝑥
= 2 , let log 2 𝑥 = 𝑦
2
3
⇒ 𝑦 − = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 3 = 0
𝑦
⇒ 𝑦 + 1 𝑦 − 3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = −1 , 3
1
⇒ log 2 𝑥 = −1 𝑜𝑟 2−1 = 2 = 𝑥
⇒ log 2 𝑥 = 3 𝑜𝑟 23 = 8 = 𝑥
1
∴𝑥= ,3
2
vi) Left as an exercise (Hint: Change to base 2)
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: x = 2 , −3
vii) log 𝑛 4 + log 4 𝑛 2 = 3
⇒ log 𝑛 4 + 2 log 4 𝑛 = 3
log 4
⇒ log 4 𝑛 + 2 log 4 𝑛 = 3 , let log 4 𝑛 = 𝑥
4
1
⇒ 𝑥 + 2𝑥 = 3 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
1
⇒ 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 1 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = 2 , 1
1
⇒ log 4 𝑛 = 2 𝑜𝑟 41/2 = 2 = 𝑛
⇒ log 4 𝑛 = 1 𝑜𝑟 41 = 4 = 𝑛
∴ 𝑛 = 2,4
viii) Left as an exercise. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 4 , 8
5
ix) Left as an exercise. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑥 = , 25
5
Task
a) Find 𝑥 if log 𝑥 8 − log 𝑥 2 16 = 1 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑥 = 2 𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻: 𝐶𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥
b) Find 𝑥 if log 𝑥 3 + log 3 𝑥 = 2.5 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑥 = 3 , 9
10 3
c) Find 𝑥 if log 𝑥 3 + log 3 𝑥 = 3
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑥 = 27 , 3
𝑥 2 +24
d) Solve for x: log10 =1 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑥 = 4 , 6
𝑥

B. In proof numbers.
1
1. Show that log10 𝑛 is negative where 𝑛 ≥ 2
Solution
1
log10 𝑛 = log10 1 − log10 𝑛 = − log10 𝑛 , which is negative for 𝑛 ≥ 2
1 1
2. If 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 7𝑎𝑏, prove that log 3
𝑎+𝑏 = 2 log 𝑎 + log 𝑏
Solution
𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 7𝑎𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 2
− 2𝑎𝑏 = 7𝑎𝑏
2 𝑎+𝑏 2
∴ 𝑎+𝑏 = 9𝑎𝑏 𝑜𝑟 3
= 𝑎𝑏
1 2
⇒ log 3
𝑎+𝑏 = log 𝑎. 𝑏 = log 𝑎 + log 𝑏
1
⇒ 2 log 𝑎+𝑏 = log 𝑎 + log 𝑏
3
1 1
∴ log 𝑎+𝑏 = log 𝑎 + log 𝑏
3 2

30
 Mathematics for an A-level student

16 25 81
3. Prove that log 2 + 16 log 15 + 12 log 24 + 7 log 80 = 1 (Assuming that the base of
each logarithm is 10)
Solution
L.H.S:
16 25 81
log 2 + 16 log 15 + 12 log 24 + 7 log 80 = log 2 + 16 log 16 − log 15 + 12 log 25 −
log 24
+7 log 81 − log 80
= log 2 + 16 log 24 − 16 log 3 × 5 + 12 log 52 − 12 log 3 × 23 + 7 log 34 −
7 log 24 × 5
= log 2 + 64 log 2 − 16 log 3 − 16 log 5 + 24 log 5 − 12 log 3 − 36 log 2 + 28 log 3 −
28 log 2 − 7 log 5
= 1 + 64 − 36 − 28 log 2 + −16 − 12 + 28 log 3 + −16 + 24 − 7 log 5
= log 2 + log 5
= log 2 + log 5 = log 2 × 5
= log 10 = 1
1 1
4. Prove that log + log =1
𝑎 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 𝑎𝑏
Solution
Let log 𝑎 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏 1/𝑥
log 𝑏 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 1/𝑦
1 1
+
Now 𝑎𝑏 1
= 𝑎𝑏 1/𝑥
. 𝑎𝑏 1/𝑦
= 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 𝑦

1 1
∴ 1 = 𝑥 +𝑦
1 1
⇒ log + log =1
𝑎 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 𝑎𝑏
1 1 1
5. Prove that log + log + log =1
𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝑐
Solution
Proceeding as in the previous example,
Let log 𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 1/𝑥
log 𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 1/𝑦
log 𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 1/𝑧
1 1 1
+ +
Now 𝑎𝑏𝑐 1
= 𝑎𝑏𝑐 1/𝑥
. 𝑎𝑏 1/𝑦
. 𝑎𝑏𝑐 1/𝑧
= 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

1 1 1
∴ 1 = 𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧
1 1 1
⇒ log + log + log =1
𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝑐
6. Prove that
i) log 𝑎 𝑏 × log 𝑏 𝑐 × log 𝑐 𝑑 = log 𝑎 𝑑
ii) log 𝑎 𝑏 × log 𝑏 𝑐 × log 𝑐 𝑑 × log 𝑑 𝑎 = 1
iii) log 𝑎 𝑏 × log 𝑏 𝑎 = 1
Solution
Changing to another base, say 𝑘
log 𝑘 𝑏 log 𝑘 𝑐 log 𝑘 𝑑 log 𝑘 𝑑
i) L.H.S: log 𝑎 𝑏 × log 𝑏 𝑐 × log 𝑐 𝑑 = × × =
log 𝑘 𝑎 log 𝑘 𝑏 log 𝑘 𝑐 log 𝑘 𝑎
Now changing to base 𝑎
log 𝑘 𝑑 log 𝑎 𝑑 log 𝑎 𝑎
⇒ = × = log 𝑎 𝑑
log 𝑘 𝑎 log 𝑎 𝑘 log 𝑎 𝑘
∴ log 𝑎 𝑏 × log 𝑏 𝑐 × log 𝑐 𝑑 = log 𝑎 𝑑

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

log 𝑘 𝑏 log 𝑘 𝑐 log 𝑘 𝑑 log 𝑘 𝑎

ii) L.H.S: log 𝑎 𝑏 × log 𝑏 𝑐 × log 𝑐 𝑑 × log 𝑑 𝑎 = × × × =1
log 𝑘 𝑎 log 𝑘 𝑏 log 𝑘 𝑐 log 𝑘 𝑑
log 𝑏 log 𝑎
iii) L.H.S: log 𝑎 𝑏 × log 𝑏 𝑎 = log 𝑘 𝑎 × log 𝑘 𝑏 = 1
𝑘 𝑘
Task
Prove that:
a) log 𝑎 𝑥 × log 𝑏 𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 × log 𝑎 𝑦
1
b) log 𝑏 𝑎 × log 𝑎 𝑏 × log 𝑎 𝑐 = log 𝑎
𝑐
c) log 2 3 × log 3 8 = 1

More conditional proofs

𝑥 1 1
a) If log 𝑥 3 . 𝑦 3 = 𝑎 and log = 𝑏, show that log 𝑥 = 3𝑏 + 𝑎 and log 𝑦 = 𝑎 − 3𝑏
𝑦 6 6
1
b) If 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 = 0, prove that log 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2 log 𝑎 + log 𝑏 + log 3 given that 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≠ 0.
2𝑥𝑧
c) If 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑧 and 𝑏2 = 𝑎𝑐, prove that 𝑦 = 𝑥+𝑧
d) If log 2𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑥 , log 3𝑎 2𝑎 = 𝑦 , log 4𝑎 3𝑎 = 𝑧, show that 𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 1 = 2𝑦𝑧
e) If 𝑎 = log 24 12 , 𝑏 = log 36 24 , 𝑐 = log 48 36, prove that 1 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 2𝑏𝑐
f) If 𝑧 = log 𝑟 𝑚𝑛 , 𝑥 = log 𝑚 𝑟𝑛 and 𝑦 = log 𝑛 𝑚𝑟 , prove that 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦𝑧 − 2
𝑥𝑦
g) If log 𝑎 𝑁 = 𝑥 and log 𝑏 𝑁 = 𝑦, prove that log 𝑎𝑏 𝑁 = 𝑥+𝑦
Solution
𝑥 1 1
a) log 𝑥 3 . 𝑦 3 = 𝑎 , log 𝑦 = 𝑏 , to show that: log 𝑥 = 6 3𝑏 + 𝑎 and log 𝑦 = 6 𝑎 − 3𝑏
𝑎
From log 𝑥 3 . 𝑦 3 = 𝑎 ⇒ log 𝑥𝑦 3
= 𝑎 ∴ log 𝑥𝑦 = 3
𝑎
⇒ log 𝑥 + log 𝑦 = ……………………………………….. (1)
3
𝑥
Also log 𝑦 = 𝑏 gives
⇒ log 𝑥 − log 𝑦 = 𝑏 ……………………………………….. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 + 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
𝑎 𝑎+3𝑏
⇒ 2 log 𝑥 = 3 + 𝑏 =
3
1
∴ log 𝑥 = 6 3𝑏 + 𝑎
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
𝑎 𝑎 −3𝑏
⇒ 2 log 𝑦 = 3 − 𝑏 =
3
1
∴ log 𝑦 = 6 𝑎 − 3𝑏
b) 𝑎 3 + 𝑏3 = 0
But 𝑎 + 𝑏 3 = 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏2
⇒ 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 3 − 3𝑎𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 3 − 3𝑎𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏 2 − 3𝑎𝑏 = 0
∴ 𝑎 + 𝑏 2 − 3𝑎𝑏 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 + 𝑏 2 = 3𝑎𝑏
Introducing logarithms
⇒ log 𝑎 + 𝑏 2 = log 3𝑎𝑏
⇒ 2 log 𝑎 + 𝑏 = log 3 + log 𝑎 + log 𝑏
1
∴ log 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2 log 𝑎 + log 𝑏 + log 3
c) Let 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑧 = 𝑘
⇒ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑘1/𝑥
⇒ 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 𝑘1/𝑦

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

⇒ 𝑐 𝑧 = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 = 𝑘1/𝑧
Given: 𝑏2 = 𝑎𝑐
1 2 1 1
⇒ 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 . 𝑘𝑧
2 1 1
⇒ 𝑘 𝑦 = 𝑘 𝑥 +𝑧
2 1 1 𝑥+𝑧
∴ = + =
𝑦 𝑥 𝑧 𝑥𝑧
2𝑥𝑧
∴𝑦=
𝑥 +𝑧
Note: the number portrays the use of laws of indices.
1
d) log 2𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑥 ⇒ 2𝑎 𝑥
= 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 2𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥
1
𝑦
log 3𝑎 2𝑎 = 𝑦 ⇒ 3𝑎 = 2𝑎 𝑜𝑟 3𝑎 = 2𝑎 𝑦
1
𝑧
log 4𝑎 3𝑎 = 𝑧 ⇒ 4𝑎 = 3𝑎 𝑜𝑟 4𝑎 = 3𝑎 𝑧
1 1
From 2𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥 ⇒ 2 = 𝑎𝑥 −1 ……………………………… (1)
1
1 1 1
𝑦
From 3𝑎 = 2𝑎 𝑦 ⇒ 3𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥𝑦
1
−1
∴ 3 = 𝑎𝑥𝑦 ……………………………………………….. (2)
1
1 1 𝑧 1
From 4𝑎 = 3𝑎 𝑧 ⇒ 2 .𝑎 = 𝑎 2 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥𝑦𝑧
1 2 1
∴ 𝑎𝑥 −1 . 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥𝑦𝑧
2 1
−2+1
⇒𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥𝑦𝑧
2 1
∴ 𝑥 − 1 = 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑜𝑟 2𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 1
∴ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 1 = 2𝑦𝑧
e) 𝑎 = log 24 12 , 𝑏 = log 36 24 , 𝑐 = log 48 36, to prove that 1 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 2𝑏𝑐
1
𝑎 = log 24 12 ⇒ 24 𝑎
= 12 𝑜𝑟 24 = 12 𝑎 ……………………. (1)
1
𝑏 = log 36 24 ⇒ 36 𝑏
= 24 𝑜𝑟 36 = 24 𝑏 ……………………. (2)
1
𝑐 = log 48 36 ⇒ 48 𝑐
= 36 𝑜𝑟 48 = 36 𝑐 ………………….…. (3)
From eqn. (1)
1
1 1
12 𝑎 −1
24 = 12 𝑎 ⇒2= = 12 𝑎 ……………………………………. (4)
12
From eqn. (2)
1 1 1
1 1 1
24 𝑏 12 𝑏. 2 𝑏 −1
36 = 24 𝑏 ⇒3= 12
= 12
= 12 𝑏 . 2 𝑏 ………….. (5)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (5)
1
1 1 𝑏
−1 −1
⇒ 3 = 12 𝑏 . 12 𝑎

1 1 1 1 1 1
− −1 − + −1
⇒ 3 = 12 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 . 12 𝑏 = 12 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
1
∴ 3 = 12 𝑎𝑏 −1 …………………………………………………………………… (6)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4 , 6 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3)
1 1
48 = 36 𝑐 ⇒ 22 × 12 = 3 12 𝑐
1
1 2 1 𝑐
−1 −1
⇒ 12 𝑎 . 12 = 12 𝑎𝑏 . 12

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

1
2 1 𝑐
−2+1 −1+1
⇒ 12 𝑎 = 12 𝑎𝑏

2 1
∴ −1 = 𝑜𝑟 2𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 1
𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑐
∴ 1 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 2𝑏𝑐
f) Given: 𝑧 = log 𝑟 𝑚𝑛 , 𝑥 = log 𝑚 𝑟𝑛 , 𝑦 = log 𝑛 𝑚𝑟 to prove: 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦𝑧 − 2
1
𝑧 = log 𝑟 𝑚𝑛 ⇒ 𝑟 𝑧 = 𝑚𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = 𝑚𝑛 𝑧 ……………………………. (1)
1
𝑥 = log 𝑚 𝑟𝑛 ⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑥 𝑥 ……………………………. (2)
1
𝑦 = log 𝑛 𝑚𝑟 ⇒ 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑟 𝑦 𝑦 ……………………………. (3)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2) , to eliminate 𝑛
𝑟𝑧 𝑚
⇒ 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑟
⇒ 𝑟 𝑧+1 = 𝑚 𝑥+1
𝑧+1
∴ 𝑚 = 𝑟 𝑥+1 …………………………………………………………………………… (4)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3) , to eliminate 𝑟
𝑚𝑥 𝑛
⇒ 𝑛𝑦
= 𝑚 ⇒ 𝑚 𝑥+1 = 𝑛 𝑦+1
𝑥+1
∴ 𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑦 +1 …………………………………………………………………………… (5)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (5)
𝑥+1
𝑧+1 𝑧+1
𝑦 +1
⇒𝑛= 𝑟 𝑥+1 =𝑟 𝑦 +1 …………………………………………………... (6)
Now eqn. (4), (6) in to eqn. (1)
𝑟 𝑧 = 𝑚𝑛 , becomes
𝑧+1 𝑧+1
⇒ 𝑟𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑥+1 .𝑟 𝑦 +1

𝑧+1 𝑧+1
⇒𝑧= +
𝑥+1 𝑦+1
𝑦𝑧 +𝑦+𝑧+𝑥𝑧 +𝑥+𝑧+1
∴𝑧=
𝑥𝑦 +𝑥+𝑦+1
⇒ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥𝑧 + 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧 = 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1 + 𝑥𝑧 + 𝑥 + 𝑧 + 1
∴ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 + 2
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦𝑧 − 2
1
g) log 𝑎 𝑁 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑁 𝑥 ……………………………… (1)
1
log 𝑏 𝑁 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 𝑁 𝑦 ……………………………… (2)
Multiplying the equations
1 1 1 1
+
⇒ 𝑎. 𝑏 = 𝑁 𝑥 . 𝑁 𝑦 = 𝑁 𝑥 𝑦
Introducing logarithm to base 𝑎𝑏
1 1
+
⇒ log 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏 = log 𝑎𝑏 𝑁 𝑥 𝑦

1 1 𝑥+𝑦
⇒1= 𝑥
+ 𝑦 log 𝑎𝑏 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 1 = 𝑥𝑦
log 𝑎𝑏 𝑁
𝑥𝑦
∴ log 𝑎𝑏 𝑁 =
𝑥+𝑦

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

Task
1. Prove that
1
i) log 𝑏 2 𝑎 × log 𝑥 2 𝑏 = log 𝑥 𝑎
4
1 1 1
ii) If log 𝑎 1 + 8 = 𝑙 , log 𝑎 1 + 15 = 𝑚 and log 𝑎 1 + 24 = 𝑛, then
1
log 𝑎 1 + = 𝑙−𝑚−𝑛
80
𝑥−𝑦 log 𝑏 𝑐−log 𝑏 𝑎
iii) If log 𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑥 and log 𝑐 𝑛 = 𝑦 where 𝑛 ≠ 1 then =
𝑥+𝑦 log 𝑏 𝑐+log 𝑏 𝑎
𝑞
2. a) Given that log 3 𝑥 = 𝑝 and log18 𝑥 = 𝑞, show that log 6 3 = 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟐 .
𝑝−𝑞
2
b) Show that log 8 𝑥 = log 4 𝑥. Hence without using tables/calculator,
3
evaluate log 8 6 to 3 𝑑. 𝑝, if log 4 3 = 0.7925. 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
log 𝑥
c) Prove that log 6 𝑥 = 1+log3 2. Hence given that log 3 2 = 0.631, find without
3
using tables/calculator log 6 4 correct to 3 𝑠. 𝑓. 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟖 𝑴𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒉
d) If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are positive numbers and each is greater than 1,
𝑥 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑦12 and 𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑥 3
Prove that log 𝑥 = 2 log 𝑦. Hence find 𝑥 and 𝑦
ANSWER:
1
a) log 3 𝑥 = 𝑝 ⇒ 3𝑝 = 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 3 = 𝑥 𝑝 …………………………….. (1)
1
log18 𝑥 = 𝑞 ⇒ 18𝑞 = 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 18 = 𝑥 𝑞 ……………………… (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (1)
1 1 1 1 𝑝 −𝑞
−
⇒ 6 = 𝑥 𝑞 ÷ 𝑥 𝑝 = 𝑥 𝑞 𝑝 = 𝑥 𝑝𝑞
Now introducing logarithm to base 6
𝑝 −𝑞
𝑝−𝑞
⇒ log 6 6 = log 6 𝑥 𝑝𝑞 = log 6 𝑥
𝑝𝑞
𝑝−𝑞 𝑝𝑞
⇒1= log 6 𝑥 ∴ log 6 𝑥 = 𝑝−𝑞 , dividing through by 𝑝
𝑝𝑞
log 6 𝑥 𝑞
⇒ = 𝑝 −𝑞
𝑝
𝑞 log 6 𝑥 log 6 𝑥
⇒ = = log 6 𝑥
𝑝−𝑞 log 3 𝑥
log 6 3
𝑞
∴ log 6 3 = 𝑝−𝑞
Alternatively
From log18 𝑥 = 𝑞
log 3 𝑥 log 3 𝑥
𝑞 = log =
318 log 3 3×6
log 3 𝑥 𝑝
𝑞= =
log 3 3+log 3 6 1+log 3 6
⇒ 𝑞 1 + log 3 6 = 𝑝
⇒ 𝑞 + 𝑞 log 3 6 = 𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 − 𝑞 = 𝑞 log 3 6
𝑝−𝑞 log 6 1
⇒ log 3 6 = 𝑞
, but log 3 6 = log 6 3 = log 3
6 6
𝑝−𝑞 1 𝑞
∴ 𝑞
= log 3
𝑜𝑟 log 6 3 = 𝑝−𝑞
6
2
b) To show that log 8 𝑥 = 3 log 4 𝑥
log 4 𝑥 1
LHS: log 8 𝑥 = = log 4 𝑥 .
log 4 8 log 4 8
log 2 8 3 log 2 2 3
But log 4 8 = log 4
= 2 log 2
=2
2 2

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

1 2
∴ log 8 𝑥 = log 4 𝑥 . log 8
= 3 log 4 𝑥
4
Putting 𝑥 = 6 in to the proof,
2 2
⇒ log 8 6 = log 4 6 = log 4 2 × 3
3 3
2
= log 4 2 + log 4 3
3
2 log 2 2 2 1 2
= + log 4 3 = + log 4 3 = 0.5 + 0.7925 = 0.862
3 log 2 4 3 2 log 2 2 3
log 3 𝑥
c) To prove log 6 𝑥 =
1+log 3 2
1
Let log 6 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇒ 6 = 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 6 = 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦

Introducing logarithm to base 3

1
1
⇒ log 3 6 = log 3 𝑥 𝑦 = log 3 𝑥
𝑦
log 𝑥 log 3 𝑥
⇒ log 3 𝑥 = 𝑦 log 3 6 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = log 3 6 = log
3 3 2×3
log 3 𝑥 log 3 𝑥
⇒𝑦= =
log 3 2+log 3 3 1+log 3 2
log 3 𝑥
∴ log 6 𝑥 =
1+log 3 2
Now setting 𝑥 = 4
log 4 2 log 2
⇒ log 6 4 = 1+log3 = 1+log3
32 32
2×0.631 1.262
∴ log 6 4 = 1+0.631 = 1.631 = 0.774
d) 𝑥 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑦12 ⇒ log 𝑥 𝑥+𝑦 = log 𝑦12
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 log 𝑥 = 12 log 𝑦 ………………………………………….. (1)
𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑥 3 ⇒ log 𝑦 𝑥+𝑦 = log 𝑥 3
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 log 𝑦 = 3 log 𝑥 …………………………………………… (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
𝑥+𝑦 log 𝑥 12 log 𝑦 log 𝑥 4 log 𝑥
⇒ = 𝑜𝑟 = , let log 𝑥 = 𝑎 , log 𝑦 = 𝑏
𝑥+𝑦 log 𝑦 3 log 𝑥 log 𝑦 log 𝑦
𝑎 4𝑏 2 2
⇒𝑏 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 4𝑏
𝑎
∴ 𝑎 = 2𝑏
∴ log 𝑥 = 2 log 𝑦
Now from log 𝑥 = 2 log 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 …………………………… (3)
𝑥 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑦12 , becomes
2 2
⇒ 𝑦 2 𝑦 +𝑦 = 𝑦12 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2𝑦 +2𝑦 = 𝑦12
⇒ 2𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 = 12 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 − 6 = 0
⇒ 𝑦 + 3 𝑦 − 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑦 = −3 , 2
From eqn. (3), 𝑥 = 𝑦 2
For 𝑦 = −3 , 𝑥 = −3 2 = 9
𝑦 =2, 𝑥 = 2 2 = 4
∴ 𝑥 = 9 , 𝑦 = −3 ; 𝑥 = 4 , 𝑦 = 2
Task
1. Prove that 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 1 if 𝑎 = log 𝑏 𝑐 , 𝑏 = log 𝑎 𝑏 , log 𝑎 𝑐
log 27+log 8−log 125 3
2. Show that log 6−log 5
=2 without using tables/calculator.
3. Prove that log 1 + 2 + 3 = log 1 + log 2 + log 3
4. Prove that log 4 2 . log 2 6 . log 6 4 = 1
5. Prove that log 2 log 2 log 3 log 273 = 0

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS INVOLVING LOGARITHMS

1) Solve the following simultaneous equations
a) 2 log 𝑥 𝑦 = 1
𝑥𝑦 = 64
b) 6 log 3 𝑥 + 6 log 27 𝑦 = 7
4 log 9 𝑥 + 4 log 3 𝑦 = 9
c) 𝑦 log 2 8 = 𝑥
2𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 8192
d) log 𝑥 − log 2 = 2 log 𝑦
𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 2 = 0
e) log 2 𝑥 + 2 log 4 𝑦 = 4
𝑥 + 12𝑦 = 52
f) ln 6 + ln 𝑥 − 3 = 2 ln 𝑦
2𝑦 − 𝑥 = 3
g) 2 + log 2 2𝑥 + 1 = 2 log 2 𝑦
𝑥 = 22 − 𝑦

Solution
a) 2 log 𝑥 𝑦 = 1 ⇒ log 𝑥 𝑦 2 = 1 ∴ 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 ………………….. (1)
𝑥𝑦 = 64 ……………………………………………………. (2)
eqn. 1 in to eqn. (2)
⇒ 𝑦. 𝑦 2 = 64 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 3 = 43 ∴ 𝑦 = 4 …………………… (3)
From eqn. (1), 𝑥 = 42 = 16
∴ 𝑥 = 16 , 𝑦 = 4

b) 6 log 3 𝑥 + 6 log 27 𝑦 = 7
Changing to the same base
log 3 𝑦
⇒ 6 log 3 𝑥 + 6 log 27
=7
3
log 3 𝑦 log 3 𝑦
⇒ 6 log 3 𝑥 + 6 log = 7 or ⇒ 6 log 3 𝑥 + 6 =7
3 33 3
∴ 6 log 3 𝑥 + 2 log 3 𝑦 = 7 ……………………………………... (1)
log 𝑥
4 log 9 𝑥 + 4 log 3 𝑦 = 9 ⇒ 4 log 3 9 + 4 log 3 𝑦 = 9
3
∴ 2 log 3 𝑥 + 4 log 3 𝑦 = 9 ………………………………………. (2)
Eliminating log 3 𝑥 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
eqn. 1 − 3 × eqn. (2)
⇒ 6 log 3 𝑥 + 2 log 3 𝑦 = 7
6 log 3 𝑥 + 12 log 3 𝑦 = 27
−10 log 3 𝑦 = −20 ⇒ log 3 𝑦 = 2
⇒ 𝑦 = 32 = 9 ……………………………………………………. (3)
eqn. 3 in to eqn. 2
⇒ 2 log 3 𝑥 + 4 log 3 9 = 9
⇒ 2 log 3 𝑥 + 8 = 9
⇒ 2 log 3 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 log 3 𝑥 2 = 1
⇒ 𝑥 2 = 3 ∴ 𝑥 = + 3 …………………………………………… (4)
∴ 𝑥 = + 3 ;𝑦 = 9

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

c) 𝑦 log 2 8 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 log 2 23 = 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3𝑦………………………. (1)

2𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 8192 …………………………………….…………… (2)
eqn. 1 in to eqn. (2)
⇒ 23𝑦 + 8𝑦 = 8192
⇒ 8𝑦 + 8𝑦 = 8192
⇒ 2 8𝑦 = 8192 𝑜𝑟 8𝑦 = 4096 = 84
∴ 𝑦 = 4 ………………………………………………………….. (3)
eqn. 3 in to eqn. (1)
⇒ 𝑥 = 3 × 4 = 12
∴ 𝑥 = 12 , 𝑦 = 4

𝟏 𝟏
d) Left as an exercise ANSWER: 𝒙 = 𝟐 , 𝒚 = 𝟒 ; 𝒙 = 𝟖 , 𝒚 = 𝟐

𝟏
e) Left as an exercise ANSWER: 𝒙 = 𝟒 , 𝒚 = 𝟒 ; 𝒙 = 𝟒𝟖 , 𝒚 = 𝟑

f) Left as an exercise ANSWER: 𝒙 = 𝟗 , 𝒚 = 𝟔

g) Left as an exercise ANSWER: 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐 , 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

SURDS
Definition:
A surd is an irrational root of a rational number.
𝑛
A rational number is a number with exact 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 root . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑏 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
4 3
𝑒. 𝑔. 4 = 2 , 16 = 2 , 8 = 2 , these are rational numbers.
𝑛
If 𝑎 = 𝑏 for some rational number b such that a itself is an irrational
𝑛
number, then 𝑎 = 𝑏 is a surd.
𝑛
When 𝑎 = 𝑏 is a surd, 𝑛 is called order of 𝑎 and 𝑏 is called a radicand of 𝑎.
Surds of 2𝑛𝑑 , 3𝑟𝑑 , 4𝑡𝑕 and higher orders are respectively called quadratic,
cubic, quartic and quintic.

Compound, Simple and Similar surds

A compound surd is a surd with coefficient different from
±1. 𝑒. 𝑔. 2 2 , 3 5 , −3 7 𝑒𝑡𝑐
4 1 3
A simple surd is a surd with coefficient ±1. 𝑒. 𝑔. 2 , , 7 𝑒𝑡𝑐
4
Similar surds are surds if in reduced form (simplified form) contain same
surds. 𝑒. 𝑔 45 and 80 are similar surds, since 45 = 3 5 and 80 = 4 5.
Similar surds can be added or subtracted easily after being reduced to their
simplest forms.
𝑒. 𝑔. 75 + 27 = 5 3 + 3 3 = 8 3 and 2 128 − 162 = 16 2 − 9 2 = 7 2.

Rules of simplifying surds

𝑛 𝑛
i) 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑎. 𝑏; surds of the same order can be multiplied or divided
𝑎

𝑛 𝑛 𝑎
ii)
𝑎
𝑎÷ 𝑏=
𝑏

iii) 𝑚 𝑎 ± 𝑛 𝑎 = 𝑚 ± 𝑛 𝑎
2 2
iv) 𝑚 𝑎+𝑛 𝑏 𝑚 𝑎−𝑛 𝑏 = 𝑚 𝑎 − 𝑛 𝑏
𝑛 𝑛
v) 𝑁 𝑎 𝑎 × 𝑀 𝑏 = 𝑀𝑁 𝑎. 𝑏
vi) If 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0 if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 0
vii) If 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑐 if and only if 𝑎 = 0 , 𝑏 = 𝑐
viii) If 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑐 + 𝑑 if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐 , 𝑏 = 𝑑
ix) If 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 then 𝑎 − 𝑏 = ± 𝑥 − 𝑦
Rules /properties from (viii) to (ix) represent quadratic mixed surds
properties.

RATIONALIZATION
If the product of two surds is a rational number and if one of them is
multiplied by the other, the process is called Rationalization.
Thus 3 × 3 = 3, so multiplication by 3 is rationalization of 3.
Similarly 5 − 3 then multiplied by 5 + 3 is rationalized to 2 as
5+ 3 5− 3 = 5−3 = 2

NOTE:
Rationalization can be in the numerator/denominator of a given surd.

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

Rationalization of Denominator
𝒂
Case I: Two quadratic surds Denominator.
𝒃+ 𝒄
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏− 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏− 𝑐
= = 2 2
𝑏+ 𝑐 𝑏+ 𝑐 𝑏− 𝑐 𝑏 − 𝑐
𝑎 𝑏− 𝑐 𝑎 𝑎
= 𝑏−𝑐
= 𝑏−𝑐 𝑏 − 𝑏−𝑐 𝑐
Note:
𝑏 − 𝑐 is a surd conjugate of 𝑏 + 𝑐

𝒂
Case II: Three quadratic surds Denominator.
𝒃+ 𝒄+ 𝒅
First multiply both numerator and denominator by 𝑏+ 𝑐 − 𝑑
2 2
Denominator becomes 𝑏+ 𝑐 − 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑑 + 2 𝑏𝑐
Then multiply both numerator and denominator by 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑑 − 2 𝑏𝑐
2
Denominator becomes 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑑 2 − 2 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑑 2 − 4𝑏𝑐 which is a
rational quantity.
Example
1. Express as equivalent fraction with a rational denominator
1
a)
2+ 3
7+4 3
b)
7−4 3
1 1
c) +2
3+ 2 3− 2
Solution
1 2− 3 2− 3 2− 3
a) = = 2 2 = = 3− 2
2+ 3 2+ 3 2− 3 2 − 3 −1
7+4 3 7+4 3 7+4 3 49+28 3+28 3+16 9
b) = = 2
7−4 3 7−4 3 7+4 3 72 − 4 3
49+48+56 3
= 49−48
= 74 + 56 3
1 1 3− 2 2 3+ 2
c) +2 = +
3+ 2 3− 2 3+ 2 3− 2 2 3− 2 2 3+ 2
3− 2 2 3+ 2 2 3+ 2
= 2 2 + 2 2 = 3− 2+
3 − 2 2 3 − 2 12−2
10 3−10 2+2 3+ 2 12 3−9 2
= =
10 10
3
= 10 4 3 − 3 2
2. Express as equivalent fraction with a rational denominator
1
a)
1+ 2− 3
1
b)
2+ 3+ 5
Solution
1 1 1+ 2 + 3
a) 1+ 2− 3
= 1+ 2 − 3
= 1+ 2 − 3 1+ 2 + 3
1+ 2+ 3 1+ 2+ 3
= 2 2 =
1+ 2 − 3 1+2 2+2−3
1+ 2+ 3 1+ 2+ 3 2
= =
2 2 2 2× 2
2 1+ 2+ 3 2+2+ 6
= =
4 4

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

1 1 2+ 3 − 5
b) 2+ 3+ 5
= 2+ 3 + 5
= 2+ 3 + 5 2+ 3 − 5
2+ 3− 5 2+ 3− 5
= 2 2 =
2+ 3 − 5 4+4 3+3−5
2+ 3− 5 2+ 3− 5 2−4 3
= =
2+4 3 2+4 3 2−4 3
4−8 3+2 3−4 9−2 5+4 15 −8−6 3−2 5+4 15
= 2 = 4−48
22 − 4 3
1
= 44 8 + 6 3 + 2 5 − 4 15

Task
Express as equivalent fractions with rational denominators
12
a) 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 1 + 5 + 10 − 2
3+ 5−2 2
1 1
b) 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 8 + 6 3 + 2 5 − 4 15
2+ 3− 5 44
3. Express as equivalent fractions with rational denominators
2
a)
2+ 3− 5
1
b)
2+ 3+ 5
Solution
2 2 2 2+ 3 + 5
a) = =
2+ 3− 5 2+ 3 − 5 2+ 3 − 5 2+ 3 + 5
4+ 6+ 10 2+ 6+ 10
= 2 2 =
2+ 3 − 5 2+2 6+3−5
2+ 6+ 10 6 2+ 6+ 10
= =
2 6 2 6× 6
2 6+6+ 60 6+2 6+2 15
= =
12 12
3+ 6+ 15
=
6
1 1 2+ 3− 5
b) = =
2+ 3+ 5 2+ 3 + 5 2+ 3 + 5 2+ 3 − 5
2+ 3− 5 2+ 3− 5
= 2 2 = 2+2
2+ 3 − 5 6+3−5

2+ 3− 5 6 2+ 3− 5
= 2 6
= 2 6× 6
12+ 18− 30 2 3+3 2− 30
= =
12 12

Task
Express as equivalent fractions with rational denominators
10− 5− 3 3 30+5 15−10 2−12
3− 10− 5
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 7

2 24
4. If 𝑥 = , find the value of;
2+ 3
𝑥+ 8
i) 𝑥− 8
𝑥+ 12
ii) 𝑥− 12
𝑥+ 8 𝑥+ 12
iii) +
𝑥− 8 𝑥− 12

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

Solution
2 24 2 6×4 4 6
𝑥= 2+ 3
= 2+ 3
= 2+ 3
4 6 2− 3 4 12−4 18
= = 2 2
2+ 3 2− 3 2 − 3
4 2 3 −4 3 2
= = 12 2 − 8 3
2−3
𝑥+ 8 12 2−8 3+ 8 12 2−8 3+2 2
i) Now = =
𝑥− 8 12 2−8 3− 8 12 2−8 3−2 2
14 2−8 3 7 2−4 3
= 10 2−8 3 5 2−4 3
=
7 2−4 3 5 2+4 3
= 5 2−4 3 5 2+4 3
70−48+18 6 22+8 6
= 2 2 = = 11 + 4 6
5 2 − 4 3 50−48
𝑥+ 12 12 2−8 3+ 12 12 2−8 3+2 3
ii) = 12 = 12
𝑥− 12 2−8 3− 12 2−8 3−2 3
12 2−6 3 6 2−3 3
= 12 =
2−10 3 6 2−5 3
6 2−3 3 6 2+5 3
=
6 2−5 3 6 2+5 3
72−45+30 6−18 6 27+12 6
= 2 2 =
6 2 − 5 3 72−75
27+12 6
= −3
= −9 − 4 6
𝑥+ 8 𝑥+ 12
iii) + 𝑥− = 11 + 4 6 + −9 − 4 6 = 11 − 9 + 4 6 − 4 6 = 2
𝑥− 8 12
1
5. If 𝑥 = 3 + , calculate;
3
126
i) 𝑥− 42
1
ii) 𝑥− 2 3
𝑥−
3

126 1
iii) 𝑥− . 𝑥− 2 3
, correct to 2 𝑑. 𝑝
42 𝑥−
3
Solution
1 9+1 3+1 4
𝑥 = 3+ = = =
3 3 3 3
126 126
i) 𝑥− =𝑥− =𝑥− 3
42 42
126 4 4− 9 1
∴ 𝑥− = − 3= =
42 3 3 3
1 4 1
ii) 𝑥− 2 3
= − 4 2 3
𝑥− 3 –
3 3 3
4 3 1 4 3 3
= −4 3 2 3
= −
3 − 3 2 3
3 3
8 9−9 15 5 5 3
= = = =
6 3 6 3 2 3 6
126 1 1 5 3 5
iii) 𝑥− . 𝑥− 2 3
= × = = 0.83
42 𝑥− 3 6 6
3

Proofs in surds
3− 2 3+ 2
1. If 𝑥 = ,𝑦 = , show that 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 = 289
3+ 2 3− 2

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

Solution
3− 2 3− 2 3− 2 3+2−2 6
𝑥= = = 2 2
3+ 2 3+ 2 3− 2 3 − 2

=5−2 6
2
𝑥2 = 5 − 2 6 = 25 − 20 6 + 24
= 49 − 20 6
3− 2 3+ 2
𝑥. 𝑦 = =1
3+ 2 3− 2
3+ 2 1 1
𝑦= = =
3− 2 𝑥 5−2 6
5+2 6 5+2 6
= = 2
5−2 6 5+2 6 52− 2 6

=5+2 6
2
𝑦2 = 5 + 2 6 = 25 + 20 6 + 24
= 49 + 20 6
∴ 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 = 3 49 − 20 6 − 5 1 + 3 49 + 20 6
= 147 − 60 6 − 5 + 147 + 60 6 = 289

5− 21 1 1 1
2. If 𝑥 = , prove that 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 3 − 5 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0
2
Solution
1 5− 21 2
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 = + 5−
2 21
2
5− 21 +2 25−10 21+21+4
= 2 5− 21
= 2 5− 21
50−10 21 10 5− 21 10
= = = =5
2 5− 21 2 5− 21 2
1 1 2 1
Now 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2. 𝑥. 𝑥 = 𝑢 2 − 2
= 52 − 2 = 23
1 1 3 1
𝑥3 + = 𝑥+ −3 𝑥+
𝑥3 𝑥 𝑥
= 53 − 3 × 5 = 125
1 1 1
∴ 𝑥3 + − 5 𝑥2 + + 𝑥+ = 110 − 5 23 + 5 = 0
𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥

−3+ 5 1 1
3. If 𝑥 = , show that 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 4 = 0
2
Solution
−3+ 5 1 2 2 −3− 5
𝑥= 2
⇒ 𝑥 = −3+ 5
= −3+ 5 −3− 5
1 −6−2 5 −2 3+ 5 3+ 5
= 2 = =−
𝑥 −3 2 − 5 9−5 2
1 −3+ 5 3+ 5
Now 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 2
− 2
= −3
1 1 2
𝑥2 + = 𝑥+ −2
𝑥2 𝑥
2 1 2
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 = −3 −2 = 7
2 1 1
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 4 = 7 − 3 − 4 = 0

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Task
1 1 1
1. If 𝑥 = 7 − 48, prove that 𝑥 3 + − 15 𝑥 2 + + 20 𝑥 + − 72 = 0
𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥
2. If 𝑥 = 7 − 5, prove that 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 − 20𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 39 = 15
3

5+ 3
3. It is given that 3 = 1.732 and 5 = 2.236, evaluate
4+ 15
5+ 3 5+ 3 4− 15 4 5+4 3− 75− 45
𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐓: 4+ 15
= 4+ 15 4− 15
= 16−15

= 4 5+4 3−5 3−3 5 = 5− 3

= 2.236 − 1.732 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟒

19 27 2
4. If 2 54 + 5 294 + 30 6 − 50
− 3
= 𝑎 𝑏, find a.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑎 = 41

TO FIND THE SQUARE ROOT OF A MIXED QUADRATIC SURD

A surd of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏 is a mixed quadratic surd. To find 𝒂 + 𝒃,
proceed as follows.
Let 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝑥 + 𝑦, squaring both sides
2 2
𝑎+ 𝑏 = 𝑥+ 𝑦
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2 𝑥𝑦
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 ………………………………………….. (1)
⇒ 𝑏 = 2 𝑥𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 4𝑥𝑦
⇒ 𝑏 = 4𝑥𝑦 ……………………………………………... (2)
From 𝑥 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑦
∴ 𝑥 − 𝑦 = ± 𝑎2 − 𝑏 ………………………………. (3)
Now taking the positive sign in the equation
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑦 = + 𝑎2 − 𝑏 …………………………….. (4)
Adding eqn. (1) and (4)
1
⇒𝑥= 𝑎 + 𝑎2 − 𝑏
2
1
⇒𝑦= 𝑎 − 𝑎2 − 𝑏
2

Hence 𝑎 + 𝑏 can be determined

NOTE:
If we take a −𝑣𝑒 sign from eqn. (3), the value of x and y will be interchanged
and we shall get a second square root of 𝑎+ 𝑏

Example
1. Find the square root of
31 + 4 21
Solution
Let 31 + 4 21 = 𝑥 + 𝑦, squaring both sides
⇒ 31 + 4 21 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2 𝑥𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 31 ……………………………………… (1)

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2 𝑥𝑦 = 4 21 ,squaring
⇒ 4𝑥𝑦 = 336 𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝑦 = 84 ………………….. (2)
But 𝑥 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑦
⇒ x − y = 312 − 336 = ±25
Taking the +𝑣𝑒 sign
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 25 ……………………………………. (3)
Adding eqn. (1) and (3)
2𝑥 = 56 ⇒ 𝑥 = 28
From eqn. (1) 𝑦 = 31 − 𝑥 = 31 − 28 = 3
∴ 31 + 4 21 = ± 28 + 3 = ± 2 7 + 3

2. Find the square root of 32 − 24

Solution
32 − 24 = 4 2 − 2 6 = 2 4 − 2 3
1
Then 32 − 24 = 2 4 − 2 3 = 24 4 − 2 3

Evaluating 4−2 3
Let 4 − 2 3 = 𝑥 − 𝑦, squaring both sides
⇒ 4 − 2 3 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2 𝑥𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4 ………………………………………….… (1)
2 𝑥𝑦 = 2 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝑦 = 3 , squaring
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 3………………………..……………………….. (2)
But 𝑥 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑦
⇒ x − y = 42 − 3 = ±2
Taking the +𝑣𝑒 sign
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2 ……………………………………………. (3)
Adding eqn. (1) and (3)
2𝑥 = 6 ⇒ 𝑥 = 3
From eqn. (1) 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 = 4 − 3 = 1
1 1
∴ 32 − 24 = 24 4 − 2 3 = ±24 3−1

7+4 3
3. If 𝑥 = , show that 𝑥 2 𝑥 − 14 2
=1
7−4 3
Solution
7+4 3 7+4 3 7+4 3
𝑥= ⇒𝑥=
7−4 3 7−4 3 7+4 3
7+4 3
⇒𝑥= =7+4 3
49−48
2 2
Now 𝑥 − 14 2
= 7 + 4 3 − 14 = −7 + 4 3
2
⇒ 𝑥 − 14 = 49 − 56 3 + 48
= 97 − 56 3
2
Also 𝑥 2 = 7 + 4 3
= 49 + 56 3 + 48 = 97 + 56 3
2
∴ 𝑥 2 𝑥 − 14 2
= 97 + 56 3 97 − 56 3 = 972 − 56 3 =1

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1 𝑥 2 −1 𝑎−1
4. If 2𝑥 = 𝑎 + , show that =
𝑎 𝑥− 𝑥 2 −1 2
Solution
1 𝑎 +1
2𝑥 = 𝑎 + ⇒𝑥=
𝑎 2 𝑎
𝑎 +1 2 𝑎 2 +2𝑎+1
Now 𝑥 = 2
=
4𝑎 4𝑎
𝑎 2 +2𝑎+1 𝑎 2 −2𝑎+1 𝑎 −1 2
Also 𝑥 − 1 =
2
−1 = =
4𝑎 4𝑎 4𝑎
𝑎 −1 2
𝑥 2 −1 4𝑎
⇒ =
𝑥− 𝑥 2 −1 𝑎 +1 𝑎 −1 2
−
2 𝑎 4𝑎
𝑎 −1
2 𝑎 𝑎 −1 2𝑎 𝑎 −1
= 𝑎 +1 𝑎 −1 = ÷ =
− 2 𝑎 2 𝑎 2
2 𝑎 2 𝑎

Task
3−2
1. Simplify 2 3+3
(𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟕)
2. Express as an equivalent fraction with a rational denominator
2 6+2 6+2 15
(𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟔) 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑:
2+ 3− 5 12
1+ 3 7
3. Express 3 in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑐 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: +2 3
3−1 2

4. Find the square root of 14 + 6 5 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: ± 3 + 5

2 3
5. Simplify
1+ 2+ 3
6. Find the rational numbers a and b such that
3+ 2= 𝑎+𝑏 2 6−2 3
13 3 13 3
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑎 + 𝑏 2 = 14 + 7 2 ⇒ 𝑎 = 14 , 𝑏 = 7 , 𝑐 = 2

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

THE THEORY OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

An equations of degree two is a quadratic equation and generally takes the
form , where 𝑎 , 𝑏, 𝑐 are rational numbers.
𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
Types of Quadratic Equations
Are of two types . 𝑖. 𝑒.
a) Pure Quadratic Equation
Is an equation of the form 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 , where 𝑏 = 0 in
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
b) Affected Quadratic Equation
Is an equation which is not a pure quadratic equation, and takes on the
form, with 𝑎𝑏 ≠ 0 ⇔ 𝑎 ≠ 0 , 𝑏 ≠ 0
𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎

Methods of solving a Quadratic Equation 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎

I) Method of Factorization
If the expression 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 can be factored in to linear factors, then each
of the factors put to zero, provides us with a root of the quadratic equation.
Thus if
𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝒂 𝒙 − 𝜶 𝒙 − 𝜷

, then the roots of the equation 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 are 𝒙 = 𝜶 and 𝒙 = 𝜷

Example
Solve:
a) 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0
b) 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 = 0
c) 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 = 0
Solution
a) 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0
Sum of roots= −5 , (coefficient of middle term)
Product = 6 , (product of the constant term and coefficient of 𝑥 2 )
Numbers = −2 , −3
∴ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 6 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 𝑥−2 −3 𝑥−2 = 0
⇒ 𝑥−3 𝑥−2 =0
∴ 𝑥 − 3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
∴ 𝑥 − 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2
Hence roots are 3 and 2
b) 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 = 0
Sum of roots= −5
Product = 2 × −3 = −6
Numbers = −3 , 2
∴ 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 3 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 2𝑥 − 3 + 1 2𝑥 − 3 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 − 3 = 0
∴ 𝑥 + 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1

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3
∴ 2𝑥 − 3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2
3
Hence roots are −1 and 2
3
c) Left as an exercise: 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: x = 1 ; − 4

II) Method of Perfect Square

Let 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 be given equation.
Step 1: Divide both sides by 𝑎
𝑏 𝑐
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + = 0
𝑎 𝑎
Step 2: Transpose the constant term (i.e. term independent of 𝑥) on the
R.H.S
𝑏 𝑐
𝑥2 + 𝑎 𝑥 = − 𝑎
𝑏2
Step 3: Add to both sides
4𝑎 2
2 𝑏 𝑏2 𝑐 𝑏2
𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 4𝑎 2 = − 𝑎 + 4𝑎 2
𝑏 2 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 2𝑎 =
4𝑎 2

𝑏2 𝑏 2 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓 .𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2
NOTE: = ÷2 =
4𝑎 2 𝑎 2
Step 4: Find the square root on both sides
𝑏 ± 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥 + 2𝑎 =
2𝑎
Now solving for 𝑥
−𝑏± 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= . This is a quadratic formula for solving quadratic equations.
2𝑎

−𝒃± 𝒃𝟐 −𝟒𝒂𝒄
𝒙= , for 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
𝟐𝒂

Example
Solve:
a) 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0
b) 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 = 0
Solution
By quadratic formula
a) 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −5 , 𝑐 = 6
− −5 ± −5 2 −4 1 6 5±1
∴𝑥= =
2 1 2
5+1
∴𝑥= =3
2
5−1
∴𝑥= =2
2
∴ Roots are 3 and 2
b) 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = −1 , 𝑐 = −3
− −1 ± −1 2 −4 2 −3 1±5
∴𝑥= =
2 2 2
1+5 3
∴𝑥= 4
=2

1−5
∴𝑥= 2
= −2

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3
∴ Roots are 2 and −2

Nature of Roots of a Quadratic Equation

−𝒃± 𝒃𝟐 −𝟒𝒂𝒄
The equation 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 has roots 𝒙 =
𝟐𝒂
Nature of roots depend on 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 inside the radical, called
DISCRIMINANT
Let the roots be 𝛼 and 𝛽
−𝑏+ 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏− 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
Let 𝛼 = , 𝛽=
2𝑎 2𝑎
Deduction
Case I:
If 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is positive. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0, 𝛼 and 𝛽 are real and unequal or real
and distinct
Case II:
If 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is zero. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, 𝛼 and 𝛽 are real and equal each reducing
𝑏
in this case to – 2𝑎 or roots are coincident/double/repeated.
Case III:
If 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is negative . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, 𝛼 and 𝛽 are imaginary and unequal
Case IV:
If 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is a perfect square, 𝛼 and 𝛽 are rational and unequal
By applying these tests the nature of roots of any quadratic equation may
be determined without solving.
Graphical Interpretation of 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄
The graph 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is a parabola with vertical axis of symmetry.
𝒚 𝒚
Axis
Vertex

Vertex 𝒙
𝑶
𝒙
𝑶 Axis
2
𝐹𝑖𝑔. 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑎 > 0 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑎 < 0
(Opens upwards and has a (Opens down wards and
minimum values) has a minimum values)

𝑦 = 𝑥2
1
𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 = 𝑥2
4

Note: The bigger 𝑎

the narrower the
parabola.

1
𝑦 = − 𝑥2 𝑦 = −3𝑥 2
4
𝑦 = −𝑥 2

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For an equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

𝒚 Axis 𝒚
Axis

𝒙 𝟎 ,𝒄

−𝑏+ 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
,0
2𝑎
−𝑏− 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝒙
,0
2𝑎
𝟎 ,𝒄
𝟐
Fig I. 𝒃 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 > 0 There are two intercepts
Fig II. 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 < 0. No 𝑥 − intercepts
𝒚
Axis

𝟎 ,𝒄

𝒃 𝒙
− ,𝟎
𝟐𝒂

Fig III. 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 = 𝟎. There is one intercept. (at the point

where the parabola meets the 𝑥 −axis and 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 in a
tangent)
Illustrative examples on deduced cases on roots of a quadratic
equation 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
1. Show that the equation 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 7 = 0 cannot be satisfied by any real value
of 𝑥.
Solution
From discriminate, 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐, 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = −6 , 𝑐 = 7
⇒ −6 2 − 4 2 7 = −20 . Thus roots are imaginary.
2. If the equation 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑘 + 2 𝑥 + 9𝑘 = 0 has equal roots, find 𝑘.
Solution
For equal roots 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 , 𝑎 = 1 , 𝑏 = 2 𝑘 + 2 , 𝑐 = 9𝑘
⇒ 2 𝑘 + 2 2 − 4 1 9𝑘 = 0 ……………………………………….÷ 4
⇒ 𝑘 + 2 2 − 9𝑘 = 0
⇒ 𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 4 − 9𝑘 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 2 − 5𝑘 + 4 = 0
⇒ 𝑘 −1 𝑘−4 = 0 ∴ 𝑘 = 1,4
3. Show that the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 2𝑝𝑥 + 𝑝2 − 𝑞2 + 2𝑞𝑟 − 𝑟 2 = 0 are
rational.
Solution
For rational roots, 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is a perfect square
𝑎 = 1 , 𝑏 = −2𝑝 , 𝑐 = 𝑝2 − 𝑞2 + 2𝑞𝑟 − 𝑟 2
⇒ 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = −2𝑝 2 − 4 1 𝑝2 − 𝑞2 + 2𝑞𝑟 − 𝑟 2
= 4𝑝2 − 4𝑝2 + 4 𝑞2 + 2𝑞𝑟 + 𝑟 2 = 4 𝑞2 + 2𝑞𝑟 + 𝑟 2
= 4 𝑞 − 𝑟 2 = 2 𝑞 − 𝑟 2 , hence roots are rational.

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4. Prove that the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 − 𝑐 2 = 0 are real.

Solution
For real roots, 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≥ 0
Note: for real and distinct roots, 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0
⇒ −2𝑎 2 − 4 1 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 − 𝑐 2 ≥ 0
⇒ 4𝑎2 − 4𝑎2 + 4 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 ≥ 0
⇒ 4 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 ≥ 0
R.H.S will always be true for any value of 𝑏 and 𝑐.
5. Prove that the roots of the equation 𝑎 − 𝑏 − 𝑐 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0 are real if
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are real
Solution
For real roots 𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶 ≥ 0
⇒ 𝑎2 − 4 𝑎 − 𝑏 − 𝑐 𝑏 + 𝑐 ≥ 0
Let 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑛
⇒ 𝑎2 − 4 𝑎 − 𝑛 𝑛 ≥ 0
⇒ 𝑎2 − 4𝑎𝑛 + 4𝑛 2 ≥ 0
⇒ 𝑎 − 2𝑛 2 ≥ 0
∴ 𝑎−2 𝑏+𝑐 2 ≥ 0
This inequality will be satisfied if 𝑎 , 𝑏 and 𝑐 are real, hence 𝑎 , 𝑏 and 𝑐 are
real.

Task
1. Prove that the roots of the equations are real rational
a) 𝑎 + 𝑐 − 𝑏 𝑥 2 + 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑎 = 0
b) 𝑎𝑏𝑐 2 𝑥 2 + 3𝑎2 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑐𝑥 − 6𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑏2 = 0
2. Prove that the roots of the equation 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 𝑥 2 + 4 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑎 − 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 0
are real
3. For what values of m will the equations
a) 𝑥 2 − 15 − 𝑚 2𝑥 − 8 = 0
b) 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 1 + 3𝑚 + 7 3 + 2𝑚 = 0 , have equal roots?
𝟏𝟎
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑎) 𝟑 , 𝟓 𝑏) 𝟐 , −
𝟗

Relationship between roots of a quadratic equation . 𝒊. 𝒆. 𝜶 and 𝜷 and its

coefficients in 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
From 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, with roots 𝛼 and 𝛽,
−𝑏+ 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏− 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏± 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝛼= 2𝑎
, 𝛽= 2𝑎
∵𝑥= 2𝑎
−𝑏+ 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏− 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 𝑏
Then 𝛼 + 𝛽 = + =−
2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎

𝒃
𝜶 + 𝜷 = −𝒂
−𝑏+ 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏− 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
Also 𝛼. 𝛽 = ×
2𝑎 2𝑎
−𝑏+ 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 . −𝑏− 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
= 4𝑎 2
2
−𝑏 2 − 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 𝑏 2 − 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 𝒄
= 4𝑎 2
= 4𝑎 2
𝜶. 𝜷 = 𝒂
4𝑎𝑐 𝑐
= =
4𝑎 2 𝑎

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From 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, re writing in the form

𝒃 𝒄
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + = 𝟎
𝒂 𝒂

From
𝑏 𝑏 𝑐
𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑎
= − 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼. 𝛽 = 𝑎
∴ the quadratic equation becomes

𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 𝜶 + 𝜷 + 𝜶. 𝜷 = 𝟎

In general, if a quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 can be written with

𝒃 𝒄
coefficient of the first term as unity 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂 𝒙 + 𝒂 = 𝟎, then
a) Sum of roots = coefficient of 𝑥 with its sign changed
b) Product of roots = the third term
Note:
Re writing 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 𝜶 + 𝜷 + 𝜶. 𝜷 = 𝟎 by factorization,

𝒙−𝜶 . 𝒙−𝜷 = 𝟎 , is a quadratic equation with coefficient

of 𝒙𝟐 being unity.
In general, the quadratic equation with given roots is

𝒙𝟐 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝒙 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝟎

Illustrative examples
1. Form the equation whose roots are;
a) 3 and −2
b) 2 + 3 and 2 − 3
Solution
Required equation is 𝒙𝟐 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝒙 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝟎
a) Sum of roots = 3 + −2 = 1
Product of roots = 2 −3 = −6
∴ Required equations is 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 = 0
b) Sum of roots = 2 + 3 + 2 − 3 = 4
2
Product of roots = 2 + 3 . 2 − 3 = 22 − 3 = 1
∴ Required equations is 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
2. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0, find;
i) Values of 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2
ii) Values of 𝛼 3 + 𝛽3
1 1
iii) Values of +
𝛼2 𝛽2
𝛼 𝛽 2
iv) Value of −
𝛽 𝛼
Solution
𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 , 𝛼 , 𝛽 are roots
⇒ 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − −𝑝 = 𝑝 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑
⇒ 𝛼. 𝛽 = 𝑞

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i) From 𝛼 + 𝛽 2 = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 + 2 𝛼. 𝛽
∴ 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 2 − 2 𝛼. 𝛽
= 𝑝2 − 2𝑞
ii) From 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝛼 3 + 3𝛼 2 𝛽 + 3𝛼𝛽2 + 𝛽3
3

∴ 𝛼 3 + 𝛽3 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 3 − 3 𝛼. 𝛽 𝛼 + 𝛽
= 𝑝3 − 3𝑝𝑞
1 1 𝛼 2 +𝛽 2 𝛼 2 +𝛽 2 𝑝 2 −2𝑞
iii) + = = =
𝛼2 𝛽2 𝛼 2 .𝛽 2 𝛼𝛽 2 𝑞2
𝛼 𝛽 2 𝛼2 𝛼 𝛽 𝛽2
iv) − = − 2. . +
𝛽 𝛼 𝛽2 𝛽 𝛼 𝛼2
𝛼2 𝛽2 𝛼 4 +𝛽 4
= + −2= −2
𝛽2 𝛼2 𝛼𝛽 2

From 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝛼 + 4𝛼 𝛽 + 6𝛼 2 𝛽2 + 4𝛼𝛽3 + 𝛽4
4 4 3

∴ 𝛼 4 + 𝛽4 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 4 − 4𝛼 3 𝛽 + 6𝛼 2 𝛽2 + 4𝛼𝛽3
= 𝛼 + 𝛽 4 − 4𝛼. 𝛽 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 + 6 𝛼𝛽 2
= 𝑝4 − 4𝑞 𝑝2 − 2𝑞 + 6𝑞2
= 𝑝4 − 4𝑞 𝑝2 − 2𝑞 − 6𝑞2
= 𝑝4 − 4𝑞𝑝2 + 8𝑞2 − 6𝑞2
= 𝑝4 − 4𝑞𝑝2 + 2𝑞2
3. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2 = 0, evaluate;
i) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2
2−𝛼 2−𝛽
ii) +
3+𝛽 3+𝛼
Solution
𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2 = 0 , with roots 𝛼 and 𝛽, then 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 7 , 𝛼. 𝛽 = 2
i) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 2 − 2 𝛼. 𝛽
= 72 − 2 2 = 45
2−𝛼 2−𝛽 2−𝛼 3+𝛽 + 2−𝛽 3+𝛽
ii) + 3+𝛼 =
3+𝛽 3+𝛽 3+𝛼
6+2𝛼−3𝛼−𝛼 2 +6+2𝛽−3𝛽 −𝛽 2
=
9+3𝛼+3𝛽+𝛼𝛽
12+2 𝛼+𝛽 −3 𝛼+𝛽 − 𝛼 2 +𝛽 2
=
9+3 𝛼 +𝛽 +𝛼𝛽
12+2 𝛼+𝛽 −3 𝛼+𝛽 − 𝛼 +𝛽 2 −2 𝛼.𝛽
= 9+3 𝛼+𝛽 +𝛼𝛽
12+14−21− 7 2 −2 2 28 7
= =− =−
9+21+2 32 8
4. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0, form an equation
whose roots are 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼 − 𝛽
Solution
Required equation is 𝒙𝟐 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝒙 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝟎
From 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 with roots 𝛼 and 𝛽,
𝛼 + 𝛽 = − −𝑝 = 𝑝 , 𝛼. 𝛽 = 𝑞
Sum of roots = 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼 − 𝛽 = 2𝛼𝛽 = 2𝑞
Product of roots = 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼 + 𝛽 . 𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼 − 𝛽
= 𝑞 + 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 𝑝 = 𝑞2 − 𝑝2
∴ Equation is 𝑥 2 − 2𝑞𝑥 + 𝑞2 − 𝑝2 = 0

5. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0, form an equation

whose roots are 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 and 𝛽2 + 𝛼

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Solution
From 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0 with roots 𝛼 and 𝛽,
4 1
⇒ 𝛼+𝛽 = − − = 2 , 𝛼. 𝛽 =
2 2
Required equation is 𝒙𝟐 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝒙 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝟎
Sum of roots = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 + 𝛽2 + 𝛼 = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 + 𝛼 + 𝛽
= 𝛼 + 𝛽 2 − 2 𝛼. 𝛽 + 𝛼 + 𝛽
1
= 22 − 2. + 2 = 4 − 1 + 2 = 5
2
Product of roots = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 . 𝛽2 + 𝛼
= 𝛼 2 𝛽2 + 𝛼 3 + 𝛽3 + 𝛼𝛽
= 𝛼𝛽 2 + 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼 + 𝛽 3 − 3𝛼𝛽 𝛼 + 𝛽
1 1 23
= + 2 + 8 − 3. . 2 =
4 2 4
23
∴ 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + = 0 𝑜𝑟 4𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 23 = 0
4

6. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, find an equation

whose roots are 𝑎𝛼 + 𝑏𝛽 and 𝑏𝛼 + 𝑎𝛽
Solution
Sum of roots = 𝑎𝛼 + 𝑏𝛽 + 𝑏𝛼 + 𝑎𝛽
=𝛼 𝑎+𝑏 +𝛽 𝑎+𝑏 = 𝛼+𝛽 𝑎+𝑏
𝑏 −𝑏 𝑎 +𝑏
=− × 𝑎+𝑏 =
𝑎 𝑎
Product of roots = 𝑎𝛼 + 𝑏𝛽 . 𝑏𝛼 + 𝑎𝛽
= 𝑎𝑏𝛼 2 + 𝑎2 𝛽𝛼 + 𝑏2 𝛼𝛽 + 𝑎𝑏𝛽2
= 𝑎𝑏 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 + 𝛼𝛽 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
= 𝑎𝑏 𝛼 + 𝛽 2 − 2 𝛼. 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
𝑏2 2𝑐 𝑐 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2
= 𝑎𝑏 − +
𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 2 −2𝑎𝑐 +𝑐 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2
=
𝑎
Hence the required equation is
𝑏 𝑎 +𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 2 −2𝑎𝑐 +𝑐 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2
𝑥2 − 𝑥+ =0
𝑎 𝑎
𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑏 − 2𝑎𝑐 + 𝑐 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 0
2 2

𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑏3 − 2𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎2 𝑐 + 𝑏2 𝑐 = 0
𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑏 − 𝑏2 𝑥 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 = 0
𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑏 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏2 + 𝑐 𝑎 − 𝑏 2 = 0

7. The roots of a quadratic equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽. Determine the

equation whose roots are 𝛼 2 + 𝛽−2 and 𝛽2 + 𝛼 −2 expressing the coefficients in
terms of p and q. prove further that if p and q are both real, then this equation
can have roots if 𝑝 = 0 or 𝑝2 = 4𝑞.
Solution
Required equation: 𝑥 2 − 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑥 + 𝐴. 𝐵 = 0
1 1
Let 𝐴 = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽−2 = 𝛼 2 + and 𝐵 = 𝛽2 + 𝛼 −2 = 𝛽2 +
𝛽2 𝛼2
1 1
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝛼2 + + 𝛽2 +
𝛽2 𝛼2
1 1
= 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 + 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2

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2 𝛼 2 +𝛽 2
= 𝛼+𝛽 − 2𝛼𝛽 + 2
𝛼 2 .𝛽 2 = 𝛼+𝛽 2 −2𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼 +𝛽 −2𝛼𝛽
𝛼 .𝛽 2

But from the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0, 𝛼 and 𝛽 are roots then 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝑝 , 𝑞 =

𝛼𝛽
𝑝 2 −2𝑞
∴ 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝑝2 − 2𝑞 + 𝑞2
1 𝑝 2 −2𝑞 𝑞 2 +1
= 𝑝2 − 2𝑞 1 + 𝑞2 = 𝑞2
2 2 1 1
𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 . +
𝛼2 𝛽2
2 2 1
= 𝛼 .𝛽 + 1 + 1 +
𝛼 2 .𝛽 2
2 1
= 𝛼. 𝛽 +2+ 𝛼 .𝛽 2
1 𝑞 4 +2𝑞 2 +1
= 𝑞2 + 2 + 𝑞 2 =
𝑞2
𝑞 2 +1 2
=
𝑞2
𝑝 2 −2𝑞 𝑞 2 +1 𝑞 2 +1 2
Required equation is; 𝑥 2 − 𝑥+ =0
𝑞2 𝑞2
If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are real then 𝑥 must also be real . 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑝 2 −2𝑞 𝑞 2 +1 2 𝑞 2 +1 2 𝑝 2 −2𝑞 2 𝑞 2 +1 2 𝑞 2 +1 2
− ≥4 ⇒ ≥4
𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞4 𝑞2
𝑞 2 +1 2
Dividing both sides by
𝑞4
⇒ 𝑝2 − 2𝑞 2 ≥ 4𝑞2 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 − 2𝑞 2 − 4𝑞2 ≥ 0 2

By factoring using a difference of two squares identity,

⇒ 𝑝2 − 2𝑞 + 2𝑞 𝑝2 − 2𝑞 − 2𝑞 ≥ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑝2 𝑝2 − 4𝑞 ≥ 0
⇒ 𝑝2 ≥ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑝2 − 4𝑞 ≥ 0
∴ 𝑝 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = 4𝑞
8. If the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are in the ratio 𝑝: 𝑞, prove that
𝑎𝑐 𝑝 + 𝑞 2 = 𝑏2 𝑝𝑞
Solution
Let the roots of the equation be 𝛼 and 𝛽
𝑏 𝑐
⇒ 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 𝑎 , 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎 …………………………….. (1)
𝑝 𝛼 𝑝
But 𝛼: 𝛽 = 𝑞 𝑜𝑟 =𝑞
𝛽
𝑝
∴ 𝛼 = 𝛽 ………………………………………………………. (2)
𝑞
Eqn. (2) in to eqn. (1)
𝑝 𝑏 𝑝 𝑐
⇒ 𝛽 + 𝛽 = − , also 𝛽. 𝛽 =
𝑞 𝑎 𝑞 𝑎
𝑝 𝑏 𝑏𝑞 𝑞𝑐
∴𝛽 +1 =− 𝑜𝑟 𝛽 = − , 𝛽2 =
𝑞 𝑎 𝑎 𝑝+𝑞 𝑎𝑝
Solving these equations
𝑏𝑞 2 𝑞𝑐 𝑏 2𝑞 2 𝑞𝑐
⇒ −𝑎 𝑝 +𝑞
= 𝑎𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 2 𝑝+𝑞 2
= 𝑎𝑝
∴ 𝑏2 𝑞2 . 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑎2 𝑝 + 𝑞 2 . 𝑞𝑐 , simplifying
⇒ 𝑎𝑐 𝑝 + 𝑞 2 = 𝑏2 𝑝𝑞
Task
a) If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, and r is the ratio of
the roots, show that 𝑎𝑐 𝑟 + 𝑞 2 = 𝑏2 𝑟

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b) If the roots of the equation 𝑙𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑛 = 0 are in the ratio 𝑝: 𝑞 prove that

𝑝 𝑞 𝑛
+ + =0
𝑞 𝑝 𝑙

9. If the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽 and those of the
𝑏 2 −𝑎𝑐 𝐵 2 −𝐴𝐶
equation 𝐴𝑥 2 + 2𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 = 0 are 𝛼 + 𝛿 and 𝛽 + 𝛿, prove that =
𝑎2 𝐴2
Solution
Given: 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 , α , β are roots, then
2𝑏 𝑐
𝛼+𝛽 = − 𝑎
, 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎 …………………………………………….. (1)
Given: 𝐴𝑥 2 + 2𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 = 0 , α + δ , β + δ are roots, then
2𝐵
𝛼+𝛿+β+δ =− 𝐴
2𝐵
⇒ 𝛼 + β + 2𝛿 = −
𝐴
2𝐵
𝑂𝑟 2𝛿 = − 𝐴
− 𝛼 + 𝛽 , from eqn. (1)
2𝐵 2𝑏
⇒ 2𝛿 = − − −
𝐴 𝑎
𝑏 𝐵
∴ 𝛿 = 𝑎 − 𝐴 …………………………………………………………………… (2)
C
Also 𝛼 + 𝛿 β + δ =
A
𝐶 𝐶
⇒ 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛿 + 𝛽𝛿 + 𝛿 2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛿 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛿 2 =
𝐴 𝐴
𝑐 2𝑏 𝐶
⇒ +𝛿 − + 𝛿2 =
𝑎 𝑎 𝐴
2𝑏 𝐶 𝑐
∴𝛿 − + 𝛿 = 𝐴 − 𝑎 ………………………………………………………. (3)
2
𝑎
Eqn. (2) in to eqn. (3)
𝑏 𝐵 2𝑏 𝑏 𝐵 2 𝐶 𝑐
⇒ −𝐴 − + −𝐴 =𝐴−𝑎
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝐵
Let =𝑝 =𝑞
𝑎 𝐴
2 𝐶 𝑐
⇒ 𝑝 − 𝑞 −2𝑝 + 𝑝 − 𝑞 =𝐴−𝑎
𝐶 𝑐
⇒ −2𝑝2 + 2𝑝𝑞 + 𝑝2 − 2𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞2 = 𝐴 − 𝑎
𝐶 𝑐
⇒ 𝑞2 − 𝑝2 = 𝐴 − 𝑎
𝐵2 𝑏2 𝐶 𝑐 𝐵2 𝐶 𝑏2 𝑐
⇒ − = − 𝑜𝑟 − = −
𝐴2 𝑎2 𝐴 𝑎 𝐴2 𝐴 𝑎2 𝑎
𝑏 2 −𝑎𝑐 𝐵 2 −𝐴𝐶
∴ = as required.
𝑎2 𝐴2

To find the condition that the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

should be;
i) Equal in magnitude and opposite in sign
ii) Reciprocals
iii) With one of the roots as zero
iv) Both positive
i) The roots will be equal in magnitude and opposite in sign if their sum is zero.
Hence the required condition is:
𝑏
𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 𝑎 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝒃=𝟎 , where 𝛼 and 𝛽 are roots of the equation.
ii) The roots will be reciprocals if their product is unity. Hence the required
condition is:
𝑐
𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝒄=𝒂

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iii) When one of the roots is zero then the product must be zero. Hence the
required condition is:
𝑐
𝛼𝛽 = = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝒄=𝟎
𝑎
iv) The roots will be both positive if;
𝑐
a) The product of the roots is positive . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛼𝛽 = = +𝑣𝑒
𝑎
This is only true if 𝑐 and 𝑎 are of like signs
𝑏
b) The sum of the roots is also positive . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − = +𝑣𝑒
𝑎
This is possible if 𝑏 and 𝑎 are of unlike signs. Thus the required
condition is that the signs of 𝑎 and 𝑐 are alike and opposite to that
of 𝑏.
10. The roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽. Find the equation
whose roots are 𝑝𝛼 + 𝑞𝛽 and 𝑝𝛽 + 𝑞𝛼.
𝑝
If the original equation is 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5 = 0, find the values of in order that the
𝑞
new equation shall have one zero root.
Solution
Required equation: 𝑥 2 − 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑥 + 𝐴. 𝐵 = 0
Let 𝐴 = 𝑝𝛼 + 𝑞𝛽 and 𝐵 = 𝑝𝛽 + 𝑞𝛼
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝑝𝛼 + 𝑞𝛽 + 𝑝𝛽 + 𝑞𝛼
=𝛼 𝑝+𝑞 +𝛽 𝑝+𝑞 = 𝑝+𝑞 𝛼+𝛽
But 𝛼 + 𝛽 = −𝑎 , 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑏
∴ 𝐴 + 𝐵 = −𝑎 𝑝 + 𝑞
𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝑝𝛼 + 𝑞𝛽 𝑝𝛽 + 𝑞𝛼
= 𝑝2 𝛼𝛽 + 𝑝𝑞𝛼 2 + 𝑝𝑞𝛽2 + 𝑞2 𝛼𝛽
= 𝑝2 + 𝑞2 𝛼𝛽 + 𝑝𝑞 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2
= 𝑝2 + 𝑞2 . 𝑏 + 𝑝𝑞 𝛼 + 𝛽 2 − 2𝛼𝛽
= 𝑝2 + 𝑞2 . 𝑏 + 𝑝𝑞 𝑎2 − 2𝑏
∴ Required equation is: 𝑥 2 + 𝑎 𝑝 + 𝑞 𝑥 + 𝑝2 + 𝑞2 . 𝑏 + 𝑝𝑞 𝑎2 − 2𝑏 = 0
𝑝
Now to find the values of 𝑞 in original equation 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5 = 0, so that the
new equation shall have one zero root,
Comparing the equations 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0,
⇒ 𝑎 = −4 , 𝑏 = −5
Substituting these values in the obtained equation gives;
𝑥 2 − 4 𝑝 + 𝑞 𝑥 − 5 𝑝2 + 𝑞2 + 𝑝𝑞 −4 2 − 2 × −5 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 4 𝑝 + 𝑞 𝑥 − 5 𝑝2 + 𝑞2 + 26𝑝𝑞 = 0
This equation will have one zero root if the product is zero
⇒ −5 𝑝2 + 𝑞2 + 26𝑝𝑞 = 0 𝑜𝑟 5𝑝2 − 26𝑝𝑞 + 5𝑞2 = 0
Factoring
⇒ 5𝑝2 − 25𝑝𝑞 − 𝑝𝑞 + 5𝑞2 = 0
⇒ 5𝑝 𝑝 − 5𝑞 − 𝑞 𝑝 − 5𝑞 = 0
⇒ 𝑝 − 5𝑞 5𝑝 − 𝑞 = 0
𝑝
∴ 𝑝 − 5𝑞 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑞 = 5
𝑝 1
∴ 5𝑝 − 𝑞 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑞
=5
𝑝 1
∴ =5,
𝑞 5

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Other examples on quadratic equation

11. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 while 𝛿 and 𝛾 are the
roots of the equation 𝑎1 𝑥 2 + 2𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 = 0, show that if 𝛼 − 𝛾 𝛽 − 𝛿 +
𝛼 − 𝛿 𝛽 − 𝛾 = 0, then 𝑎𝑐1 + 𝑎1 𝑐 = 2𝑏𝑏1 .
Solution
2𝑏 𝑐
From 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 , 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 𝑎
, 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎
2𝑏1 𝑐
From 𝑎1 𝑥 2 + 2𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 = 0 , 𝛾 + 𝛿 = − 𝑎1
, 𝛾𝛿 = 𝑎1
1
𝛼−𝛾 𝛽−𝛿 + 𝛼−𝛿 𝛽−𝛾 =0
⇒ 𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼𝛿 − 𝛾𝛽 + 𝛾𝛿 + 𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼𝛾 − 𝛿𝛽 + 𝛾𝛿 = 0
⇒ 2𝛼𝛽 + 2𝛾𝛿 − 𝛿 𝛼 + 𝛽 − 𝛾 𝛿 + 𝛾 = 0
2𝑐 2𝑐1
⇒ + − 𝛼+𝛽 𝛿+𝛾 =0
𝑎 𝑎1
2𝑐 2𝑐1 2𝑏 2𝑏1
⇒ + + .− =0
𝑎 𝑎1 𝑎 𝑎1
2𝑐 2𝑐1 4𝑏𝑏1 𝑎 𝑎1
⇒ + − = 0 ………………………………. ×
𝑎 𝑎1 𝑎 𝑎1 2
⇒ 𝑎1 𝑐 + 𝑎𝑐1 − 2𝑏𝑏1 = 0
∴ 𝑎𝑐1 + 𝑎1 𝑐 = 2𝑏𝑏1
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−11
12. If 𝑥 is a real number, prove that the expression doe not lie strictly
2 𝑥−3
between 2 and 6.
Solution
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−11
Let 𝑦 =
2 𝑥−3
⇒ 2𝑦𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 11 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 2 − 2𝑦 𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 11 = 0
− 2−2𝑦 ± − 2−2𝑦 2 −4 6𝑦−11
⇒𝑥=
2
− 2−2𝑦 ± 4−8𝑦+4𝑦 2 −24+44
=
2
− 2−2𝑦 ± 4𝑦 2 −32𝑦+48
=
2
𝑥 will be real if 4𝑦 2 − 32𝑦 + 48 ≥ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 + 12 ≥ 0
⇒ 𝑦−2 𝑦−6 ≥0
Between 2 and 6 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 2 < 𝑦 < 6, one of the factors on L.H.S will be +𝑣𝑒 and
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−11
the other – 𝑣𝑒, so the product will be negative. Hence will not lie
2 𝑥−3
between 2 and 6
𝑥 1
13. If 𝑥 is a real number, prove that the expression 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+9
lies between − 11and
1.
Solution
𝑥
Let 𝑦 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑥 2 + −5𝑦 − 1 𝑥 + 9𝑦 = 0
𝑥 −5𝑥+9
5𝑦 +1 ± 5𝑦+1 2 −36𝑦 2
⇒𝑥= 2𝑦
For real values of 𝑥, 5𝑦 + 1 2 − 36𝑦 2 ≥ 0
⇒ 25𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 + 1 − 36𝑦 2 ≥ 0
⇒ −11𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 + 1 ≥ 0 𝑜𝑟 11𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 − 1 ≤ 0
⇒ 11𝑦 2 − 11𝑦 + 𝑦 − 1 ≤ 0
⇒ 11𝑦 𝑦 − 1 + 𝑦 − 1 ≤ 0
⇒ 11𝑦 + 1 𝑦 − 1 ≤ 0

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1 𝑥
Between − 11 < 𝑦 < 1, the inequality is true for any value of 𝑦. Hence 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+9
1
lies between − and 1.
11
𝑥 2 −𝑘
14. For real 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑥 = can take any real value. Find the range of values of 𝑘
𝑥−2
can take.
Solution
𝑥 2 −𝑘
Let = 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑘
𝑥−2
2
∴ 𝑥 − 𝑦𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑘 = 0
𝑦 ± 𝑦 2 −4 2𝑦−𝑘
⇒𝑥= 2
For real value of 𝑥, 𝑦 2 − 4 2𝑦 − 𝑘 ≥ 0
⇒ 𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 + 4𝑘 ≥ 0
⇒ 𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 ≥ −4𝑘 , completing squares,
⇒ 𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 + 16 ≥ −4𝑘 + 16
∴ 𝑦 − 4 2 ≥ 16 − 4𝑘
Since L.H.S is always +𝑣𝑒, taking its smallest value say 0 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑦 = 4, then
0 ≥ 16 − 4𝑘 ⇒ 𝑘 ≥ 4
∴𝑘≥4
𝑥 2 +3𝑥
15. Find the range of values of k can take given that for real 𝑥, 𝑓 𝑥 = can
𝑥+𝑘
take any real value.
Solution
𝑥 2 +3𝑥
Let = 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥
𝑥 +𝑘
∴ 𝑥 2 + 3 − 𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑘𝑦 = 0
− 3−𝑦 ± 3−𝑦 2 +4𝑘𝑦
⇒𝑥= 2
𝑦 −3 ± 3−𝑦 2 +4𝑘𝑦
=
2
For real values of 𝑥 , 3 − 𝑦 2 + 4𝑘𝑦 ≥ 0
⇒ 9 − 6𝑦 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑘𝑦 ≥ 0
⇒ 𝑦 2 + 4𝑘 − 6 𝑦 + 9 ≥ 0
⇒ 𝑦 2 + 4𝑘 − 6 𝑦 ≥ −9 , completing squares
⇒ 𝑦 2 + 4𝑘 − 6 𝑦 + 2𝑘 − 3 2 ≥ −9 + 2𝑘 − 3 2
2
∴ 𝑦 + 2𝑘 − 3 ≥ −9 + 2𝑘 − 3 2
Since 𝑦 can take on any real value, let its smallest value be − 2𝑘 − 3 2

⇒ 0 ≥ −9 + 2𝑘 − 3 2
⇒ 4𝑘 2 − 12𝑘 + 9 − 9 ≤ 0
∴ 4𝑘 2 − 12𝑘 ≤ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 2 − 3𝑘 ≤ 0 +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒
For 0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 3, the inequality is true. 𝑘
3𝑥+𝑘
0 3
16. Given that 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 −1
, where 𝑥 is real and 𝑘 is a constant, show that 𝑦 can take
all real values if 𝑘 < 3.
Solution
3𝑥+𝑘
𝑦= 𝑥 2 −1
𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑥 2 − 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 𝑘
2
∴ 𝑦𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑘 = 0
For real values of 𝑥 , −3 2
≥ 4𝑦 −𝑦 − 𝑘
⇒ 9 + 4𝑦 2 + 4𝑘𝑦 ≥ 0

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9
⇒ 4𝑦 2 + 4𝑘𝑦 ≥ −9 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 + 𝑘𝑦 ≥ − 4 , completing squares,
𝑘2 9 𝑘2
⇒ 𝑦 2 + 𝑘𝑦 + 4
≥ −4 + 4
𝑘 2 𝑘 2 −9
∴ 𝑦+2 ≥ 4
𝑘
Since 𝑦 can take on any real value, let its smallest value be − 2
𝑘 2 −9
⇒0≥ 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 2 − 9 ≤ 0 +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒
4
∴ 𝑘+3 𝑘−3 ≤ 0 𝑘
−3 3
For interval −3 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 3, the inequality holds. Thus 𝑘 < 3 is the required
interval.

Task
1. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, find the value of;
𝛼 𝛽 𝑏 2 −2𝑎𝑐
a) 𝛽
+𝛼 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑎𝑐
𝑏 4 −4𝑎𝑏 2 𝑐+2𝑎 2 𝑐 2
b) 𝛼 4 + 𝛽4 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑎4
𝑏 4 −4𝑎𝑏 2 𝑐+2𝑎 2 𝑐 2 +𝑎 2 𝑏 2 −2𝑎 3 𝑐+2𝑎 2 𝑏𝑐
c) 2
𝛼 −𝛽 2
+ 𝛽 −𝛼 2 2
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑:
𝑎4
𝒃𝑐 4 3𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 2
d) 4 7
𝛼 𝛽 +𝛼 𝛽 7 4
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑:
𝒂𝟕
2. The roots of the equation are 𝛼 and 𝛽
i) Show that if 𝛼 − 𝛽 = 1, then 𝑎2 = 4 𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑐
ii) Find the quadratic equation whose roots are 𝛼 + 𝛼𝛽 and 𝛽
2 2
3. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0, show that 𝛼𝛽 2 + 𝛽𝛼 2 =
𝑝4 4𝑝 2
− +2
𝑞2 𝑞

4. If 𝑝, 𝑞 are the roots of the equation 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 2 = 0, form an equation whose

𝑝2 𝑞2
roots are − and − 𝑝 . 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 3𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 2 = 0
𝑞

5. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, form an equation

whose roots are;
1−𝛼 1−𝛽
i) , 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 𝑎 − 𝑐 +
1+𝛼 1+𝛽
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 =0
ii)
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 , 𝛼 −2 + 𝛽−2
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑎2 𝑐 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑏2 − 2𝑎𝑐 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 − 2𝑎𝑐 2 = 0
6. If the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 8 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑥 + 4 4𝑎 − 8𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0 are 4 − 2𝛼
and 4 − 2𝛽 , find the equation whose roots are 𝛼 and 𝛽.
4𝑏 𝑐
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑥 2 − 𝑥+ =0
𝑎 𝑎
7. If 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 𝑐 = 0 has roots 𝛼 and 𝛽, find the equation whose
𝛼 𝛽
roots are 𝛼 +1
, 𝛽 +1expressing the coefficients in terms of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐.
𝑏 𝑐
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑥 2 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0
8. Given that the roots of the equation 𝑥 + 1𝑥 = 4 are 𝛼 and 𝛽, evaluate
i) 𝛼−𝛽 2
1 1
ii) 𝛼
+𝛽

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iii) 𝛼 3 + 𝛽3
iv) 2𝛼 2 + 2𝛽2 + 5𝛼𝛽
9. Given that the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are 𝛽 and 𝑛𝛽, show that
𝑛 + 1 2 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑛𝑏2
10. Given that 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0, obtain the
quadratic equation whose roots are 𝛼 −2 , 𝛽−2 ,
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑞2 𝑥 2 − 𝑝2 − 2𝑝 𝑥 + 1 = 0
11. If the roots of a quadratic equation 𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 differ by 4, show that
8𝑎 = −𝑐 ± 𝑐 2 + 16𝑏2 . Hence find two values of a for which the
1
equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3 = 0 has roots differing by 4. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑎 = −1 , 4
12. The roots of the equation 9𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 1 = 4𝑘𝑥 where k is a real constant, are
denoted as 𝛼 and 𝛽.
a) Show that the equation whose roots are 𝛼 −1 and 𝛽−1 is 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 =
4𝑘𝑥
b) Find the set of values of k for which 𝛼 and 𝛽 are real.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑘 ≤ 0 , 𝑘 ≥ 3
c) Find also the set of values of k for which 𝛼 and 𝛽 are real and
positive. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑘 ≥ 3
13. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, express 𝛼 − 𝛽2 𝛼2 −
𝛽 in terms of b and c. hence or otherwise show that if one root of the
equation is the square of the other, then 𝑏3 + 𝑐 3 + 𝑐 = 3𝑏𝑐
14. Given that the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 has roots 𝛼 and 𝛽, express
p and q in terms of 𝛼 and 𝛽. Find the equation, the coefficients expressed in
terms of p and q, whose roots are 3𝛼 − 𝛽 and 3𝛽 − 𝛼.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑝 = −𝛼 − 𝛽 , 𝑞 = 𝛼𝛽 , 𝑥 2 + 2𝑝𝑥 + 16𝑞 − 3𝑞2 = 0
15. Given that the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽, express
𝛼 − 2𝛽 𝛽 − 2𝛼 in terms of p and q. hence/otherwise show that the condition
for one root of the equation to be double the other is 2𝑝2 = 9𝑞.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 9𝑞 − 2𝑝2
16. Given that 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 17 = 0, show that
the equation with roots 𝛼 − 4 , 𝛽 − 4 is 2𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 − 13 = 0.
17. Given that 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0, prove that
𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝑝 , 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑞.Prove also that;
a) 𝛼 2𝑛 + 𝛽2𝑛 = 𝛼 𝑛 + 𝛽𝑛 2 − 2𝑞𝑛 𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝛼 𝑛 = 𝐴 , 𝛽𝑛 = 𝐵
b) 𝛼 4 + 𝛽4 = 𝑝4 − 4𝑝2 𝑞 + 2𝑞2
Hence/otherwise form a quadratic equation whose roots are the fourth
powers of those of the equation 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
18. The roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 differ by 2𝑛, where 𝑛 is real and non
zero, show that 𝑛 2 = 9 − 𝑐. Given that the roots also have opposite signs, find
set of possible values of n.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑛 > 3 , 𝑛 < −3
19. If the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽, find the value of;
𝑝 𝑝 2 −4𝑞 𝑝 2 −𝑞
i) 𝛼 2 𝛼 2 𝛽−1 − 𝛽 + 𝛽2 𝛽2 𝛼 −1 − 𝛼 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑:
𝑞
𝑝 4 −4𝑝 2 𝑞+2𝑞 2
ii) 𝛼−𝑝 −4
+ 𝛽−𝑝 −4
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑞4

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𝑥 2 −𝑏𝑥 𝑚 −1
20. a) For what values of m will the equation = have roots equal in
𝑎𝑥 −𝑐 𝑚 +1
𝑎 −𝑏
magnitude but opposite in sign? 𝑨𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑚 = 𝑎 +𝑏
𝑥 2 +34𝑥−71
b) If x is real, prove that cannot lie strictly between 5 and 9
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−7
1 𝑥 1
c) Show that for real 𝑥, − 4 ≤ 𝑥 2 +4 ≤ 4
d) The roots of a quadratic equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽. Show that
the equation whose roots are 𝛼 2 − 𝑞𝛼 and 𝛽2 − 𝑞𝛽 is given by 𝑥 2 − 𝑝2 + 𝑝𝑞 −
2𝑞 𝑥 + 𝑞2 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 1 = 0 𝑼𝒃𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟏

CONDITION FOR TWO QUADRATIC EQUATIONS TO HAVE A COMMON

ROOT
Let 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 and
𝑙𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛 = 0
, be the two equations with a common root 𝑥 = 𝛼 ≠ 0
Substituting 𝑥 = 𝛼 in to the equations
⇒ 𝑎𝛼 2 + 𝑏𝛼 + 𝑐 = 0 ………………………………………. (1)
⇒ 𝑙𝛼 2 + 𝑚𝛼 + 𝑛 = 0 ………………………………………. (2)
Eliminating 𝛼 2 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
𝑙 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑚 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , gives
𝛼 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑎𝑚 + 𝑙𝑐 − 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝑎𝑛 −𝑙𝑐
∴ 𝛼 = 𝑏𝑙 −𝑎𝑚 ………………………………………. (3)
Now eliminating constants c and n from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
𝑛 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑐 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , gives
𝛼 2 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑙𝑐 + 𝛼 𝑏𝑛 − 𝑚𝑐 = 0
⇒ 𝛼 𝛼 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑙𝑐 + 𝑏𝑛 − 𝑚𝑐 = 0
Either 𝛼 = 0 , but 𝛼 ≠ 0
, or 𝛼 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑙𝑐 + 𝑏𝑛 − 𝑚𝑐
𝑚𝑐 −𝑏𝑛
⇒𝛼= ………………………………………. (4)
𝑎𝑛 −𝑙𝑐
Equating equations (3) and (4)
𝑎𝑛 −𝑙𝑐 𝑚𝑐 −𝑏𝑛
⇒ 𝑏𝑙 −𝑎𝑚 =
𝑎𝑛 −𝑙𝑐
2
∴ 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑙𝑐 = 𝑚𝑐 − 𝑏𝑛 𝑏𝑙 − 𝑎𝑚

Illustrative examples
1) Given that 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠 = 0 share a common root 𝛼 ≠ 0,
𝑝𝑠−𝑞𝑟 𝑞−𝑠
prove that 𝑞−𝑠
= 𝑟 −𝑝
Solution
𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 , 𝑥 = 𝛼 , 𝛼 2 + 𝑝𝛼 + 𝑞 = 0 …………………………………… (1)
𝑥 2 + 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠 = 0 , 𝑥 = 𝛼 , 𝛼 2 + 𝑟𝛼 + 𝑠 = 0 …………………...……………… (2)
Eliminating 𝛼 2 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , gives
⇒ 𝑝−𝑟 𝛼+𝑞−𝑠 =0
𝑠−𝑞 𝑞−𝑠
∴𝛼= = ……………………………………………………………………….. (3)
𝑝 −𝑟 𝑟−𝑝
Now eliminating constants 𝑞 and 𝑠 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
𝑞 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 − 𝑠 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 , gives
⇒ 𝛼 2 𝑠 − 𝑞 + 𝛼 𝑝𝑠 − 𝑞𝑟 = 0

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⇒ 𝛼 𝛼 𝑠 − 𝑞 + 𝑝𝑠 − 𝑞𝑟 = 0
Either 𝛼 = 0 , but 𝛼 ≠ 0
, or 𝛼 𝑠 − 𝑞 + 𝑝𝑠 − 𝑞𝑟
𝑞𝑟 −𝑝𝑠 𝑝𝑠 −𝑞𝑟
⇒𝛼= = ……………………………………………………………………. (4)
𝑠−𝑞 𝑞−𝑠
Equating equations (3) and (4)
𝑝𝑠 −𝑞𝑟 𝑞−𝑠
⇒ = , as required
𝑞−𝑠 𝑟−𝑝
2) Given that 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 and 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0 have a common root, then
𝑎3 + 𝑏3 + 𝑐 3 = 3𝑎𝑏𝑐
Solution
Let 𝑥 = 𝛼 ≠ 0 be the common root.
⇒ 𝑎𝛼 2 + 𝑏𝛼 + 𝑐 = 0 …………………………………………………….. (1)
⇒ 𝑏𝛼 2 + 𝑐𝛼 + 𝑎 = 0 …………………………………………………….. (2)
Eliminating 𝛼 2 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
𝑏 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑎 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , gives
⇒ 𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑐 𝛼 + 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎2 = 0
𝑎 2 −𝑏𝑐
∴ 𝛼 = 𝑏 2 −𝑎𝑐 ……………………………………………………….…………. (3)
Now eliminating constants 𝑎 and 𝑐 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
𝑎 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑐 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , gives
⇒ 𝛼 2 𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑐 + 𝛼 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑐 2 = 0
⇒ 𝛼 𝛼 𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑐 2 = 0
Either 𝛼 = 0 , but 𝛼 ≠ 0
, or 𝛼 𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑐 2 = 0
𝑐 2 −𝑎𝑏
⇒ 𝛼 = 𝑎 2 −𝑏𝑐 ……………………………………………………….…………. (4)
Equating equations (3) and (4)
𝑎 2 −𝑏𝑐 𝑐 2 −𝑎𝑏
⇒ =
𝑏 2 −𝑎𝑐 𝑎 2 −𝑏𝑐
⇒ 𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑐 2 = 𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑐 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏
⇒ 𝑎4 − 2𝑎2 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏2 𝑐 2 = 𝑏2 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑐 3 − 𝑎𝑏3 + 𝑎2 𝑏𝑐
⇒ 𝑎4 − 2𝑎2 𝑏𝑐 = −𝑎𝑐 3 − 𝑎𝑏3 + 𝑎2 𝑏𝑐 ……………………………. ÷ 𝑎
⇒ 𝑎3 − 2𝑎𝑏𝑐 = −𝑐 3 − 𝑏3 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐
∴ 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 + 𝑐 3 = 3𝑎𝑏𝑐
3) If 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 and 𝑥 2 − 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0 have a common root, prove that
𝑝+𝑞+1 = 0
Solution
Let 𝑥 = 𝛼 ≠ 0 be the common root.
⇒ 𝛼 2 − 𝑝𝛼 + 𝑞 = 0 …………………………………………………….. (1)
⇒ 𝛼 2 − 𝑞𝛼 + 𝑝 = 0 …………………………………………………….. (2)
Eliminating 𝛼 2 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , gives
−𝑝 + 𝑞 𝛼 + 𝑞 − 𝑝 = 0
𝑞−𝑝
⇒ 𝛼 = − 𝑞−𝑝 = −1
∴ 𝛼 = −1 ………………………………….………………………………... (3)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 𝑜𝑟 (2)
⇒ −1 2 − 𝑝 −1 + 𝑞 = 0
∴ 1 + 𝑝 + 𝑞 = 0. As required
4) Find p such that 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 − 10 = 0 have a common root.

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Solution
Let 𝑥 = 𝛼 ≠ 0 be the common root.
⇒ 𝛼 2 − 5𝛼 + 6 = 0 ……………………………..……………………….. (1)
⇒ 𝛼 2 + 𝑝𝛼 − 10 = 0 …………………………………………………….. (2)
Eliminating 𝛼 2 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , gives
−5 − 𝑝 𝛼 + 16 = 0
−16 16
⇒𝛼= = …………………………………………………………. (3)
−5−𝑝 𝑝+5
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 (1)
16 2 16
⇒ −5 +6=0
𝑝+5 𝑝+5
⇒ 256 − 80 𝑝 + 5 + 6 𝑝 + 5 2 = 0
⇒ 256 − 80𝑝 − 400 + 6𝑝2 + 60𝑝 + 150 = 0
⇒ 6 − 20𝑝 + 6𝑝2 = 0 …………………………………………… ÷ 2
∴ 3𝑝2 − 10𝑝 + 3 = 0
⇒ 3𝑝2 − 9𝑝 − 𝑝 + 3 = 0
⇒ 3𝑝 𝑝 − 3 − 𝑝 − 3 = 0
⇒ 3𝑝 − 1 𝑝 − 3 = 0
1
∴ 𝑝 = 3,3
Alternatively
Eliminating constants 6 and −10 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
10 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 + 6 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , gives
16𝛼 2 + 6𝑝 − 50 𝛼 = 0
50−6𝑝 25−3𝑝
⇒𝛼= 16
= 8
…………………………………………………… (4)
Equating equations (3) and (4)
16 25−3𝑝
⇒ = , simplifying the equation gives
𝑝+5 8
3𝑝 − 10𝑝 + 3 = 0 , solving the equation
2
1
∴ 𝑝 = 3,3
5) Prove that if the equations 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 and 𝑐𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 − 3𝑏 = 0 have a
5𝑎 2 𝑐−2
common root and nether a nor b is zero, then 𝑏 = 𝑐+3 2

Solution
Let 𝑥 = 𝛼 ≠ 0 be the common root.
⇒ 𝛼 2 + 𝑎𝛼 + 𝑏 = 0 ……………………..…………..……………………….. (1)
⇒ 𝑐𝛼 2 + 2𝑎𝛼 − 3𝑏 = 0 ……………………………………..……………….. (2)
Eliminating 𝛼 2 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
𝑐 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , gives
𝛼 𝑎𝑐 − 2𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐 + 3𝑏 = 0
𝑏𝑐 +3𝑏 −𝑏 𝑐 +3
∴𝛼=− 𝑎𝑐 −2𝑎
= 𝑎 𝑐 −2
…………………………………….…………… (3)
Eliminating constants 𝑏 , −3𝑏 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
3 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 + 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , gives
𝛼 2 3 + 𝑐 + 5𝑎𝛼 = 0
⇒ 𝛼 𝛼 3 + 𝑐 + 5𝑎 = 0
5𝑎
∴ 𝛼 = − 𝑐+3 ………………………………………………………………….. (4)
Equating equations (3) and (4)

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−𝑏 𝑐+3 5𝑎
⇒ 𝑎 𝑐−2
= − 𝑐+3
2
⇒𝑏 𝑐+3 = 5𝑎2 𝑐 − 2
5𝑎 2 𝑐−2
∴𝑏= 2
, as required.
𝑐+3
Task
1. Show that if the equations 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 2𝑃𝑥 + 𝑄 = 0 have a
common root then 𝑞 − 𝑄 2 + 4 𝑃 − 𝑝 𝑃𝑝 − 𝑝𝑄 = 0
2. If the equations 𝑎1 𝑥 2 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 = 0 and 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑐2 = 0 have a common
root, then 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 = 𝑎1 𝑐2 − 𝑎2 𝑐1 2
3. Show that if the equations 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 , 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 have a common
root, then 𝑐 − 𝑞 2 = 𝑏 − 𝑝 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑏𝑞
4. Show that if the equations 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 1 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 have a common
root, then 𝑏 − 1 2 = 𝑎 − 1 1 − 𝑎𝑏

COMMON FACTORS
If two functions 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 have a common factor 𝑥 − 𝑎 , then
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑎 . 𝐹 𝑥 …………………………………….. (1)
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑎 . 𝐺 𝑥 …………………………………….. (2)
For any constant 𝑘,
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑎 . 𝐹 𝑥 + 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑎 . 𝐺 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝐹 𝑥 + 𝑘𝐺 𝑥

Thus for any constant 𝑘, 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a common factor of 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑔 𝑥

NOTE:
Equations (1) and (2) are identities. Thus ,
, which gives a pair of simultaneous
𝑓 𝑎 = 0, 𝑔 𝑎 =0
equations which provides another approach to problems involving a
common factor.

Examples
1. Find constants p and q such that 𝑥 − 2 is a common factor of 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑝𝑥 +
3𝑞 and 𝑞𝑥 3 − 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2
Solution
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑝𝑥 + 3𝑞
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥 3 − 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2
Since 𝑥 − 2 is a factor to both 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 , then 𝑓 2 = 0 𝑔 2 = 0
⇒ 8 − 4 − 4𝑝 + 3𝑞 = 0 𝑜𝑟 − 4𝑝 + 3𝑞 = −4 ………………………………………… (1)
⇒ 8𝑞 − 4𝑝 + 2 + 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 − 4𝑝 + 8𝑞 = −4 …………………………………………. (2)
Solving eqn. (1) and eqn. (2) simultaneously,
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2
⇒ −5𝑞 = 0 ∴ 𝑞 = 0
From eqn. (1), for 𝑞 = 0 , 𝑝 = 1
∴ 𝑝 = 1,𝑞 = 0
2. Find constants p and q such that 𝑥 − 1 is a common factor of 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑞 and
𝑥 4 − 2𝑝𝑥 2 + 2

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Solution
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑞 , 𝑓 1 = 1 + 1 − 𝑞 = 0 ∴ 𝑞 = 2
3
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥 3 − 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2 , 𝑔 1 = 1 − 2𝑝 + 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑝 =
2
3
∴ 𝑝 = 2 ,𝑞 = 2
3. Show that if 𝑥 + 1 is a common factor of 𝑥 3 − 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏 and 𝑥 4 − 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐,
then 2𝑎 = 2𝑏 − 2 = −2 − 𝑐.
Solution
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐
For any constant 𝑘, 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑔 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 −1 + 𝑘𝑔 −1 = 0 , for any value of 𝑘.
∴ −1 − 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑘 1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0
For 𝑘 = 0 , 𝑎 − 𝑏 = −1 ………………………………………. (1)
For 𝑘 = 1 , 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0 ………….……………………………. (2)
From eqn. (1), multiplying through by 2
⇒ 2𝑎 − 2𝑏 = −2
𝑐
From eqn. (2), 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = − 2 ………………… (3)
Eqn. (3) in to eqn. (1)
𝑐
𝑎 + 2 = −1 𝑜𝑟 2𝑎 + 𝑐 = −2 𝑜𝑟 2𝑎 = −2 − 𝑐
∴ 2𝑎 = 2𝑏 − 2 = −2 − 𝑐
4. Find constant a for which the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 +
4𝑥 + 𝑎 have a common factor.
Solution
Let 𝑥 − 𝛼 be a common factor
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 has a factor of 𝑥 − 𝛼
⇒ 𝑓 𝛼 + 𝑘𝑔 𝛼 = 0
⇒ 𝑎𝛼 2 + 2𝛼 − 1 + 𝑘 𝛼 2 + 4𝛼 + 𝑎 = 0
For 𝑘 = −𝑎, to eliminate 𝛼 2
⇒ 𝑎𝛼 2 + 2𝛼 − 1 − 𝑎𝛼 2 − 4𝑎𝛼 − 𝑎2 = 0
⇒ 𝛼 2 − 4𝑎 − 1 − 𝑎2 = 0
𝑎 2 +1
∴ 𝛼 = 2−4𝑎 ………………………………………………….. (1)
1
For 𝑘 = 𝑎 , to eliminate constants
𝛼2 4𝛼
⇒ 𝑎𝛼 2 + 2𝛼 − 1 + 𝑎
+ 𝑎
+1=0
1 4
⇒ 𝛼2 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝛼 2 + 𝑎 = 0
1 4
⇒ 𝛼 𝛼 𝑎+𝑎 + 2+𝑎 =0
1 4
⇒𝛼 𝑎+ + 2+ =0
𝑎 𝑎
4
2+ − 2𝑎 +4
∴𝛼=− 𝑎
1 = …………………………… (2)
𝑎+ 𝑎 2 +1
𝑎

Equating equations (1) and (2)

𝑎 2 +1 − 2𝑎 +4
⇒ =
2−4𝑎 𝑎 2 +1
⇒ 𝑎 + 2𝑎2 + 1 = − 2𝑎 + 4 2 − 4𝑎
4

⇒ 𝑎4 + 2𝑎2 + 1 = − 4𝑎 − 8𝑎2 + 8 − 16𝑎 = 12𝑎 + 8𝑎2 − 8

∴ 𝑎4 − 6𝑎2 − 12𝑎 + 9 = 0

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Let 𝑕 𝑎 = 𝑎4 − 6𝑎2 − 12𝑎 + 9

For 𝑎 = 3 , 𝑕 3 = 0 ∴ 𝑎 − 3 is a factor of 𝑕 𝑎
𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 + 3𝑎 − 3

𝑎−3 𝑎4 + 0𝑎3 − 6𝑎2 − 12𝑎 + 9

𝑎4 − 3𝑎3
3𝑎3 − 6𝑎2 − 12𝑎 + 9
3𝑎3 − 9𝑎2
3𝑎2 − 12𝑎 + 9
3𝑎2 − 9𝑎
3𝑎 + 9
∴ 𝑕 𝑎 = 𝑎 − 3 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 + 3𝑎 − 3 = 0
3𝑎 + 9
⇒ 𝑎 = 3, 0.26
∴𝑎=3
5. Determine the value of m such that the equations 𝑥 3 + 𝑚𝑥 − 1 = 0 and
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 𝑚 = 0 have a common root.
Solution
Let common root be 𝑥 = 𝛼 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 − 𝛼 is a common factor.
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑚𝑥 − 1 , 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 𝑚
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 , has a common factor 𝑥 − 𝛼
⇒ 𝑓 𝛼 + 𝑘𝑔 𝛼 = 0
⇒ 𝛼 3 + 𝑚𝛼 − 1 + 𝑘 𝛼 3 − 3𝛼 + 𝑚 = 0
For 𝑘 = −1 to eliminate 𝛼 3
⇒ 𝛼 3 + 𝑚𝛼 − 1 − 𝛼 3 + 3𝛼 − 𝑚 = 0
𝑚 +1
⇒ 𝛼 𝑚 + 3 = 𝑚 + 1 ∴ 𝛼 = 𝑚 +3
Now from the equation 𝑥 3 + 𝑚𝑥 − 1 = 0 with 𝑥 = 𝛼 as a root, then 𝛼 3 + 𝑚𝛼 −
𝑚 +1
1 = 0 must have the root 𝛼 = 𝑚 +3
𝑚+1 3 𝑚+1
⇒ +𝑚 − 1 = 0 ………………………………………..× 𝑚 + 3 3
𝑚+3 𝑚+3
⇒ 𝑚+1 3 + 𝑚 +𝑚 𝑚+3 2 − 𝑚+3 3 =0
2

⇒ 𝑚 3 + 3𝑚 2 + 3𝑚 + 1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚 𝑚2 + 6𝑚 + 9 − 𝑚 3 + 9𝑚 2 + 27𝑚 + 27 = 0
⇒ 𝑚 3 + 3𝑚 2 + 3𝑚 + 1 + 𝑚 4 + 6𝑚3 + 9𝑚 2 + 𝑚 3 + 6𝑚 2 + 9𝑚 − 𝑚 3 − 9𝑚 2 − 27𝑚 −
27 = 0
⇒ 𝑚 4 + 7𝑚 3 + 9𝑚2 − 15𝑚 − 26 = 0
Solving by factor theorem,
Let 𝑓 𝑚 = 𝑚 4 + 7𝑚 3 + 9𝑚 2 − 15𝑚 − 26
For 𝑚 = −2 , 𝑓 −2 = −2 4 + 7 −2 3 + 9 −2 2 − 15 −2 − 26 = 0
⇒ 𝑚 + 2 , is a factor of 𝑓 𝑚 𝑚 3 + 5𝑚 2 − 𝑚 − 13
𝑚+2 𝑚 4 + 7𝑚 3 + 9𝑚 2 − 15𝑚 − 26
𝑚 4 + 2𝑚 3
5𝑚 3 + 9𝑚 2 − 15𝑚 − 26
5𝑚 3 + 10𝑚2
−𝑚 2 − 15𝑚 − 26
−𝑚 2 − 2𝑚
−13𝑚 − 26
−13𝑚 − 26
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∴ 𝑚 + 2 𝑚3 + 5𝑚 2 − 𝑚 − 13 = 0
∴ 𝑚 = −2 , 1.49 , −4.60 , −1.89
6. Show that I f the cubic functions 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏 and 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑎 have a
common factor, it is also a common factor of the quadratic function
𝑏 − 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑎 1 + 𝑏 = 0
Solution
Let the common factor be 𝑥 − 𝛼
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏 , 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑎
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 , has a common factor 𝑥 − 𝛼
⇒ 𝑓 𝛼 + 𝑘𝑔 𝛼 = 0
⇒ 𝛼 3 + 𝑎𝛼 2 + 𝑏 + 𝑘 𝑎𝛼 3 + 𝑏𝛼 2 + 𝛼 − 𝑎 = 0
1
For 𝑘 = − 𝑎 to eliminate 𝛼 3
1
⇒ 𝛼 3 + 𝑎𝛼 2 + 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑎𝛼 3 + 𝑏𝛼 2 + 𝛼 − 𝑎 = 0
⇒ 𝑎𝛼 3 + 𝑎2 𝛼 2 + 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎𝛼 3 − 𝑏𝛼 2 − 𝛼 + 𝑎 = 0
⇒ 𝛼 2 𝑎2 − 𝑏 − 𝛼 + 𝑎 1 + 𝑏 = 0
∴ 𝑏 − 𝑎2 𝛼 2 + 𝛼 − 𝑎 1 + 𝑏 = 0 . this equation is as a result of 𝑥 = 𝛼 being a
true root of the quadratic equation 𝑏 − 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑎 1 + 𝑏 = 0 . Hence the
common factor of the above two equations is also a common factor of the
quadratic equation.
Task
Show that if 𝑥 + 𝛼 is a common factor of 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞 and 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, then
it is also a factor of 𝑎𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎𝑞 − 𝑐.

REPEATED FACTORS
Let 𝑥 − 𝑎 be a repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑎 2 . 𝑔 𝑥 . 𝑖. 𝑒. repeated twice
Differentiating with respect to 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 . 2 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑥 − 𝑎 2 . 𝑔′ 𝑥
Thus if 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥 , then it is also a factor of 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
NOTE:
𝑥 − 𝑎 is a repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥 if 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 = 0

Examples
1. Determine whether 𝑓 𝑥 ≡ 3𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 24𝑥 − 13 has any repeated
factors, and if so find them.
Solution
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ≡ 12𝑥 3 − 24𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 24
≡ 12 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
≡ 12 𝑥 2 𝑥 − 2 − 𝑥 − 2
≡ 12 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 − 1 ≡ 12 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 2
Now 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0 if 𝑥 = ±1 , 2
Checking the value of 𝑓 𝑥 for these values of 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 1 = 0 , 𝑓 −1 ≠ 0 , 𝑓 2 ≠ 0
So 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑥 − 2 are not factors of 𝑓 𝑥
Hence 𝑥 − 1 is the only repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥
2. If the equation 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0 has equal roots, find the possible
values of p.

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Solution
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 𝑝
The equation 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 has equal roots if 𝑓 𝑥 has repeated factors.
Any linear factor of 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 is a possible repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ≡ 12𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 6
≡ 6 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1
≡ 6 𝑥 2 2𝑥 + 1 − 2𝑥 + 1
≡ 6 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 2 − 1
≡ 6 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 + 1
If 𝑥 − 1 is a repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥 , then 𝑓 1 = 0
⇒ 3+2−6−6+𝑝= 0 ∴ 𝑝 =7
Similarly 𝑥 + 1 is a repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥 , then 𝑓 −1 = 0
⇒ 3 − 2 − 6 + 6 + 𝑝 = 0 ∴ 𝑝 = −1
1
Also 2𝑥 + 1 is a repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥 , then 𝑓 − =0
2
1 4 1 3 1 2 1 23
⇒ 3 −2 + 2 −2 − 6 −2 − 6 − 2 + 𝑝 = 0 ∴ 𝑝 = − 16
3. If the equation 2𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0 has two equal roots, find the possible
values of p.
Solution
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0
Any linear factor of 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 is a possible repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ≡ 6𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 12
≡ 6 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
≡6 𝑥−2 𝑥−1
If 𝑥 − 2 is a repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥 , then 𝑓 2 = 0
⇒ 16 − 36 + 24 + 𝑝 = 0 ∴ 𝑝 = −4
Similarly 𝑥 − 1 is a repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥 , then 𝑓 1 = 0
⇒ 2 − 9 + 12 + 𝑝 = 0 ∴ 𝑝 = −5
∴ 𝑝 = −4 , −5

Task
1. Find the possible values of 𝑎 for which the equation 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0
has repeated roots. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: − 7 , 20
2. Find the value of 𝑎 for which the function 2𝑥 3 − 𝑎𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 7 has a repeated
factor. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 3

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MISCELLANIOUS EQUATIONS
Special quadratic equations
Some equations do not appear quadratic but they can be transformed in to
quadratic equations using a suitable substitution.
𝒖 𝒂
TYPE I: Equation of the form + = 𝒃 where a and b are constants and u is
𝒄 𝒖
a suitable substitution.
Example
Solve the equations:
9
a) 𝑥2 + = 10
𝑥2
b) 𝑥 4/3
+ 16𝑥 −4/3 = 17
35
c) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 34 +
𝑥 2 +2𝑥
12
d) 𝑦 𝑦+1 + =8
𝑦 𝑦 +1
e) 9𝑥 2/3
+ 16𝑥 −2/3
= 37
12
f) 2
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 +2𝑥 = 7
Solution
9
a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 = 10, let 𝑥 2 = 𝑢
9
⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑢 = 10 (Multiplying both sides by u and re-arranging)
⇒ u2 − 10u + 9 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 − 9 𝑢 − 1 = 0
∴ 𝑢 = 9,1
But 𝑥 2 = 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑥 2 = 9 , 𝑥 2 = 1
∴ 𝑥 = ±1 , ±3
Note:
The values of x are four because the equation is of degree 4. 𝑖. 𝑒. 40
16
b) 𝑥 4/3 + 16𝑥 −4/3 = 17 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 4/3 + = 17 , let 𝑥 4/3 = 𝑢
𝑥 4/3
16
⇒𝑢+ = 17 𝑜𝑟 u2 − 17u + 16 = 0
𝑢
⇒ 𝑢 − 16 𝑢 − 1 = 0 ∴ 𝑢 = 16 , 1
But 𝑥 4/3 = 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑥 4/3 = 16 , 𝑥 4/3 = 1
3
Multiplying the powers by
4
𝑥 = 163/4 = 8 ; 𝑥 = 1 3/4
=1
∴ 𝑥 = 1,8
35
c) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 34 + 𝑥 2 +2𝑥 , let 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 𝑢
35
⇒ 𝑢 = 34 + 𝑢
𝑜𝑟 u2 − 34u − 35 = 0
⇒ 𝑢 − 35 𝑢 + 1 = 0 ∴ 𝑢 = 35 , −1
But 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 𝑢,
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 35 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 35 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 + 7 𝑥 − 5 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = 5 , −7
Also 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 + 1 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = −1 , −1
∴ 𝑥 = 5 , −1 , −1 , −7
12
d) 𝑦 𝑦+1 + = 8, let 𝑦 𝑦 + 1 = 𝑢
𝑦 𝑦 +1
12
⇒𝑢+ = 8 𝑜𝑟 u2 − 8u + 12 = 0
𝑢
⇒ 𝑢 − 6 𝑢 − 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑢 = 6 ,2

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⇒ 𝑦 𝑦 + 1 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 − 2 = 0
⇒ 𝑦 + 2 𝑦 − 1 = 0 ∴ 𝑦 = 1 , −2
Also 𝑦 𝑦 + 1 = 6 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 − 6 = 0
⇒ 𝑦 + 3 𝑦 − 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑦 = 2 , −3
∴ 𝑦 = 1 , ±2 , −3
16
e) 9𝑥 2/3 + 16𝑥 −2/3 = 37 𝑜𝑟 9𝑥 2/3 + = 37 , let 𝑥 2/3 = 𝑢
𝑥 2/3
16
⇒ 9𝑢 + 4
= 37 𝑜𝑟 9u2 − 37u + 4 = 0
⇒ 9u2 − 36u − u + 4 = 0
⇒ 9𝑢 𝑢 − 4 − 𝑢 − 4 = 0
1
⇒ 9𝑢 − 1 𝑢 − 4 = 0 ∴ 𝑢 = ,4
9
Now 𝑥 2/3
=𝑢
2/3 1 1 3/2 1
⇒𝑥 = 9 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = = 27
9
⇒ 𝑥 2/3 = 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 4 3/2
=8
1
∴ 𝑥 = 8 , 27
f) Left as an exercise. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: ± 1 − 3, ± 5

Task
Solve the equations:
3
a) 3𝑥 + = 4 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 0 , 2
3𝑥
b) 2
𝑥 − 2𝑥 2
+ 24 = 11 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: − 2 , −1 , 3 , 4
24
Note: the equation can be expressed in the form 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 −2𝑥 = 11
𝑥 2 +4𝑥 84
c) + 𝑥 2 +4𝑥 = 11 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: −7 , −6 , 2 , 3
3
1 4
d) 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2
+ 8 = 9 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: −2 , −1 , 3 , 3

TYPE II: Indicial equations reducible to quadratic equation . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 +

𝒄=𝟎
Example
1. Solve the equations:
i) 32𝑥 + 9 = 10. 3𝑥
ii) 4𝑥 − 3. 2𝑥+3 = −128
iii) 5 5𝑥 + 5−𝑥 = 26
iv) 5𝑥 + 52−𝑥 = 26
v) 2 − 5𝑒 −𝑥 + 2𝑒 −2𝑥 = 0
vi) 32 𝑥+1 − 10 × 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
Solution
i) 32𝑥 + 9 = 10. 3𝑥
⇒ 3𝑥 2 + 9 = 10 × 3𝑥 , let 3𝑥 = 𝑢
⇒ 𝑢 2 + 9 = 10𝑢 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 2 − 10𝑢 + 9 = 0
⇒ 𝑢 − 9 𝑢 − 1 = 0 ∴ 𝑢 = 9 ,1
But 3𝑥 = 𝑢
⇒ 3𝑥 = 9 = 32 ∴ 𝑥 = 2
⇒ 3𝑥 = 1 = 30 ∴ 𝑥 = 0
∴ 𝑥 = 2,0

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ii) 4𝑥 − 3. 2𝑥+3 = −128

⇒ 2𝑥 2 − 3 × 2𝑥 × 23 = −128 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 2 − 24 × 2𝑥 = −128 , let 2𝑥 = 𝑢
⇒ 𝑢 2 − 24𝑢 = −128 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 2 − 24𝑢 + 128 = 0
24± 24 2 −4×128 24±8
⇒𝑢= =
2 2
∴ 𝑢 = 16 , 8
But 2𝑥 = 𝑢
⇒ 2𝑥 = 16 = 24 ∴ 𝑥 = 4
⇒ 2𝑥 = 8 = 23 ∴ 𝑥 = 3
∴ 𝑥 = 3,4
1
iii) 5 5𝑥 + 5−𝑥 = 26 𝑜𝑟 5 5𝑥 + 5𝑥 = 26, let 5𝑥 = 𝑢
1
⇒ 5 𝑢 + 𝑢 = 26 𝑜𝑟 5𝑢 2 − 26𝑢 + 5 = 0
⇒ 5𝑢 2 − 25𝑢 − 𝑢 + 5 = 0
1
⇒ 5𝑢 − 1 𝑢 − 5 = 0 ∴ 𝑢 = 5 , 5
Now 5𝑥 = 𝑢
⇒ 5𝑥 = 5 ∴ 𝑥 = 1
1
⇒ 5𝑥 = 5 = 5−1 ∴ 𝑥 = −1
∴ 𝑥 = ±1
v) 2 − 5𝑒 −𝑥 + 2𝑒 −2𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2 − 5𝑒 −𝑥 + 2 𝑒 −𝑥 2
= 0, let 𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑢
⇒ 2 − 5𝑢 + 2𝑢 2 = 0
1
⇒ 2𝑢 − 1 𝑢 − 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑢 = 2 , 2
Now 𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑢
⇒ 𝑒 −𝑥 = 2 , introducing logarithm to base 𝑒
⇒ ln 𝑒 −𝑥 = ln 2 ∴ 𝑥 = − ln 2
1
Also 𝑒 −𝑥 = 2
1
⇒ ln 𝑒 −𝑥 = ln 2
∴ 𝑥 = + ln 2
∴ 𝑥 = ± ln 2
vi) 32 𝑥+1 − 10 × 3𝑥 + 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 32𝑥 . 32 − 10 × 3𝑥 + 1 = 0, let 3𝑥 = 𝑢
⇒ 9𝑢 2 − 10𝑢 + 1 = 0
1
⇒ 9𝑢 − 1 𝑢 − 1 = 0 ∴ 𝑢 = 1 , 9
But 3𝑥 = 𝑢
⇒ 3𝑥 = 1 = 30 ∴ 𝑥 = 0
1
⇒ 3𝑥 = 9 = 3−2 ∴ 𝑥 = −2
∴ 𝑥 = 0 , −2

Task
Solve: i) 4𝑥 − 5. 2𝑥 + 4 = 0 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 0 , 2
ii) 32𝑥+1 − 3𝑥+1 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: − 1 , 0
iii) 52𝑥 − 5𝑥+1 + 4 = 0 0 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 0 , 0.861
iv) 22𝑥+8 − 32 2𝑥 + 1 = 0 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: − 4
v) 22𝑥+3 − 57 = 65 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: ± 3
2. Solve the equation
a) 𝑡 − 1.324 𝑡 − 2.896 = 0
6
b) 𝑥+ 𝑥=
25

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Solution
a) 𝑡 − 1.324 𝑡 − 2.896 = 0 , let 𝑡 = 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑢 2 = 𝑡
∴ 𝑢 2 − 1.324𝑢 − 2.896 = 0
1.324± −1.324 2 +4×2.896 1.324±3.652
∴𝑢= =
2 2
∴ 𝑢 = 2.488 , −1.164
⇒ 𝑡 = 2.488 2 = 6.19 ; −1.164 2
= 1.35
∴ 𝑡 = 6.19 , 1.35
6
b) 𝑥+ 𝑥= , let 𝑥 = 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑢 2
25
6
⇒ 𝑢2 + 𝑢 = 𝑜𝑟 25𝑢 2 + 25𝑢 − 6 = 0
25
−25± 25 2 +4×6×25 −25±5
⇒𝑢= 2×25
= 50
2 3
∴ 𝑢 = −5 ,−5
4 9
∴ 𝑥 = 25 , 25
Task
Solve the equations:
1
1 25
a) 6 𝑥 = 5𝑥 −2 − 13 ; 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: ,
9 4
1
b) 2𝑥 + =2 ; 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 0
2𝑥

TYPE III: Equation of the form 𝑨𝒙𝟒 + 𝑩𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪 = 𝟎. This equation contains
only 3 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
Solve the equation:
i) 𝑥 4 − 13𝑥 2 + 36 = 0
ii) 2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 = 6
Solution
i) 𝑥 4 − 13𝑥 2 + 36 = 0, let 𝑥 2 = 𝑢
⇒ 𝑢 2 − 13𝑢 + 36 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 − 9 𝑢 − 4 = 0
∴ 𝑢 = 9,4
But 𝑥 2 = 𝑢
⇒ 𝑥 2 = 9 ∴ 𝑥 = ±3
⇒ 𝑥 2 = 4 ∴ 𝑥 = ±2
∴ 𝑥 = ±2 , ±3
ii) 2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 = 6, let 𝑥 2 = 𝑢
⇒ 2𝑢 2 − 𝑢 − 6 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝑢 + 3 𝑢 − 2 = 0
3
∴ 𝑢 = −2 ,2
But 𝑥 2 = 𝑢
⇒ 𝑥2 = 2 ∴ 𝑥 = 2
3 3
⇒ 𝑥2 = − ∴𝑥= − , no real values of 𝑥
2 2

∴𝑥=± 2

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TYPE IV: Equation of the form 𝒙 + 𝒂 𝒙 + 𝒃 𝒙 + 𝒄 𝒙 + 𝒅 = 𝒏, where

𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑐 + 𝑑 and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 and 𝑛 are constants
Example:
Solve the equations:
i) 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 + 6 = 72
ii) 𝑥 − 7 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 5 𝑥 + 1 = 1680
iii) 𝑥 − 5 𝑥 − 7 𝑥 + 6 𝑥 + 4 = 504
Solution
i) 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 + 6 = 72
Since 1 + 6 = 3 + 4 = 7, then re-grouping
⇒ 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 6 . 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 + 4 = 72
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6 . 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 12 = 72
Now let 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 = 𝑢
⇒ 𝑢 + 6 𝑢 + 12 = 72
⇒ 𝑢 2 + 18𝑢 + 72 = 72 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 𝑢 + 18 = 0
∴ 𝑢 = 0 , −18
But 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 = 𝑢
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = 0 , −7
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 = −18 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 18 = 0
−7± 7 2 −4×18 −7± −23 −7±𝑖 23
∴𝑥= = =
2 2 2
−7±𝑖 23
∴ 𝑥 = 0 , −7 ,
2
ii) 𝑥 − 7 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 5 𝑥 + 1 = 1680
Since −7 + 5 = −3 + 1 = −2, then re-grouping
⇒ 𝑥 − 7 𝑥 + 5 . 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 1 = 1680
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 35 . 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 1680
Now let 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 𝑢
⇒ 𝑢 − 35 𝑢 − 3 = 1680
⇒ 𝑢 2 − 38𝑢 + 105 = 1680 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 2 − 38𝑢 − 1575 = 0
38± 38 2 +4×1575 38±88
⇒𝑢= =
2 2
∴ 𝑢 = 63 , −25
But 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 𝑢
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 63 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 63 = 0
⇒ 𝑥−9 𝑥+7 =0
∴ 𝑥 = 9 , −7
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = −25 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 25 = 0
2± −2 2 −4×25 2± −96 2±𝑖 96 2±𝑖4 6
∴𝑥= 2
= 2
= 2
= 2
∴ 𝑥 = 9 , −7 , 1 ± 𝑖2 6
iii) Left as an exercise. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 3 , −2 , 8 , −7

Task
Solve the equations:
3 3± −47
i) 𝑥 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 2 2𝑥 − 3 = 63 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 3, − 2 , 4
3 3 3± 10
ii) 16𝑥 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 3 = 9 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: − 2 , − 2 , 2

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TYPE IV: equation of the form 𝒂𝒙𝟒 ± 𝒃𝒙𝟑 ± 𝒄𝒙𝟐 ± 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒂 = 𝟎, where

coefficients of terms equidistant from the beginning and end are equal, can be
made to depend on the solution of the quadratic.
Equations of this form are known as Reciprocal Equations, and so are
1
named because they are not altered when 𝑥 is changed in to its .
𝑥

Example:
Solve the equations:
a) 12𝑥 4 − 56𝑥 3 + 89𝑥 2 − 56𝑥 + 12 = 0
b) 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
c) 4𝑥 4 + 17𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 + 4 = 0
d) 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0
e) 𝑥 4 + 1 − 3 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2
Solution
a) 12𝑥 4 − 56𝑥 3 + 89𝑥 2 − 56𝑥 + 12 = 0
Dividing through by 𝑥 2
56 12
⇒ 12𝑥 2 − 56𝑥 + 89 − + =0
𝑥 𝑥2
1 1
⇒ 12 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 − 56 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 89 = 0
1
Now let 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑢
1 1
⇒ 𝑢 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑢 2 − 2
The substitutions that solve reciprocal equations are;

𝟏 𝟏
𝒙 + 𝒙 = 𝒖 , 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 𝟐 = 𝒖 𝟐 − 𝟐

⇒ 12 𝑢2 − 2 − 56𝑢 + 89 = 0
⇒ 12𝑢 2 − 56𝑢 + 65 = 0
56± 56 2 −4×12×65 56±4
⇒𝑢= =
2×12 48
5 13
∴𝑢=2 , (Note: left as fractions)
6
1
But 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑢
1 13
⇒𝑥+ = 𝑜𝑟 6𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 6 = 0
𝑥 6
3 2
⇒ 3𝑥 − 2 2𝑥 − 3 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = 2 , 3
1 5
Also 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 = 0
1
⇒ 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = 2 ,
2
1 3 2
∴𝑥 = 2, , ,
2 2 3
b) 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
Dividing through by 𝑥 2
2 1
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 + + =0
𝑥 𝑥2
2 1 1
⇒ 𝑥 + +2 𝑥+ −1 = 0
𝑥2 𝑥
1 1
Now let 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑢 , 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑢 2 − 2 (as derived as before)
2

⇒ 𝑢 2 − 2 + 2𝑢 − 1 = 0
⇒ 𝑢 2 + 2𝑢 − 3 = 0

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⇒ 𝑢 + 3 𝑢 − 1 = 0 ∴ 𝑢 = −1 , −3
1
But 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑢
1
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑥 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0
−1± 1−4 −1±𝑖 3
⇒𝑥= =
2 2
1
Also 𝑥 + = −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝑥
−3± 9−4 −1± 5
⇒𝑥= 2
= 2
−1±𝑖 3 −1± 5
∴𝑥= ,
2 2
1 1
c) Left as an exercise. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: , ,2,3
3 2
1
d) Left as an exercise. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: − 4 , −4
−3± 5
e) Left as an exercise. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 1 ,
2
f) 𝑥 4 + 1 − 3 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2
Re arranging the equation,
⇒ 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
Dividing through by 𝑥 2
3 1
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 = 0
1 1
⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑥 2 − 3 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0
1 1
Now let 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑢 , 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑢 2 − 2 (as derived as before)
⇒ 𝑢 2 − 2 − 3𝑢 − 2 = 0
⇒ 𝑢 2 − 3𝑢 − 4 = 0
⇒ 𝑢 + 1 𝑢 − 4 = 0 ∴ 𝑢 = −1 , 4
1
But 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑢
1
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑥 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0
−1± 1−4 −1±𝑖 3
⇒𝑥= =
2 2
1
Also 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
4± 16−4 4± 12 4±2 3
⇒𝑥= = = = 2± 3
2 2 2
−1±𝑖 3
∴𝑥= 2
,2 ± 3

Solving equations which are not reciprocal but solved in a similar

manner as reciprocal
Example
Solve the equation:
a) 6𝑥 4 − 25𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 + 25𝑥 + 6 = 0
9 3
b) 𝑥2 + −4 𝑥− −2 =0
𝑥2 𝑥
Solution
a) 6𝑥 4 − 25𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 + 25𝑥 + 6 = 0
Dividing through by 𝑥 2
25 6
⇒ 6𝑥 2 − 25𝑥 + 12 + 𝑥
+ 𝑥2 = 0
1 1
⇒ 6 𝑥2 + − 25 𝑥 − + 12 = 0
𝑥2 𝑥

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1
Now let 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 𝑢
1 1
𝑢2 = 𝑥 2 + − 2 ⇒ 𝑢2 + 2 = 𝑥 2 + ⇒ 𝑢 2 − 2 − 3𝑢 − 2 = 0
𝑥2 𝑥2
⇒ 6 𝑢 2 + 2 − 25𝑢 + 12 = 0 𝑜𝑟 6𝑢 − 25𝑢 + 24 = 0 2

25± 25 2 −4×6×24 25±7 32 8 18 3

⇒𝑢= 2×6
= 12
∴ 𝑢 = 12 = 3 , 12 = 2
1 8
Now 𝑥 − = 𝑜𝑟 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 3 = 0
𝑥 3
2
⇒ 3𝑥 − 9𝑥 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 3𝑥 𝑥 − 3 + 1 𝑥 − 3 = 0
1
⇒ 3𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 3 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = − 3 , 3
1 3
Also 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = 0
⇒ 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 𝑥 − 2 + 1 𝑥 − 2 = 0
1
⇒ 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = − , 2
2
1 1
∴ 𝑥 = − ,3,2,−
3 2
9 3
b) 𝑥2 + 𝑥 2 − 4 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0
3 9 9
Let 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 𝑢 , 𝑢 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 − 6 ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑢 2 + 6
⇒ 𝑢 2 + 6 − 4𝑢 − 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 2 − 4𝑢 + 4 = 0
⇒ 𝑢−2 2 =0 ∴𝑢 = 2
3
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 3 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = −1 , 3

Task
9 3
Solve the equation: 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 − 4 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 6 = 0

EQUATIONS INVOLVING SQUARE ROOTS

Steps followed:
1. Isolate one square root on either L.H.S or R.H.S of the equation and square
both sides
2. If there is another remaining square root that persists, isolate it again and
square both sides
3. Continue to square both sides until there is no more square root, then solve
the resulting equation.
NOTE:
These equations yield extraneous roots which do not satisfy the equation
being solved. Thus for correct roots, test the roots in the original equation,
that which satisfy is the correct root.

TYPE A: 𝑷 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 + 𝑸 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒏 + 𝑹 𝜶𝒙 + 𝜷 = 𝒌, where 𝑃 , 𝑄 , 𝑅 are constants.

Case I: For 𝑅 = 0 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑷 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 + 𝑸 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒏 = 𝒌
Example:
Solve the equations:
a) 𝑥+1+ 𝑥−2 = 3
b) 3𝑥 − 3 − 𝑥 = 1
c) 𝑥−5+ 𝑥 =5
d) 𝑥−1+2 𝑥−4 = 4

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Solution
a) 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 − 2 = 3 ; let 𝐴 = 𝑥 + 1 , 𝐵 = 𝑥 − 2
⇒ 𝐴+ 𝐵 =3
Isolating 𝐴 and squaring both sides
2 2
⇒ 𝐴 = 3− 𝐵
⇒ 𝐴 = 9−6 𝐵+𝐵
Isolating 𝐵 and squaring both sides
⇒ 6 𝐵 = 9+𝐵−𝐴
⇒ 6 𝑥−2 = 9+𝑥−2−𝑥−1
⇒ 6 𝑥 − 2 = 6 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 2 = 1
2
∴ 𝑥−2 = 1⇒ 𝑥−2=1
∴𝑥=3
Testing 𝑥 = 3 in to the original equation,
3 + 1 + 3 − 2 = 3 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
∴ 𝑥 = 3 is a root.
b) 3𝑥 − 3 − 𝑥 = 1 ; let 𝐴 = 3𝑥 + 3
⇒ 𝐴+ 𝑥 = 1
Isolating 𝐴 and squaring both sides
2 2
⇒ 𝐴 = 1+ 𝑥
⇒ 𝐴 = 1+2 𝑥+𝑥
⇒ 3𝑥 − 3 = 1 + 2 𝑥 + 𝑥
Now 2 𝑥 = 2𝑥 − 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2
Squaring both sides again,
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 2 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 4 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 = 1,4
Testing the values,
For 𝑥 = 1 , 3 − 3 − 1 = 0 ≠ 1
Hence 𝑥 = 1 is not a correct root. 𝑖. 𝑒. it is an extraneous root.
For 𝑥 = 4 , 12 − 3 − 4 = 1 = R. H. S.
Only 𝑥 = 4 is the correct root.
c) 𝑥 − 5 + 𝑥 = 5 , let 𝐵 = 𝑥 − 5
⇒ 𝐵+ 𝑥 =5
Isolating 𝐵 and squaring both sides
2 2
⇒ 𝐵 = 5− 𝑥
⇒ 𝐵 = 25 − 10 𝑥 + 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 − 5 = 25 − 10 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 10 𝑥 = 30
⇒ 𝑥 = 3 , squaring both sides,
⇒𝑥=9
Testing 𝑥 = 9, 9 − 4 + 9 = 5 = R. H. S
∴ 𝑥 = 9 is the correct root.
d) 𝑥 − 1 + 2 𝑥 − 4 = 4 , let 𝑥 − 1 = 𝐴 , 𝑥 − 4 = 𝐵
⇒ 𝐴+2 𝐵 =4
Isolating 2 𝐵 and squaring both sides,

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2 2
⇒ 2 𝐵 = 4− 𝐴
⇒ 4𝐵 = 16 − 8 𝐴 + 𝐴
Isolating 8 𝐴 and squaring both sides,
2
⇒ 8 𝐴 = 𝐴 − 4𝐵 + 16 2
⇒ 64𝐴 = 𝑥 − 1 − 4 𝑥 − 4 + 16 2
⇒ 64 𝑥 − 1 = 𝑥 − 1 − 4𝑥 + 16 + 16 2 = −3𝑥 + 31 2
⇒ 64𝑥 − 64 = 9𝑥 2 − 186𝑥 + 961 𝑜𝑟 9𝑥 2 − 250𝑥 + 1025 = 0
250 ± −250 2 −4×9×1025 250 ±160
⇒𝑥= =
18 18
205
⇒𝑥= ,5
9
Testing the values,
For 𝑥 = 5 , 5 − 1 + 2 5 − 4 = 4 = R. H. S
Hence 𝑥 = 5 is root.
205 205 205 40
For 𝑥 = , −1 +2 −4 = ≠ R. H. S.
9 9 9 3
Only 𝑥 = 5 is the correct root.

Task
Solve the equations:
a) 2 2𝑥 − 12 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 3 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 14 𝑛𝑜𝑡 6
4
b) 2 𝑥+4− 𝑥−1 = 4 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 5 𝑛𝑜𝑡 1 9
c) 𝑥−5+2 = 𝑥+7 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 9
d) 3𝑥 + 4 − 𝑥 − 3 = 4 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 4 , 7

Case II: For 𝑅 ≠ 0 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑷 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 + 𝑸 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒏 + 𝑹 𝜶𝒙 + 𝜷 = 𝒌

Example:
Solve the equations:
a) 2 𝑥 + 1 − 3 2𝑥 − 5 = 𝑥 − 2
b) 3 − 𝑥 − 7 + 𝑥 = 16 + 2𝑥
c) 𝑥 + 6 − 𝑥 + 3 = 2𝑥 + 5
Solution
a) 2 𝑥 + 1 − 3 2𝑥 − 5 = 𝑥 − 2
Let 𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴 , 2𝑥 − 5 = 𝐵 , 𝑥 − 2 = 𝐶
⇒ 2 𝐴 − 3 𝐵 = 𝐶 , squaring both sides,
2
⇒ 2 𝐴−3 𝐵 =𝐶
⇒ 4𝐴 + 9𝐵 − 12 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶
Isolating 12 𝐴𝐵 and squaring both sides,
2
⇒ 12 𝐴𝐵 = 4𝐴 + 9𝐵 − 𝐶 2
⇒ 144𝐴𝐵 = 4𝐴 + 9𝐵 − 𝐶 2 , substituting for A, B and C
2
⇒ 144 𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 − 5 = 4 𝑥 + 1 + 9 2𝑥 − 5 − 𝑥 − 2
2
⇒ 144 2𝑥2 − 3𝑥 − 5 = 4𝑥 + 4 + 18𝑥 − 45— 𝑥 + 2
⇒ 288𝑥 2 − 432𝑥 − 720 = 21𝑥 − 39 2 = 441𝑥 2 − 1638𝑥 + 1521
⇒ 153𝑥 2 − 1206𝑥 + 2241 = 0 𝑜𝑟 17𝑥 2 − 134𝑥 + 249 = 0

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134 ± 134 2 −4×17×249 134 ±32

⇒𝑥= 34
= 34
83
⇒𝑥 = 3,
17
Testing the values,
For 𝑥 = 3, 2 3 + 1 − 3 6 − 5 = 3 − 2 = 1, hence 𝑥 = 3 is a root
83 83 166 83 83
For𝑥 = , 2 +1−3 −5 ≠ − 2 = 1, hence 𝑥 = is not a root
17 17 17 17 17
∴ 𝑥 = 3 is the only correct root.
b) 3 − 𝑥 − 7 + 𝑥 = 16 + 2𝑥
Let 3 − 𝑥 = 𝐴 , 7 + 𝑥 = 𝐵 , 16 + 2𝑥 = 𝐶
⇒ 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐶 , squaring both sides,
2
⇒ 𝐴− 𝐵 =𝐶
⇒ 𝐴 + 𝐵 − 2 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶
Isolating 2 𝐴𝐵 and squaring both sides,
= 𝐴 + 𝐵 − 𝐶 2 = 4𝐴𝐵 , substituting for A, B and C
2
⇒ 4 3 − 𝑥 7 + 𝑥 = 3 − 𝑥 + 7 + 𝑥 − 16 + 2𝑥
⇒ 4 21 − 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = −6 − 2𝑥 2
⇒ 84 − 16𝑥 − 4𝑥 2 = 36 + 24𝑥 + 4𝑥 2
⇒ 8𝑥 2 + 40𝑥 − 48 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 + 6 𝑥 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1 , −6
Testing the values,
For 𝑥 = 1, 3 − 1 − 7 + 1 ≠ 16 + 2 , hence 𝑥 = 1 is not a root.
For 𝑥 = −6, 3 + 6 − 7 − 6 = 16 − 12 , hence 𝑥 = 2 is a root.
∴ 𝑥 = 2 is the correct root.
c) Left as an exercise. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑥 = −2

TYPE B: Any equation which can be thrown in to the form

𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 + 𝒑 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝒒
This is solved by putting 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
⇒ 𝑦 2 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
∴ the equation being solved is 𝑦 2 + 𝑝𝑦 − 𝑞 = 0
Let 𝛼 and 𝛽 be roots of this equation.
⇒ 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 , 𝛽 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
From these equations we obtain four values of 𝑥.
NOTE:
If no sign is prefixed to a radical it is usually understood that it is to be
taken as a positive. Hence if both 𝛼 and 𝛽 are both positive, all the four
values of 𝑥 satisfy the original equation.
If however, 𝛼 or 𝛽 is negative, the roots found from the resulting quadratic
equation will satisfy the equation 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 − 𝒑 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝒒 but not
the original equation.

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Example
Solve the equations:
a) 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = 12
b) 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 = 24 − 6𝑥
c) 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 = 4 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6
d) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 10 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16 = 20 20 − 𝑥
e) 3𝑥 2 − 18 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 6 = 4𝑥
Solution
a) 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = 12
Adding 3 on both sides
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 + 2 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = 15
Now let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 ⇒ 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3
⇒ 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 = 15 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 − 15 = 0
⇒ 𝑦 + 5 𝑦 − 3 = 0 ∴ 𝑦 = −5 , 3
But 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = −5 ………………………………. (1)
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = 3 …………………………………. (2)
From eqn. (1), squaring both sides,
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = 25 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 22 = 0
5± 25+88 5± 113
∴𝑥= =
2 2
From eqn. (2), squaring both sides,
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = 9 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 − 6 𝑥 + 1 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = −1 , 6
From the discussion above,
𝑥 = −1 , 6 satisfy the equation 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = 12, because the
radical 2 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 is positive and 𝑦 = +3
5± 113
But for 𝑥 = satisfy the equation 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = 12 , because
2
the radical −2 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 is negative and 𝑦 − 5
b) 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 = 24 − 6𝑥, re arranging
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 = 24
Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 = 24 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 − 24 = 0
⇒ 𝑦 + 6 𝑦 − 4 = 0 ∴ 𝑦 = −6 , 4
But 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = 4 ……………………………………. (1)
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 = −6 …………………………………. (2)
From eqn. (1), squaring both sides,
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 = 16 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 16 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 + 8 𝑥 − 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = −8 , 2
From eqn. (2), squaring both sides,
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 = 36 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 36 = 0
−6± 36+4×36
∴𝑥= 2
= −3 ± 3 5
∴ Roots to 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 = 24 − 6𝑥 are ∴ 𝑥 = −8 , 2 for 𝑦 = +4 and roots of
2

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𝑥 2 − 2 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 = 24 − 6𝑥 are −3 ± 3 5 for 𝑦 = −4. The roots of the latter

equation are extraneous.
c) 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 = 4 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6
Subtracting 3 from both sides,
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6 = 4 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6 − 3
Now let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6 ⇒ 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6
⇒ 𝑦 2 = 4𝑦 − 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 3 = 0
⇒ 𝑦− 𝑦 −3 = 0 ∴ 𝑦 = 1,3
But 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6 = 1 …………………………………. (1)
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6 = 3 …………………………………. (2)
From eqn. (1), squaring both sides,
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 −5 𝑥 −1 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = 1,5
From eqn. (2), squaring both sides,
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 6 = 9 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 3 = 0
6± 36+4×3
∴𝑥= =3±2 3
2
∴ 𝑥 = 1 , 5 , 3 ± 2 3 satisfy the original equation.
d) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 10 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16 = 20 20 − 𝑥 , re arranging the equation,
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 40 + 10 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16 = 0
Adding 56 on both sides,
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16 + 10 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16 = 56
Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16 ⇒ 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16
⇒ 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 = 56 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 − 56 = 0
⇒ 𝑦 + 14 𝑦 − 4 = 0 ∴ 𝑦 = 4 , −14
But 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16 = 4 ………………………………………. (1)
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16 = −14 …………………………………. (2)
From eqn. (1), squaring both sides,
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16 = 16 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 𝑥 + 3 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = 0 , −3
From eqn. (2), squaring both sides,
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16 = 196 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 180 = 0
−3± 9+4×180 3±27
∴𝑥= = ⇒ 𝑥 = −15 , 12
2 2
Since 𝑦 = +4 and 10 + 3𝑥 + 16 is also +𝑣𝑒, then 𝑥 = 0 , −3 satisfy the
𝑥2
equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 10 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16 = 20 20 − 𝑥 .
Since 𝑦 = −14 and 10 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16 is +𝑣𝑒, then 𝑥 = −15 , 12 satisfy the
equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 10 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 16 = 20 20 − 𝑥 . These are extraneous roots.
e) Left as an exercise.
5 2± 70
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑥 = 3 , − 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3

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NOTE:
 In general some equations of degree 40 can be converted in to a
quadratic
 Before clearing an equation of a radical, it is advisable whether any
common factor can be removed by division.

Example:

Solve: 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 − 3 2𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 10 = 𝑥 − 2
⇒2 𝑥+1 𝑥−2 −3 2𝑥 − 5 𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥 − 2
Dividing through by 𝑥 − 2
⇒ 2 𝑥 + 1 − 3 2𝑥 − 5 = 𝑥 − 2 , which is as case II for 𝑅 ≠ 0
Solving the equation, 𝑥 = 3.
NOTE:
When one root of a quadratic equation is obvious by inspection, the other
root may often be readily obtained by making use of the properties of the
roots of a quadratic equation as illustrated below.

Example:
Solve the equation:
i) 1 − 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎 − 2𝑎 1 − 𝑥 2 = 0
1−𝑥 2 1−𝑎 2
ii) =
2−𝑥 2 2−𝑎 2
Solution
i) 1 − 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎 − 2𝑎 1 − 𝑥 2 = 0
By inspection, clearly 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a root to the equation.
Re writing the equation,
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑎 − 𝑎2 𝑥 − 𝑎3 − 2𝑎 + 2𝑎𝑥 2 = 0
∴ 2𝑎𝑥 2 + 1 − 𝑎2 𝑥 − 𝑎 1 + 𝑎2 = 0
Let 𝛼 and 𝛽 be roots of this equation, then
𝑎 1+𝑎 2 1+𝑎 2
⇒ 𝛼𝛽 = − =−
2𝑎 2
Since one root of the equation is 𝑎 . 𝑖. 𝑒. say 𝛼 = 𝑎, then the other root 𝛽 is;
1+𝑎 2 1+𝑎 2
𝛽 == − =−
2𝛼 2𝑎
ii) Left as an exercise.
Task
Solve the equation:
a) 4𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 15 − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 9 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 1 , 3
1
b) 2𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 4 + 3 2𝑥 − 1 = 2𝑥 2 + 21𝑥 − 11 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 5 ,
2
10𝑎
c) 𝑥 2 − 7𝑎𝑥 + 10𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 − 6𝑎2 = 𝑥 − 2𝑎 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 2𝑎 , −
3

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SERRIES
Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions
𝐀. 𝐩𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐆. 𝐩𝐬

Basic concepts:
a) A Sequence is a set of quantities/numbers 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 … … … .. , stated in a
definite order and each term formed according to a fixed pattern.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑓 𝑟 .
Example
 1, 3 , 5 ,7 … … … … .. , is a sequence (the next term would be 9)
 2 ,6 , 18 , 54 … … …., is a sequence (the next term would be 162)
 12 , −22 , 32 , −42 … … … , is a sequence (the next term would be +52 )
i) A finite sequence contains only a finite number of terms.
ii) An infinite sequence is unending.

NOTE:
The numbers in a sequence are called terms.
b) A series is formed by the sum of the terms of a sequence.
Example
For 1, 3 , 5 ,7 … … … … .. is a sequence
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 … … … … .. is a series.
c) The Arithmetic Progression (A.P)
A series in which each term is obtained from the proceeding one by adding
or subtracting a constant quantity is called the Arithmetic Progression.
Example
 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 … … … … … … … … … … .. is an A.P
 3 − 2 − 7 − ⋯ … … … … … … … … … …. is an A.P
 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 2𝑑 + ⋯ … . . … … is an A.P
The constant quantity is called a common difference, d.
Consider the A.P below;

𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ … … … … + 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛

This is an A.P if the common difference

𝑑 = 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛−1 , for all 𝑛 > 1

From the above examples of series,

 1 + 3 + 5 + 7……………,𝑑 = 3 − 1 = 5 − 3 = 7 − 5 = 2
 3 − 2 − 7 − ⋯ … … … … , 𝑑 = −2 − 3 = −7 − −2 = −5
 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 2𝑑 + ⋯ … . . … ,
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 − 𝑎 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑 − 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 𝑑

To find General term 𝒏𝒕𝒉 − 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 of an A.P.

Let 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ … … … … , be an A.P.
Let 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 , then
𝑑 = 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛−1 , for all 𝑛 > 1
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑑 + 𝑎𝑛−1
Now for 𝑛 = 2 , 𝑎2 = 𝑑 + 𝑎1
𝑛 = 3 , 𝑎3 = 𝑑 + 𝑎2 = 𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑎1 = 𝑎1 + 2𝑑

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𝑛 = 4 , 𝑎4 = 𝑑 + 𝑎3 = 𝑑 + 2𝑑 + 𝑎1 = 𝑎1 + 3𝑑
Observation of the terms;
𝑎2 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑 = 𝑎1 + 2 − 1 𝑑
𝑎3 = 𝑎2 + 𝑑 = 𝑎1 + 3 − 1 𝑑
𝑎4 = 𝑎3 + 𝑑 = 𝑎1 + 4 − 1 𝑑

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑑 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
Thus the general term of an A.P is
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂 + 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒅

From the formula,

𝑎 = 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

NOTE:
1. The general term of an A.P is 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒅, has four terms. If the three
are given then the 4𝑡𝑕 can be evaluated.
2. From the general term of an A.P, the standard form of an A.P is stated as;
𝒂 + 𝒂 + 𝒅 + 𝒂 + 𝟐𝒅 + ⋯ … . . … … + 𝒂 + 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒅

3. The most convenient terms in an A.P with given sum and product:
a) If three terms are in an A.P, then use

𝒂 − 𝒅 ,𝒂 , 𝒂 + 𝒅

b) If four terms are in an A.P, then use

𝒂 − 𝟑𝒅 , 𝒂 − 𝒅 , 𝒂 + 𝒅 , 𝒂 − 𝟑𝒅

NOTICE:
a) If you sum up the terms, the common difference, d, vanishes, and the sum
is in terms of only the first term, a.
b) In case of odd number of terms, the common difference is taken as d and
the middle term as a.
c) In case of even number of terms, the common difference is taken as 2d and
the two middle terms are 𝒂 − 𝒅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒂 + 𝒅 .

Properties of an A.P
a) If the constant is added to or subtracted from every term in an A.P, the
resulting series is an A.P.
b) If every term is multiplied or divided by a constant, the resulting series is
also in an A.P.

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Examples
1. Find the 17𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of the series
a) 4 + 6 + 8 + ⋯ … … ….
b) −8 − 7 − 6 − 5 − ⋯ … ..
Solution
a) 4 + 6 + 8 + ⋯ … … ….
Since 𝑑 = 6 − 4 = 8 − 6 = 2, the series is an A.P
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
Given: 𝑎 = 4 , 𝑛 = 17 , 𝑑 = 2
Required: 𝑎𝑛
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = 4 + 17 − 1 × 2 = 36
∴ 𝑡𝑕𝑒 17𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 36
b) −8 − 7 − 6 − 5 − ⋯ … ..
𝑑 = −7 − −8 = −6 − −7 = 1
Given: 𝑎 = −8 , 𝑛 = 17 , 𝑑 = 1
Required: 𝑎17
⇒ 𝑎17 = −8 + 17 − 1 × 1 = 8
∴ 𝑡𝑕𝑒 17𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 8

2. State the 20𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 and the number of terms of the following series;
a) 2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯ … … … . . +100
b) −8 − 6 − 4 − ⋯ … . +200
Solution
a) 2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯ … … … . . +100
Given: 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑛 = ? , 𝑑 = 4 − 2 = 2 , 𝑎𝑛 = 100
Required: 𝑎20 = ? , 𝑛 = ?
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
100 = 2 + 𝑛 − 1 × 2 𝑜𝑟 50 = 1 + 𝑛 − 1
∴ 𝑛 = 50
Now 𝑎20 = 𝑎 + 20 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 19𝑑
𝑎20 = 2 + 19 × 2 = 40
∴ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 50 , 20𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 40

b) −8 − 6 − 4 − ⋯ … . +200
Given: 𝑎 = −8 , 𝑛 = ? , 𝑑 = −6 − −8 = 2 , 𝑎𝑛 = 200
Required: 𝑎20 = ? , 𝑛 = ?
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
200 = −8 + 𝑛 − 1 × 2 𝑜𝑟 100 = −4 + 𝑛 − 1
∴ 𝑛 = 105
Now 𝑎20 = 𝑎 + 20 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 19𝑑
𝑎20 = −8 + 19 × 2 = 30
∴ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 105 , 20𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 30
3. The 3𝑟𝑑 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of an A.P is 18 and the 7𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 is 30. Find the 17𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚.
Solution
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
Given: 𝑎3 = 18 , 𝑎7 = 30
Required: 𝑎17 = ?

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⇒ 𝑎3 = 𝑎 + 3 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑 = 18……………………. (1)
⇒ 𝑎7 = 𝑎 + 7 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 6𝑑 = 30 …………………… (2)
Solving the equations simultaneously
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
⇒ −4𝑑 = −12 , 𝑑 = 3
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 𝑑 = 3 in to eqn. (1) or (2)
For 𝑎 + 2𝑑 = 18 ⇒ 𝑎 = 18 − 2 × 3 = 12
Now 𝑎17 = 𝑎 + 17 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 16𝑑 = 12 + 16 × 3 = 60
∴ 𝑡𝑕𝑒 17𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 60
4. The 3𝑟𝑑 and 13𝑡𝑕 term of an A.P are respectively equal to −40 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0. Find the
A.P and its 20𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚.
Solution
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
Given: 𝑎3 = −40 , 𝑎13 = 0
Required: 𝑎20 = ?
⇒ 𝑎3 = 𝑎 + 3 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑 = −40……………………. (1)
⇒ 𝑎13 = 𝑎 + 13 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 12𝑑 = 0 …………………… (2)
Solving the equations simultaneously
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
⇒ −10𝑑 = −40 , 𝑑 = 4
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 𝑑 = 4 in to eqn. (1) or (2)
For 𝑎 + 2𝑑 = −40 ⇒ 𝑎 = −40 − 2 × 4 = −48
Now 𝑎20 = 𝑎 + 20 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 19𝑑 = −48 + 19 × 4 = −12
∴ 𝑡𝑕𝑒 20𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 − 12
The A.P is 𝑎 , 𝑎 + 𝑑 , 𝑎 + 2𝑑 , … … . . …
∴ 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐴. 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 − 48 , −44 , −40 , … … … … , 28
5. In an A.P 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ … … … + 𝑢4 = 15 and 𝑢11 = −3. Find the greatest integer N
such that 𝑢𝑁 ≥ 0
Solution
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
𝑢1 = 𝑎 , 𝑢2 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 , 𝑢3 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑 , 𝑢4 = 𝑎 + 3𝑑
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 2𝑑 + 𝑎 + 3𝑑 = 15
∴ 4𝑎 + 6𝑑 = 15 ……………………………………….. (1)
Given: 𝑢16 = −3 ⇒ 𝑎 + 15𝑑 = −3 ………………….. (2)
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously,
From (1) 𝑎 = −3 − 15𝑑 …………………………….. (3)
Eqn. (3) in to (1)
⇒ 4 −3 − 15𝑑 + 6𝑑 = 15
27 1
⇒ −12 − 60𝑑 + 6𝑑 = 15 𝑜𝑟 𝑑 = − =−
54 2
1
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 𝑑 = − 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 (3)
1 −6+15 9
⇒ 𝑎 = −3 − 15 − 2 = 2
=2
Now 𝑢𝑁 = 𝑎 + 𝑁 − 1 𝑑 ≥ 0
9 1
⇒ 2 + 𝑁 − 1 × − 2 ≥ 0…………………… × 2
⇒ 9 + 1 − 𝑁 ≥ 0 𝑜𝑟 10 ≥ 𝑁
∴ 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 10

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6. The 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 term of a series is 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑎 3𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛 + 𝑐. Given that 𝑈1 = 4 , 𝑈2 =

13 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈3 = 46. Find the values of a, b and c.
Solution
Given: 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑎 3𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛 + 𝑐
For 𝑈1 = 4 , 𝑛 = 1 ⇒ 4 = 3𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 …………...………. (1)
For 𝑈2 = 13 , 𝑛 = 2 ⇒ 13 = 9𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 …………..…. (2)
For 𝑈3 = 46 , 𝑛 = 3 ⇒ 46 = 27𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 𝑐 ……………. (3)
Solving (1), (2) and (3) simultaneously
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2) , to eliminate c
⇒ −9 = −6𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 6𝑎 + 𝑏 = 9 ……………………………………… (4)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3) , to eliminate c
⇒ −42 = −24𝑎 − 2𝑏 𝑜𝑟 12𝑎 + 𝑏 = 21 …………………………… (5)
Now eliminating b from (4) and (5)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (5) , to eliminate b
⇒ −6𝑎 = −12 ∴ 𝑎 = 2
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 𝑎 = 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 5 𝑜𝑟 (4)
6𝑎 + 𝑏 = 9 , 𝑎 = 2 ⇒ 𝑏 = 2 − 6 × 2 = −3
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = −3 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 1 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑜𝑟 (3)
From ⇒ 𝑐 = 4 − 3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 4 − 6 − 3 = 1
∴ 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = −3 , 𝑐 = 1

Examples on sum and product of a certain number of terms in an A.P

1. Find three terms in an A.P such that;
a) Their sum is 21 and the product is 315
b) Their sum is 33 and the sum of their squares is 563
Solution
Let the numbers be 𝑎 − 𝑑 , 𝑎 𝑎 + 𝑑
a) Given: 𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 21, 𝑎 − 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 21
⇒ 3𝑎 = 21 ∴ 𝑎 = 7
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 315 , 𝑎 𝑎 − 𝑑 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 315
⇒ 𝑎 𝑎2 − 𝑑2 = 315
⇒ 7 72 − 𝑑2 = 315 𝑜𝑟 49 − 𝑑2 = 45
∴ 𝑑 = 4 = ±2
The numbers are: 7 − ±2 , 2 , 7 + ±2
∴ 5 , 7 , 9 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑 = +2
∴ 9 , 7 , 5 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑 = −2
b. 𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 33, 𝑎 − 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 33
⇒ 3𝑎 = 33 ∴ 𝑎 = 11
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 563, 𝑎 − 𝑑 2 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 2 = 563
⇒ 11 − 𝑑 2 + 112 + 11 + 𝑑 2 = 563
⇒ 121 − 22𝑑 + 𝑑2 + 121 + 121 + 22𝑑 + 𝑑2 = 563
⇒ 2𝑑2 + 363 = 563 , 𝑑2 = 100 ∴ 𝑑 = ±10
Now numbers are:
For 𝑑 = 10 , 𝑎 = 11 ⇒ 11 − 10 , 11 , 11 + 10 𝑜𝑟 1 , 11 , 21
For 𝑑 = −10 , 𝑎 = 11 ⇒ 11 − −10 , 11 , 11 − 10 𝑜𝑟 21 , 11 , 1
2. Find four numbers in an A.P such that their sum is 20 and sum of the
squares is 120.

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Solution
Let the numbers be: 𝑎 − 3𝑑 , 𝑎 − 𝑑 , 𝑎 + 𝑑 , 𝑎 + 3𝑑
𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 20 ⇒ 𝑎 − 3𝑑 + 𝑎 − 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 3𝑑 = 20
⇒ 4𝑎 = 20 ∴ 𝑎 = 5
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 120 , 𝑎 − 3𝑑 2 + 𝑎 − 𝑑 2 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 2 + 𝑎 + 3𝑑 2 = 120
⇒ 5 − 3𝑑 2 + 5 − 𝑑 2 + 5 + 𝑑 2 + 5 + 3𝑑 2 = 120
⇒ 25 − 30𝑑 + 9𝑑2 + 25 + 30𝑑 + 9𝑑2 + 25 − 10𝑑 + 𝑑2 + 25 + 10𝑑 + 𝑑2 = 120
⇒ 100 + 20𝑑2 = 120 ∴ 𝑑 = ±1
The numbers are:
For 𝑑 = 1 , 𝑎 = 5 , 5 − 3 , 5 − 1 , 5 + 1 , 5 + 3
∴ 2,4,6,8
For 𝑑 = −1 , 𝑎 = 5 , 5 + 3 , 5 + 1 , 5 − 1 , 5 − 3
∴ 8,6,4,2
3. Find five numbers in an A.P such that;
a) Their sum is 20 and product of the first and last term is 15
b) Their sum is 25 and sum of their squares is 135
Solution
a) Let the numbers be: 𝑎 − 2𝑑 , 𝑎 − 𝑑 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 + 𝑑 , 𝑎 + 2𝑑
Now sum= 20 = 𝑎 − 2𝑑 + 𝑎 − 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 2𝑑
⇒ 20 = 5𝑎 ∴ 𝑎 = 4
Product of the first and last= 𝑎 − 2𝑑 × 𝑎 + 2𝑑 = 15
⇒ 4 − 2𝑑 × 4 + 2𝑑 = 15 𝑜𝑟 16 − 4𝑑2 = 15
1
⇒ 𝑑 = ±2
1 1
∴ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒: 3 , 3 2 , 4 , 4 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5
b) 𝑆𝑢𝑚 = 5𝑎 = 25 ∴ 𝑎 = 5
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 135 = 𝑎 − 2𝑑 2 + 𝑎 − 𝑑 2 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 2 + 𝑎 + 2𝑑 2
135 = 𝑎2 − 4𝑎𝑑 + 4𝑑2 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑑 + 𝑑2 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑑 + 𝑑2 + 𝑎2 + 4𝑎𝑑 + 4𝑑2
⇒ 135 = 5𝑎2 + 10𝑑2 , but 𝑎 = 5
⇒ 135 = 5 × 52 + 10𝑑2 𝑜𝑟 135 = 125 + 10𝑑2
∴ 𝑑 = ±1
∴ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒: 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7
Task
1. Find three numbers in an A.P such that
a) Sum is 27 and product is 648
b) Sum is 27 and sum of their squares is 275
c) Sum is 12 and sum of their cubes is 408
d) Sum is 15 and sum of squares of its first and third term is 58
e) Sum is 9 and the sum of their squares is 77
f) Sum is 6 and their product is −90
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒂 𝟔 , 𝟗 , 𝟏𝟐 , 𝒅 = ±𝟑 , 𝒂 = 𝟗 𝒃 𝟓 , 𝟗 , 𝟏𝟑 , 𝒅 = ±𝟒 , 𝒂 = 𝟗 𝒄 𝟏 . 𝟒 , 𝟕 , 𝒅 =
±𝟑 , 𝒂 = 𝟒
𝒅 𝟑 ,𝟓 ,𝟕 𝒆 − 𝟐 ,𝟑 ,𝟖 𝒇 − 𝟓 ,𝟐 ,𝟗

2. The sum of four integers of an A.P is 24 and their product is 945. Find the
integers.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟕 , 𝟗 𝐇𝐢𝐧𝐭: 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑎 − 3𝑑 , 𝑎 − 𝑑 , 𝑎 + 𝑑 , 𝑎 + 3𝑑

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PROOFS IN A.PS

1) If 𝑎 , 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 are respectively the 𝑝𝑡𝑕 , 𝑞𝑡𝑕 and 𝑟 𝑡𝑕 terms of an A.P, prove that
𝑎 𝑞−𝑟 +𝑏 𝑟−𝑝 +𝑐 𝑝−𝑞 = 0
Solution
Using 𝑈𝑁 = 𝐴 + 𝑁 − 1 𝐷 for an A.P
Given: 𝑈𝑝 = 𝑎 , 𝑈𝑞 = 𝑏 , 𝑈𝑟 = 𝑐
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝐴 + 𝑝 − 1 𝐷 ………………………. (1)
⇒ 𝑏 = 𝐴 + 𝑞 − 1 𝐷 ………………………. (2)
⇒ 𝑐 = 𝐴 + 𝑟 − 1 𝐷 ………………………. (3)
Note:
A and D are the unknowns, hence solving for them,
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
⇒ 𝑎−𝑏 = 𝑝−1− 𝑞−1 𝐷 = 𝑝−𝑞 𝐷
𝑎−𝑏
⇒𝐷= …………………………………………………………… (4)
𝑝−𝑞
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴
From (1), 𝐴 = 𝑎 − 𝑝 − 1 𝐷
𝑎−𝑏 𝑎𝑝 −𝑎𝑞 − 𝑎𝑝 −𝑝𝑏 −𝑎 +𝑏
⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑎− 𝑝−1 𝑝−𝑞
= 𝑝 −𝑞
−𝑎𝑞 +𝑝𝑏 +𝑎−𝑏
∴𝐴= ………………………………………………. (5)
𝑝 −𝑞
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 (3)
From 𝑐 = 𝐴 + 𝑟 − 1 𝐷
−𝑎𝑞 +𝑝𝑏 +𝑎−𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
⇒𝑐= 𝑝 −𝑞
+ 𝑟−1 𝑝−𝑞
⇒ 𝑐 𝑝 − 𝑞 = −𝑎𝑞 + 𝑝𝑏 + 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑟 − 𝑏𝑟 − 𝑎 + 𝑏
= −𝑎𝑞 + 𝑝𝑏 + 𝑎𝑟 − 𝑏𝑟
∴ 𝑐 𝑝 − 𝑞 = 𝑎 𝑟 − 𝑞 + 𝑏 𝑝 − 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑞 − 𝑟 + 𝑏 𝑟 − 𝑝 + 𝑐 𝑝 − 𝑞 = 0
2) Prove that the 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 term is 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 𝑛 when the 𝑝𝑡𝑕 term of an A.P is q and the 𝑞𝑡𝑕
term is p.
Solution
Using 𝑈𝑁 = 𝐴 + 𝑁 − 1 𝐷 for an A.P
Given: 𝑈𝑝 = 𝑞 , 𝑈𝑞 = 𝑝
⇒ 𝑝 = 𝐴 + 𝑝 − 1 𝐷 ………………………………. (1)
⇒ 𝑞 = 𝐴 + 𝑞 − 1 𝐷 ………………………………. (2)
Required: 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 𝑛 ………………………. (3)
Now solving for A and D
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2) , to eliminate A
𝑝 − 𝑞 = 𝑞 − 𝑝 𝐷 = −𝐷 𝑝 − 𝑞
∴ 𝐷 = −1
From (1) and 𝐷 = −1
𝐴 =𝑝− 𝑞−1 𝐷= 𝑝+𝑞−1
Required: 𝑈𝑛 = 𝐴 + 𝑛 − 1 𝐷
𝑈𝑛 = 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 1 + 𝑛 − 1 × −1 = 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 1 − 𝑛 + 1 = 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 𝑛
∴ 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 term = 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 𝑛
3. If p times the 𝑝𝑡𝑕 term of an A.P is equal to q times the 𝑞𝑡𝑕 , prove that the
𝑝 + 𝑞 𝑡𝑕 term is zero.

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Solution
Using 𝑈𝑁 = 𝐴 + 𝑁 − 1 𝐷 for an A.P
Given: 𝑝 × 𝑈𝑝 = 𝑞 × 𝑈𝑞
Required: to prove 𝑈𝑝+𝑞 = 0
𝑈𝑝 = 𝐴 + 𝑝 − 1 𝐷 , 𝑈𝑞 = 𝐴 + 𝑞 − 1 𝐷
⇒ 𝑝 × 𝑈𝑝 = 𝑞 × 𝑈𝑞 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
𝑝 × 𝐴 + 𝑝 − 1 𝐷 = 𝑞 × 𝐴 + 𝑞 − 1 𝐷 ………………….. (1)
Now 𝑈𝑝+𝑞 = 𝐴 + 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 1 𝐷…………………………………….. (2)
Expressing eqn. (2) in terms of only D
From (1), 𝑝𝐴 + 𝑝2 − 𝑝 𝐷 = 𝐴𝑞 + 𝑞2 − 𝑞 𝐷
⇒ 𝐴 𝑝 − 𝑞 = 𝑞2 − 𝑞 𝐷 − 𝑝2 − 𝑝 𝐷
𝐴 𝑝 − 𝑞 = 𝑞2 − 𝑝2 − 𝑞 + 𝑝 𝐷
= − 𝑝2 − 𝑞2 − 𝑝 − 𝑞 𝐷
= − 𝑝 − 𝑞 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 𝑝 − 𝑞 𝐷 ……………….. ÷ 𝑝 − 𝑞
𝐴 =− 𝑝+𝑞−1 𝐷
∴ 𝐴 = 1 − 𝑝 + 𝑞 𝐷 ……………………………………. (3)
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 3 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 (2) , must give zero for the proof to have been proved as
required.
𝑈𝑝+𝑞 = 𝐴 + 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 1 𝐷
= 1− 𝑝+𝑞 𝐷+ 𝑝+𝑞−1 𝐷
= 𝐷 1 − 𝑝 − 𝑞 + 𝑝 + 𝑞 − 1 = 0 , as required.
Task
1 1
1. The 𝑚 𝑡𝑕 term of an A.P is 𝑛 and the 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 term is 𝑚
, prove that the 𝑚𝑛 𝑡𝑕
term
is unity.𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑈𝑚𝑛 = 1
2. If 𝑝 , 𝑞 , 𝑟 , 𝑠 are any four consecutive terms of an A.P, show that𝑝2 − 3𝑞2 +
3𝑟 2 − 𝑠 2 = 0.
𝐇𝐢𝐧𝐭: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑝 = 𝛼 − 3𝛽, 𝑞 = 𝛼 − 𝛽, 𝑟 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 , 𝑠 = 𝛼 + 3𝛽
3. The 8𝑡𝑕 term of an A.P is double the 13𝑡𝑕 term. Prove that the 2𝑛𝑑 term is
double the 10𝑡𝑕 term.

Other forms of proofs in A.Ps

1. If 𝑎 , 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 are in an A.P, prove that;
a) 𝑎3 + 𝑐 3 + 6𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 8𝑏3
b) 𝑎2 + 4𝑎𝑐 + 𝑐 2 = 2 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎
Solution
For a, b and c to be in A.P, then 𝑏 − 𝑎 = 𝑐 − 𝑏 = 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 , 𝑐 = 𝑏 + 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑 , 2𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑐
a) 𝐋. 𝐇. 𝐒 = 𝑎3 + 𝑐 3 + 6𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎3 + 𝑎 + 2𝑑 3 + 6𝑎 𝑎 + 𝑑 𝑎 + 2𝑑
= 𝑎3 + 𝑎3 + 6𝑎2 𝑑 + 12𝑎𝑑2 + 8𝑑3 + 6𝑎 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑑 + 𝑎𝑑 + 2𝑑2
= 8𝑎3 + 6𝑎2 𝑑 + 12𝑎𝑑2 + 8𝑑3 + 18𝑎2 𝑑 + 12𝑎𝑑2
= 8𝑎3 + 24𝑎2 𝑑 + 24𝑎𝑑2 + 8𝑑3 = 8 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑑 + 3𝑎𝑑2 + 𝑑3 = 8 𝑎 + 𝑑 3
= 8𝑏3
b) 𝐋. 𝐇. 𝐒 = 𝑎2 + 4𝑎𝑐 + 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 + 4𝑎𝑐
= a + c 2 − 2ac + 4ac = a + c 2 + 2ac
= a + c a + c + 2ac
= 2b a + c + 2ac = 2 ab + bc + ac

2. If 𝑎 , 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 are in an A.P, show that

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1 1 1
i) 𝑏𝑐
, 𝑎𝑐 , 𝑎𝑏 are in an A.P
1 1 1
ii) 𝑏+ 𝑐
, 𝑐+ 𝑎
, 𝑎+ 𝑏
are in an A.P
Solution
i) if 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 are in an A.P, then
𝑏 − 𝑎 = 𝑐 − 𝑏 …………………………….. (1)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Now 𝑎𝑏 , 𝑎𝑐 , 𝑎𝑏 are in an A.P if 𝑎𝑐
− 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎𝑐
1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒𝑐 𝑎
−𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑏
−𝑐
𝑏−𝑎 𝑐−𝑏
⇒ =
𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐
∴ 𝑏 − 𝑎 = 𝑐 − 𝑏 ⟺ 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝐴. 𝑃 .hence the result follows.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ii) , , are in an A.P if − = −
𝑏+ 𝑐 𝑐+ 𝑎 𝑎+ 𝑏 𝑐+ 𝑎 𝑏+ 𝑐 𝑎+ 𝑏 𝑐+ 𝑎
𝑏+ 𝑐− 𝑐− 𝑎 𝑐+ 𝑎− 𝑎− 𝑏
⇒ 𝑏+ 𝑐 𝑐+ 𝑎
= 𝑎+ 𝑏 𝑐+ 𝑎
𝑏− 𝑎 𝑐− 𝑏
⇒ = ∴ 𝑏 − 𝑎 = 𝑐 − 𝑏 ⟺ 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝐴. 𝑃. Hence the result.
𝑏+ 𝑐 𝑏+ 𝑎
1 1 1
3. If 𝑎 , 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 are in an A.P, show that 𝑏+𝑐 ,
2 2 2
, 𝑎+𝑏
𝑐+𝑎
Solution
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
If , , , are in an A.P, then 𝑐+𝑎 − 𝑏+𝑐 = − 𝑐+𝑎
𝑏+𝑐 𝑐+𝑎 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎 +𝑏
𝑏+𝑐−𝑐−𝑎 𝑐+𝑎−𝑎−𝑏
⇒ =
𝑐+𝑎 𝑏+𝑐 𝑎+𝑏 𝑐+𝑎
𝑏−𝑎 𝑐−𝑏
⇒ 𝑏+𝑐 = 𝑎 +𝑏 ∴ 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑏2 , hence 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐 2 are in an A.P

Task:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
a. If , , are in an A.P, show that 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐 2 are also in an A.P
𝑏+𝑐 𝑐+𝑎 𝑎+𝑏
𝑏+𝑐−𝑎 𝑐+𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏−𝑐 1 1 1
b. If , , are in an A.P, show that , , are in an A.P
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

TO FIND THE SUM OF A FINITE NUMBER OF QUANTITIES IN AN A.P

Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … … … … … … , 𝑎𝑛 be 𝑛 − quantities in an A.P, and let the last
term 𝑎𝑛 be denoted as 𝑙. If their common difference, then
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑙
Now summing up the n- terms of an A.P
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎1 + 𝑑 + 𝑎1 + 2𝑑 + ⋯ … … … + 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
= 𝑎1 + 𝑎1 + 𝑑 + 𝑎1 + 2𝑑 + ⋯ … … … + 𝑙 − 𝑑 + 𝑙 ……………………… (1)
Re-writing this sum in a reverse order
⇒ 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑙 + 𝑙 − 𝑑 + 𝑙 − 2𝑑 + ⋯ … … + 𝑎1 + 𝑑 + 𝑎1 ………………………. (2)
Adding the equations (1) and (2)
⇒ 2𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑙 + 𝑎1 + 𝑙 + 𝑎1 + 𝑙 + ⋯ … … + 𝑎1 + 𝑙 , 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
⇒ 2𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑎1 + 𝑙
𝑛 𝑛
∴ 𝑆𝑛 = 2 𝑎1 + 𝑙 = 2 𝑎1 + 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
𝑛
= 2 2𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
Consequently, 𝒏
𝑺𝒏 = 𝟐𝒂𝟏 + 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒅
𝟐

𝒏
In general, 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝐭 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦 + 𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦

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NOTE:
The above formula contains four quantities. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑆𝑛 , 𝑎 , 𝑛 , 𝑑. If three of them
are known the fourth can be evaluated

Examples
1. Find the sum of the series
a) 3 + 8 + 13 + ⋯ … … … + 12𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
3 2 7
b) 4
+ 3 + 12 + ⋯ … … … . . +19𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
Solution
a) 3 + 8 + 13 + ⋯ … … … + 12𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
Given: 𝑎1 = 3 , 𝑑 = 8 − 3 = 13 − 8 = 5 , 𝑛 = 12 , 𝑎12 =?
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
𝑎12 = 3 + 12 − 1 × 5 = 58
𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 2 2𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
12
⇒ 𝑆12 = 2 × 3 + 12 − 1 × 5 = 366
2
Alternatively
𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 2 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 + 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
12
⇒ 𝑆12 = 3 + 58 = 366
2
3 2 7
b) + + + ⋯ … … … . . +19𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
4 3 12
3 2 3 7 2 1
Given: 𝑎1 = 4 , 𝑑 = 3 − 4 = 12 − 3 = − 12 , 𝑛 = 19 , 𝑎19 =?
3 1 3
𝑎19 = 4 + 19 − 1 × − 12 = − 4
19 3 1 19 3 18
Now 𝑆19 = 2
2 × 4 + 19 − 1 × − 12 = 2 2
− 12 = 0
Alternatively
𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 + 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
2
19 3 3
⇒ 𝑆19 = + −4 = 0
2 4
2. How many terms of the following series may be taken to;
i) Their sum is 66 if −9 , −6 , 3 … … … … … . … … … … … … … ?
ii) Their sum is −80 if 15 + 13 + 11 + ⋯ … … … … … … … … ?
iii) Their sum is 𝑛 2𝑛 + 4 if 6 + 10 + 14 + ⋯ … … … … … … … … ?
Solution
i) −9 , −6 , 3 … … … … … . … …
Let 𝑆𝑛 = 66 , 𝑎1 = −9 , 𝑑 = −6— 9 = 3
𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
2
𝑛
⇒ 66 = 2 × −9 + 𝑛 − 1 × 3
2
132 = −18𝑛 + 3 𝑛2 − 𝑛
∴ 3𝑛 2 − 21𝑛 − 132 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 2 − 7𝑛 − 44 = 0
⇒ 𝑛 − 11 𝑛 + 4 = 0 ∴ 𝑛 = 11 , −4
Since n is a positive integer, 𝑛 = −4 is rejected.
∴ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 11
ii) 15 + 13 + 11 + ⋯ … … …
Let 𝑆𝑛 = −80 , 𝑎1 = 15 , 𝑑 = 13 − 15 = −2
𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 2 2𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑

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𝑛
⇒ −80 = 2 × 15 + 𝑛 − 1 × −2
2
−160 = 30𝑛 − 2 𝑛2 − 𝑛
∴ 2𝑛 2 − 32𝑛 − 160 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 2 − 16𝑛 − 80 = 0
⇒ 𝑛 − 20 𝑛 + 4 = 0 ∴ 𝑛 = 20 , −4
Since n is a positive integer, 𝑛 = −4 is rejected.
∴ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 20
iii) 6 + 10 + 14 + ⋯ … … … …
Let 𝑆𝑁 = 𝑛 2𝑛 + 4 , 𝑎1 = 6 , 𝑑 = 10 − 6 = 4
𝑁
Using 𝑆𝑁 = 2
2𝑎1 + 𝑁 − 1 𝑑
𝑁
⇒ 𝑛 2𝑛 + 4 = 2×6+ 𝑁−1 ×4
2
⇒ 4𝑛 2 + 8𝑛 = 12𝑁 + 4𝑁 2 − 4𝑁 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 2 + 2𝑛 = 3𝑁 + 𝑁 2 − 𝑁
∴ 𝑁 2 + 2𝑁 − 𝑛 2 + 2𝑛 = 0 , solving for N
−2± 2 2 +4 𝑛 2 +2𝑛
⇒𝑁=
2
−2±2 1+𝑛 2 +2𝑛
=
2
= −1 ± 𝑛 + 1 2 = −1 ± 𝑛 + 1
∴ 𝑁 = −1 + 𝑛 + 1 = 𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = −1 − 𝑛 − 1 = −2 − 𝑛 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
∴ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑛
3. The sum of the series is 525. Its last term is 39 and the first term is 3. If the
series is an A.P, find its common difference.
Solution
Given: 𝑆𝑛 = 525 , 𝑎𝑛 = 39 , 𝑎1 = 3
𝑛 𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 2 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 + 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 2 𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛
𝑛
⇒ 525 = 2 3 + 39 = 21𝑛 ∴ 𝑛 = 25
𝑛
From 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
2
𝑛
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
2
25
⇒ 525 = 2 × 3 + 25 − 1 𝑑
2
3
⇒ 1050 = 150 + 600𝑑 ∴ 𝑑 = 2
3
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 2
4. The first and last terms of an A.P are -4 and 146 respectively. The sum of the
A.P is 7171. Find the number of terms and sum of the first 20 terms.
Solution
Given: 𝑆𝑛 = 7171 , 𝑎𝑛 = 146 , 𝑎1 = −4
Required: 𝑛 = ? , 𝑑 = ?
𝑛 𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 + 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛
2 2
𝑛
⇒ 7171 = −4 + 146 = 71𝑛
2
⇒ 7171 = 71𝑛 ∴ 𝑛 = 101
∴ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 101
𝑛
Now finding d using either 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑛 = 2 2𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
This time let us use 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
⇒ 146 = −4 + 101 − 1 𝑑
3
⇒ 150 = 100𝑑 ∴ 𝑑 =
2

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20 3
𝑆20 = 2
2 × −4 + 20 − 1 × 2 = 205
∴ 𝑆20 = 205
5. The sum of a certain number of terms in an A.P is 5500. The firs and the last
terms are 100 and 1000 respectively. Find the number of terms and the sum
of the last 5 terms of the progression.
Solution
Given: 𝑆𝑛 = 5500 , 𝑎1 = 100 , 𝑎𝑛 = 1000
Required: 𝑛 = ? , 𝑑 = ? , 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 5−𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ?
𝑛 𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 + 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛
2 2
𝑛 1100
⇒ 5500 = 100 + 1000 = 𝑛
2 2
1100
⇒ 5500 = 2
𝑛 ∴ 𝑛 = 10
∴ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 10
Now finding d using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
⇒ 1000 = 100 + 10 − 1 𝑑
∴ 𝑑 = 100
The A.P can be stated as; 100 , 200 , 300 , 400, … … … … … … 900 , 1000
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 5 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 4 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
⇒ 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 5−𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑆10 − 𝑆1𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑣𝑒
5
⇒ 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 5−𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 5500 − 2
2 × 100 + 5 − 1 × 100
= 5500 − 500 + 1000 = 4000
Note:
The last five terms are; 600, 700 , 800 , 900 , 1000
6. The sum of the last three terms of an A.P having 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 is 150 times the
sum of the first three terms of the progressions. If the third term and the
second term are 15 and 5. Find the last term and the number of terms of the
progression.
Solution
Given: 𝑆3 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = 150 × 𝑆3 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 , 𝑎3 = 15 , 𝑎2 = 5
Required: 𝑛 = ? , 𝑑 = ?
For an A.P, the last term is 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
For the 2𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑑
= 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 − 𝑑 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 2 𝑑
For the 3𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛 − 2𝑑
= 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 − 2𝑑 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 3 𝑑
Now 𝑆3 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 + 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 2 𝑑 + 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 3 𝑑
∴ 𝑆3 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = 3𝑎1 + 3𝑛 − 6 𝑑
3
Also 𝑆3 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 = 2 2𝑎1 + 3 − 1 𝑑 = 3𝑎1 + 3𝑑
From 𝑆3 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = 150 × 𝑆3 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
⇒ 3𝑎1 + 3𝑛 − 6 𝑑 = 150 3𝑎1 + 3𝑑
⇒ 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 2 𝑑 = 150 𝑎1 + 𝑑
∴ 149𝑎1 + 152 − 𝑛 𝑑 = 0 …………………………. (1)
Given: 𝑎3 = 𝑎1 + 3 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑎1 + 2𝑑
∴ 15 = 𝑎1 + 2𝑑 ……………….……….……… (2)
𝑎2 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑 = 5 …………………..………….. (3)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 2 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3)

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⇒ 10 = 𝑑
From 𝑎1 + 𝑑 = 5 ⇒ 𝑎1 = 5 − 10 = −5
Now 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 𝑑 = 10 , 𝑎1 = −5 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (1)
⇒ 149𝑎1 + 152 − 𝑛 𝑑 = 0 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
149 −5 + 152 − 𝑛 × 10 = 0
149×5
⇒ 152 − 𝑛 = 10
= 74.5
∴ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 78
𝑎78 = −5 + 78 − 1 × 10 = 760

7. The sum of the first 13-terms of an A.P is 21 and the sum of the first 21 terms
is 13. Find the sum of the first 34 – terms.
Solution
Given: 𝑆13 = 21 , 𝑆21 = 13
Required: 𝑆34 = ? , 𝑑 = ? , 𝑎 = ?
𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
2
13
⇒ 𝑆13 = 2𝑎 + 13 − 1 𝑑 = 21 ………………………….. (1)
2
21
⇒ 𝑆21 = 2𝑎 + 21 − 1 𝑑 = 13 ………………………….. (2)
2
42
From (1), 2𝑎 + 12𝑑 = 13 …………………………..………………… (3)
26
From (2), 2𝑎 + 20𝑑 = …………………………..………………… (4)
21
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 3 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠
544 68
−8𝑑 = 273 ∴ 𝑑 = − 273
68
Substitute 𝑑 = − 273 in to eqn. (3) to find a
42 68 566
⇒ 2𝑎 = 13 − 2 × − 237 ∴𝑎=
91
34 566 68
∴ 𝑆34 = 2× + 34 − 1 − 237 = −34
2 91
8. The fifth term of an A.P is 12 and the sum of the first five terms is 80.
Determine the first term and the common difference. 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟕
Solution
Given: 𝑎5 = 12 , 𝑆5 = 80
Required: 𝑎1 = ? , 𝑑 = ?
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
⇒ 𝑎5 = 12 = 𝑎1 + 4𝑑 ………………………………… (1)
𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
2
5
⇒ 80 = 2𝑎1 + 4𝑑
2
⇒ 80 = 5𝑎1 + 10𝑑 𝑜𝑟 16 = 𝑎1 + 2𝑑 ………………… (2)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠
−4 = 2𝑑 ∴ 𝑑 = −2
Substitute 𝑑 = 2 in to eqn. (2) to find 𝑎1
𝑎1 = 16 − 2𝑑 = 16 + 4 = 20
1𝑠𝑡 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 20 , 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = −2
9. The 10𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of an A.P is 29 and the 15𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 is 44. Find the value of the
common difference and the first term. Hence find the sum of the first 60
terms. 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟐

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Solution
Given: 𝑎10 = 29 , 𝑎15 = 44
Required: 𝑎1 = ? , 𝑑 = ? , 𝑆60 = ?
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
⇒ 𝑎10 = 29 = 𝑎1 + 9𝑑 …………..……………………… (1)
⇒ 𝑎15 = 44 = 𝑎1 + 14𝑑 ………………………………… (2)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠
−15 = −5𝑑 ∴ 𝑑 = 3
Substitute 𝑑 = 3 in to eqn. (1) to find 𝑎1
𝑎1 = 29 − 9𝑑 = 29 − 27 = 2
60
Now 𝑆60 = 2 × 2 + 60 − 1 × 3 = 5 430
2
∴ 1𝑠𝑡 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 2 , 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 3 , 𝑆60 = 5 430

Other examples on summation of the terms in an A.P

1. a) Find the sum of all natural numbers between 500 and 1000 which are
divisible by 13
b) Obtain the sum of all natural numbers up to 1000 which are:
i) Divisible by 5 but not divisible by 2
ii) Not divisible by 2 and not divisible by 5
Solution
500 1000
a) By inspection; ≈ 38 ; ≈ 76.9
13 13
Now multiples of 13 after 38 are;
507 , 520 , 533 , … … … … … … , 988
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆: 13 × 76 = 988 , 13 × 77 = 1001
This is an A.P with 𝑎1 = 507 , 𝑎𝑛 = 988 , 𝑑 = 13
Now finding n;
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
⇒ 988 = 507 + 𝑛 − 1 × 13 ∴ 𝑛 = 38
38
Now 𝑆38 = 2 × 507 + 38 − 1 × 13 = 28 405
2
b) (i) Natural numbers divisible by 5 and not by 2
⇒ 5 , 15 , 25 , … … … … … … . . , 955
These form an A.P. finding how many terms they are,
𝑎1 = 5 , 𝑎𝑛 = 955 , 𝑑 = 10 , 𝑛 = ?
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
⇒ 955 = 5 + 𝑛 − 1 × 10 ∴ 𝑛 = 100
100
∴ 𝑆100 = 2 × 5 + 100 − 1 × 10 = 50 000
2
ii) Natural numbers not divisible by 2 are;
⇒ 1 , 3 , 5 , 9 , … … … … … … . , 999
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
999 = 1 + 𝑛 − 1 × 2 ∴ 𝑛 = 500
𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 2 𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛
500
∴ 𝑆500 = 1 + 999 = 250 000
2
Sum of natural numbers divisible by 5 is 50 000 as in above.
Natural numbers not divisible by 2 and not divisible by 5 is;
𝑆500 − 𝑆100 = 250 000 − 50 000 = 200 000

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2. a) Find the sum of odd numbers between 100 and 200

b) Find the sum of the even and odd numbers divisible by 3 lying between
400 and 500.
Solution
a) 101 , 103 , 105 , … … … … … … … , 199 are odd numbers. Finding how many they
are‟
𝑎𝑛 = 199 , 𝑎1 = 101 , 𝑑 = 2 , 𝑛 = ?
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
⇒ 199 = 101 + 𝑛 − 1 × 2 ∴ 𝑛 = 50
50
Now 𝑆50 = 101 + 199 = 7 500
2
b) Multiples of 3 after 400 and before 500 are:
402 , 405 , 408 , … … … … … … . , 498
400 500
𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻: ≈ 133 , 134 × 3 = 402 ; ≈ 167 , 166 × 3 = 498
3 3
Finding how many they are:
𝑎𝑛 = 498 , 𝑎1 = 402 , 𝑑 = 3 , 𝑛 = ?
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
⇒ 498 = 402 + 𝑛 − 1 × 3 ∴ 𝑛 = 33
33
Now 𝑆33 = 402 + 498 = 14 850
2
Also even multiples of 3 are:
402 , 408 , 414 , … … … … … … . , 498
Finding how many they are:
𝑎𝑛 = 498 , 𝑎1 = 402 , 𝑑 = 6 , 𝑛 = ?
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
⇒ 498 = 402 + 𝑛 − 1 × 6 ∴ 𝑛 = 17
17
Now 𝑆17 = 402 + 498 = 7 650
2
Now sum of odd numbers divisible by 3 is;
𝑆33 − 𝑆17 = 14 850 − 7 650 = 7 200
Alternatively, odd numbers are;
405 , 411 , … … … … … … , 495
Finding how many they are:
𝑎𝑛 = 495 , 𝑎1 = 405 , 𝑑 = 6 , 𝑛 = ?
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
⇒ 495 = 405 + 𝑛 − 1 × 6 ∴ 𝑛 = 16
16
Now 𝑆16 = 405 + 495 = 7 200
2

Task
1. Find the sum of all integers lying between 200 and 800 which are divisible
by 9. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟑𝟐 𝟗𝟔𝟕
2. Find the sum of all numbers between 200 and 400 which are divisible by
7. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟖 𝟕𝟐𝟗
3. In an A.P consisting of 15 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠, the middle term is 20. Find the sum of all
the terms. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟑𝟎𝟎
4. An A.P consists of 12 terms. The sum of the two middle terms is 24 and the
sum of the first 3-terms is 9. Find the A.P. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟏 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , … … … … … , 𝟐𝟑

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PROOFS INVOLVING SUMMATION OF A.P FORMULAE,

𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑎1 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛
2 2

1. a) The sum of the first 𝑚 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of an A.P is n and the sum of the first
𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 is m. find the sum of the first 𝑚 + 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠.
b) The sum of the first 𝑚 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of an A.P is the same as the sum of the first
𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 where 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛, show that the sum of the first 𝑚 + 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
Solution
a) Given: 𝑆𝑚 = 𝑛 , 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑚
Required: 𝑆 𝑚 +𝑛 = ?
𝑚
𝑆𝑚 = 𝑛 = 2
2𝑎 + 𝑚 − 1 𝑑
2𝑛
⇒ = 2𝑎 + 𝑚 − 1 𝑑 …………………………… (1)
𝑚
𝑚
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑚 = 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
2
2𝑚
⇒ = 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 …………….……………… (2)
𝑛
In the above equations 𝑎 and 𝑑 are unknowns. Calculating for 𝑑,
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠
2𝑛 2𝑚
⇒ − = 𝑚−𝑛 𝑑
𝑚 𝑛
2 𝑛 2 −𝑚 2
⇒ = 𝑚−𝑛 𝑑
𝑚𝑛
2 𝑚 2 −𝑛 2 2 𝑚 +𝑛 𝑚 −𝑛
⇒− = 𝑚 − 𝑛 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 − = 𝑚−𝑛 𝑑
𝑚𝑛 𝑚𝑛
2 𝑚 +𝑛
∴𝑑=− 𝑚𝑛
2 𝑚+𝑛
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 𝑑 = − 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 1 𝑜𝑟 (2)
𝑚𝑛
2𝑛
From eqn. (1), = 2𝑎 + 𝑚 − 1 𝑑
𝑚
2𝑛
⇒ 2𝑎 = − 𝑚−1 𝑑
𝑚
2𝑛 𝑚 −1 −2 𝑚+𝑛
⇒ 2𝑎 = −
𝑚 𝑚𝑛
2𝑛 2 𝑚−1 𝑚 +𝑛
⇒ 2𝑎 = +
𝑚 𝑚𝑛
2𝑛 2 +2 𝑚 2 +𝑚𝑛 −𝑚−𝑛
=
𝑚𝑛
𝑚 +𝑛
Now 𝑆 𝑚 +𝑛 = 2𝑎 + 𝑚 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
2
𝑚+𝑛 2𝑛 2 +2 𝑚 2 +𝑚𝑛 −𝑚 −𝑛 2 𝑚+𝑛
𝑆 𝑚 +𝑛 = + 𝑚+𝑛−1 ×−
2 𝑚𝑛 𝑚𝑛
𝑚 +𝑛
= 𝑚𝑛
𝑛 2 + 𝑚 2 + 𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚 − 𝑛 − 𝑚 + 𝑛 2
−𝑚−𝑛
𝑚 +𝑛
= 𝑚𝑛
𝑛 + 𝑚 + 𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚 − 𝑛 − 𝑚 − 2𝑚𝑛 − 𝑛 2 + 𝑚 + 𝑛
2 2 2

=𝑚+𝑛
b) Given: 𝑆𝑚 = 𝑆𝑛 ; 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛
Required: 𝑆 𝑚 +𝑛 = 0
𝑚 2𝑛
𝑆𝑚 = 2
2𝑎 + 𝑚 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑚
2𝑎 + 𝑚 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑆𝑛
⇒ 𝑚 2𝑎 + 𝑚 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑛 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
⇒ 2𝑎𝑚 + 𝑚 2 − 𝑚 𝑑 = 2𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛2 − 𝑛 𝑑
⇒ 2𝑎 𝑚 − 𝑛 = 𝑛 2 − 𝑛 𝑑 − 𝑚 2 − 𝑚 𝑑
= − 𝑚2 − 𝑛2 + 𝑚 − 𝑛 𝑑
= − 𝑚+𝑛 𝑚−𝑛 + 𝑚−𝑛 𝑑

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⇒ 2𝑎 = − 𝑚 + 𝑛 + 1 𝑑
∴ 2𝑎 = − 𝑚 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
𝑚 +𝑛
But 𝑆 𝑚 +𝑛 = 2𝑎 + 𝑚 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
2
𝑚+𝑛
⇒ 𝑆 𝑚 +𝑛 = 2𝑎 − 2𝑎 = 0, as required.
2
2. a) If the first, second and the last term of an A.P are respectively a, b and x,
𝑥+𝑎 𝑥 2 −𝑎 2
show that the sum of the 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 is + .
2 2 𝑏−𝑎
b) If the first ant last terms of an A.P are 𝑎 and 𝐿 respectively and if 𝑆 is the
𝐿2 −𝑎 2
sum of all the 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠, show that the common difference is .
2𝑆− 𝐿+𝑎
Solution
a) Given: 𝑎1 = 𝑎 , 𝑎2 = 𝑏 , 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥
Required: 𝑆𝑛 = ?
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 1𝑠𝑡 + 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑥 ………………………………………. (1)
2
But 𝑎2 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 𝑏 …………………………….… (2)
Also 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑥 ……….………… (3)
In equations (2) and (3) 𝑑 is the unknown.
From (2), 𝑑 = 𝑏 − 𝑎 ……………………………….. (4)
Equation (4) in to (3)
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑥 , becomes
𝑥−𝑎
𝑛 = 𝑑 + 1 ……………………………….…………… (5)
Equation (4) in to (5)
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎+𝑏−𝑎
𝑛= +1=𝑛=
𝑑 𝑏−𝑎
𝑥 +𝑏−2𝑎
∴𝑛= …………………………………… (6)
𝑏−𝑎
Now substitute equation (4) in to (1)
𝑛
⇒ 𝑆𝑛 = 2 𝑎 + 𝑥 , becomes
𝑥−𝑎
+1
𝑏 −𝑎
∴ 𝑆𝑛 = × 𝑎+𝑥
2
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥+𝑎 𝑎 +𝑥
= +
2 𝑏 −𝑎 2
𝑥+𝑎 𝑥 2 −𝑎 2
∴ 𝑆𝑛 = +2 , as required.
2 𝑏−𝑎
b) Given: 𝑎1 = 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿 , 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆
Required: 𝑑 = ?
From 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 = 𝐿………………………. (1)
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑆 ……………………….. (2)
2
From equation (1) and (2), 𝑑 is the unknown.
𝐿−𝑎
From equation (1) , 𝑑 = …………………………... (3)
𝑛−1
Now solving for n in equation (3)
𝑛
⇒ 2 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑆 , becomes
𝑛 𝐿−𝑎
∴ 2 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 × 𝑛−1
=𝑆
⇒ 𝑛 2𝑎 + 𝐿 − 𝑎 = 2𝑆
2𝑆
∴ 𝑛 = 𝑎+𝐿 …………………………………………………….. (4)
Equation (4) in to (3)

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𝐿−𝑎 𝐿−𝑎
∴𝑑= 2𝑆 = 2𝑆− 𝑎 +𝐿
−1
𝑎 +𝐿 𝑎 +𝐿
𝐿−𝑎 𝐿+𝑎 𝐿2 −𝑎 2
= =
2𝑆− 𝑎+𝐿 2𝑆− 𝑎 +𝐿
3. If 𝑝 , 𝑞 and 𝑟 are sums 𝑛, 2𝑛 and 3𝑛 terms of an A.P, prove that 𝑟 = 3 𝑞 − 𝑝
Solution
Given: 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑝 , 𝑆2𝑛 = 𝑞 , 𝑆3𝑛 = 𝑟
From 𝐑. 𝐇. 𝐒 = 3 𝑞 − 𝑝
𝑛
⇒𝑝= 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 ……………………………….. (2)
2
2𝑛
⇒𝑞= 2𝑎 + 2𝑛 − 1 𝑑 ……………………………. (3)
2
3𝑛
⇒𝑟= 2𝑎 + 3𝑛 − 1 𝑑 ……………………………. (4)
2
2𝑛 𝑛
Now 3 𝑞 − 𝑝 = 3 2𝑎 + 2𝑛 − 1 𝑑 − 2 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
2
3𝑛
⇒ 3 𝑞−𝑝 = 2
2 2𝑎 + 2𝑛 − 1 𝑑 − 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
3𝑛
⇒ 3 𝑞−𝑝 = 2𝑎 + 3𝑛 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑟 , as required.
2

Deducing 𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 of an A.P from summation of 𝒏 − 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 of an A.P

In general if 𝑆𝑛 is the sum of n-terms of an A.P and 𝑆𝑛−1 is the summation of
𝑛 − 1 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of an A.P, then;

𝐋𝐚𝐬𝐭 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦 = 𝐚𝐧 = 𝐒𝐧 − 𝐒𝐧−𝟏

Example
1. The sum of n-terms of a series is 𝑛 2 + 2𝑛 , prove that this series is an A.P, and
find its first term and common difference.
Solution
Given: 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛 2 + 2𝑛
Also 𝑆𝑛−1 = 𝑛 − 1 2 + 2 𝑛 − 1
= 𝑛 2 − 2𝑛 + 1 + 2𝑛 − 2
2
∴ 𝑆𝑛−1 = 𝑛 − 1
Now 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑆𝑛 − 𝑆𝑛−1
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 2 + 2𝑛 − 𝑛 2 − 1 = 2𝑛 + 1
∴ 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 , 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 1
Now for 𝑛 = 1 , 𝑎1 = 2 + 1 = 3
𝑛 = 2 , 𝑎2 = 4 + 1 = 5
𝑛 = 3 , 𝑎2 = 3 + 1 = 7
The terms are: 3 , 5 , 7 , … … … … … … … … ; which form an A.P of first term 3 and
common difference 2.
𝑛
2. If the sum up to n-terms of an A.P is given by 3𝑛 + 5 , show that the last
2
term is 3𝑛 + 1, and that the series is an A.P.
Solution
𝑛
Given: 𝑆𝑛 = 3𝑛 + 5
2
𝑛 −1 𝑛 −1 3𝑛+2
Also 𝑆𝑛−1 = 3 𝑛−1 +5 =
2 2
Now 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑆𝑛 − 𝑆𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑛−1 3𝑛+2
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = 2 3𝑛 + 5 − 2
3𝑛 2 +5𝑛 3𝑛 2 +2𝑛−3𝑛−2
= 2
− 2

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1
= 2 6𝑛 + 2 = 3𝑛 + 1
∴ 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 , 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 + 1 , as required.
By putting 𝑛 = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , … … … .. , we get a series of;
4 , 7 , 10 , … … … … … … … , which is an A.P.

Task
1. The sum of the first n-terms of a certain series is 𝑛 2 + 5𝑛 for all integral values
of n. find the first three terms and prove that the series is an A.P.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟔 , 𝟖 , 𝟏𝟎
2. The sum of the first n-terms of an A.P is 3𝑛 2 + 2𝑛. Find
the 𝑟 𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟔𝒓 − 𝟏
3. The second term of an A.P is −4 and the sixth term is −24. Find the fifteenth
term and sum of the first 15 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: − 𝟔𝟗 , 𝟓𝟒𝟎
4. The eighth term of an A.P is twice the third term, and the sum of the first 8-
terms is 39. Find the first three terms of the progression, and show that the
3 𝟗 𝟏𝟓
sum of n-terms is8 𝑛 𝑛 + 5 . 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: ,𝟑 ,
𝟒 𝟒
5. The sum of n-terms of a series 2 , 5 , 8 , … … … … … .. is 950. Find n. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟐𝟓
6. The number of terms in an A.P is even; the sum of the odd terms is 24, of the
1
even terms 30 and the last term exceeds the first by 10 2. Find the number of
terms. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟖
1 1
7. If 𝑝𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of an A.P is𝑞 and the 𝑞𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 is 𝑝 , show that the sum of
1
𝑝𝑞 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 is 2 𝑝𝑞 + 1
8. Find the sum of all natural numbers from 100 up to 300 which are divisible
by 4. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟎
9. In an A.P the sum of the first five terms is 30, and the third term is equal to
the sum of the first two. Write down the first five terms of the
progression. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟐 , 𝟒 , 𝟔 , 𝟖 , 𝟏𝟎
10. The sum of the first three terms of an A.P is 3 and the sum of the first five
terms is 20. Find the first five terms of the progression. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: −
𝟐 , 𝟏 , 𝟒 , 𝟒 , 𝟕 , 𝟏𝟎
11. The sum of the first six terms of an A.P is 21 and the seventh term is three
times the sum of the third term and fourth term. Find the first term and the
common difference. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: − 𝟗 , 𝟓
12. Sum of n-terms of three A.P’s are 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 and 𝑆3 . The first term of each of them
is 1 and the common differences are 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Show that 𝑆1 ,
𝑆2 , 𝑆3 are in an A.P.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛
𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻: 𝑆1 = 2+𝑛−1 = , 𝑆2 = 2 + 𝑛 − 1 × 2 = 𝑛2
2 2 2
𝑛 𝑛 3𝑛−1
𝑆3 = 2 + 3𝑛 − 1 × 2 = ; 𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = 𝑆3 − 𝑆2
2 2

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WORD PROBLEMS IN A.P’S

1. A firm produced 1000 sets of T.V during its first year. The total sum of the
firm’s production at the end of 10 years operation is 14 500 sets.
i) Estimate how many units production increased by each year if the increase
each year is uniform.
ii) Fore cast based on the estimate of annual increments in production the level
of output for the 15𝑡𝑕 year.
Solution
i) Given: 𝑎 = 1000 , 𝑆 = 14 500 , 𝑛 = 10
Required: 𝑑 = ?
𝑛
Using ⇒ 𝑆𝑛 = 2
2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
10
⇒ 14 500 = 2 × 1000 + 10 − 1 𝑑
2
⇒ 14 500 = 5 2000 + 9𝑑 ∴ 𝑑 = 100
Hence 100 units is the increase per annum.
ii) Required: 𝑎15 = ?
𝑎15 = 𝑎 + 15 − 1 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 14𝑑
= 1000 + 14 × 100 = 2 400
2. Two posts were offered to a man. In one the starting salary was£ 120 per
month and the annual increment was £ 8.
In the other post the salary commenced at £ 85 per month but the annual
increment was £ 12. The man decided to accept the post which will give him
more earnings in the first twenty years of the service. Which post was
acceptable to him? Justify your answer.
Solution
The total earnings of the man in the first twenty years for the first job
are 𝑆20 = ? :
Given: 𝑎 = £ 120 , 𝑑 = 8 , 𝑛 = 20
20
⇒ 𝑆20 = 2 × 120 + 20 − 1 × 8 × 12 = £ 47 040
2
His total earnings in the first twenty years for the second job are 𝑆20 = ? :
Given: 𝑎 = £ 85 , 𝑑 = 12 , 𝑛 = 20
20
⇒ 𝑆20 = 2 × 85 + 20 − 1 × 12 × 12 = £ 47 760
2
Total earnings for the second job are greater than the first job hence the
second job was accepted by the man.
3. The annual salary of an employee is in an A.P over the first 7 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, during
which the annual increment is £ 200. Over the next 8 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, the salary is in
another A.P during which the annual increment is £ 300. After that the salary
is constant.
If the starting salary is £ 14 000, calculate the employee’s total earnings in
the first 25 years of service.
Solution
Case I
Given: 𝑎 = 14 000 , 𝑑 = 200 , 𝑛 = 7
Required: 𝑆7 = ?
7
⇒ 𝑆7 = 2 2 × 14 000 + 7 − 1 × 200 = £ 102 200
Case II
At the end of the 7𝑡𝑕 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟, the annual salary is given from 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

⇒ 𝑎7 = 14 000 + 7 − 1 × 200 = £ 15 200

Now the next 8 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 , the sum of all his earnings is given by:
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
2
8
⇒ 𝑆8 = 2 × 15 200 + 8 − 1 × 300 = £ 130 000
2
Now at the end of the15 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠. 𝑖. 𝑒. 1𝑠𝑡 7 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 + 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 8 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 , the total
earnings are given by;
£ 130 000 + £ 102 200 = £ 232 200
Remaining years = 25 − 17 = 10 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
The amount in the15𝑡𝑕 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 is given by 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑 ; 𝑎 = 15 200 , 𝑛 =
8 , 𝑑 = 300
⇒ 𝑎15 = 15 200 + 8 − 1 × 300 = £ 17 300
Now for the remaining 10 years, total amount = 17 300 × 10 = £ 173 000
∴ Total earnings for 25 years is= 173 000 + 232 200 = £ 405 200
4. Eighty coins are placed in a line on the ground. The distance between any
two consecutive coins is 10 meters. How far must a person travel to bring
them one by one to a basket placed 10 meters behind the first coin?
Solution
Basket

1𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛 2𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛 80𝑡𝑕 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛

10 𝑚 10 𝑚
Starting point to 80𝑡𝑕 coin and then back to the basket.

Given: 𝑎 = 10 , 𝑑 = 10 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 2 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑠 , 𝑛 = 80 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑠

80
Required: 𝑆80 = 2 × 10 + 80 − 1 × 10 = 32 400 𝑚
2
Total distance= 32 400 𝑡𝑜 80𝑡𝑕 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛 + 32 400 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑡 = 64 800 𝑚
5. A man saved £16 500 in 10 years. In each year after the first he saved £100
more than he did in the preceding year. How much did he save in the first
year?
Solution
Given: 𝑆10 = £16 500 , 𝑑 = £ 100 , 𝑛 = 10
Let 𝑎 = 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 1𝑠𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑛
From 𝑆𝑛 = 2 2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
10
⇒ 16 500 = 2
2𝑎 + 10 − 1 × 100
⇒ 3 300 = 2𝑎 + 900
∴ 𝑑 = £ 1 200
6. Miss Sikyomu Jane takes a loan of £ 2 000 from Anita and agrees to repay in
a number of installment, each installment (beginning with the second)
exceeding the previous by £ 10. If the first installment is £ 5, find how many
installments will be necessary to wipe out the loan completely?
Solution
Given: 𝑆10 = £ 2000 , 𝑑 = £ 10 , 𝑛 =? , 𝑎 = £ 5
𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 2
2𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
𝑛
⇒ 2 000 = 2 × 5 + 𝑛 − 1 × 10
2

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⇒ 2 000 = 5𝑛 + 5𝑛 2 − 5
⇒ 𝑛 2 + 𝑛 − 401 = 0
−1± 1+4×401
⇒𝑛=
2
∴ 𝑛 ≈ 20 , for a negative n, it is rejected
∴ Number of installments will be 20.
7. The monthly salary of a person was £ 320 for each of the first three years. He
next got annual increments of £ 40 per month for each of the following
successive 12 years. His salary remained stationary till retirement when he
found that his average monthly salary during the service period was £ 698.
Find the period of his service.
Solution
Let 𝑛 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 ′ 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛−𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
Given: Average monthly salary = £ 698 = 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛−𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
⇒ 698 × 12 =
𝑛
∴ 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 698 × 12𝑛
Total salary in the first 3 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = £ 320 × 3 × 12 = £ 960 × 12
In the 4𝑡𝑕 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟, his monthly salary= £ 320 + 40 = £ 360
In the 5𝑡𝑕 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟, his monthly salary= £ 360 + 40 = £ 400
For the next 12 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, his total salary is;
= £ 12 × 360 + 400 + ⋯ … … … … … … … . . 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 12𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
12
= 12 × 2 × 360 + 12 − 1 × 40
2
= £ 6 960 × 12
At the end of following 12 years, his monthly salary was;
= £ 360 + 12 − 1 × 40 = £ 800
Now total salary for all the 15 years so far is
= £ 6 960 × 12 + £ 960 × 12 = £ 7 920 × 12
Amount received after 15 years . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑛 − 15 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 was constant for each
year . 𝑖. 𝑒. amount in the 15𝑡𝑕 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = £ 800
⇒ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = £ 𝑛 − 15 × 800 × 12
Total amount throughout his service
= 𝑛 − 15 × 800 × 12 + 7 920 × 12 = 698 × 12𝑛
⇒ 800𝑛 − 12 000 + 7 920 = 698𝑛
∴ 𝑛 = 40
8. Mr. Peter arranges to pay off a debt of £ 9 600 in 48 annual installments
which form an arithmetical series. When 40 of these installments are paid,
Mr. Peter becomes insolvent and his creditor finds that £ 2 400 still remains
unpaid. Find the value of each of the first three installments of Mr. Peter.
Ignore the interest.
Solution
Let 𝑎 , 𝑎 + 𝑑 , 𝑎 + 2𝑑 , 𝑎 + 3𝑑 , … … …, be the annual installments
Given: 𝑆48 = £9 600
48
⇒ 9 600 = 2
2𝑎 + 48 − 1 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 9 600 = 24 2𝑎 + 47𝑑
⇒ 2𝑎 + 47𝑑 = 400 ……………………………………………………………. (1)
After 40 installments are paid, the balance is £ 2 400 . 𝑖. 𝑒. the amount paid in
40 installments is;

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

= 9 600 − 2 400 = £ 7 200

⇒ Sum of 40 terms of an A.P is £ 7 200
40
⇒ 7 200 = 2𝑎 + 20 − 1 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 7 200 = 20 2𝑎 + 39𝑑
2
⇒ 2𝑎 + 39𝑑 = 360 …………………………………………………………… (2)
Subtracting the equations
⇒ 8𝑑 = 40 ∴ 𝑑 = 5
From (2) 2𝑎 + 39𝑑 = 360 , 𝑎 = 82.5
Hence the first installment of Mr. Peter is £ 82.5 , the second installment is
£ 82.5 + 5 . 𝑖. 𝑒. £ 87.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑠£ 87.5 + 5 . 𝑖. 𝑒. £ 92.5

Task
1. Phionah secures an interest free loan of £ 14 500 from a friend and agrees to
repay it in 10 installments. She pays £ 1 000 as first installment and then
increases each installment by equal amount over the preceding installment.
What will be her last installment?
𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐓: 𝑠10 = 14 500 = 5 2𝑎 + 9𝑑 , 𝑎 = 1000 ∴ 𝑑 = 100
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑: 𝑎10 = 𝑎 + 10 − 1 𝑑 = 1000 + 9 × 100 = £ 𝟏 𝟗𝟎𝟎

2. An enterprise produced 600 units in the third year of its existence and 700
units in the seventh year. What was the initial production in the first year?
𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐓: 𝑎3 = 600 + 2𝑑 , 𝑎7 = 𝑎 + 6𝑑, 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: £ 𝟓𝟓𝟎
𝑎 = 550 , 𝑑 = 45 ∴ 1𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 £ 𝟓𝟓𝟎
3. A piece of equipment costs£ 600 000. It depreciates in value, 15% the first
year, 13 ½ % the next year, 12% the third year and so on. What will be the
value at the end of 10 years all percentages applying to the original
cost? 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑 £ 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝟎𝟎𝟎
4. A money lender lends £ 1000 and charges an overall interest of £ 140. He
recovers the loan and interest by 12 monthly installments each less by £ 10
than the preceding one. Find the amount of the first
installment. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: £ 𝟏𝟓𝟎
5. A man saves £ 20 in the first month, £ 30 in the second month, £ 40 in the
third month, and so on. How much has he saved at the end of 5 years?
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: £ 𝟏𝟖 𝟗𝟎𝟎
6. A man saves £ 8 250 in 10 years. In each year after the first he saved £ 50
more than he did in previous year. How much did he save the first year?
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: £ 𝟔𝟎𝟎
7. A man borrows £ 5 000 and agrees to repay with a total interest as £ 1 000
in 12 installments, each installment being less than the preceding by £ 50.
What should be the first installment? 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑 ∶ £ 𝟕𝟕𝟓
8. A man borrows £ 4 500 and promises to repay back in 30 installments, each
of value £ 10 more than the previous one. Find the first and last installment.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: £ 𝟓 , £ 𝟐𝟗𝟓
9. A man of 60 years old has 9 children born at equal intervals. The sum of the
ages of father and the nine children is known to be 222 years. Calculate the
age of the youngest san if the eldest one is 30 years. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟔 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐬

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THE GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (G.P)

A series in which non-zero quantities 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … … … . , 𝑎𝑛 , … … .. each term of
which is equal to the product of the preceding term and a constant number
is a Geometric Progression. 𝑖. 𝑒. Each term in a G.P is obtained from the
preceding one by multiplying or dividing by a constant number. 𝑒. 𝑔.
 1 , 2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , … … … … … … .. is a G.P
1 1 1
 3 , −1 , , − , , … … … … … … .. is a G.P
3 9 27
 1 , 2 , 2 , 2 2 , … … … … … … .. is a G.P
1 1 1
 1 , 5 , 25 , 125 , … … … … … … .. is a G.P
 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , 𝑎𝑟 4 , … … … . ., is a G.P
The constant term is called a common ratio, r of a G.P
Consider the G.P below;
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ … … … … … . +𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛

This will be a G.P if:

𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎𝑛
𝑟= = = ⋯…….…….. , for all integers 𝑛 > 1
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑛 −1

From the above examples of G.P series,

2 4
 1 , 2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , … … … … … … .. , has common ratio 𝑟 = = = 2
1 2
1
1 1 1 1 1
 3 , −1 , 3 , − 9 , 27 , … … … … … … .. , has common ratio 𝑟 = − 3 = 3
=3
1
2 2
 1 , 2 , 2 , 2 2 , … … … … … … . ., has common ratio 𝑟 = =
1 2
1 1
1 1 1 1
 1 , 5 , 25 , 125 , … … … … … … .. , has common ratio 𝑟 = 5
= 25
1 =5
1
5
𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟 2
 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , 𝑎𝑟 4 , … … … . ., has common ratio 𝑟 = = =𝑟
𝑎 𝑎𝑟

To find the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 − 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 of a G.P

𝑮𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝑮. 𝑷
Let 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ … … … … ….
Let 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
By definition,
𝑎
𝑟 = 2 ⇒ 𝑎2 = 𝑎1 𝑟
𝑎1
𝑎3
𝑟= ⇒ 𝑎3 = 𝑎2 𝑟 = 𝑎1 𝑟. 𝑟 = 𝑎1 𝑟 2
𝑎2
𝑎4
𝑟 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎4 = 𝑎3 𝑟 = 𝑎1 𝑟 2 . 𝑟 = 𝑎1 𝑟 3
3
Observation of terms
𝑎2 = 𝑎1 𝑟 = 𝑎1 𝑟 2−1
𝑎3 = 𝑎1 𝑟 2 = 𝑎1 𝑟 3−1
𝑎4 = 𝑎1 𝑟 3 = 𝑎1 𝑟 2−1

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
Thus the 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of a G.P is

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𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒓𝒏−𝟏 , where 𝑎 = 1𝑠𝑡 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 , 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 , 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

NOTE:
1. The 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚/ general term of a G.P is 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒓𝒏−𝟏
It contains 4 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠, is 3 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 are given, the 4𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 can be evaluated.
2. From the general term of a G.P, the standard form of a G.P series can be
stated as;

𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + 𝑎𝑟 4 , … … … . . +𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

3. The most convenient terms of a G.P given their product are:

a) If three terms are in a G.P, then use
𝒂
, 𝒂 , 𝒂𝒓
𝒓

b) If four terms are in a G.P, then use

𝒂 𝒂
, 𝒓 , 𝒂𝒓 , 𝒂𝒓𝟑
𝒓𝟑

NOTICE:
1. In both cases, when terms are multiplied, the common ratio vanishes.
2. In the case of odd number terms, the middle terms 𝒂 and the common ratio
is 𝒓.
𝒂
3. In the case of even number terms, the middle terms are , 𝒂𝒓 and the
𝒓
common ratio is 𝒓𝟐 .

Properties of a G.P
1. If every term of a G.P is multiplied or divided by a constant, the resulting
series is a G.P.
2. If the terms of a G.P are raised to same power, the resulting series is a G.P.
3. If the reciprocals of terms in a G.P are got, the resulting series is a G.P.

Examples
1. Write down the terms indicated in each of the following series.
a) 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯ … … … … . . … . 11𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
2 3 27
b) + + + ⋯ … … … . . … … . . 12𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
3 4 32
1 8
c) 2
, −2 , 2
, … … … … … … … . . 8𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
Solution
a) 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯ … … … … . . … . 11𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
This is not an A.P because 4 − 2 ≠ 8 − 4
4 8
This is a G.P because2 = 4 = 2
Using 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒓𝒏−𝟏
Given: 𝑎𝑛 = ? , 𝑛 = 11 , 𝑟 = 2 , 𝑎 = 2
∴ 𝑎11 = 11 × 2 11−1 = 11 × 210 = 11264
2 3 27
b) 3
+ 4 + 32 + ⋯ … … … . . … … . . 12𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

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3
4
9 2
Given: 𝑎𝑛 = ? , 𝑛 = 12 , 𝑟 = 2
3
= 8 ,𝑎 = 3
Required: 𝑎12 = ?
2 9 12−1 2 9 11
∴ 𝑎12 = × = × = 11264
3 8 3 8
1 8
c) 2
, −2 , 2
,…………………..8 𝑡𝑕
− 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
8
−2 4 1
Given: 𝑎𝑛 = ? , 𝑛 = 8 , 𝑟 = 1 = 2
−2
=− 2
,𝑎 = 2
2

Required: 𝑎8 = ?
1 4 8−1 1 4 7 1 8
7
∴ 𝑎8 = × − = × − = × −4 = −1024
2 2 2 2 2
2. Find the number of terms in the G.P’s below.
a) 0.03 + 0.06 + 0.12 + ⋯ … … … … … … … . +1.92
1
b) 81 + 27 + 9 + ⋯ … … … … … … … … … … … . + 27
c) 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ … … … … … … … … … … . +𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
Solution
a) 0.03 + 0.06 + 0.12 + ⋯ … … … … … … … . +1.92
0.06
Given: 𝑎 = 0.03 , 𝑟 = 0.03 = 2 , 𝑎𝑛 = 1.92
Required: 𝑛 = ?
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑛−1
⇒ 1.92 = 0.03 × 2
1.92 𝑛−1
⇒ 0.03 = 2 𝑜𝑟 2 = 2𝑛−1
6

∴ 𝑛 − 1 = 6 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 7
∴ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 7
1
b) 81 + 27 + 9 + ⋯ … … … … … … … … … … … . + 27
27 1 1
Given: 𝑎 = 81 , 𝑟 = 81 = 3 , 𝑎𝑛 = 27
Required: 𝑛 = ?
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
1 1 𝑛−1
⇒ 27 = 81 ×
3
1 1
⇒ 27×81 = 3𝑛 −1 𝑜𝑟 33 × 34 = 3𝑛−1
⇒ 7 =𝑛−1 ∴ 𝑛 = 8
c) 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ … … … … … … … … … … . +𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
Using 𝐴𝑁 = 𝐴. 𝑅𝑁−1
𝑎𝑟
Given: 𝐴 = 𝑎 , 𝑅 = = 𝑟 , 𝐴𝑁 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎
⇒ 𝑎. 𝑟 𝑛−1 = 𝑎. 𝑟 𝑁−1
⇒ 𝑛−1 =𝑁−1 ∴ 𝑛 = 𝑁
∴ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑛
3. The third term of a G.P is 10, and the sixth term is 80. Find the common ratio,
the first term and the twelfth term.
Solution
Given: 𝑎3 = 10 , 𝑎6 = 80
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
⇒ 10 = 𝑎. 𝑟 3−1 = 𝑎. 𝑟 2 ………………………………………….. (1)
⇒ 80 = 𝑎. 𝑟 6−1 = 𝑎. 𝑟 5 ………………………………………….. (2)

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𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (1)

80 𝑎 .𝑟 5
⇒ = = 𝑟3
10 𝑎 .𝑟 2
3
⇒8=𝑟 ∴𝑟=2
From eqn. (1)
10 10 5
𝑎= = =
𝑟2 4 2
𝑁𝑜𝑤 12𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎12 = 𝑎. 𝑟12−1 = 𝑎. 𝑟11
5
∴ 12𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 2 × 211 = 5 × 210
5
∴ 1𝑠𝑡 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 2 , 12𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 5 2 10

4. The 3 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of a G.P is 2, and the 5𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 is 18. Find two possible
𝑟𝑑

values of common ratio, and the 2𝑛𝑑 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 in each case.

Solution
Given: 𝑎3 = 2 , 𝑎5 = 18
Required: 𝑟 = ? , 𝑎2 = ?
Using 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
⇒ 2 = 𝑎. 𝑟 3−1 = 𝑎. 𝑟 2 ………………………………………….. (1)
⇒ 18 = 𝑎. 𝑟 5−1 = 𝑎. 𝑟 4 …………………………….………….. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (1)
18 𝑎 .𝑟 4
⇒ = 𝑎 .𝑟 2 = 𝑟 2
2
⇒ 9 = 𝑟 2 ∴ 𝑟 = ±3
Now from eqn. (1)
2 2 2
𝑎= = =
𝑟2 ±3 2 9
2 2
Now 𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑟 2−1
= 𝑎𝑟 = × ±3 = ±
9 3
2
∴ For 1𝑠𝑡 𝐺. 𝑃 with 𝑟 = 3 , 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒 2𝑛𝑑 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 3 and in the 2𝑛𝑑 𝐺. 𝑃 with 𝑟 =
2
−3 , 𝑎 = 2 , 2𝑛𝑑 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 − 3
5. The ratio of the 4𝑡𝑕 to the 12𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of a G.P with a positive common ratio
1
is 256
. If the sum of the two terms is 61.68. find the 10𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚.
Solution
𝑎 1 𝑎 .𝑟 3 1 1 1
Given:𝑎 4 = 256 ⇒ 𝑎 .𝑟 11 = 256 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 8 = 256
12

⇒ 𝑟 8 = 256 . let 𝑟 4 = 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 2 = 256 ∴ 𝑥 = ±16
Now 𝑟 4 = ±16 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 4 = 16 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
∴ 𝑟 = ±2
Since r is required as +𝑣𝑒, then 𝑟 = 2 is taken, neglecting the negative sign.
Also given: 𝑎4 + 𝑎12 = 61.68
⇒ 𝑎. 𝑟 3 + 𝑎. 𝑟11 = 61.68
⇒ 𝑎 𝑟 3 + 𝑟11 = 61.68
61.68 61.68
∴𝑎= 𝑟 3 +𝑟 11
= 2 3 +2 11
= 0.03
Now 𝑎10 = 𝑎𝑟 = 0.03 × 29 = 15.36 9

∴ The 10𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 15.36

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The Sum and Product of convenient terms of a G.P

Examples:
1. Find three numbers in a G.P such that
a) Their sum is 19 and their product is 216
b) Their sum is 21 and the sum of their squares is 651
c) The sum of their squares is 819 and their product is 729.
Solution
𝑎
Let the numbers be 𝑟 , 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟
𝑎 1
a) Given: 𝑟
+ 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 = 19 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑟
+ 𝑟 + 1 = 19…………………………. (1)
𝑎 3
Also ∙ 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎𝑟 = 216 𝑜𝑟 𝑎3 = 216 ∴ 𝑎 = 216 = 6 ……………. (2)
𝑟
Substituting eqn. (2) in to eqn. (1)
1
⇒ + 𝑟 + 1 ∙ 6 = 19
𝑟
𝑟 2 +𝑟+1
⇒ 𝑟
× 6 = 19
⇒ 6𝑟 2 + 6𝑟 + 6 = 19𝑟 𝑜𝑟 6𝑟 2 − 13𝑟 + 6 = 0
⇒ 6𝑟 2 − 9𝑟 − 4𝑟 + 6 = 3𝑟 − 2 2𝑟 − 3 = 0
2 3
∴ 𝑟 = 3 ,2
6 2 2
∴ The numbers are: 2 , 6 , 6 × 3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = 3 𝑜𝑟 9 , 6 , 4
3
3
For = 2 , the numbers are in the reverse order of 9 , 6 , 4
𝑎 1
b) Given: + 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 = 21 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 + 𝑟 + 1 = 21…………………………. (1)
𝑟 𝑟
𝑎 2 1
Also 𝑟
+ 𝑎 2
+ 𝑎𝑟 2
= 651 or 𝑎2 𝑟2
+ 𝑟 2 + 1 = 651 …….. (2)
Squaring equation (1)
1 2
⇒ 𝑎2 +𝑟+1 = 441
𝑟
1 2 1
⇒ 𝑎2 +𝑟 +2 + 𝑟 + 1 = 441
𝑟 𝑟
1 1
⇒ 𝑎2 + 𝑟2 + 2 + 2 + 𝑟 + 1 = 441
𝑟2 𝑟
1 1
⇒ 2
𝑎 𝑟2 + 𝑟2 + 1 + 2 𝑟
+𝑟+1 = 441 …………………………………. (3)
Dividing eqn. (2) by eqn. (3)
1
𝑎 2 2 +𝑟 2 +1 651 1 1
⇒ 1
𝑟
1 = 441 𝑜𝑟 441 𝑟2
+ 𝑟 2 + 1 = 651 𝑟2
+ 𝑟2 + 1 +
𝑎2 2
+𝑟 +1 +2 +𝑟+1
𝑟2 𝑟
1
1302 +𝑟+1
𝑟
1 1
⇒ 651 − 441 𝑟2
+ 𝑟 2 + 1 + 1302 𝑟
+𝑟+1 =0
1 1
∴ 210 + 𝑟 2 + 1 + 1302 +𝑟+1
𝑟2 𝑟
1 1
Let 𝑦 = 𝑟 + 𝑟 ⇒ 𝑦 − 2 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 2

⇒ 210 𝑦2 − 2 + 1 + 1302 𝑦 + 1 = 0
⇒ 210𝑦 2 + 1302𝑦 + 1092 = 0
Solving the equation,
26
𝑦 = −1 , −
5
1
Now for 𝑦 = −1 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 + 𝑟
1
⇒ + 𝑟 + 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 + 1 = 0
𝑟

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Solving the equation, no real values of r

26
For 𝑦 = − 5
1 26
⇒ 𝑟 +𝑟+ 5
= 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 5 𝑟 2 + 26𝑟 + 5 = 0
1
Solving the equation, 𝑟 = −5 , − 5
1
For 𝑟 = −5 in eqn. (1) . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎 + 𝑟 + 1 = 21
𝑟
1
⇒ 𝑎 − − 5 + 1 = 21 ∴ 𝑎 = −5
5
−5 1
∴ The numbers are: 1 , −5 , −5 × − 𝑜𝑟 25 , −5 , 1
− 5
5
1
For 𝑟 = − , the numbers are in the reverse order
5
c) 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒.
𝟏
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒓 = ±𝟑 , 𝒓 = ± 𝟑 ∶ 𝑵𝒐. 𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒆: 𝟑 , 𝟗 , 𝟐𝟕 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝟕 , 𝟗 , 𝟑
2. Find five numbers in a G.P such that:
a) Their product is 32 and the product of the last two terms is 108
b) Their sum is 7 ¾ , their product is unity.
Solution
𝑎 𝑎
Let the numbers be:𝑟 2 , 𝑟 , 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 2
𝑎 𝑎
a) Given: 𝑟 2 . 𝑟 . 𝑎. 𝑎𝑟. 𝑎𝑟 2 = 32 ⇒ 𝑎5 = 32 ∴ 𝑎 = 2
108 108
Also 𝑎𝑟. 𝑎𝑟 2 = 108 ⇒ 𝑟 3 = = = 27
𝑎2 4
∴𝑟=3
2 2
⇒ The numbers are:9 , 3 , 2 , 6 , 18
𝑎 𝑎 31
b) Given: 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 + 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 =
4
1 1 34
⇒𝑎 + 𝑟 + 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟2 = …………………………….. (1)
𝑟2 4
𝑎 𝑎
Also 𝑟 2 . 𝑟 . 𝑎. 𝑎𝑟. 𝑎𝑟 2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎5 = 1 ∴ 𝑎 = 1 …….…… (2)
Eqn. (2) in to eqn. (2)
1 1 31 1 1 27
𝑟2
+ 𝑟 + 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟2 = 4
𝑜𝑟 𝑟
+ 𝑟 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟2 = 4
1 1
Let 𝑦 = + 𝑟 ⇒ 𝑦 2 − 2 = 2
+ 𝑟2
𝑟 𝑟
27 35
⇒ 𝑦 + 𝑦2 − 2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 =
4 4
⇒ 4𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 − 35 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝑦 − 5 2𝑦 + 7 = 0
5 7
∴ 𝑦 = 2 ,𝑦 = −2
5 1 5
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = ,⇒ 𝑟 + = 𝑜𝑟 2𝑟 2 − 5𝑟 + 2 = 0
2 𝑟 2
⇒ 2𝑟 2 − 4𝑟 − 𝑟 + 2 = 0
1
⇒ 2𝑟 − 1 𝑟 − 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑟 = 2 ,
2
1 1
For 𝑟 = 2 , the numbers are: 4 , 2 , 1 , 2 , 4
7 1 7
Also for 𝑟 = − ⇒ 𝑟 + = − 𝑜𝑟 2𝑟 2 + 7𝑟 + 2 = 0
2 𝑟 2
−7± 7 2 −4×2×2 −7± 33
𝑟= 4
= 4
The values of r can be neglected since they are irrational, the numbers are:
1 1
4
,2 ,1,2,4

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Task
1. The sum of three numbers in a G.P is 35 and their product is 1000. Find the
𝟏
numbers. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝒓 = 𝟐 , 𝒏𝒐𝒔. 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝟓 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟐𝟎 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝒓 = , 𝒏𝒐𝒔. 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝟐𝟎 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟓
𝟐
124
2. The sum of three numbers in a G.P is and their product is 64. Find the
5
𝟏 𝟒
numbers. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝒓 = 𝟓 𝒐𝒓 , 𝒏𝒐𝒔. 𝒂𝒓𝒆 , 𝟒 , 𝟐𝟎
𝟓 𝟓
3. Find three numbers in a G.P such that;
2 𝟐
i) Their sum is 5 and their product is−8. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟓
, −𝟐 , 𝟏𝟎
ii) Their sum is 28 and their product
is 512. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟒 , 𝟖 , 𝟏𝟔 𝑜𝑟 𝟏𝟔 , 𝟖 , 𝟒

TO FIND THE SUM OF 𝒏 − 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 OF A G.P

Let 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 2 , … … … … … … … … … … … . . 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 be the 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 in a G.P.
Let 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ … … … … … … . +𝑎𝑟 𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
………………………………. (1)
𝑆𝑛 is the sum of 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
Multiplying eqn. (1) by r
⇒ 𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ … … … … … … . +𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 ………………..…………...
(2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
⇒ 𝑆𝑛 − 𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑛
𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛
⇒ 𝑆𝑛 1 − 𝑟 = 𝑎 1 − 𝑟 𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟

𝒂 𝟏−𝒓𝒏
𝑺𝒏 = , where 𝒓 ≠ 𝟏
𝟏−𝒓

NOTE:
1) In case 𝒓 = 𝟏 , 𝑺𝒏 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + ⋯ … … … … … … + 𝑎 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 = 𝒏𝒂
𝒂 𝟏−𝒓𝒏
2) In case 𝒓 < 1, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟏−𝒓
𝒂 𝒓𝒏 −𝟏
3) In case 𝒓 > 1, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑺𝒏 =
𝒓−𝟏
Examples
1. Find the sum of 11 terms of a G.P
1 1 1
a) 1 , − 2 , 4 , − 8 , … … … … … … … ..
b) 3 + 33 + 333 + ⋯ … … … … … ….
Solution
1 1 1
a) 1 , − , , − , … … … … … … … ..
2 4 8
1 1
1
Common ratio: 𝑟 = − 2
= 4
1 =−
1 − 2
2
1
Given: 𝑟 = − , 𝑎 = 1 , 𝑛 = 11
2
𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = since 𝑟 < 1
1−𝑟
1 11 1
1 1− − 1+
2 211
⇒ 𝑆𝑛 = 1 = 1
1− − 1+
2 2
2 11 +1 2 11 +2 2050 1025
= 3 = = =
2 11 × 3×2 10 3072 1536
2

b) 3 + 33 + 333 + ⋯ … … … … … ….

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33 333
Common ratio: 𝑟 = 3
= 33
= 11
Given: 𝑟 = 11 , 𝑎 = 3 , 𝑛 = 11
𝑎 𝑟 𝑛 −1
Using 𝑆𝑛 = since 𝑟 > 1
𝑟−1
3 1111 −1 3
⇒ 𝑆𝑛 = = 1111 − 1
11−1 10
2. Find how many terms of the G.P 1 + 3 + 9 + ⋯ … … … …. are required to make a
total of more than 1 million.
Solution
1 + 3 + 9 + ⋯ … … … …. , has 𝑟 = 3
𝑎 𝑟 𝑛 −1
Using 𝑆𝑛 = , 𝑟 >1
𝑟−1
1 3 𝑛 −1 1
⇒ 𝑆𝑛 = = 2 × 3𝑛 − 1
3−1
1
⇒ 106 = 2 × 3𝑛 − 1
⇒ 2 × 106 + 1 = 3𝑛
⇒ 3𝑛 = 2 000 001
⇒ log 3n = log 2 000 001
log 2 000 001
∴𝑛= = 13.206
log 3
Thus the number of terms required to make a total of more than 1 million
will be 14.
3. What is the smallest number of terms of the G.P 5 , 10 , 20 , … … … …. can give a
sum greater than 500 000
Solution
5 , 10 , 20 , … … … …. , has 𝑟 = 2
𝑎 𝑟 𝑛 −1
Using 𝑆𝑛 = , 𝑟 >1
𝑟−1
5 2 𝑛 −1
⇒ 𝑆𝑛 = = 5 × 2𝑛 − 1
2−1
⇒ 500 000 = 5 × 2𝑛 − 1
⇒ 100 000 + 1 = 2𝑛
⇒ 2𝑛 = 100 001
⇒ log 2n = log 100 001
log 100 001
∴𝑛= = 16.6097
log 2
Thus the number of terms required to make a total exceeding
500 000 is 17
4. The sum of the first eight terms of a G.P (of real terms) is five times the sum of
the first four terms. Find the common ratio.
Solution
Let the G.P be 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , … … … … ….
𝑎 1−𝑟 8
𝑆8 = Sum of first 8 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
1−𝑟
𝑎 1−𝑟 4
𝑆4 = Sum of first 4 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
1−𝑟
Given: 𝑆8 = 5𝑆4
𝑎 1−𝑟 8 5𝑎 1−𝑟 4
⇒ 1−𝑟
= 1−𝑟
⇒ 1 − 𝑟8 = 5 1 − 𝑟4
⇒ 1 − 𝑟 8 = 5 − 5𝑟 4
∴ 𝑟 8 − 5𝑟 4 + 4 = 0
Let 𝑟 4 = 𝑥

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⇒ 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 4 = 0
∴ 𝑥 = 1,4
⇒ 𝑟 4 − 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 2 − 1 𝑟 2 + 1 = 0
∴ 𝑟 2 − 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = ±1 ; 𝑟 2 + 1 = 0 , 𝑕𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠
Now for 𝑟 = 1, the series is 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + ⋯ … … … ..
But then, 𝑆8 = 8𝑎 and 𝑆4 = 4𝑎
So 𝑆8 ≠ 4𝑆4 , hence 𝑟 ≠ 1
In case 𝑟 = −1, we get 𝑆8 = 0 and 𝑆4 = 0
Thus 𝑆8 = 5𝑆4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = −1
Again 𝑟 4 − 4 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 2 − 2 𝑟 2 + 2 = 0
∴ 𝑟 2 − 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = ± 2
∴ 𝑟 = −1 ; ± 2
5. The sum of the last three terms of a G.P having 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 is 1024 times the
sum of the first 3 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of the progression. If the third term is 5, find the last
term.
Solution
Let the G.P be 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , … … … … … . 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−3 , 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−2 , 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
Given: 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−3 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 = 1024 × 𝑆3
𝑎3 = 𝑎𝑟 2 = 5
𝑎 1−𝑟 3
Also 𝑆3 =
1−𝑟
𝑛−3 𝑛−2 𝑎 1−𝑟 3
⇒ 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 = 1024 ×
1−𝑟
1+𝑟+𝑟 2 1−𝑟
⇒ 𝑟 𝑛−3 + 𝑟 𝑛−2 + 𝑟 𝑛−1 = 1024 ×
1−𝑟
⇒ 𝑟 𝑛−3 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 2 = 1024 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 2
⇒ 𝑟 𝑛−3 = 1024 ……………………………………………….….. (1)
Also 𝑎𝑟 2 = 5 …………………………………………………….. (2)
Now last term, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 ……………………………………. (3)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 2 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎
𝑎 𝑟2 5
⇒ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 −1 = 𝑎
𝑛
∴ 𝑎𝑛 = 5 × 𝑟 𝑛−3 ……………………………………..….………. (4)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = 5 × 𝑟 𝑛−3 = 5 × 1024 = 5120
∴ 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 5120
6. The second term and the third term of a G.P are 24 and 12 𝑏 + 1 respectively.
Find b if the sum of the first 3 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of progression is 76.
Solution
Given: 𝑎2 = 24 , 𝑎3 = 12 𝑏 + 1 , 𝑆3 = 76
𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑟 = 24 ………………………………………..………….. (1)
𝑎3 = 𝑎𝑟 2 = 12 𝑏 + 1 ………………………………………….. (2)
𝑎 1−𝑟 3
𝑆3 = = 76 ……………………………….………………. (3)
1−𝑟
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎
𝑎𝑟 24 1 2
⇒ 𝑎𝑟 2 = 12 𝑏+1
𝑜𝑟 𝑟
= 𝑏+1
𝑏+1
⇒𝑟= 2
…………………………………….…………………. (4)
From 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3)

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𝑎 1−𝑟 3 𝑎 1+𝑟+𝑟 2 1−𝑟

1−𝑟
= 76 𝑜𝑟 1−𝑟
= 76
⇒ 𝑎 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 = 76 …………………………………. (5)
2

𝐸𝑞𝑛. 5 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎

𝑎 1+𝑟+𝑟 2 76 19
⇒ 𝑎𝑟
= 24 = 6
⇒ 6 + 6𝑟 + 6𝑟 2 = 19𝑟
2 3
⇒ 6𝑟 2 − 13𝑟 + 6 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝑟 − 3 3𝑟 − 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑟 = ,
3 2
𝑏+1
From eqn. (4) 𝑟 = 2
𝑏+1 2
For 𝑟 = ,𝑟 =
2 3
𝑏+1 2 1
⇒ 2
= 3 𝑜𝑟 4 = 3𝑏 + 3 ∴ 𝑏 = 3
𝑏+1 3
For 𝑟 = ,𝑟 = 2
2
𝑏+1 3
⇒ = 𝑜𝑟 1 = 𝑏 + 1 ∴ 𝑏 = 2
2 2
1
∴ 𝑏 = 3 ,2
7. The 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of a G.P is 𝑎𝑛 . Given that 𝑎1 = 1 , 𝑎2 = 1 + 𝑥 , 𝑎3 = 5 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑎4 =
𝑎 + 𝑥 4 . Find a and x, hence determine the sum of the first 10 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of a G.P.
Solution
Given: 𝑎1 = 1 , 𝑎2 = 1 + 𝑥 , 𝑎3 = 5 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑎4 = 𝑎 + 𝑥 4
1+𝑥 5+𝑥 2 𝑎 +𝑥 4
⇒𝑟= = =
1 1+𝑥 5+𝑥 2
1+𝑥 5+𝑥 2 2
⇒ = 𝑜𝑟 1 + 𝑥 = 5 + 𝑥2
1 1+𝑥
⇒ 1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 = 5 + 𝑥 2
⇒ 1 + 2𝑥 = 5 ∴ 𝑥 = 2
∴ 𝑟 =1+𝑥 = 1+2 = 3
𝑎 +𝑥 4
From =𝑟
5+𝑥 2
𝑎+𝑥 4 𝑎 +2 4
⇒ =3 ∴ =3
5+𝑥 2 5+2 2
⇒ 𝑎 + 16 = 27 ∴ 𝑎 = 11
∴ 𝑎 = 11 , 𝑥 = 2
1× 3 10 −1 1
𝑆10 = = 2 × 310 − 1 = 29 524
3−1

Task
1. The ratio of the 9𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of a G.P to the 6𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 is −8, and the 5𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
is 16. Ding the G.P.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟏 , −𝟐 , 𝟒 , −𝟖 , 𝟏𝟔
2. The 10𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of a G.P is double the 12𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚. If the 3𝑟𝑑 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 is 6. Find
the
5𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟑
3. The sum of the first three terms of a G.P is 7 and the fourth term exceeds the
first by 7. Find the seventh term.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟔𝟒

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𝒂 𝒓𝒏 −𝟏
PROOFS INVOLVING SUMMATION OF A G.P . 𝒊. 𝒆. 𝑺𝒏 = 𝒓−𝟏
FORMULAE
AND 𝒏 − 𝑻𝑬𝑹𝑴 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒓
𝒕𝒉 𝒏−𝟏

Examples
1. The 4𝑡𝑕 , 7𝑡𝑕 and 10𝑡𝑕 terms of a G.P are 𝑙 , 𝑚 and 𝑛 respectively. Prove
that 𝑚 2 = 𝑙𝑛.
Solution
Given: 𝑎4 = 𝑙 , 𝑎7 = 𝑚 , 𝑎10 = 𝑛
⇒ 𝑙 = 𝑎𝑟 3 …………………………………………………. (1)
⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑟 6 ………………………….……………………. (2)
⇒ 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 9 ………………………….……………….……. (3)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎
𝑙 𝑎𝑟 3 1 𝑚
⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑟 6 = 𝑟 3 ∴ 𝑟 3 = …………………….….. (4)
𝑙
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 2 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎
𝑚 𝑎𝑟 6 1 𝑛
⇒ 𝑛
= 𝑎𝑟 9 = 𝑟 3 ∴ 𝑟 3 = 𝑚 …………………….….. (5)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 4 = 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 5
𝑚 𝑛
⇒ 𝑙 = 𝑚 ∴ 𝑚 2 = 𝑙𝑛
2. If 𝑝𝑡𝑕 , 𝑞𝑡𝑕 , 𝑟 𝑡𝑕 term of a G.P are respectively equal to 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 , then prove
that 𝑎𝑞−𝑟 . 𝑏𝑟−𝑝 . 𝑐 𝑝−𝑞 = 1
Solution
Let the 1𝑠𝑡 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝐴 and 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑅
Using 𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑛−1
Given: 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑎 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑝−1 ……………………………………………… (1)
𝐴𝑞 = 𝑏 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑞−1 ……………………………………………… (2)
𝐴𝑟 = 𝑐 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑟−1 ………………………………………….…… (3)
Now 𝑎 . 𝑏 . 𝑐
𝑞−𝑟 𝑟 −𝑝 𝑝 −𝑞
= 𝐴𝑅 𝑝 −1 𝑞−𝑟 . 𝐴𝑅 𝑞−1 𝑟−𝑝 . 𝐴𝑅 𝑟 −1 𝑝−𝑞

𝑞−𝑟 𝑝 −1 𝑞−𝑟
=𝐴 .𝑅 . 𝐴 𝑟−𝑝 . 𝑅 𝑞−1 𝑟−𝑝
. 𝐴 𝑝 −𝑞 . 𝑅 𝑟 −1 𝑝−𝑞
𝑞 −𝑟+𝑟−𝑝+𝑝 −𝑞
=𝐴 . 𝑅 𝑝 −1 𝑞−𝑟 𝑞−1 𝑟−𝑝 + 𝑟−1 𝑝 −𝑞
0 𝑝𝑞 −𝑝𝑟 −𝑞+𝑟+𝑞𝑟 −𝑝𝑞 −𝑟+𝑝+𝑝𝑟 −𝑞𝑟 −𝑝+𝑞
= 𝐴 .𝑅
= 𝐴0 . 𝑅0 = 1
3. If 𝑥 , 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 are 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 , 2𝑛 𝑡𝑕 and 3𝑛 𝑡𝑕 terms of a G.P, show that 𝑦 2 = 𝑥𝑧.
Solution
Given: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥 , 𝑎2𝑛 = 𝑦 𝑎 𝑛𝑑 𝑎3𝑛 = 𝑧
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 , 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟 2𝑛−1 , 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟 3𝑛−1
𝑥 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 −1
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟 2𝑛 −1 = 𝑟 𝑛−1−2𝑛+1 = 𝑟 −𝑛
𝑦
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑛 …………………………………………………………… (1)
𝑦 𝑎𝑟 2𝑛 −1
𝑧
= 𝑎𝑟 3𝑛 −1 = 𝑟 2𝑛−1−3𝑛+1 = 𝑟 −𝑛
𝑧
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑛 …………………………………………………………… (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 = 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
𝑧 𝑦
⇒ = ∴ 𝑦 2 = 𝑥𝑧
𝑦 𝑥

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4. The 𝑝𝑡𝑕 term of a G.P is p and the 𝑞𝑡𝑕 term is q. show that the 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 term is
1
𝑝 𝑛 −𝑞 𝑝 −𝑞
given as 𝑝. 𝑞 𝑛 −𝑝
Solution
Given: 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑝 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑝−1 ……………………………….…… (1)
𝑎𝑞 = 𝑞 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑞−1 …………………………………… (2)
In these two equations, a and r are unknowns. Eliminating a from the
equations,
𝑝 𝑎 𝑟 𝑝 −1
⇒ 𝑞 = 𝑎 𝑟 𝑞 −1 = 𝑟 𝑝−𝑞
1
𝑝
……………………………………………………. (3)
𝑝 −𝑞
∴𝑟= 𝑞
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 to find a,
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
From 𝑝 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑝−1 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑟 𝑝 −1 = 1 𝑝 −1 = 𝑝 −1
𝑝 𝑝 −𝑞 𝑝 𝑝 −𝑞
𝑞 𝑞

𝑝
∴𝑎= 𝑝 −1 ……………………………………………………. (4)
𝑝 𝑝 −𝑞
𝑞

Now 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
1 𝑛−1
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝 −𝑞
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑝 −1 ×
𝑝 𝑝 −𝑞 𝑞
𝑞
𝑛 −1 𝑛 −1 𝑝 −1 𝑛 −𝑝 1
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝 − 𝑝 𝑝 𝑛 −𝑝 𝑝 −𝑞
𝑝 −𝑞 𝑝 −𝑞 𝑝 −𝑞 𝑝 −𝑞
= 𝑝 −1 × 𝑞
=𝑝× 𝑞
= 𝑝. 𝑞
=𝑝× 𝑞 𝑛 −𝑝
𝑝 𝑝 −𝑞
𝑞

Task:
Prove that the 𝑛 + 1 𝑡𝑕 term of a G.P of which the first term is a and the third
term is b, is equal to 2𝑛 + 1 𝑡𝑕 term of a G.P of which the first term is a and
the fifth term is b.
5. If 𝑆 be the sum, 𝑃 the product and 𝑅 be sum of reciprocal of 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 in a
G.P. prove that 𝑃 2 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑆 𝑛 .
Solution
Let 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 2 , … … … … … … … … . 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 be 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 in a G.P with 𝑟 < 1
⇒ 𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ … … … … … . +𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛
∴𝑆= …………………………………………………. (1)
1−𝑟
⇒ 𝑃 = 𝑎 . 𝑎𝑟. 𝑎𝑟 2 . … … … … … … … … . 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑃 = 𝑎1+1+1+1+⋯…….+𝑛 . 𝑟1+2+3+⋯………………+ 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑛−1 ∵ 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ … … . . +𝑛 − 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝐴. 𝑃 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑎 = 1
= 𝑎𝑛 . 𝑟 2 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑑 = 1 , 𝑛 = 𝑛 − 1 ∴ 𝑆𝑛 = 2 2 + 𝑛 − 1 + 1 = 2
𝑛 𝑛 −1
∴ 𝑃 = 𝑎𝑛 . 𝑟 2 …………………………………………………. (2)
1 1 1 1
⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ … … … … … + 𝑎 𝑟 𝑛 −1
1 1 1 1 1
=𝑎 1
+ 𝑟 + 𝑟 2 + ⋯ … … … … … … … … + 𝑟 𝑛 −1
1 𝑛
1 1. 𝑟
−1 𝑎 𝑟 𝑛 −1
= 1 ∵ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟 > 1, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑛 =
𝑎 −1 𝑟−1
𝑟
1 1−𝑟 𝑛 𝑟
∴𝑅= …………………………………………………… (3)
𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑟 𝑛

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𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3)

1 𝑆 𝑟 𝑆.𝑟 𝑆
⇒𝑅= . . = =
𝑎 𝑎 𝑟𝑛 𝑎 2 .𝑟 𝑛 𝑎 2 .𝑟 𝑛 −1
𝑆 𝑛 𝑆𝑛
Now 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑎 2 .𝑟 𝑛 −1
= 𝑎 2𝑛 .𝑟 𝑛 𝑛 −1

2𝑛
⇒ 𝑎 .𝑟 𝑅 = 𝑆 𝑛 ………………………………………….. (4)
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛

But from 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (1)

𝑛 𝑛 −1 𝑛 𝑛 −1
𝑃
⇒ 𝑃 = 𝑎𝑛 . 𝑟 2 ∴ =𝑟 2
𝑎𝑛
Squaring
𝑃2
⇒ 𝑎 2𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑛−1
……………………………….……..………………. (5)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 5 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4
𝑃2
⇒ 𝑆 𝑛 = 𝑎2𝑛 . 𝑟 𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑅𝑛 = 𝑎2𝑛 × 𝑎 2𝑛 × 𝑅𝑛
∴ 𝑃 2 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑆 𝑛
6. If 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 be respectively the sum of 𝑛 , 2𝑛 , 3𝑛 terms of a G.P, prove that
𝑆1 𝑆3 − 𝑆2 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 2
Solution
𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛
Given: 𝑆1 = 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
……………………………………….…….. (1)
𝑎 1−𝑟 2𝑛
𝑆2 = 𝑆2𝑛 = 1−𝑟
………………………………………….. (2)
𝑎 1−𝑟 3𝑛
𝑆3 = 𝑆3𝑛 = ………………………………………….. (3)
1−𝑟
For all 𝑟 < 1
𝑎 1−𝑟 3𝑛 𝑎 1−𝑟 2𝑛
Now 𝑆3 − 𝑆2 = 1−𝑟
− 1−𝑟
𝑎 𝑎𝑟 2𝑛
= 1−𝑟 . 𝑟 2𝑛 − 𝑟 3𝑛 = . 1 − 𝑟 𝑛 …..…. (4)
1−𝑟
𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛 𝑎𝑟 2𝑛
Again 𝑆1 𝑆3 − 𝑆2 = × . 1 − 𝑟𝑛
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
𝑎 𝑟 2𝑛 1−𝑟 𝑛 2
⇒ 𝑆1 𝑆3 − 𝑆2 = 2
……………………………………….. (5)
1−𝑟
𝑎 1−𝑟 2𝑛 𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛 2
2
𝑹. 𝑯. 𝑺 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = −
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
𝑟 𝑛 −𝑟 2𝑛 2 𝑟 𝑛 1−𝑟 𝑛 2 𝑎 𝑟 2𝑛 1−𝑟 𝑛 2
= 𝑎2 1−𝑟
= 𝑎2 1−𝑟
= 1−𝑟 2

∴ 𝐑. 𝐇. 𝐒 = 𝐋. 𝐇. 𝐒
7. If 𝑆𝑛 represent sum of 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of a G.P whose first term and common ratio
𝑎𝑛
are 𝑎 and 𝑟 respectively. Prove that 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 + ⋯ … … … … … … + 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟 −
𝑎𝑟 1−𝑟 𝑛
1−𝑟 2

Solution
𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛
Given: 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
𝑎 1−𝑟 1 𝑎 1−𝑟 2 𝑎 1−𝑟 3
𝑆1 = 1−𝑟
= 𝑎 ; 𝑆2 = 1−𝑟
; 𝑆3 = 1−𝑟
𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 + ⋯ … … … … … … + 𝑆𝑛
𝑎 1−𝑟 2 𝑎 1−𝑟 3 𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛
=𝑎+ 1−𝑟
+ 1−𝑟
+ ⋯……..+ 1−𝑟
𝑎
= 1 − 𝑟 + 1 − 𝑟2 + 1 − 𝑟3 + ⋯ … … … … … + 1 − 𝑟𝑛
1−𝑟
𝑎
= 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ⋯ . . 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 − 𝑟 + 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 3 + ⋯ … . +𝑟 𝑛
1−𝑟
𝑎 𝑟 1−𝑟 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟 1−𝑟 𝑛
= 𝑛− = − 2
1−𝑟 1−𝑟 1−𝑟 1−𝑟

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𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟 1−𝑟 𝑛
∴ 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 + ⋯ … … … … … … + 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟 − 1−𝑟 2

8. The sum of 2𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of a G.P whose first term is 𝑎 and the common ratio
𝑟 is equal to the sum of 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of a G.P whose first term is b and common
ratio 𝑟 2 . Prove that b is equal to the sum of the first two terms of the series.
Solution
Given: 𝑆2𝑛 = 𝑆𝑛
1𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠: 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , … … … … … .. , 𝑎𝑟 2𝑛−1
2𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠: 𝑏 , 𝑏𝑟 2 , 𝑏𝑟 4 , 𝑏𝑟 6 , … … … … … .. , 𝑏𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎 1−𝑟 2𝑛 𝑏 1− 𝑟 2 𝑛
Now 𝑆2𝑛 = 1−𝑟
, 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟 2
From 𝑆2𝑛 = 𝑆𝑛
𝑎 1−𝑟 2𝑛 𝑏 1−𝑟 2𝑛 𝑎 1−𝑟 2𝑛 𝑏 1−𝑟 2𝑛
⇒ = ∴ =
1−𝑟 1−𝑟 2 1−𝑟 1+𝑟 1−𝑟
𝑏
⇒ 𝑎 = 1+𝑟 ∴ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟
Thus b is the sum of the first two terms of the series.

Task
1) If in a G.P, 𝑝 + 𝑞 𝑡𝑕
term is m and 𝑝 − 𝑞 𝑡𝑕
is n. show that 𝑝𝑡𝑕 term is 𝑚𝑛
2𝑞−𝑝 𝑝
and the 𝑞𝑡𝑕 term is 𝑚. 2𝑞
. 𝑛. 2𝑞
2) There are 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 in a G.P, show that the 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 root of their product is equal to
the square root of the product of its first and last terms.

Other forms of proofs in G.Ps

1 1 2
1. if 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 are in a G.P and 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑧 , prove that +𝑧 =𝑦
𝑥
Solution
𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 are in a G.P if
𝑏 𝑐
𝑎
= 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑏2 = 𝑎𝑐 …………………………………….………… (1)
Expressing 𝑎𝑐 in terms of 𝑏
𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏 𝑦 /𝑥 …………………………………………… (2)
𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑐 = 𝑏 𝑦/𝑧 …………………………………………… (3)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , 3 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 (1)
𝑦 𝑦
⇒ 𝑏2 = 𝑏 𝑦 /𝑥 . 𝑏 𝑦/𝑧 = 𝑏 𝑧 +𝑥
𝑦 𝑦 1 1 2
∴ 2 = 𝑧 + 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 +𝑧 = 𝑦
𝑥
2. if 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 , 𝑑 are in a G.P, show that:
i) 𝑎 + 𝑏 , 𝑏 + 𝑐 , 𝑐 + 𝑑 are in a G.P
ii) 𝑎 − 𝑏 2 , 𝑏 − 𝑐 2 , 𝑐 − 𝑑 2 are in a G.P
iii) 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 , 𝑏2 − 𝑐 2 , 𝑐 2 − 𝑑2
Solution
i) 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 , 𝑑 are in a G.P if:
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑎
= 𝑏 = 𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑐 = 𝑏𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 3
Now 𝑎 + 𝑏 , 𝑏 + 𝑐 , 𝑐 + 𝑑 are in a G.P if:
𝑏+𝑐 𝑎𝑟 +𝑎𝑟 2 𝑟 1+𝑟
= = =𝑟
𝑎 +𝑏 𝑎 +𝑎𝑟 1+𝑟
𝑐+𝑑 𝑎 𝑟 2 +𝑎𝑟 3 𝑟 2 1+𝑟
𝑏 +𝑐
= 𝑎𝑟 +𝑎𝑟 2
= 𝑟 1+𝑟
=𝑟

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𝑏 +𝑐 𝑐+𝑑
Since 𝑎 +𝑏
= 𝑏 +𝑐 = 𝑟, then 𝑎 + 𝑏 , 𝑏 + 𝑐 , 𝑐 + 𝑑 are in a G.P
ii) 𝑎−𝑏 2
, 𝑏−𝑐 2
, 𝑐−𝑑 2
are in a G.P if:
𝑏−𝑐 2 𝑐−𝑑 2

𝑎 −𝑏 2
= 𝑏−𝑐 2

𝑏 −𝑐 2 𝑎𝑟 −𝑎 𝑟 2 2 𝑎 2 𝑟 2 1−𝑟 2
Now 2
= = = 𝑟2
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑎−𝑎𝑟 2 𝑎 2 1−𝑟 2
𝑐−𝑑 2 𝑎 𝑟 2 −𝑎 𝑟 3 2 𝑎 2 𝑟 4 1−𝑟 2
Also 2
= = 2 = 𝑟2
𝑏−𝑐 𝑎𝑟 −𝑎𝑟 2 2 𝑎 2𝑟 1−𝑟 2

𝑏−𝑐 2 𝑐−𝑑 2
Since 𝑎 −𝑏 2
= 𝑏−𝑐 2
= 𝑟 2 , then 𝑎 − 𝑏 2
, 𝑏−𝑐 2
, 𝑐−𝑑 2
are in a G.P
iii) 𝑎 − 𝑏 , 𝑏 − 𝑐 , 𝑐 − 𝑑 are in a G.P if:
2 2 2 2 2 2

𝑏 2 −𝑐 2 𝑐 2 −𝑑 2
=
𝑎 2 −𝑏 2 𝑏 2 −𝑐 2
𝑏 2 −𝑐 2 𝑎𝑟 2− 𝑎𝑟 2 2 𝑎 2 𝑟 2 1−𝑟 2
Now = = = 𝑟2
𝑎 2 −𝑏 2 𝑎 2 − 𝑎𝑟 2 𝑎 2 1−𝑟 2
𝑐 2 −𝑑 2 𝑎 𝑟 2 2− 𝑎 𝑟 3 2 𝑎 2 𝑟 4 1−𝑟 2
Also = = 𝑎 2𝑟 2 = 𝑟2
𝑏 2 −𝑐 2 𝑎𝑟 2− 𝑎 𝑟2 2 1−𝑟 2
𝑏 2 −𝑐 2 𝑐 2 −𝑑 2
Thus 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 , 𝑏2 − 𝑐 2 , 𝑐 2 − 𝑑2 are in a G.P since = 𝑏 2 −𝑐 2
𝑎 2 −𝑏 2
3. If 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 , 𝑑 are in a G.P, show that:
i) 𝑏−𝑐 2 + 𝑐−𝑎 2 + 𝑑−𝑏 2 = 𝑎−𝑑 2
𝑎𝑏 −𝑐𝑑 𝑎 +𝑐
ii) =
𝑏 2 −𝑐 2 𝑏
Solution
i) 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 , 𝑑 are in a G.P if:
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
= = 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑐 = 𝑏𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 3
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Now 𝑏 − 𝑐 2
+ 𝑐−𝑎 2
+ 𝑑 − 𝑏 2 = 𝑎𝑟 − 𝑎𝑟 2 2 + 𝑎𝑟 2 − 𝑎 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 − 𝑎𝑟 2
= 𝑎2 𝑟 2 1 − 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 𝑟 2 − 1 2 + 𝑎2 𝑟2 𝑟 2 − 1 2
= 𝑎2 𝑟 2 1 − 2𝑟 + 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 4 − 2𝑟 2 + 1 + 𝑟 2 𝑟 4 − 2𝑟 2 + 1
= 𝑎2 𝑟 2 − 2𝑟 3 + 𝑟 4 + 𝑟 4 − 2𝑟 2 + 1 + 𝑟 6 − 2𝑟 4 + 𝑟 2
= 𝑎2 𝑟 6 − 2𝑟 3 + 1 = 𝑎2 𝑟3 − 1 2
Now 𝐑. 𝐇. 𝐒 = 𝑎 − 𝑑 2 = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 3 2 = 𝑎2 1 − 𝑟 3 1 2 = 𝑎2 𝑟3 − 1 2
Thus 𝐑. 𝐇. 𝐒 = 𝐋. 𝐇. 𝐒
𝑎𝑏 −𝑐𝑑 𝑎 +𝑐
ii) =
𝑏 2 −𝑐 2 𝑏
𝑎𝑏 −𝑐𝑑 𝑎 .𝑎𝑟 −𝑎 𝑟 2 .𝑎𝑟 3 1−𝑟 4 1−𝑟 4
= = =
𝑏 2 −𝑐 2 𝑎 2𝑟 2 − 𝑎 𝑟 2 2 𝑟 2 −𝑟 4 𝑟 1−𝑟 2
1−𝑟 2 1+𝑟 2 1+𝑟 2
= =
𝑟 1−𝑟 2 𝑟
𝑎 +𝑐 𝑎+𝑎𝑟 2 1+𝑟 2
Now 𝑏
= 𝑎𝑟
= 𝑟
Thus 𝐑. 𝐇. 𝐒 = 𝐋. 𝐇. 𝐒

Task
If 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 , 𝑑 are in a G.P, show that
1 1 1
i) 𝑎 2 𝑏2 𝑐 2 𝑎2
+ 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 = 𝑎 3 + 𝑏3 + 𝑐 3
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 2 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
ii) 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2
= 𝑎−𝑏+𝑐
iii) 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑑 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2
iv) 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 , 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 , are in a G.P

1 1 1
4. If 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 form an A.P, 𝑏 , 𝑐 , 𝑎 form a G.P, show that , , form an A.P.
𝑐 𝑎 𝑏

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Solution
If 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 form an A.P, then
𝑏 − 𝑎 = 𝑐 − 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 2𝑏 ………………………………….. (1)
𝑏 , 𝑐 , 𝑎 , form a G.P if;
𝑐 𝑎
= 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑐 2 ………………………………..…………………… (2)
𝑏 𝑐
1 1 1
Now for , , to be in an A.P, then
𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
1 1 1 1 2 1 1
− = − ⇒ = +
𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
2 1 1
Generating = + from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Eqn. (1) ÷ eqn. (2)
𝑎+𝑐 2𝑏
⇒ 𝑎𝑏
= 𝑐2
But 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑐 2 ,
1 𝑐 2𝑏 2 1 1
⇒ 𝑏 + 𝑐 2 = 𝑎𝑏 ∴ 𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑐
5. If 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 are in A.P, 𝑎 , 𝑥 , 𝑏 and 𝑏 , 𝑦 , 𝑐 are in a G.P, show that 𝑥 2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑦 2 are in
an A.P.
Solution
𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 are in an A.P if;
𝑏 − 𝑎 = 𝑐 − 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 2𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑐 ……………………………… (1)
𝑎 , 𝑥 , 𝑏 are in a G.P if;
𝑥 𝑏
= 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 = 𝑎𝑏 ………………………………………………… (2)
𝑎
𝑏 , 𝑦 , 𝑐 are in a G.P if;
𝑦 𝑐
= 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 2 = 𝑏𝑐 …………………………….…………………… (3)
𝑏
Now 𝑥 2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑦 2 are in an A.P if;
𝑏2 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 2 − 𝑏2 𝑜𝑟 2𝑏2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ……………… (4)
Generating eqn. (4) from the other three equations
Now eqn. (2) + eqn. (3)
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑐
From eqn. (1), 2𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑐
∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2𝑏2 , which is eqn. (4). Hence 𝑥 2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑦 2 are in an A.P.

Task
1 1 1
1. If 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 are in G.P, prove that 𝑎 +𝑏 , 2𝑏 , 𝑏+𝑐 are in an A.P.
𝑎+𝑏 2
2. If 𝑏 , 𝑎 , 𝑐 are in an A.P and 𝑐 , 𝑏 , 𝑎 are in a G.P, show that =𝑐
𝑏2

Combination of A.P and G.P questions

1) Three numbers are in an A.P and their sum is 21, if 1 , 5 , 15 be added to them
respectively, they form a G.P. find the numbers.
Solution
Let the 3 numbers in an A.P be 𝑎 − 𝑑 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 + 𝑑
Given: 𝑎 − 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 21 ∴ 𝑎 = 7
Also: 𝑎 − 𝑑 + 1 , 𝑎 + 5 , 𝑎 + 𝑑 + 15 are in a G.P
𝑎+5 𝑎+𝑑+15
⇒ = , but 𝑎 = 7
𝑎−𝑑+1 𝑎 +5
7+5 7+𝑑+15
⇒ 7−𝑑+1 = 7+5

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12 22+𝑑
⇒ 8−𝑑 = 12
𝑜𝑟 144 = 8 − 𝑑 22 + 𝑑 = 176 + 8𝑑 − 22𝑑 − 𝑑2
⇒ 𝑑2 + 14𝑑 − 32 = 0
⇒ 𝑑2 + 16𝑑 − 2𝑑 − 32 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑑 − 2 𝑑 + 16 = 0
∴ 𝑑 = 2 , −16
Thus for 𝑎 = 7 , 𝑑 = 2, the numbers are: 6 , 12 , 24
For 𝑎 = 7 , 𝑑 = −16, the numbers are: 6 , 12 , 24
2) The sequence of three numbers 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 is an A.P whose sum is 18. If 𝑎 and 𝑏
are each increased by 4 and 𝑐 increased by 36, the new numbers form a G.P.
find 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐.
Solution
𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 are in an A.P if;
𝑏 − 𝑎 = 𝑐 − 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 2𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑐 ………………………………… (1)
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 18 ……………………………………….………..……… (2)
Given: 𝑎 + 4 , 𝑏 + 4 , 𝑐 + 36 are in a G.P if;
𝑏+4 𝑐+36
= ⇒ 𝑏+4 2
= 𝑎 + 4 𝑐 + 36 ……………… (3)
𝑎 +4 𝑏+4
Solving the equations simultaneously
Eqn. (1) in to eqn. (2)
⇒ 𝑏 + 2𝑏 = 18 , 𝑏 = 6
Put 𝑏 = 6 in to eqn. (1) and (3)
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 12 ……………………………………………………………. (4)
⇒ 100 = 𝑎 + 4 𝑐 + 36 …………………………….………….. (5)
From eqn. (4) 𝑎 = 12 − 𝑐……………………………………………. (6)
Eqn. (6) in to (5)
⇒ 100 = 12 − 𝑐 + 4 𝑐 + 36 = 16 − 𝑐 𝑐 + 36
⇒ 100 = −𝑐 2 − 20𝑐 + 576
∴ 𝑐 2 + 20𝑐 + 476 = 0 ∴ 𝑐 = 14 , −34
From eqn. (6), 𝑎 = 12 − 𝑐
For 𝑐 = 14 , 𝑎 = 12 − 14 = −2
For 𝑐 = −34 , 𝑎 = 12 + 34 = 46
Hence numbers are:−2 , 6 , 14 𝑜𝑟 46 , 6 , −34
3) The 1𝑠𝑡 , 10𝑡𝑕 𝑎𝑛𝑑 28𝑡𝑕 terms of an A.P are three successive terms of a G.P. find
the common ratio of a G.P. given that the sum of the first 28 terms of an A.P is
210, find its first term.
Solution
Given: 𝑎1 = 𝑎 , 𝑎10 = 𝑎 + 9𝑑 , 𝑎28 = 𝑎 + 27𝑑
Now 𝑎 , 𝑎 + 9𝑑 , 𝑎 + 27𝑑 are in a G.P
𝑎+9𝑑 𝑎 +27𝑑
⇒ 𝑎
= 𝑎 +9𝑑
…………………………………………………… (1)
Let the three consecutive terms of a G.P be: 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 2
Note: the first term of an A.P is equal to the first term of a G.P
⇒ 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎 + 9𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑟 − 𝑎 = 9𝑑 ………………………… (2)
⇒ 𝑎𝑟 2 = 𝑎 + 27𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑟 2 − 𝑎 = 27𝑑 ……………….. (3)
28
Given: 𝑆28 = 2
2𝑎 + 27𝑑 = 210
⇒ 2𝑎 + 27𝑑 = 15 ………………………………………………... (4)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3
𝑎𝑟 −𝑎 𝑟 −1 1
⇒ 𝑎𝑟 2 −𝑎 = 𝑟 2 −1 = 3

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𝑟 −1 1
⇒ 𝑟+1 𝑟−1
= 3 𝑜𝑟 3 = 𝑟 + 1 ∴ 𝑟 = 2
Substitute 𝑟 = 2 in to eqn. (2)
⇒ 2𝑎 − 𝑎 = 9𝑑 ∴ 𝑎 = 9𝑑 ……………………………………. (5)
eqn. (5) in to eqn. (4)
15 1
⇒ 2 9𝑑 + 27𝑑 = 15 ∴ 𝑑 = =
45 3
1
∴ 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 9𝑑 = 9 × 3 = 3
4) The sum of the first three terms of two series: one an A.P and the other a G.P
2
is the same. If the first term of each of these is and the common difference
3
of an A.P is equal to the common ratio of the G.P, find the sum of each series
to 2o terms.
Solution
3
In an A.P, 𝑆3 = 2 2𝑎 + 2𝑑 = 3𝑎 + 3𝑑
𝑎 1−𝑟 3 𝑎 1−𝑟 1+𝑟+𝑟 2
In a G.P, 𝑆3 = = = 𝑎 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟2
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
2
Given: 𝑎 = ,𝑟 = 𝑑
3
⇒ 3𝑎 + 3𝑑 = 𝑎 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 2
2 2
⇒ 3 × 3 + 3𝑟 = 3 1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 2 𝑜𝑟 6 + 9𝑟 = 2 + 2𝑟 + 2𝑟 2
⇒ 2𝑟 2 − 7𝑟 − 4 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝑟 + 1 𝑟 − 4 = 0
1
∴ 𝑟 = 4,−2
Now when 𝑟 = 𝑑 = 4, for an A.P,
20 2 1
𝑆20 = 2 × 3 + 19 × 4 = 773 3
2
2
4 20 −1 2
For a G.P, 𝑆20 = 3 = 9 420 − 1
4−1
1
Also when 𝑟 = 𝑑 = − , for an A.P
2
20 2 1 245
𝑆20 = 2 × 3 + 19 × − 2 = −
2 3
2 1 20
1− − 1 2 20 −1
3 2
For a G.P, 𝑆20 = 1 =9
1− − 2 18
2
5) Find three numbers 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 between 2 and 18 such that their sum is 25, the
numbers 2 , 𝑎 , 𝑏 are consecutive terms of an A.P and the numbers 𝑏 , 𝑐 , 18 are
the consecutive terms of a G.P.
Solution
Given: 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 18 ……………………………………….………..……… (1)
2 , 𝑎 , 𝑏 form an A.P
⇒ 𝑎 − 2 = 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 2𝑎 = 𝑏 + 2 ………………………………………… (2)
Also 𝑏 , 𝑐 , 18 form a G.P
𝑐 18
⇒𝑏= 𝑐
𝑜𝑟 𝑐 2 = 18𝑏 ……………………………………………………….. (3)
Solving the equations simultaneously
Eqn. (3) in to eqn. (2)
𝑐2
⇒ 2𝑎 = + 2 𝑜𝑟 36𝑎 = 𝑐 2 + 36 ……………………………………….. (4)
18
Eliminating b from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
From eqn. (2), 𝑏 = 2𝑎 − 2
Substituting In equation (1)
⇒ 𝑎 + 2𝑎 − 2 + 𝑐 = 25

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⇒ 3𝑎 + 𝑐 = 27 …………………………………………………………………. (5)
From eqn. (5), 𝑐 = 27 − 3𝑎
Substituting In equation (4)
⇒ 36𝑎 = 27 − 3𝑎 2 + 36
⇒ 36𝑎 = 9 9 − 𝑎 2 + 36 ……………………………… ÷ 9
⇒ 4𝑎 = 81 − 18𝑎 + 𝑎2 + 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑎2 − 22𝑎 + 85 = 0
⇒ 𝑎 − 5 𝑎 − 17 = 0 ∴ 𝑎 = 5 , 17
From 𝑐 = 27 − 3𝑎
For 𝑎 = 5 , 𝑐 = 27 − 15 = 12
For 𝑎 = 17 , 𝑐 = 27 − 51 = −24 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
Thus 𝑎 = 5 , 𝑐 = 12 are used to fond b.
𝑐2
From eqn. (3), 𝑏 = 18 , for 𝑐 = 12
144
⇒𝑏= =8
18
∴ 𝑎 = 5 , 𝑏 = 8 . 𝑐 = 12
Hence the numbers are: 5 , 8 , 12
6) Three integers form an increasing G.P. if the third is decreased by 16 an A.P
is formed. If the second number is decreased by 2, a G.P is formed. Find the
numbers.
Solution
Let the integers be: 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 2
Decreasing the 3𝑟𝑑 number by 16 gives 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 2 − 16 are in an A.P
⇒ 𝑎𝑟 − 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟 2 − 16 − 𝑎𝑟
⇒ 2𝑎𝑟 − 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟 2 − 16 ………………………………………….. (1)
Decreasing the 2𝑛𝑑 number by 2 from the new set of numbers give 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 −
2 , 𝑎𝑟 2 − 16 are in a G.P
𝑎𝑟 −2 𝑎 𝑟 2 −16
⇒ 𝑎
= 𝑎𝑟 −2
⇒ 𝑎𝑟 − 2 2 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑟 2 − 16 𝑜𝑟 𝑎2 𝑟 2 − 4𝑎𝑟 + 4 = 𝑎2 𝑟2 − 16𝑎
⇒ −4𝑎𝑟 + 4 = −16𝑎 𝑜𝑟 4 = 𝑎 4𝑟 − 16
1
∴ 𝑎 = 𝑟−4 …………………………………………………………………. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (1)
1 1 1
⇒2 𝑟− = × 𝑟 2 − 16
𝑟−4 𝑟−4 𝑟−4
2𝑟−1 𝑟 2 −16𝑟+64
⇒ 𝑟 −4
= 𝑟 −4
𝑜𝑟 2𝑟 − 1 = 𝑟 2 − 16𝑟 + 64
2
⇒ 𝑟 − 18𝑟 + 64 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 − 5 𝑟 − 13 = 0
∴ 𝑟 = 5 , 13
1
From eqn. (2), 𝑎 = 𝑟−4
For 𝑟 = 5 , 𝑎 = 1
1
For 𝑟 = 13 , 𝑎 =
9
Thus the numbers are formed by 𝑎 = 1 , 𝑟 = 5 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 1 , 5 , 25

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Task
1. The 2𝑛𝑑 , 4𝑡𝑕 and 8𝑡𝑕 terms of an A.P series are in a G.P series. The sum of the
3𝑟𝑑 and 5𝑡𝑕 terms is 20. Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the progression.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 525

2. An arithmetic series and geometric series have r as the common difference

and the common ratio respectively. The first term of the arithmetic series is 1
and the first term of the geometric series is 2. If the 4𝑡𝑕 term of the arithmetic
series is equal to the sum of the third and fourth terms of the geometric
series, find three possible values of r when 𝑟 < 1, find in the form 𝑝 + 𝑞 2 the
−𝟕𝟎+𝟒𝟓 𝟐
sum of the first 10 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of the arithmetic series. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑:
𝟐

3. A G.P and an A.P have the same first term. The sums of their first, second
and third terms are 6 , 10 , 10.5 and 18 respectively. Calculate the sum of their
fifth terms. 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟓
𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻:
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝐴. 𝑃: 𝑎 = 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 , 𝑎2 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 , 𝑎3 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑 , 𝑎5 = 𝑎 + 4𝑑
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐺. 𝑃: 𝑎 = 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚, , 𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎3 = 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎5 = 𝑎𝑟 4
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑎 + 𝑎 = 6 ∴ 𝑎 = 3 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . 1
⟹ 𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝑎𝑟 = 10.5 ∴ 3 + 𝑑 + 3𝑟 = 10.5 … … … … … … … 2
⟹ 𝑎 + 2𝑑 + 𝑎𝑟 2 = 18 ∴ 3 + 2𝑑 + 3𝑟 2 = ⋯ . … … … … . … 3
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠; 3 + 6𝑟 − 3𝑟 2 = 3 ∴ 2𝑟 − 𝑟 2 = 0
∴ 𝑟 = 0,𝑟 = 2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑑 = 10.5 − 3 − 6 = 1.5 ∴ 𝑑 = 1.5
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑎5 = 𝑎 + 4𝑑 + 𝑎𝑟 4 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
∴ 3 + 4 × 1.5 + 3 × 24 = 57

4. The 2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 , 5𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 11𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of an A.P are in a G.P. if the 11𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 is
4, find the difference between the sums of the 8 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of each
progressions.
Solution
Given: 𝑎2 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 , 𝑎5 = 𝑎 + 4𝑑 , 𝑎11 = 𝑎 + 10𝑑 = 4 are in a G.P;
Let 𝑎 = 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑎+4𝑑 𝑎+10𝑑
⟹ 𝑎+𝑑
= 𝑎+4𝑑
= 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
⟹ 𝑎 + 4𝑑 2 = 𝑎 + 10𝑑 𝑎 + 𝑑 ……………………………………. (1)
Also 𝑎 + 10𝑑 = 4 ……………………………………………………….. (2)
Solving eqn. (2) and eqn. (1)
⟹ 4 − 10𝑑 + 4𝑑 2 = 4 4 − 10𝑑 𝑜𝑟 4 2 − 3𝑑 2 = 4 4 − 10𝑑
⟹ 4 − 12𝑑 + 9𝑑2 = 4 − 9𝑑 ∴ 9𝑑2 − 3𝑑 = 0
1
∴ 𝑑 = 0,3
1 10 2
From eqn. (2) and for 𝑑 = 3 , 𝑎 = 4 − 3
=3
8 2 1 11 44
For an A.P, 𝑆8 = 2× +7× = 4× =
2 3 3 3 3
2 4
𝑎+4𝑑 +
Now the common ratio, 𝑟 = = 3 3
2 1 =2
𝑎+𝑑 +
3 3

Now the G.P is; 𝑎 + 𝑑 , 𝑎 + 4𝑑 , 𝑎 + 10𝑑

2 1
1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 3 + 3 = 1

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𝑎 𝑟 𝑛 −1
Using 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑟−1
2 8 −1
⟹ 𝑆8 = = 255
2−1
44 721
∴ 𝑆8 𝐺.𝑃 − 𝑆8 𝐴.𝑃 = 255 = =
3 3
5. If 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 are in a G.P, show that 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 , 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 , 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 are in an A.P.

TO FIND THE SUM TO INFINITY OF A G.P WHOSE COMMON RATIO IS

LESS THAN ONE
Let 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 … … … … … … … … . . 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 be a G.P with 𝑟 < 1
𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛 𝑎 𝑎 𝑟𝑛
Sum of 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 is 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
= 1−𝑟 − 1−𝑟
Since 𝑟 < 1, then 𝑟 2 < 𝑟, 𝑟 < 𝑟 2 … … … … … … … … . 𝑟 𝑛 < 𝑟 𝑛−1
3

As the power of r goes on increasing, the corresponding term in a G.P

decrease in value. So assuming that n becomes indefinitely large, 𝑟 𝑛
becomes indefinitely small. 1. 𝑒. 𝑟 𝑛 ⟶ 0
𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛 𝑎 𝑎 𝑟𝑛
Thus from 𝑆𝑛 = = 1−𝑟 − 1−𝑟
1−𝑟
As 𝑛 ⟶ ∞, 𝑟 𝑛 ⟶ 0
𝒂
∴ 𝑺∞ = 𝟏−𝒓 , where 𝑟 < 1 𝑜𝑟 − 1 < 𝑟 < 1

This is the sum to infinity. 𝑖. 𝑒. the limiting value to which the sum
approaches/tends to.
𝑎
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ … … … … … … … … … . . = 1−𝑟 = 𝑺∞

Examples
1. Express the recurring decimals to fraction form in lowest term.
a) 0.17
b) 0.07
c) 1. 45
Solution
a) 0.17 = 0.17777 … … … … ..
0.17 = 0.1 + 0.07 + 0.007 + 0.0007 + ⋯ … … …
1 7 7 7
= + + + + ⋯ … … … … … ….
10 100 1000 10000
1 7 7 7
= 10 + + 1000 + 10000 + ⋯ … … … … … … .
100
7 1
The bracketed series is a G.P with first term as and common ratio as
100 10
7
7 7 7 100 7
⟹ + + + ⋯ … … … … … … . = 𝑺∞ = 1 =
100 1000 10000 1− 90
10
1 7 8
∴ 0.17 = + =
10 90 45
b) 0.07 = 0.07777 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . ..
= 0.07 + 0.007 + 0.0007 + ⋯ … … … … … …
7
7 7 7 100 7
= + + + ⋯ … … … … … . . … … . . = 𝑺∞ = 1 =
100 1000 10000 1− 90
10
7
∴ 0.07 =
90
c) 1. 45 = 1.45454545 … … … … … … … … … … … … … ..
= 1 + 0.45 + 0.0045 + 0.00045 + ⋯ … … … ..

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45 45 45
=1+ 100
+ 10000 + 1000000 + ⋯ … … … … … . .
45
100 45 16
=1+ 1 = +1=
1− 99 11
100
16
∴ 1. 45 = 11
2. a) Find the first term of a G.P whose sum to infinite terms is 8 and the
second term is 2
b) The sum of infinite terms of a G.P is 15 and the sum of their squares is
45. Find the series.
Solution
a
a) Given: S∞ = 8 = 1−r , ar = 2
Dividing the equations
a
8 1
= 1−r
= r−r 2 or 4r − 4r 2 = 1 ∴ 4r 2 − 4r + 1 = 0
2 ar
1
∴r=
2
st 2 2
∴ 1 term = a = r = 1 =4
2
b) Let a , ar , ar , ar … … … … … … … … .. be the G.P with r < 1
2 3
a
Given: S∞ = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 … … … … … … … … . = 1−r = 15 ………………. (1)
Sum to infinity of squares = 45
𝑎2
⟹ 𝑆∞ = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 𝑟 4 + 𝑎2 𝑟6 … … . … … … … . = 1−𝑟 2 = 45 ………………. (2)
From eqn. (1), 𝑎 = 15 1 − 𝑟 , substituting in eqn. (2)
15 1−𝑟 2 225 1−𝑟 2
⟹ = 45 𝑜𝑟 = 45
1−𝑟 2 1+𝑟 1−𝑟
225 1−𝑟 2
⟹ = 45 ∴ 5 − 5𝑟 = 1 + 𝑟 ∴ 𝑟 =
1+𝑟 3
2
But 𝑎 = 15 1 − 𝑟 ⟹ 𝑎 = 15 1 − =5
3
10 20 40
Thus the series is 5 + + + 27 + ⋯ … … … … … … …
3 9
3. The second term of a G.P is 24 and its sum to infinity is 100. Find two
possible values of the common ratio and the corresponding first terms.
Solution
Given: 𝑎𝑟 = 24…………………………………………………..…………… (1)
𝑎
𝑆∞ = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 … … … … … … … … . = 1−𝑟 = 100
∴ 𝑎 = 100 − 100𝑟 ………………………………………………………..….. (2)
Eqn. (2) in to eqn. (1) to eliminate a
100 − 100𝑟 𝑟 = 24 𝑜𝑟 25𝑟 − 25𝑟 2 − 6 = 0
∴ 25𝑟 2 − 25𝑟 + 6 = 0
25± 25 2 −4×25×6 25±5
⟹𝑟= 2×25
= 50
3 2
∴ 𝑟 = 5 ,5
3 24
From eqn. (1), for 𝑟 = 5 , 𝑎 = 3 = 40
5
2 24
For 𝑟 = 5 , 𝑎 = 2 = 60
5
3 2
∴ , 40 ; , 60
5 5

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4. The sum of infinite terms of a G.P is 4 and the sum of their cubes is 192. Find
the series.
Solution
Let the series be: 𝑎 , 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 … … … … … … … … ..
Cubing gives 𝑎3 , 𝑎3 𝑟 3 , 𝑎3 𝑟 6 , 𝑎3 𝑟 9 … … … … … … … … ..
𝑎3
Given: 𝑆∞ = 𝑎3 + 𝑎3 𝑟 3 + 𝑎3 𝑟6 + 𝑎3 𝑟9 … … … … … … = = 192
1−𝑟 3
𝑎3 𝑎3
= = 192 ………………………………………..…………………….….
1−𝑟 3 1−𝑟 1+𝑟+𝑟 2
(1)
𝑎
Also 𝑆∞ = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 … … … … … … … … … … … . = =4
1−𝑟
𝑎
= 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 4 1 − 𝑟 …………………………………………… (2)
1−𝑟
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (1)
4 1−𝑟 3
⟹ = 192
1−𝑟 1+𝑟+𝑟 2
64 1−𝑟 3 1−𝑟 2
⟹ = 192 𝑜𝑟 =3
1−𝑟 1+𝑟+𝑟 2 1+𝑟+𝑟 2
2 2
⟹ 1 − 2𝑟 + 𝑟 = 3 + 3𝑟 + 3𝑟
∴ 2𝑟 2 + 5𝑟 + 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝑟 + 1 𝑟 + 1 = 0
1
∴ 𝑟 = − 2 , −1 , rejecting 𝑟 = −1 since 𝑟 < 1
1 1
For 𝑟 = − 2 , 𝑎 = 4 − 4 × − 2 = 6
3 3
∴ The series is 6 , −3 , 2 , − 4 … … … … … … … … … ..

Task
1. Show that there are two possible G.Ps, in each of which the first term is 8,
and the sum of three terms is 14. Find the sum to infinity in each.
2. The sum infinity of a G.P with positive common ratio is 9 and the sum of the
first two terms is 5. Find the first four terms of the G.P.
𝟒 𝟖
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟑 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟗
4
3. Show that there are two G.P’s in which the second term is − 3 and the sum of
28
the first 3 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚s is . Show that one of these progressions converges to a
9
sum of 3.
4. If 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑎 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ … … … … … … … … . +∞ , 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑏 + 𝑏2 + ⋯ … … … … … … . +∞,
𝑥𝑦
prove that if 𝑎 < 1 and 𝑏 < 1 then 1 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + ⋯ … … … … … . =
𝑥+𝑦−1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 19
5. Show that the sum of the series + + + + + + + ⋯ … . 𝑡𝑜 ∞ =
2 32 23 34 25 36 27 24
6. a) If 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 , … … … … … … … … … … . . 𝑆𝑛 are sums of infinite G.P series whose
first terms are 1 , 2 , 3 … … … … … … … … , 𝑛 and the common ratios are
1 1 1 1 𝑛 𝑛+3
, , ,………, respectively. Show that𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 + ⋯ … … … + 𝑆𝑛 =
2 3 4 𝑛+1 2
b) If 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆 are sums of 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠, 2𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 and to infinity of a G.P
respectively, show that 𝑆1 𝑆1 − 𝑆 = 𝑆 𝑆1 − 𝑆2
Solution
𝑎
a) 𝑆∞ = 1−𝑟
1 2 3 𝑛
𝑆1 = 1 = 2 , 𝑆2 = 1 = 3 , 𝑆3 = 1 = 4 , 𝑆𝑛 = 1 =𝑛+1
1− 1− 1− 1−
2 3 4 𝑛 +1

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𝐋. 𝐇. 𝐒: 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 + ⋯ … … … … … … … + 𝑆𝑛 = 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ … … … + 𝑛 + 1
This is an A.P with 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 2 , 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 1 and 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑛 +
1
𝑁
Using 𝑆𝑁 = 2
1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 + 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 . Finding N, using
𝑎 𝑁 −𝐴
Using 𝑎𝑁 = 𝐴 + 𝑁 − 1 𝐷 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = 𝐷
+1
𝑛+1−2
⟹𝑁= +1 =𝑛
1
𝑛 𝑛
∴ 𝑆𝑛 = 2+𝑛+1 = 𝑛+3
2 2
b) Given: 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆1 , 𝑆2𝑛 = 𝑆2 , 𝑆∞ = 𝑆3 ; let 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎, 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑟
𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛
Using 𝑆𝑛 = = 𝑆1 ……………………………………….. (1)
1−𝑟
𝑎 1−𝑟 2𝑛
𝑆2𝑛 = = 𝑆2 ………………………………………… (2)
1−𝑟
𝑎
𝑆∞ = 1−𝑟 = 𝑆 …………………………………………………. (3)
𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛 𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛 𝑎
Now 𝑆1 𝑆1 − 𝑆 = − 1−𝑟
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
𝑎 2 1−𝑟 𝑛 −𝑎 2 𝑟 𝑛 1−𝑟 𝑛
= 2
1 − 𝑟𝑛 − 1 = 2
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
𝑎 2 𝑟 𝑛 𝑟 𝑛 −1
∴ 𝑆1 𝑆1 − 𝑆 =
1−𝑟 2
𝑎 𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛 𝑎 1−𝑟 2𝑛
Also 𝑆 𝑆1 − 𝑆2 = 1−𝑟 −
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
𝑎2 𝑛 2𝑛
= 2
1−𝑟 −1+𝑟
1−𝑟
𝑎2 𝑎 2 𝑟 𝑛 𝑟 𝑛 −1
∴ 𝑆 𝑆1 − 𝑆2 = 2
𝑟 2𝑛 − 𝑟 𝑛 = 2
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
𝑎 2 𝑟 𝑛 𝑟 𝑛 −1
∴ 𝑆1 𝑆1 − 𝑆 = 𝑆 𝑆1 − 𝑆2 = 2
1−𝑟

1 1 1
5. Find the sum to infinity of the G.P 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯ … … … … … … .. and show that
1
is S denotes 𝑆∞ and 𝑆𝑛 denotes sum of 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 then 𝑆 − 𝑆𝑛 < 1000 if 𝑛 ≥ 11.
Solution
1 𝑛
1 𝑎 1−𝑟 𝑛 1−
2
𝑆= 1 = 2 , 𝑆𝑛 = = 1
1− 1−𝑟 1−
2 2
1 1 1
Now 𝑆 − 𝑆𝑛 < 1000 ⟹ 2 − 2 1 − 2𝑛 < 1000
2 1
⟹ 2𝑛 < 1000 𝑜𝑟 2𝑛−1 < 10−3
Introducing logarithms
⟹ log 2𝑛−1 < log 10−3
⟹ 1 − 𝑛 log 2 < −3 log 10
3
⟹ 1 − 𝑛 < − log 2
3
∴ 𝑛 > 1 + log 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 > 10.96578425
∴ 𝑛 ≥ 11

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PROOF BY INDUCTION
Proof by induction is a mathematical technique that uses reasoning that if
“proposition 𝑃𝑛 ” is true for a particular value of n, say 𝑛 = 1 then it must be
true for the next value of 𝑛. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑛 = 2, and now if it is true for 𝑛 = 2, then it
must be also true for 𝑛 = 3 and hence true for all positive integral values of
n.
Characteristics of positive integral values (Natural numbers)

Axiom of Induction:
If T is a set of natural numbers with properties;
i) 1 ∈ 𝑇 and
ii) 𝑘 ∈ 𝑇 implies 𝑘 + 1 ∈ 𝑇
, then T is a set of Natural numbers N.
Note:
Both conditions must be satisfied for the Axiom of induction to hold.
Illustration
Consider 𝑇 = 1 , 2 , 3
Clearly1 ∈ 𝑇, but is not true that 𝑘 + 1 ∈ 𝑇 every time 𝑘 ∈ 𝑇 𝑒. 𝑔 3 ∈ 𝑇
but 4 ∉ 𝑇. Thus 𝑇 ≠ 𝑁
Also let 𝑇 = 10 , 11 , 12 , … … … . .
Clearly if𝑘 ∈ 𝑇, then 𝑘 + 1 ∈ 𝑇 but 1 ∉ 𝑇. Thus again 𝑇 ≠ 𝑁
Now let 𝑇 = 1 , 2 , 3 , … … … . . . Both 1 , 𝑘 , 𝑘 + 1 ∈ 𝑇, hence 𝑇 = 𝑁.

Statement of Principle of Proof by Induction

For every 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, let 𝑃𝑛 be a statement which is either true

of false. If
i) 𝑃1 is true and
ii) Whenever this statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘, it is
true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, then 𝑃𝑛 is true for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁
In general, to apply the statement of proof by induction, two things must be
done.
i) First verify that 𝑃1 is true and
ii) Verify that 𝑃𝑘+1 is true whenever 𝑃𝑘 is true.
Examples
Prove by induction that
a) 𝑛 3 + 2𝑛 is divisible by 3
b) 𝑛 3 − 𝑛 is divisible by 6
c) 32𝑛 − 1 is a multiple of 8
d) 9𝑛 − 1 is a multiple of 8
e) 8𝑛 − 7𝑛 + 6 is divisible by 7
Solution
a) Let 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑛 3 + 2𝑛
Verify that 𝑃1 is true
⇒ 𝑃1 = 13 + 2 1 = 3 , which is divisible by 3 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑃1 = 3 1

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Verify that whenever 𝑃𝑛 is true for a natural number, say 𝑛 = 𝑘, then it is

true for the next natural number 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. To this you must assume that
𝑃𝑘 is true for some𝑘 ∈ 𝑁. This assumption is the induction hypothesis.
Assume 𝑃𝑘 is true . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑘 3 + 2𝑘 is divisible by 3.
Next show that𝑃𝑘 implies 𝑃𝑘+1 . 𝑖. 𝑒. . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑘 + 1 3 + 2 𝑘 + 1 is divisible by 3.
𝑘 + 1 3 + 2 𝑘 + 1 = 𝑘 3 + 3𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 1 + 2𝑘 + 2
= 𝑘 3 + 2𝑘 + 3𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 3
= 𝑃 𝑘 + 3 𝑘2 + 𝑘 + 1
Since 𝑃 𝑘 is divisible by 3 and 3 𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 1 is also divisible by 3, 𝑃 𝑘 + 1 is
divisible by 3. Thus both conditions of principle of proof by induction are
satisfied. You must conclude that𝑛 3 + 2𝑛 is divisible by 3 for𝑛 ∈ 𝑁.

NOTE:
The symbol 𝑃 𝑘 in the working stand for "𝑘 3 + 2𝑘”. Don‟t confuse it with the
symbol 𝑃𝑘 which stands for the sentence “𝑘 3 + 2𝑘 is divisible by 3”.
Similarly 𝑃 𝑘 + 1 stands for " 𝑘 + 1 3 + 2 𝑘 + 1 ”
b) Let 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑛 3 − 𝑛
For 𝑛 = 1 , 𝑃1 = 13 − 1 = 0 = 6 0 . Hence it is divisible by 6
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 , let 𝑃𝑘 be true . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑘 3 − 𝑘 is divisible by 6.
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 , 𝑃𝑘+1 must also be true . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑘 + 1 3 − 𝑘 + 1 is divisible by
6
But 𝑘 + 1 3 − 𝑘 + 1 = 𝑘 3 + 3𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 1 − 𝑘 − 1
= 𝑘 3 − 𝑘 + 3𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 = 𝑃 𝑘 + 3 𝑘 2 + 𝑘
Since 𝑃 𝑘 is divisible by 6 and 3 𝑘 2 + 𝑘 is divisible by 6 for any k≥ 1 and
𝑘 ∈ 𝑁 then 𝑃 𝑘 + 1 is divisible by 6. Hence 𝑛 3 − 𝑛 is divisible by 6for𝑛 ∈ 𝑁.
c) Let 𝑃𝑛 = 32𝑛 − 1
For 𝑛 = 1, 𝑃1 = 32 1 − 1 = 8 = 8 1 . Hence 𝑃1 is true.
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 , let 𝑃𝑘 be true . 𝑖. 𝑒. 32𝑘 − 1 be a multiple of 8.
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 , 𝑃𝑘+1 must also be true . 𝑖. 𝑒. 32 𝑘+1 − 1a multiple of 8.
But 32 𝑘+1 − 1 = 32𝑘+2 − 1 = 32𝑘 . 32 − 1 = 9. 32𝑘 − 1
1 1
= 9 32𝑘 − = 9 32𝑘 − 1 + 1 −
9 9
2𝑘
8 2𝑘
= 9 3 − 1 + = 9 3 − 1 + 8 = 9. 𝑃 𝑘 + 8
9
Since 9. 𝑃 𝑘 is a multiple of 8 and 8 is a multiple of 8, then𝑃 𝑘 + 1 is a
multiple of 8. Thus 32𝑛 − 1 is a multiple of 8 for 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁.
d) Let 𝑃𝑛 = 9𝑛 − 1 be a multiple of 8.
For 𝑛 = 1, 𝑃1 = 9 − 1 = 8 = 8 1 ,hence 𝑃1 is true.
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 , let 𝑃𝑘 be true . 𝑖. 𝑒. 9𝑘 − 1 be a multiple of 8.
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 , 𝑃𝑘+1 must also be true . 𝑖. 𝑒. 9𝑘+1 − 1a multiple of 8
But 9𝑘+1 − 1 = 9𝑘 . 9 − 1 = 9. 9𝑘 − 1 + 1 − 1
= 9 9𝑘 − 1 + 9 − 1 = 9. 𝑃 𝑘 + 8
Since 9. 𝑃 𝑘 is a multiple of 8 and 8 is a multiple of 8, then𝑃 𝑘 + 1 is a
multiple of 8. Thus 9𝑛 − 1 is a multiple of 8 for𝑛 ∈ 𝑁.
e) Let 𝑃𝑛 = 8𝑛 − 7𝑛 + 6
For 𝑛 = 1, 𝑃1 = 81 − 7.1 + 6 = 7 = 7 1 , hence 𝑃1 is true.
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 , let 𝑃𝑘 be true . 𝑖. 𝑒. 8𝑘 − 7𝑘 + 6 be divisible by 7.

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Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 , 𝑃𝑘+1 must also be true . 𝑖. 𝑒. 8𝑘+1 − 7 𝑘 + 1 + 6 be divisible

by 7
But 8𝑘+1 − 7 𝑘 + 1 + 6 = 8𝑘 . 8 − 7𝑘 − 7 + 6 = 8𝑘 . 8 − 7𝑘 − 1
= 8 8𝑘 − 7𝑘 + 6 + 7𝑘 − 6 − 7𝑘 − 1
= 8 8𝑘 − 7𝑘 + 6 + 8 7𝑘 − 48 − 1 = 8. 𝑃 𝑘 + 7 𝑘 − 7
Since 8. 𝑃 𝑘 is divisible by 7 and 7 𝑘 − 7 is divisible by 7, then 𝑃 𝑘 + 1 is
divisible by 7. Thus 8𝑛 − 7𝑛 + 6 is divisible by 7 for 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁

Task
Prove by induction that for positive integer of n,
i) 𝑛 3 + 3𝑛 2 − 10𝑛 is divisible by 3
ii) 7𝑛 − 4𝑛 + 1𝑛 is divisible by 6
iii) 10𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 9
iv) 7𝑛 − 3𝑛 is a multiple of 4
v) 102𝑛−1 + 1 is divisible by 11
vi) 32𝑛 + 7 is a multiple of 8
vii) 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 𝑛 + 2 is a multiple of 6
viii) 24𝑛−1 − 1 is a multiple of 15
ix) 𝑛 3 + 6𝑛 2 + 8𝑛 is divisible by 3

Extension of Proof by Induction Principle

Suppose that for some proposition 𝑃𝑛 where n is a positive integer and that
𝑃1 is false/meaningless but true for 𝑃𝑘 ⇒ 𝑃𝑘+1 , clearly 𝑃𝑛 cannot be proved
for all positive integral values of n. however, provided that there is some
positive integer m such that 𝑃𝑚 is true, then the induction 𝑃𝑛 holds for all
integral values of n greater than or equal to m.

Examples
Prove by induction that2𝑛 + 32𝑛−3 for 𝑛 ≥ 2 is always divisible by 7.
Solution
Let 𝑃𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 32𝑛−3
For 𝑛 = 2 , 𝑃2 = 22 + 32×2−3 = 7, hence proof holds for 𝑛 = 2
Now for = 𝑘 , let𝑃𝑘 be true i. 𝑒. 2𝑘 + 32𝑘−3 be divisible by 7
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, 𝑃𝑘+1 must be true𝑖. 𝑒. 2𝑘+1 + 32 𝑘+1 −3 is divisible by 7.
But 2𝑘+1 + 32 𝑘+1 −3 = 2𝑘 . 2 + 32𝑘−1
3 2𝑘
= 2𝑘 . 2 + 32𝑘 . 3−1 = 2𝑘 . 2 + 3
3 2𝑘 3 2𝑘
= 2 2𝑘 + 32𝑘−3 − 32𝑘−3 + = 2 2𝑘 + 32𝑘−3 − 2. 32𝑘−3 +
3 3
𝑘 2𝑘−3 2𝑘 −3 3 2𝑘 𝑘 2𝑘−3 3 2𝑘 3 2𝑘
=2 2 +3 − 2. 3 . 3 + = 2 2 +3 − 2. +
3 27 3
2 1
= 2 2𝑘 + 32𝑘−3 + 32𝑘 − +
27 3
7
= 2 2𝑘 + 32𝑘−3 + 32𝑘 . 27 = 2 2𝑘 + 32𝑘−3 + 7. 32𝑘−3
∴ 2𝑘+1 + 32𝑘−1 = 2𝑃 𝑘 + 7 32𝑘−3
Since2𝑃 𝑘 is divisible by 7 and 7 32𝑘−3 is also divisible by 7, then2𝑛 + 32𝑛−3
is divisible by 7 for 𝑛 ≥ 2.

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Proof by Induction of a finite series

Here a formula of 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of a sum of finite series and a general
term 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of the series must be known to prove by induction.

Examples
1. Prove by induction that
𝑛 𝑛 +1
a) 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ … … … … … … . +𝑛 =
2
1 1 1 1 𝑛
b) 1×2
+ 2×3 + 3×4 + ⋯ … … … … . . + 𝑛 𝑛 +1
= 𝑛+1
𝑛 𝑛 +1 2𝑛+1
c) 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ … … … … … … . +𝑛 2 =
6
1 1 1 1 2 𝑛 −1
d) 2
+ 22 + 23 + ⋯ … … … … … … … + 2𝑛 = 2𝑛
Solution
𝑛 𝑛+1
a) Let 𝑃𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ … … … … … … . +𝑛 =
2
1 1+1
For 𝑛 = 1 , 𝑃1 = 1 = = 1, thus 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆. Hence 𝑃1 holds.
2
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘
𝑘 𝑘 +1
Let 𝑃𝑘 be true. 𝑖. 𝑒. 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ … … … … … … . +𝑘 =
2
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, 𝑃𝑘+1 must be true . 𝑖. 𝑒
𝐋𝐇𝐒 = +2 + 3 + ⋯ … … … … … … . +𝑘 + 𝑘 + 1
𝑘 𝑘+1
𝐑𝐇𝐒 = +𝑘+1
2
NOTE: On LHS of 𝑃𝑘+1 , 𝑘 + 1 has been added, hence this proof is done by
adding the general term of the series after replacing 𝑛 by 𝑘 + 1 on either side
of 𝑃𝑘 .
𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘
∴ 𝐑𝐇𝐒 = 2
+𝑘+1= 𝑘+1 2
+1
𝑘 +1 𝑘+2 𝑘 +1 𝑘+1 +1
= =
2 2
Hence proof holds for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. Since the proof holds for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘
and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, then it is true for all integral values of n.
1 1 1 1 𝑛
b) 1×2
+ 2×3 + 3×4 + ⋯ … … … … . . + 𝑛 𝑛 +1
= 𝑛+1
1 1 1 1 𝑛
Let 𝑃𝑛 = 1×2 + 2×3 + 3×4 + ⋯ … … … … . . + 𝑛 𝑛+1
= 𝑛+1
1 1 1
For 𝑛 = 1 , 𝑃1 = 1×2 = 1+1 = 2. Hence 𝑃1 is true.
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘
1 1 1 1 𝑘
Let 𝑃𝑘 be true. 𝑖. 𝑒. + + + ⋯…………..+ =
1×2 2×3 3×4 𝑘 𝑘 +1 𝑘 +1
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, 𝑃𝑘+1 must be true . 𝑖. 𝑒
1 1 1 1 1 𝑘 1
1×2
+ 2×3 + 3×4 + ⋯ … … … . + 𝑘 𝑘 +1
+𝑘 𝑘 +1 𝑘+1+1
= 𝑘+1 + 𝑘 𝑘 +1 𝑘+1+1
1
=
𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘+2
1 1
= 𝑘 +1
𝑘 + 𝑘+2
1 𝑘 2 +2𝑘+1 1 𝑘 +1 2 𝑘+1 𝑘+1
= 𝑘 +1 𝑘+2
= 𝑘 +1
. 𝑘 +2
= 𝑘+2 = 𝑘 +1 +1
Hence proof holds for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
Note:
1
LHS and RHS for 𝑃𝑘+1 has been increased by 𝑛 𝑛+1
for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 .

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1 1
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘+1+1
=𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘+2
Since proof holds for 𝑛 = 1 , 𝑘 , 𝑘 + 1, the proof holds for all integral values of
n.
𝑛 𝑛+1 2𝑛+1
c) Let 𝑃𝑛 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ … … … … … … . +𝑛 2 = 6
1 1+1 2×1+1
For 𝑛 = 1 , 𝑃1 = 12 = 1 = 6
= 1. Hence 𝑃1 is true.
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘
𝑘 𝑘 +1 2𝑘+1
Let 𝑃𝑘 be true. 𝑖. 𝑒. 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ … … … … … … . +𝑘 2 =
6
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, 𝑃𝑘+1 must be true . 𝑖. 𝑒
𝑘 𝑘+1 2𝑘+1
12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ … … … … … … . +𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 1 2
= + 𝑘+1 2
6
𝑘 +1
= 𝑘 2𝑘 + 1 + 6 𝑘 + 1
6
𝑘 +1
= 6
2𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 6𝑘 + 6
𝑘 +1 2𝑘 2 +7𝑘+6 𝑘+1 2𝑘 2 +3𝑘+4𝑘+6
= =
6 6
𝑘 +1 2𝑘+3 𝑘+2
= 6
𝑘 +1 𝑘+1 +1 2 𝑘+1 +1
= , hence proof holds.
6
Since the proof holds for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, then it is true for all
integral values of n
1 1 1 1 2 𝑛 −1
d) Let 𝑃𝑛 = 2 + 22 + 23 + ⋯ … … … … … … … + 2𝑛 = 2𝑛
1 2 1 −1 1
For 𝑛 = 1 , 𝑃1 = 2 = = 2.Hence 𝑃1 is true.
21
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘
1 1 1 1 2 𝑘 −1
Let 𝑃𝑘 be true. 𝑖. 𝑒. 2 + 22 + 23 + ⋯ … … … … … … … + 2𝑘 =
2𝑘
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, 𝑃𝑘+1 must be true . 𝑖. 𝑒
1 1 1 1 1 2 𝑘 −1 1
2
+ 22 + 23 + ⋯ … … … … … … … + 2𝑘 + 2𝑘 +1 = 2𝑘
+ 2𝑘 +1
1 2 𝑘 −1 1
= 2𝑘 +1 + 1 = 2𝑘 +1 2 2𝑘 − 1 + 1
2 −1
1 2 𝑘 +1 −1
= 2𝑘+1 − 1 = , hence proof holds.
2 𝑘 +1 2 𝑘 +1
Since the proof holds for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, then it is true for all
integral values of n
2. Prove by induction that
1 3 2𝑛+1
a) 𝑛
𝑟=2 𝑟 2 −1 = −
4 2𝑛 𝑛+1
1
b) 𝑛
𝑟=1 𝑟 𝑟+1 = 𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛+2
3
𝑟 𝑛+2
c) 𝑛
𝑟=1 2 𝑟 = 2− 2𝑛
3 𝑛 −1
d) 𝑛
𝑟=1 3
𝑟−1
= 2
Solution
1 3 2𝑛+1
a) 𝑛
𝑟=2 𝑟 2 −1 = − ;𝑟 = 2 ,3 ,4 ,……………..,𝑛
4 2𝑛 𝑛+1
Generating the series;
1 1 1 1
⇒ + + + ⋯………….+
2 2 −1 3 2 −1 4 2 −1 𝑛 2 −1
1 1 1 1 3 2𝑛+1
⇒ 3 + 8 + 15 + ⋯ … … … … … … . . + 𝑛 2 −1 = 4 − 2𝑛 𝑛+1
1 1 1 1 3 2𝑛+1
Let 𝑃𝑛 = 3 + 8 + 15 + ⋯ … … … … … … . . + 𝑛 2 −1 = 4 − 2𝑛 𝑛+1

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1 3 2.2+1 3 5 1
For 𝑛 = 2 , 𝑃2 = 3 = 4 − 2.2 2+1
= 4 − 12 = 3. Hence 𝑃2 is true.
1 1 1 1 3 2𝑘+1
For 𝑛 = 𝑘 , let 𝑃𝑘 be true . 𝑖. 𝑒. 3 + 8 + 15 + ⋯ … … … … … … . . + 𝑘 2 −1 = 4 − 2𝑘 𝑘 +1
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, 𝑃𝑘+1 must be true . 𝑖. 𝑒
1 1 1 1 1 3 2𝑘+1 1
3
+ 8 + 15 + ⋯ … … … … … … . . + 𝑘 2 −1 + 𝑘 +1 2 −1
= 4 − 2𝑘 𝑘 +1
+ 𝑘+1 2 −1
3 1 2𝑘+1 3 1 2𝑘+1
=4+ 𝑘+1 2 −1 2𝑘 𝑘 +1
− =4+𝑘 𝑘+2
− 2𝑘 𝑘 +1
3 2 𝑘+1 − 2𝑘+1 𝑘+2
=4+ 2𝑘 𝑘 +1 𝑘+2
3 2𝑘+2− 2𝑘 2 +4𝑘+𝑘+2 3 2𝑘 2 +3𝑘
=4+ 2𝑘 𝑘 +1 𝑘+2
= 4 − 2𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘+2
3 𝑘 2𝑘 +3 3 2 𝑘 +1 +1
= − = −
4 2𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘+2 4 2𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘 +1 +1
Hence 𝑃𝑘+1 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. Thus since proof holds for 𝑛 = 2 , 𝑘 , 𝑘 + 1,
then it holds for all 𝑛 ≥ 2
1
b) 𝑛
𝑟=1 𝑟 𝑟 + 1 = 3 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 𝑛 + 2 ; 𝑟 = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4, … … … … … … … , 𝑛
Generating the series;
⇒ 1. 1 + 1 + 2. 2 + 1 + 3. 3 + 1 + ⋯ … … … . . +𝑛 𝑛 + 1
1
= 3𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛+2
1
⇒ 2 + 6 + 12 + ⋯ … … … … … . +𝑛 𝑛 + 1 = 3 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 𝑛 + 2
1
Let 𝑃𝑛 = 2 + 6 + 12 + ⋯ … … … … … . +𝑛 𝑛 + 1 = 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 𝑛 + 2
3
1
For = 1 , 𝑃1 = 2 = 3 . 1. 1 + 1 1 + 2 = 2. Hence 𝑃2 is true.
For 𝑛 = 𝑘 , let proof be true . 𝑖. 𝑒. 2 + 6 + 12 + ⋯ … … … … … . +𝑘 𝑘 + 1 =
1
3
𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘+2
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, 𝑃𝑘+1 must be true . 𝑖. 𝑒
2 + 6 + 12 + ⋯ … … . +𝑘 𝑘 + 1 + 𝑘 + 1 𝑘 + 2
1
= 𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘+2 + 𝑘+1 𝑘+2
3
𝑘 𝑘 +1 𝑘+2 𝑘+3 𝑘+1 𝑘 +1 +1 𝑘+1 +2
= 𝑘+1 𝑘+2 +3 = =
3 3 3
Hence 𝑃𝑘+1 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. Thus since proof holds for 𝑛 = 2 , 𝑘 , 𝑘 + 1,
then it holds for all integral values of n.
𝑟 𝑛+2
c) 𝑛
𝑟=1 2 𝑟 = 2− ; 𝑟 = 1 , 2 , 3, … … … … … … . . , 𝑛
2𝑛
Generating the series;
1 2 3 𝑛 𝑛+2
⇒ 21 + 22 + 23 + ⋯ … … … … … + 2𝑛 = 2 −
2𝑛
1 2 3 𝑛 𝑛 +2
Let 𝑃𝑛 = 2 + 22 + 23 + ⋯ … … … … … + 2𝑛 = 2 − 2𝑛
1 1+2 1
For 𝑛 = 1 , 𝑃1 = 2 = 2 − 21
= 2. Hence 𝑃1 is true.
1 2 3 𝑘 𝑘+2
For 𝑛 = 𝑘 , let the proof be true . 𝑖. 𝑒. + + + ⋯……………+ =2−
2 22 23 2𝑘 2𝑘
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, 𝑃𝑘+1 must be true . 𝑖. 𝑒
1 2 3 𝑘 𝑘 +1 𝑘+2 𝑘 +1
⇒ 2 + 22 + 23 + ⋯ … … … … … + 2𝑘 + 2𝑘 +1 = 2 − 2𝑘
+ 2𝑘 +1
𝑘 +1 𝑘+2 1 𝑘+1
= 2 + 2𝑘 +1 − 2𝑘
= 2 + 2𝑘 2
−𝑘+2
1 𝑘 +3
=2+ −𝑘 − 3 = 2 −
2 𝑘 +1 2 𝑘 +1
𝑘 +1 +2
=2−
2 𝑘 +1

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Hence 𝑃𝑘+1 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. Thus since proof holds for 𝑛 = 2 , 𝑘 , 𝑘 + 1,

then it holds for all integral values of n.
3 𝑛 −1
d) 𝑛
𝑟=1 3
𝑟−1
= ; 𝑟 = 1 , 2 , 3, … … … … … … . . , 𝑛
2
Generating the series;
3 𝑛 −1
⇒ 31−1 + 32−1 + 33−1 + ⋯ … … … … … + 3𝑛−1 =
2
3 𝑛 −1
Let 𝑃𝑛 = 1 + 3 + 32 + ⋯ … … … … … + 3𝑛−1 = 2
3 1 −1
For 𝑛 = 1 , 𝑃1 = 1 = 2
= 1. Hence 𝑃1 is true.
3 𝑘 −1
For 𝑛 = 𝑘 , let the proof be true . 𝑖. 𝑒. 1 + 3 + 32 + ⋯ … … … … … + 3𝑘−1 = 2
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, 𝑃𝑘+1 must be true . 𝑖. 𝑒
3 𝑘 −1
⇒ 1 + 3 + 32 + ⋯ … … … … … + 3𝑘−1 + 3𝑘+1−1 = + 3𝑘+1−1
2
3 𝑘 −1 3 𝑘 +2.3 𝑘 −1
= + 3𝑘 =
2 2
3.3 𝑘 −1 3 𝑘 +1 −1
= =
2 2
Hence 𝑃𝑘+1 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. Thus since proof holds for 𝑛 = 2 , 𝑘 , 𝑘 + 1,
then it holds for all integral values of n.
Task
1. Prove by induction that
1
a) 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … … … … … . +𝑛 3 = 𝑛 2 𝑛 + 1 2
4
1 1 1 1
b) 𝑛
𝑟=1 𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑟+2 = 4−2 +2
𝑛+1 𝑛+2
1
c) 𝑛
𝑟=1 𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑟+4 = 4𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛+4 𝑛+5
1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1
d) + 2.5 + 3.6 + ⋯ … … … … … … + 𝑛 = 18 − 3 + 𝑛+2 + 𝑛 +3
1.4 𝑛+3 𝑛+1
1 1 1 1 𝑛
e) + 3.5 + 5.7 + ⋯ … … … … … . . + = 2𝑛+1
1.3 2𝑛−1 2𝑛+1
1
f) 𝑛
𝑟=1 𝑟 𝑟+3 = 3𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛+5
1
g) 𝑛
𝑟=1 2𝑟 2𝑟 − 1 = 3 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 4𝑛 − 1
𝑑
2. Prove that 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛
for all positive integral values of n.
𝑛−1

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
3. Show that + = and prove by induction that
𝑟 𝑟−1 𝑟
𝑛 𝑟
1 + 𝑥 𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + ⋯ … … . . + 𝑥 + ⋯ … … … … + 𝑥𝑛
𝑟
1 𝑛 𝑛 +3
4. 𝑛
𝑟=1 𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑟+2 = 4 𝑛+1 𝑛+2

SUMMATION OF A FINITE SERIES

There are various standard results that can be used to find the sum of finite
series.
The two formulae of sums of A.P‟s and G. P‟s are:
1) The sum of n-terms of the A.P with first term 𝑎 and common difference 𝑑 is:

𝟏
𝑺𝒏 = 𝒏 𝟐𝒂 + 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒅
𝟐

2) The sum of 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 of a G.P with first term 𝑎 and common ratio 𝑟 is:

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𝒂 𝟏−𝒓𝒏
𝑺𝒏 = 𝟏−𝒓
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 < 1

The standard series are usually given as:

𝒏 𝟏
i) 𝟏 + 𝟐 + 𝟑 + ⋯ … … … . +𝒏 = 𝒓𝒓 = 𝒏 𝒏+ 𝟏
𝟐
𝟏
ii) 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟐 + ⋯ … . +𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏 𝟐
𝒓𝒓 = 𝒏 𝒏 + 𝟏 𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏
𝟔
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝒏 𝟑 𝟏
iii) 𝟏 + 𝟐 + 𝟑 + ⋯ … . +𝒏 = 𝒓𝒓 = 𝟒 𝒏𝟐 𝒏 + 𝟏 𝟐
= 𝒏 𝟐
𝒓𝒓

The standard series above can be used in summation of finite number of

terms.

Examples
1. Find the sum of the series:
a) 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ … … … … … . . . + 2𝑛 + 1
b) 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ … … … … … + 𝑛 − 1 2

c) 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … … … . . . + 2𝑛 3
Solution

NOTE: in all the above series, the last term is not a general term for 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁.
The series exercise the form of a standard series, hence the result of
standard series will hold for the last term.
a) 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ … … … … … . . . + 2𝑛 + 1
1
Using 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ … . +𝑁 = 𝑁 𝑁+1
2
⇒ 𝑁 = 2𝑛 + 1
1
∴ 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ … … … … … . . . + 2𝑛 + 1 = 2 2𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 + 1 + 1
= 2𝑛 + 1 𝑛 + 1
b) 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ … … … … … + 𝑛 − 1 2
1
Using 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ … … … … … + 𝑁 2 = 6 𝑁 𝑁 + 1 2𝑁 + 1
Taking 𝑁 = 𝑛 − 1
𝑛 −1 𝑛−1+1 2 𝑛−1 +1 𝑛 𝑛𝑛 −1 2𝑛−1
⇒ 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ … … … … + 𝑛 − 1 2
= =
6 6
c) 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … … … . . . + 2𝑛 3

𝑁 2 𝑁+1 2
Using 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … … … … + 𝑁 3 =
4
Taking 𝑁 = 2𝑛
2 2
2𝑛 2𝑛 +1
13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … … … … + 2𝑛 3
= = 𝑛 2 2𝑛 − 1 2
4
2. Find the sum of the series;
a) 13 + 33 + 53 + ⋯ … … … … … . . . + 2𝑛 + 1 3
b) 23 + 43 + 63 + ⋯ … … … … . . . + 2𝑛 3
c) 13 + 33 + 53 + ⋯ … … … … … . . . + 2𝑛 − 1 3
Solution
a) 13 + 33 + 53 + ⋯ … … … … … . . . + 2𝑛 + 1 3
(Summation of the cubes of odd terms of natural numbers)
𝑁 2 𝑁+1 2
Using 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … … … … + 𝑁 3 =
4
2 2
2𝑛+1 2𝑛+1 +1
Now 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … … + 2𝑛 3
+ 2𝑛 + 1 3
=
4

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= 2𝑛 + 1 2 𝑛 + 1 2
Finding the sum of the series; 23 + 43 + 63 + ⋯ … … … … … + 2𝑛 3
23 + 43 + 63 + ⋯ … … … … . . . + 2𝑛 3 = 23 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … + 𝑛 3
𝑛 2 𝑛+1 2
=8 = 2𝑛 2 𝑛 + 1 2
4
∴ 13 + 3 + 53 + ⋯ … . . . + 2𝑛 + 1 3 = 2𝑛 + 1 2 𝑛 + 1 2 − 2𝑛2 𝑛 + 1
3 2

= 𝑛 + 1 2 2𝑛 + 1 2 − 2𝑛 2
= 𝑛 + 1 2 4𝑛2 + 4𝑛 + 1 − 2𝑛 2 = 𝑛 + 1 2 2𝑛 2 + 4𝑛 + 1
b) 2 + 4 + 63 + ⋯ … . . . + 2𝑛 3 = 23 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … + 𝑛 3
3 3

𝑛 2 𝑛+1 2
=8 = 2𝑛 2 𝑛 + 1 2
4
c) 13 + 33 + 53 + ⋯ … … … … … . . . + 2𝑛 − 1 3
First summing the natural numbers to the 2𝑛 𝑡𝑕
term,
2𝑛 2 2𝑛+1 2
⟹ 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … … + 2𝑛 − 1 3
+ 2𝑛 3
= = 𝑛 2 2𝑛 + 1 2
4
Now summing the series 2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯ … … … … … + 2𝑛
3 3 3 3

23 + 43 + 63 + ⋯ … … … … . . . + 2𝑛 3 = 2𝑛 2 𝑛 + 1 2 𝑆𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒

Now subtracting the series,
⟹ 13 + 33 + 53 + ⋯ … … . . . + 2𝑛 − 1 3 = 𝑛 2 2𝑛 + 1 2 − 2𝑛 2 𝑛 + 1 2
= 𝑛 2 2𝑛 + 1 2 − 𝑛 + 1 2
= 𝑛 2 4𝑛2 + 4𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛 2 − 2𝑛 − 1
= 𝑛 2 2𝑛2 − 1
NOTE:
In this last example the series 13 + 33 + 53 + ⋯ … … . . . + 2𝑛 − 1 3 has the last
term as 2𝑛 − 1 3 and is the general term of the series for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁
Alternative summation of the series
𝑛

13 + 33 + 53 + ⋯ … … . . . + 2𝑛 − 1 3
= 2𝑟 − 1 3

𝑟 =1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

= 8𝑟 3 − 12𝑟 2 + 6𝑟 − 1 = 8 𝑟 3 − 12 𝑟2 + 6 𝑟− 1
𝑟=1 𝑟 =1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1
𝑛2 𝑛 + 1 2 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 + 1 𝑛 𝑛+1
=8 − 12 +6 −𝑛
4 6 2
= 2𝑛 2 𝑛 + 1 2 − 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 + 1 + 3𝑛 𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛
= 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 𝑛 + 1 − 2 2𝑛 + 1 + 3 − 𝑛
= 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 2𝑛2 + 2𝑛 − 4𝑛 − 2 + 3 − 𝑛
= 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 2𝑛2 − 2𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛
= 𝑛 2𝑛 3 − 2𝑛 2 + 𝑛 + 2𝑛 2 − 2𝑛 + 1 − 1
= 𝑛 2𝑛 3 − 𝑛 = 𝑛 2 2𝑛2 − 1
3. a) It can be proved by induction that for positive n,
𝑛 2 𝑛+1 2
13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … … + 𝑛 3 =
4
From this result deduce that
3 3 3 3 1
𝑛+1 + 𝑛+2 + 𝑛+3 + ⋯ … … … + 2𝑛 = 4 𝑛 2 3𝑛 + 1 5𝑛 + 3
b) Show that the sum of the series
2 2 2 2 1
𝑛+1 + 𝑛+2 + 𝑛+3 + ⋯ … … … + 2𝑛 = 𝑛 2𝑛 + 1 7𝑛 + 1
6
Solution
a) 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … … + 𝑛 3 + 𝑛 + 1 3
+ 𝑛+2 3
+ 𝑛+3 3
+ ⋯ . . … + 2𝑛 3

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2𝑛 2 2𝑛+1 2
= 4
= 𝑛 2 2𝑛2 + 1
𝑛 2 𝑛+1 2
Also 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ … … . … … … + 𝑛 3 = 4
Subtracting the series,
3 3 3 3 𝑛 2 𝑛 +1 2
𝑛+1 + 𝑛+2 + 𝑛+3 + ⋯ … … … + 2𝑛 = 𝑛 2 2𝑛2 + 1 −
4
1
= 𝑛 2 4 4𝑛2 − 4𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛2 + 2𝑛 + 1
4
1 1
= 𝑛 2 16𝑛2 + 16𝑛 + 4 − 𝑛 2 − 2𝑛 − 1 = 𝑛 2 15𝑛2 + 14𝑛 + 3
4 4
1 1
= 𝑛 2 15𝑛2 + 9𝑛 + 5𝑛 + 3 = 𝑛 2 3𝑛 5𝑛 + 3 + 5𝑛 + 3
4 4
1
= 𝑛 2 3𝑛 + 1 5𝑛 + 3
4
1
b) From 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ … … … … … + 𝑛 2 = 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 + 1
2 2 2
6
⟹ 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ … … + 𝑛 2 + 𝑛 + 1 2
+ 𝑛+2 2
+ 𝑛+3 2
+ ⋯ . . + 2𝑛 2
1 2𝑛 2𝑛+1 4𝑛+1
= 6 2𝑛 2𝑛 + 1 2 2𝑛 + 1 =
6
Subtracting the series,
𝑛+1 2 + 𝑛+2 2 + 𝑛+3 2
+ ⋯ … … … + 2𝑛 2
2𝑛 2𝑛+1 4𝑛+1 1 1
= − 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 + 1 = 𝑛 2𝑛 + 1 7𝑛 + 1
6 6 6
𝑛 2𝑛+1
= 2 4𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛 + 1
6
𝑛 2𝑛+1 1
= 8𝑛 + 2 − 𝑛 − 1 = 𝑛 2𝑛 + 1 7𝑛 + 1
6 6
4. Show that the sum of the series
1
3 + 6 + 11 + ⋯ … … … … … … + 𝑛2 + 2 = 6 𝑛 2𝑛 2 + 3𝑛 + 13
Solution
For this series, 𝑛 2 + 2 is the general term of the series for all𝑛 ∈ 𝑁
∴ 3 + 6 + 11 + ⋯ … … … … … … + 𝑛 2 + 2 = 𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 2 + 2 = 𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 2 + 𝑛𝑟=1 2
1
= 6 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 + 1 + 2𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
=6 𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 + 1 + 12 = 2𝑛 2 + 3𝑛 + 1 + 12
6
1
= 6 𝑛 2𝑛2 + 3𝑛 + 13
Task
1. Show that the sum of the series;
𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛 2 +𝑛+2
a) 2 + 10 + 30 + ⋯ … … … … … … … + 𝑛3 + 𝑛 = 4
𝑛 𝑛 +1 𝑛+2 3𝑛+1
b) 2 + 12 + 36 + ⋯ … … … … … … . . + 𝑛 3 + 𝑛 2 = 12
𝑛 𝑛 +1 𝑛−1
c) 2 + 6 + ⋯…………………………+ 𝑛 − 𝑛 = 2
3
𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛+5
d) 1.4 + 2.5 + 3.6 + ⋯ … … … … … . . +𝑛 𝑛 + 3 =
3
𝑛 6𝑛 2 +3𝑛−1
e) 2 2 2
2 + 5 + 8 + ⋯ … … … … . . . … … + 3𝑛 − 1 2
=
6
𝑛 𝑛 +1 4𝑛−1
f) 1.2 + 3.4 + 5.6 + ⋯ … … … … . … . . +2𝑛 2𝑛 − 1 = 3
𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛+2 3𝑛+12
g) 1.2.5 + 2.3.6 + 3.4.7 + ⋯ … … . . … + 𝑛 𝑛 + 1 𝑛 + 4 = 12
2. Find the sum of the series
a) 213 + 223 + 233 … … … … . … … … + 353
b) 13 + 33 + 53 + ⋯ … … … … … … . . . +253
c) 13 − 23 + 33 − 33 + ⋯ … … … . . . . + 2𝑛 − 1 3 − 2𝑛 3
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒂) 𝟑𝟓𝟐 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒃) 𝟓𝟔 𝟗𝟓𝟑 𝒄) − 𝒏 𝟒𝒏 + 𝟑

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INTEREST AND ANNUITIES

Simple and Compound Interest
When person A lends money to person B he makes a charge for the use of
his money. The amount of money lent is called Principal (P) and the charge
made for lending is called Interest (I). The sum of interest and principal is
the Amount or Total amount (A), which is the amount B will pay back to A
after any interval of time. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴 = 𝑃 + 𝐼
The Rate per cent per annum (R %) is the interest payable on principal for
one year.
Types of Interest
 Simple interest
 Compound interest
Simple Interest (S.I)
Simple Interest is the interest that is paid on the principal only.
S.I is paid on a given principal, and is the same after equal intervals of time.
The principal is always constant.
To find the Interest and Amount of a given sum in a given time at
Simple Interest
When money is put out at S.I, the interest is payable for each year, but is
not added to the principal.
Let P be the given principal and 𝑛 the number of years for which the
principal is lent, R the rate of interest per annum.
𝑅 𝑅
The interest of P for1 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝑃. and therefore for 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 is 𝑃. .𝑛
100 100
𝑅 𝑅
∴ Amount at the end of 1 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝐴1 = 𝑃 + 𝑃. 100 = 𝑃 1 + 100
𝑅
Since the principal is lent at S.I, the interest 𝑃. 100 will be added to the
amount at the end of each year.
Thus the amount at the end of 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 will be;
𝑅 𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝑅
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑃 1 + 100 + 100 + 100 + 100 + ⋯ … … … … … … … . + 100
𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝑅
= 𝑃 + 100 + 100 + 100 + ⋯ … … … … … … … . + 100

𝑛 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠

𝑃𝑅𝑛 𝑛𝑅
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑃 + 100 = 𝑃 1 + 100 , which is the amount at the end of n−𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.

𝒏𝑹
∴ 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, 𝑨𝒏 = 𝑷 𝟏 +
𝟏𝟎𝟎

, which is the formula for amount at the end of 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, where;

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙
𝑛 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚
Note:
1. The amount at the end of each year constitute a series in an A.P with a
𝑃𝑅
common difference 100
2. Simple interest can be paid at different intervals . 𝑖. 𝑒. monthly, quarterly,
half yearly or yearly.

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𝑛𝑅
3. In 𝐴 = 𝑃 1 + 100 , formulae contain four quantities . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑃 , 𝐴 , 𝑅 , 𝑛 and if three
are given, the fourth can be evaluated.
4. When working out the interest due on a sum of money for a period between
two specific dates, always take a year as containing 365 days.
5. For purposes of interest, the day a deposit is first made does not count.
However the day on which money is withdrawn does count. Thus if
someone deposits money on an account on 15𝑡𝑕 March and withdraws it
on17𝑡𝑕 April, he is not paid interest for 15𝑡𝑕 March but he is paid interest
for 17𝑡𝑕 April.

Examples
1. Find the simple interest on and the amount at simple interest of;
1 1
a) 𝑆𝑕. 8000 for 2 4 years at 8 5 % 𝑝. 𝑎.
3
b) 𝑆𝑕. 480 for 2 months at 3 % 𝑝. 𝑎.
4
Solution
𝑃.𝑅.𝑛
a) Simple Interest = ; 𝑃 = 8000 , 𝑅 = 8.2% , 𝑛 = 2.25 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
100
8000 ×8.2×2.25
= 100
= 1 476
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = 𝑃 + 𝐼 = 8000 + 1476 = 9 476 /=
20
b) 𝑃 = 480 , 𝑅 = 3.75% , 𝑛 = 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
12
20
480 ×3.75×
12
∴ 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = = 30
100
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = 30 + 480 = 510 /=
2. Calculate to the nearest shilling, the simple interest on;
a) 𝑆𝑕. 550 from 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑕 6 to 𝑀𝑎𝑦 6 at 11% 𝑝. 𝑎.
1
b) 𝑆𝑕. 990 from 𝐴𝑢𝑔𝑢𝑠𝑡 20 to 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 13 at 9 2 % 𝑝. 𝑎.
Solution
𝑃.𝑅.𝑛
a) Simple Interest = , 𝑃 = 550 , 𝑅 = 11% ,
100
61
𝑛 = 31 − 6 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 + 30 + 6 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 61 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 365 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝐴𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑙 = 30 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠, 𝑀𝑎𝑦 6 = 6 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠, 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑕 6 = 31 − 6 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
61
550 ×11×
365
∴ 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = = 10 /=
100
1
b) 𝑃 = 990 , 𝑅 = 9 2 % ,
115
𝑛 = 31 − 20 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 13 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 115𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 365 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
1 115
990×9 ×
2 365
∴ 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 100
= 30 /=
1
3. a) In what time will 𝑆𝑕. 3 200 amount to 𝑆𝑕. 4 188 at 9 2 % 𝑝. 𝑎. simple
interest?
b) A sum of money invested at 9% 𝑝. 𝑎. simple interest amounts after 3
years to 𝑠𝑕. 7 620. Find the sum invested.
Solution
1
a) Given: 𝑃 = 3 200, 𝐴 = 4 188, 𝑅 = 9 %, 𝑛 =?
2
𝑃.𝑅.𝑛 100 𝐼
From Simple Interest = ⟹𝑛=
100 𝑃.𝑅
But 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 − 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙

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∴ 𝐼 = 4188 − 3200 = 988

100 ×988 1
∴𝑛= 1 = 3 4 years
3200 ×9
2
b) Given: 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = 7 620 = 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 + 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑃.𝑅.𝑛 𝑃×9×3
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 100
= 100
27𝑃 127 𝑃
Now 7 620 = 𝑃 + 100 = 100
∴ 𝑃 = 6 000/=
Task
1. Find the un known quantities in the table below
Principal Interest Amount Time Rate % 𝒑. 𝒂.
𝑠𝑕. 650 𝑠𝑕. 156 ……………… 3 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 ………………
……………… 𝑠𝑕. 1 942.25 ……………… 1
1 4 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
1
94
𝑠𝑕. 8 450 ………………… 9 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑕𝑠 ………………
……………… 𝑠𝑕. 170.40 16 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑕𝑠 11 4
1

𝑠𝑕. 1 818 ………………… 𝑠𝑕. 1 908.90 …………… 1

83
ANSWER:
2
a) 𝑠𝑕. 806 ; 8% b) 𝑠𝑕. 16 800 ; 𝑠𝑕. 18 742.50 c) 𝑠𝑕. 549.25 ; 8 3 % d)
𝑠𝑕. 1 136 ; 𝑠𝑕. 1 306.40
e) 𝑠𝑕. 90.90 ; 219 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
3
2. Two men both invest the same sum, one at 9 4 % 𝑝. 𝑎. if the difference in the
interest they receive is 𝑠𝑕. 100 , what sum each man invested is.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒔𝒉. 𝟐𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎
1
3. Two men both invest 𝑠𝑕. 800 at 10% and 8 2 % 𝑝. 𝑎 respectively. What is the
difference in the interest they earn after 9 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑕𝑠?
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒔𝒉. 𝟗
4. A club of 320 members has to meet a bill of 𝑠𝑕. 9 500 in 5 months time. Each
1
member subscribes 𝑠𝑕. 30 and the money accumulates at 8 4 % 𝑝. 𝑎 simple
interest. What balance remains when the bill has been paid?
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒔𝒉. 𝟒𝟑𝟎
1 5
600 5 9600 ×8 ×
4 12
𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 = 30 × 320 = 9 ,𝑛 = ,𝐼 = = 330
= 12 100
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = 330 + 9600 = 𝑆𝑕. 9 930 ∴ 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 9930 − 9500 = 430/=
1
5. A sum of money amounts at simple interest to 𝑠𝑕. 819 in 2 years at 8 2 % 𝑝. 𝑎.
to what would it amount in 1 year 9 months at 8% 𝑝. 𝑎? 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒔𝒉. 𝟕𝟗𝟖
1
𝑃×8 ×2
2
𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑚 = 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙, 𝐴 = 𝑃 + 𝐼 , 𝐼 = 100
= 0.17𝑃
𝑁𝑜𝑤 819 = 𝑃 + 0.17𝑃 , 𝑃 = 700
1 9
700 ×8 ×1
2 12
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑡 8% 𝑝. 𝑎, 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡, 𝐴 = 700 + 100
= 798/=
2
6. Diana invests 5
of her capital at 15% 𝑝. 𝑎 and the remainder at 10% 𝑝. 𝑎 simple
interest. After 25 cents in the shillings has been deducted for tax, she
receives 𝑠𝑕. 720 interest each year. What is the size of her capital?
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒔𝒉. 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎

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7. A man borrows 𝑠𝑕. 5000 at 10 ½% 𝑝. 𝑎 payable yearly. After one year he pays
back 𝑠𝑕. 2500. How much will he need to clear his date completely at the end
of another one year? 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒔𝒉. 𝟑 𝟑𝟒𝟑
10.5
𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝑃 = 5000 , 𝑅 = 10.5%, 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 5000 + 100 × 5000 = 5 525
𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓𝑓 2500 = 5525 − 2500 = 3025
10.5
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 3025 + 3025 × 100 = 3 343 /=
8. Godfrey borrows 𝑠𝑕. 20 000 from a finance corporation and pays 10% interest
p.a on an amount still owing at the beginning of that year. After one year he
pays 𝑠𝑕. 5 000 back, 𝑠𝑕. 6 000 a year later and 𝑠𝑕. 7 000 at the end of the third
year. How much does he still need to clear the debt
completely? 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒔𝒉. 𝟔 𝟗𝟕𝟎
10
𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝑃 = 20 000 , 𝑅 = 10% 𝑝. 𝑎. 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 20000 + 100 × 20000 = 22 000;
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 5000 = 22 000 − 5 000 = 17 000
10
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 17000 + × 17000 = 18 700;
100
𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑕. 6000 = 18 700 − 6000 = 12 700/=
10
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 3𝑟𝑑 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 12 700 + 12 700 × 100 = 13 970/=
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑕. 7000 = 13 970 − 7000 = 6 970/=
𝑵𝑶𝑻𝑬: 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒.

COMPOUND INTEREST (C.I)

Compound interest is the interest calculated on the principal and the
accrued interest.
The interest unpaid is added to the principal and for the next period the
interest is computed. 𝑖. 𝑒. Compound interest is the interest on the growing
principal.
NOTE
1. Both principal and compound interest change from period to period since
the principal changes.
2. Interest earned on the principal is not withdrawn.
3. Compound interest can be computed annually, half yearly, quarterly or
monthly.
4. When a given amount is due after a specified period of time, its present
value (principal for the next period) is that sum together with the interest
for that period produces the given amount.

To find Interest and Amount of a given sum at Compound Interest

If the money is lent at compound interest the interest is added each year to
the principal and for the following year the interest is calculated on their
sum.
Let 𝑃 be the principal and 𝑛 the number or years for which the principal is
lent at 𝑟% per annum compound interest.
𝑃𝑟 𝑟
The amount at the end of one year will be = 𝑃 + = 𝑃 1+ = 𝑃𝑅
100 100
𝑟 𝑟
The amount at the end of two years will be = 𝑃𝑅 + 𝑃𝑅. 100 = 𝑃𝑅 1 + 100 =
𝑃𝑅2

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𝑟
The amount at the end of three years will be = 𝑃𝑅2 + 𝑃𝑅2 . 100 = 𝑃𝑅2 1 +
𝑟
= 𝑃𝑅3
100
Then arguing in this way, the amount at the end of n years will be= 𝑃𝑅𝑛
Thus the amount, 𝐴 at the end of 𝑛 years for principal 𝑃 lent at 𝑟% per
annum is
𝒓 𝒏
𝑨 = 𝑷 𝟏+ 𝐨𝐫 𝑨 = 𝑷𝑹𝒏
𝟏𝟎𝟎

, where 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚
𝑟
𝑅 = 1 + 100
Deduction 𝐴
From 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑅𝑛 , 𝑃 = 𝑅𝑛 this enables us to find the sum which will

produce amount A in n years.

𝑛 𝐴
Also 𝑅=
𝑃
, from which interest can be calculated.

𝐴 𝐴
Again from 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑃 , log 𝑅𝑛 = log
𝑃
⟹ 𝑛 log 𝑅 = log 𝐴 − log 𝑃 logA −logP , from which time taken
∴𝑛=
logR

for P to amount to A can be evaluated.

Note
The amount in each year constitute terms in a G.P with first term 𝑃𝑅 and
𝑟
common ratio 1 + 100
Examples
1. Find the compound interest on;
a) 𝑆𝑕. 10 000 for 2 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 at 10% 𝑝. 𝑎 paid annually
b) 𝑆𝑕. 6 000 for 3 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 at 10% 𝑝. 𝑎 paid annually
Solution
a) 𝑃 = 10 000, 𝑛 = 2 , 𝑟 = 10%
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡, 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 − 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙
𝑟 𝑛 10 2
𝐼 = 𝑃 1+ − 𝑃 = 10 000 1 + − 10 000 = 𝑆𝑕. 2 100
100 100
b) 𝑃 = 6 000, 𝑛 = 3 , 𝑟 = 10%
10 3
𝐴 = 6000 1 + = 7 986
100
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 7 986 − 6 000 = 𝑠𝑕. 1 986
2. Prove that in order that a sum of money may double itself in 10 years by
investment at compound interest payable annually, the interest should be
approximately 7.2 per cent per annum.
Solution
Let 𝑃 = 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟
𝑛 = 10 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜
𝐴 = 2𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓

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𝑟 = 𝑟% 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚
𝑟 𝑛
Using 𝐴 = 𝑃 1 + 100 ,
⟹ 2𝑃 = 𝑃 1 + 0.01𝑟 10 𝑜𝑟 2 = 1 + 0.01𝑟 10
Introducing logarithms
⟹ log 2 = log 1 + 0.01𝑟 10 = 10 log 1 + 0.01𝑟
log 2
⟹ = log 1 + 0.01𝑟
10
2 0.1 −1
⟹ 20.1 = 1 + 0.01𝑟 ∴ 𝑟 = ≈ 7.2%
0.01
3. How many years (correct to the nearest whole year) does it take a sum of
money to double in value if compound interest is paid at a rate of 9% 𝑝. 𝑎?
Solution
Let the sum be 𝑃 be invested for 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 to amount to 2𝑃 at a rate of
9% 𝑝. 𝑎
𝑟 𝑛
Using 𝐴 = 𝑃 1 + 100 ,
9 𝑛
⟹ 2𝑃 = 𝑃 1 + 100 𝑜𝑟 2 = 1.09𝑛
Introducing logarithms
⟹ log 2 = log 1.09𝑛 = 𝑛 log 1.09
log 2
⟹∴ 𝑛 = log 1.09 ≈ 8 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠

𝟏
To find Amount of a given sum for 𝒏 + 𝒎 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 at Compound Interest
In business transactions when the time contains a fraction of a year, allow
Simple Interest for the fraction of a year, and Compound Interest for the
whole years.
1
Let P be invested for 𝑛 + 𝑚 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 at a rate per cent per annum 𝑟%
Compound Interest.
1
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 , 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛_ 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 + 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
1
𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑛 + 𝑚 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐶. 𝐼
𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐶. 𝐼
Amount after 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 𝑃 1 + 𝑟 𝑛
= 𝑃𝑅𝑛
1
Now principal for 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 𝑃𝑅 𝑛
𝑚
1 1 𝑟
Interest for 𝑚
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 𝑃𝑅𝑛 × 𝑟 × 𝑚 = 𝑃𝑅𝑛 × 𝑚
𝑟 𝑟
Now Total Amount = 𝑃𝑅𝑛 + 𝑃𝑅𝑛 × 𝑚 = 𝑃𝑅𝑛 1 + 𝑚

𝒓
𝑨 = 𝑷𝑹𝒏 𝟏 +
𝒎
Example
1. Find Compound Interest on;
1
a) 𝑆𝑕. 6 000 for 2 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 at 10% 𝑝. 𝑎 paid annually
2
3
b) 𝑆𝑕. 8 000 for 1 4 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 at 7.5% 𝑝. 𝑎 paid annually
Solution
1 1
a) 𝑃 = 6 000 , 𝑛 = 2 , = , 𝑟 = 10% 𝑝. 𝑎.
𝑚 2
𝑟 10
Using 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑅 𝑛
1 + 𝑚 , 𝑅 = 1 + 𝑟 = 1 + 100 = 1.1

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1 10 1
Amount after 2 2 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 𝐴 = 6 000 × 1.1 2
× 1 + 100 × 2 = 7 623
Now 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 − 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙
= 7 623 − 6 000 = 𝑠𝑕. 1 623
1 3
b) 𝑃 = 8 000 , 𝑛 = 1 , = , 𝑟 = 7.5% 𝑝. 𝑎.
𝑚 4
3 7.5 1 7.5 3
Amount after 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 𝐴 = 8 000 × 1 + × 1+ × = 𝑆𝑕. 9 083.75
4 100 100 4
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 9 083.75 − 8 000 = 𝑆𝑕. 1 083.75
1
2. A person owes a merchant 𝑆𝑕. 5 702.27 to be paid at the end of 2 4 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 from
now. How much the merchant ought to accept now in order to clear off the
accounts taking the money to be worth 6% 𝑝. 𝑎 compound interest?
Solution
1 1
Let 𝑃 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 , 𝐴 = 𝑆𝑕. 5 702.27 , 𝑟 = 6% 𝑝. 𝑎, 𝑛 = 2 , 𝑚 = 4
𝑟 6
Using 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑅𝑛 1 + 𝑚 , 𝑅 = 1 + 𝑟 = 1 + 100
6 2 6 1
⟹ 5 702.27 = 𝑃 × 1 + 100 × 1 + 100 × 4
2
⟹ 5 702.27 = 𝑃 1.06 × 1.015
5 702 .27
∴𝑃= = 𝑆𝑕. 5 000
1.06 2 × 1.015
∴ The merchant has to accept now 𝑆𝑕. 5 000 in order to get 𝑆𝑕. 5 702.27
1
after 2 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 at a rate of 6% 𝑝. 𝑎 𝐶. 𝐼
4
Note
 The rate r% must be in per annum
1
 If the investment is for only n years, then = 0. Hence the formula
𝑚
𝑛
𝐴 =𝑃 1+𝑟
3. A sum of money is put out at compound interest amounts in 2 years
to 𝑅. 𝑠 2 809 and in 3 years to 𝑅. 𝑠 2 977.54. Find the rate of interest and the
original sum.
Solution
Amount for 2 years = 𝑅. 𝑠 2 809
Amount for 3 years = 𝑅. 𝑠 2 977.54
⟹ 𝐴 = 𝑃 1 + 𝑟 2 = 2 809 …………………………………………………… (1)
⟹ 𝐴 = 𝑃 1 + 𝑟 3 = 2 977.54 ………………………………………………… (2)
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑃 1+𝑟 2 2 809
⟹𝑃 1+𝑟 3
= 2 977.54
∴ 1 + 𝑟 = 1.06 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = 0.06
From eqn. (1)
𝑃 1 + 𝑟 2 = 2 809 ⟹ 𝑃 1 + 0.06 2
= 2 809
2 809
∴𝑃= 1.06 2
= 𝑅. 𝑠 2 500
4. A person wishes to divide Rs. 65 050 between his two sons who are 13 and
15 years old respectively in such a way that their shares if invested at 4%
compound interest should produce the same amount when they become 18
years of age. Find the share of each.
Solution
Let the share of the young son = 𝑅𝑠. 𝑥
∴ The share of the older son= 65 050 − 𝑥

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The young son has to go for 5 years and the elder son for 3 years to
become 18 years old.

Case I: younger son

𝑃 = 𝑥 , 𝑛 = 5 , 𝑟 = 4% , 𝐴 =?
𝐴 = 𝑥 1 + 0.04 5 = 𝑥. 1.04 5
Case II: Elder son
𝑃 = 65 050 − 𝑥 , 𝑛 = 3 , 𝑟 = 4% , 𝐴 =?
𝐴 = 65 050 − 𝑥 1 + 0.04 3 = 65 050 − 𝑥 . 1.04 3
Now the amounts must be the same
⟹ 𝑥. 1.04 5 = 65 050 − 𝑥 . 1.04 3
⟹ 𝑥. 1.04 2 = 65 050 − 𝑥
∴ 1.0816𝑥 = 65 050 ⟹= 𝑅𝑠. 31 250
∴ The share of the younger son is Rs. 31 250 and the share of the elder son
is 𝑅𝑠. 65 050 − 31 250 = 𝑅𝑠. 33 800

Find the sum if the difference between the simple interest and compound
interest on the sum is £30 at 9% 𝑝. 𝑎 for 3 years.
Solution
Let 𝑃 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 , 𝑟 = 9% 𝑝. 𝑎 , 𝑛 = 3 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑃×9×3
At Simple Interest, simple interest = = 0,27𝑃
100
At Compound Interest, compound interest = 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 − 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙
9 3
3
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃 1 + 100 − 𝑃 = 𝑃 1.09 −𝑃
= 0.295029𝑃
Now 0.295029𝑃 − 0.27𝑃 = 30 𝑜𝑟 0.025029𝑃 = 30
∴ 𝑃 = £ 1198.6
Task
1. Find the compound interest on;
1
a) 𝑆𝑕. 12 000 for 2 2 years at 10% 𝑝. 𝑎.
1
b) 𝑆𝑕. 10 000 for 1 4 years at 5% 𝑝. 𝑎.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑎) 𝑺𝒉. 𝟑 𝟐𝟒𝟔 𝑏) 𝑺𝒉. 𝟔𝟑𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
2. Find the compound interest on the sums, giving your answers to 3 significant
figures
a) 𝑆𝑕. 500 for 4 years at 10% 𝑝. 𝑎.
b) 𝑆𝑕. 18 765 for 4 years at 9% 𝑝. 𝑎.
c) 𝑆𝑕. 15 000 for 3 years at 20% 𝑝. 𝑎.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑎) 𝑺𝒉. 𝟐𝟑𝟐 𝑏) 𝑺𝒉. 𝟕 𝟔𝟗𝟎 c) 𝑺𝒉. 𝟏𝟎 𝟗𝟐𝟎
3. On a certain sum, the compound interest for 2 years is Sh.91.35 and the
simple interest is Sh. 90. Fond the sum and the rate of interest per annum.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑺𝒉. 𝟏 𝟓𝟎𝟎 , 𝟑%
4. A sum of money invested at compound interest, payable yearly, amounts to
Sh. 2 704 at the end of the second year and to Sh. 2 812.16 at the end of
the third year. Find the rate of interest and the sum.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑺𝒉. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎𝟎𝟎 , 𝟒%
5. A person deposited in a bank £ 1000 at 4% 𝑝. 𝑎 interest being added annually.
After 5 years the rate of interest was raised to 5% and after four more years,

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the rate was further increased to 6%. The money was withdrawn at the end
of 12 years. Find the amount.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑺𝒉. 𝟏 𝟕𝟔𝟏. 𝟒𝟎
6. A person has two sons aged 12 and 15 years respectively. He wants to
divide 𝑆𝑕. 51 783 between them and deposit the share of each separately in
the bank so that each gets the same amount when he is 18 years old. If the
bank pays compound interest at the rate of 5% 𝑝. 𝑎, what should be the share
of each?
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑺𝒉. 𝟐𝟒 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒚𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒐𝒏; 𝑺𝒉. 𝟐𝟕 𝟕𝟖𝟑 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒍𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒐𝒏

To find Amount on a sum (P) in given n-years, interest payable q-times

a year at a rate r% per annum
Suppose you deposit $ 1 000 in a savings and a loan that pays 8%
compounded semi annually, how much will the savings and the loan owe
you at the end of 2 years?
Solution
Compounded semi annually means „‟Interest is paid to your account at the
end of each 6 month period, and the interest will in turn earn interest‟‟
Annual rate 𝑟 = 8%
8
Semi annual rate= 2 = 4%
4
Now amount after 6 months = 1000 + 100 × 1000 = 1000 1 + 0.04
Principal for the next 6 months = 1000 1 + 0.04
4
Now amount for 1 year = 1000 1 + 0.04 + 1000 1 + 0.04 × 100
2
= 1000 1 + 0.04
Again amount for another 6 months
2 2 4 3
= 1000 1 + 0.04 + 1000 1 + 0.04 × 100 = 1000 1 + 0.04
4
This amount for 2 years = 1000 1 + 0.04 3
+ 1000 1 + 0.04 3
× 100
= 1000 1 + 0.04 4
Now the amount that would be expected at the end of 6 years will be
= 1000 1 + 0.04 12
In general,
“If the interest is payable 𝑞 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 a year and 𝑟 is the nominal rate, the
amount of 𝑃 in 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 or 𝑞. 𝑛 intervals is;

𝒓 𝒏.𝒒
𝑨 = 𝑷 𝟏+
𝒒

NOTE
1. Since the principal P represents the initial amount in the account and A
represents the amount in the account n-years later, P is called present
value of the account and A is called the future value of the account.
𝑟 1
2. 𝑟% 𝑝. 𝑎 is the annual rate/nominal rate and % 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 is the rate for
𝑞 𝑞 𝑡𝑕
compounding period/interval.
Example
1. Find how much Peter will have on the account at the end of 2 years if he
invests a sum of $ 100 in an account paying 8% 𝑝. 𝑎 interest compounded;
a) Annually

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b) Semi annually
c) Quarterly
d) Weekly
e) Daily
f) Hourly
Solution
𝒓 𝒏.𝒒
Using 𝑨 = 𝑷 𝟏 +
𝒒
Compounding frequency 𝒒 𝟎.𝟎𝟖 𝟐𝒒
𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 +
𝒒
Annually 1 $116.64
Semi annually 2 $116.9859
Quarterly 4 $117.1659
Weekly 52 $117.3367
Daily 365 $117.3490
Hourly 8 760 $117.3501

NOTE:
 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 12 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑕𝑠 = 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 52 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑠 = 8760 𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
1
 Semi annually = 2 × 12 = 6 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑕𝑠; Now in 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟, 𝑞 = 2
1
 Quarterly = 4 × 12 = 3 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑕𝑠; now in 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟, 𝑞 = 4
1
 Weekly = 7 × 365 ≈ 52 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑠 ∴ 𝑞 = 52
2. Find compound interest on;
1
a) 𝑆𝑕. 5 000 for 1 years at 5% 𝑝. 𝑎 compound interest is paid half yearly
2
b) 𝑆𝑕. 1 000 for 1 year at 10% 𝑝. 𝑎 compound interest is paid quarterly
1
c) 𝑆𝑕. 10 000 for 2 2 years at 15% 𝑝. 𝑎 compound interest is paid weekly
Solution
𝑟 𝑛.𝑞
Using 𝐴 = 𝑃 1 + 𝑞 ,𝐴 = 𝑃 +𝐼
1 3
a) 𝑃 = 5000 , 𝑞 = 2 , 𝑛 = 1 2 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 2 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 , 𝑟 = 5% = 0.05
3
0.05 ×2
2 3
𝐴 = 5000 1 + = 5000 1.025 = 𝑆𝑕. 5 384.45
2
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝐴 − 𝑃 = 5 384.45 − 5 000 = 𝑆𝑕. 384.45
b) 𝑃 = 1000 , 𝑞 = 4 , 𝑛 = 1 , 𝑟 = 10% = 0.1
0.1 4×1
𝐴 = 1000 1 + = 𝑆𝑕. 1 103.83
4
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 1 103.83 − 1 000 = 𝑆𝑕. 103.83
c) 𝑃 = 10 000 , 𝑞 = 52 , 𝑛 = 2 , 𝑟 = 15% = 0.15
0.15 52×2
𝐴 = 10000 1 + = 𝑆𝑕. 13 492.76
52
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 13 492.76 − 10 000 = 𝑆𝑕. 3 492.76

Task
1. Find the amount the principal 𝑆𝑕. 10 000 will accumulate at a rate of 5% 𝑝. 𝑎
compound interest for 2 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 if compound interest is paid;
i) Annually 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑺𝒉. 𝟏 𝟎𝟐𝟓
ii) Half yearly 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑺𝒉. 𝟏 𝟎𝟑𝟖. 𝟏𝟑
iii) Quarterly 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑺𝒉. 𝟏 𝟎𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟔

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2. How many years to the nearest year will it take a sum of money to double if
it is invested at 15% compounded annually.
𝑟 𝑛.𝑞
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟓 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔. 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐴 = 𝑃 1 +
𝑞
3. How many years to the nearest year will it take money to quadruple if it is
invested at 20% compounded annually. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟖 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔. 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐴 =
𝑟 𝑛.𝑞
𝑃 1+𝑞
4. If you deposit $5 000 in an account paying 9% compounded daily, how much
will you have in an account in 5 years. Compute your answer to the nearest
cent. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: $𝟕 𝟖𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟐

Other problems related to compound interest

Problems relating
 Depreciation
 Change of population growth
 Annuity calculations
, are majorly on the principle of compound interest.

DEPRECIATION
This happens when the value of a new item decreases with passage of time.
Depreciation can be expressed in terms of an annual percentage rate, so as
to calculate the decrease in value after a given period of time.
Let 𝑃 = price of a new commodity, which depreciates at 𝑟% 𝑝. 𝑎 for 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
The price after n-years will be calculated as below.
100−𝑟 𝑟
Value after 1 year = 𝑃 × = 𝑃 1 − 100
100
𝑟 100−𝑟 𝑟 2
Value after 2 years = 𝑃 1 − 100 × = 𝑃 1 − 100
100
𝑟 2 100−𝑟 𝑟 3
Value after 3 years = 𝑃 1 − 100 × 100
= 𝑃 1 − 100

𝒓 𝒏
Value after n years , 𝑨 = 𝑷 𝟏 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Example
1. A machine costing £ 15 000 is depreciated at 10% p.a. how long will it take to
reduce the value to £ 1 400?
Solution
The cost of machine, 𝑃 = £ 15 000
Rate of depreciation, 𝑟 = 10% = 0.1
Value of the machine after n years, 𝐴 = £ 1 400
𝑟 𝑛
But value of the machine after n years is 𝐴 = 𝑃 1 − 100
𝑛
⟹ 1400 = 15000 1 − 0.1
1400 𝑛
⟹ = 0.9
15000
14 𝑛
⟹ log = log 0.9 = 𝑛 log 0.9
150
14
log 0.8451 −1.8751
150
∴𝑛= = = 22.5 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
log 0.9 −1.9542

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2. A machine costing £ 30 000 has an estimated life time of 15 years. If the

depreciation is at a rate of 20% 𝑝. 𝑎, find the scrap value of the machine.
Solution
The cost of the machine = 𝑃 = £ 30 000
Life of the machine = 𝑛 = 15 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
Rate of depreciation = 𝑟 = 20% = 0.2
𝑟 𝑛
∴ The value of the machine at the end of 15𝑡𝑕 year = 𝑃 1 − 100
= 30 000 1 − 0.2 15 = 30 000 × 0.8 15 = £ 1 055
3. A machine was bought at 𝑅𝑠. 25 000 on 𝐽𝑎𝑛. 1, 1981. It was depreciated
at 10% 𝑝. 𝑎. It was sold on 31.12.1983 at 𝑅𝑠. 20 047.50. Find out the percentage
of profit on the reduced cost.
Solution
The cost of the machine = 𝑃 = 𝑅𝑠. 25 000
Life of the machine = 𝑛 = 3 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐽𝑎𝑛. 1, 1981 𝑡𝑜 31.12.1983
Rate of depreciation = 𝑟 = 10%
𝑟 3
Expected value after 𝑛 = 3 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 𝑃 1 − 100
= 25 000 1 − 0.1 3 = 25 000 0.9 3
= 𝑅𝑠. 18 225
Selling price = 𝑅𝑠. 20 047.50
Profit realized= 20 047.50 − 18 225 = 𝑅𝑠. 1 822.5
1822 .5
% 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 = × 100 = 10%
18225
Task
1. A machine depreciates in value each year at a rate of 10% of its value at the
beginning of a year. The machinery was purchased for Rs. 10 000. Obtain
to the nearest rupee its value at the end of the tenth year. 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝑹𝒔. 𝟑 𝟒𝟖𝟑
2. A machine depreciates at the rate of 7% of its value at the beginning of the
year. If the machine was purchased for Rs. 8 500, what is the minimum
number of complete years at the end of which the worth of the machine will
be less that or equal to half of its original price?
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟏𝟎 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔
3. John bought a new car for Sh. 650 000. The car depreciated in value by 25%,
15%, 10% and 5% of its value at the beginning of each year for four
successive years. Find its value at the end of the fourth year.
If after the fourth year it depreciated at a uniform annual rate of 4%, find its
value at the end of 10 years (Give your answers to 3 significant figures).
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑺𝒉. 𝟑𝟓𝟒 𝟎𝟎𝟎 , 𝑺𝒉. 𝟐𝟕𝟕 𝟎𝟎𝟎
4. A woman opened a hair dressing saloon but went out of business three years
later. She sold off various pieces of equipment for Sh. 12 000. This
represented a uniform rate of depreciation of 15% p.a. estimate the cost price
of the equipment giving your answers to 3 𝑠. 𝑓. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑺𝒉. 𝟏𝟗 𝟓𝟎𝟎
5. A man bought a sewing machine for Sh. 10 800. After 12 years he sold it for
Sh. 4 000. At what annual rate did the machine depreciate? (Answer to the
nearest integer)
What was the value of the machine when it was 6 years old? (Answer to
the 3 𝑠. 𝑓)
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟖 % , 𝑺𝒉. 𝟔𝟓 𝟓𝟎𝟎

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POPULATION GROWTH
When the population P increases at a uniform rate 𝑟% 𝑝. 𝑎 for 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, at
the end of the 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟, the population can be calculated as below.
Initial (present) population = 𝑃
Rate on increase = 𝑟%
𝑟 𝑟
Population after 1 year = 𝑃 + 𝑃 × 100 = 𝑃 1 + 100
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
Population after 2 years = 𝑃 1 + +𝑃 1+ ×
100 100 100
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 2
= 𝑃 1+ 1+ = 𝑃 1+
100 100 100
𝑟 2 𝑟 2 𝑟
Population after 3 years = 𝑃 1 + +𝑃 1+ ×
100 100 100
𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑟 3
= 𝑃 1+ 1+ = 𝑃 1+
100 100 100

𝒓 𝒏
∴ Population after n years = 𝑷 𝟏 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Note
If the population is decreasing at a rate r% with passage of time, then the
𝒓 𝒏
population after n years can be evaluated as 𝑷 𝟏 −
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Example
1. The population of a town increases yearly at a rate of 25 per 1000. It is now
378 530, what it be 3 years hence?
Solution
Present population, 𝑃 = 378 530
Time, 𝑛 = 3 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
25
Rate of growth, 𝑟 = 1000 = 2.5%
𝑟 𝑛
∴ Population after 3 years = 𝑃 1 + 100
= 378 530 1 + 0.025 3
= 378 530 1.025 3 = 407 635
2. In a certain town, population raised at 20 per 1000. Find the number of years
in which the population will be doubled assuming there is neither immigration
nor migration.
Solution s
Let present population = 𝑃
20
Rate of growth = = 2% = 0.02
1000
Time of growth = 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
Population after n-years = 2𝑃
But population after n years = 𝑃 1 + 0.02 𝑛
= 𝑃 1.02 𝑛

⟹ 2𝑃 = 𝑃 1.02 𝑛 𝑜𝑟 2 = 1.02 𝑛
log 2 = log 1.02 𝑛 = 𝑛 log 1.02
log 2
∴𝑛= = 35 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
log 1.02
3. In a Military Academy, 150 trainees were recruited in 2000. The recruiting
team planned to increase the number of trainees each subsequent year at a
rate of 20% of the number for the previous year. Determine the number
expected to be in 2010.

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Solution
In 2000 there were 150
In 2001 there were 150 + 0.2 150 = 150 1 + 0.2 = 150 1.2
In 2002 there were 150 1.2 + 150 1.2 0.2 = 150 1.2 1 + 0.2 = 150 1.2 2

In 2003 the number will be 150 1.2 2 + 150 1.2 2 0.2

= 150 1.2 2 1 + 0.2 = 150 1.2 2
∴ In 2010, after 10 years, the number is 150 1.2 10 ≈ 929 trainees.

Task
1. The population of a country increases every year by 2.4% of the population at
the beginning of that year. In what time will the population double itself?
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟐𝟗 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔
2. In Jinja district, 6500 pupils registered for PLE 1996. In 1997 the number of
students increased by 1250 and in each subsequent year the number of
pupils increased by 1/5 more than the previous year. Find the number of
pupils that will be registered in 2006. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟒𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑠. 𝑓
3. If Kenya has a population of 23 million people and a doubling time of 19
years, and growth continues at the same rate, find the population in;
a) 10 years. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟑𝟑 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒐𝒏
b) 30 years. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟔𝟗 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒐𝒏
4. If the population in a particular third world country is growing at 4%
compounded annually how long will it take the population to double?
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟏𝟖 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔

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ANNUITY CALCULATIONS
FUTURE VALUE OF ANNUITY
Bankers call a series of equal annual payment made at equal intervals of
time an Annuity.

Terms associated with Annuities

i) Immediate/Ordinary Annuity
If each of the annuity payment is made at the end of each period (time
interval), is called immediate annuity.
ii) Future value of an annuity
Is the sum of all the annuity payments plus any accumulated interest.

To find the Amount of Annuity left unpaid for a given number of years,
allowing Compound Interest.
Let 𝑅 be the periodic deposit, 𝑖 the rate per period and 𝑛 the number of
periods in the given years.
Case I: Payment at the end of each period.
At the end of the 1𝑠𝑡 year, R is due and the amount of this sum in the
remaining 𝑛 − 1 year is 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−1
At the end of 2𝑛𝑑 year, another R is due and the amount of this sum in the
remaining 𝑛 − 2 years is 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−2
∴ Future value = 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−1 + 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−2 + ⋯ … … … + 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 2 + 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 1 + 𝑅
= 𝑅 1 + 1 + 𝑖 + 1 + 𝑖 2 + ⋯ … … . . . + 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−2 + 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−1
= 𝑅 1 + 1 + 𝑖 + 1 + 𝑖 2 + ⋯ … … . … … … … . 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑅 1+𝑖 𝑛 −1 𝑅 1+𝑖 𝑛 −1
= =
1+𝑖 −1 𝑖
In formula form,

Future value of Immediate Annuity is:

𝟏+𝒊 𝒏−𝟏
𝑭𝑽 = 𝑷𝑴𝑻. 𝒊
𝑃𝑀𝑇 = Periodic payment
𝑖 = Rate per period
𝑛 = Number of payments (Periods)
𝐹𝑉 = Future Value (Amount)
[Payments are made at the end of each
period]

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Generalization of the above series using time line

1𝑦𝑟 2𝑦𝑟 3𝑦𝑟 4𝑦𝑟 ………… 𝑛 − 2 𝑦𝑟 𝑛 − 1 𝑦𝑟 Years
1 2 3 4 ………… 𝑛 − 2 𝑛 − 1 𝑛 No. of periods
Deposits
𝑂 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

𝑅
𝑅 1+𝑖
2
𝑅 1+𝑖

FUTURE VALUE
𝑛−4
𝑅 1+𝑖
𝑛−3
𝑅 1+𝑖
𝑛−2
𝑅 1+𝑖
𝑛−1
𝑅 1+𝑖
Hence the sum of all these annuities plus any interest is;
= 𝑅 + 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 + 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 2 + ⋯ … … … . . +𝑅 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−4 + 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−3 + 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−2 +
𝑅 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−1
NOTE:
1. The future value of annuity is considered when payments are made at the
end of each period (Immediate Annuity)
2. Banks usually state interest rates as Annual Percentage Rates( APRS)

Case II: Payment at the beginning of every period (payment for every
period)
At the beginning of 1𝑠𝑡 year, R is due and amount of this sum for n years is
𝑅 1+𝑖 𝑛
At the beginning of 2𝑛𝑑 year, another R is due and the amount of the
remaining 𝑛 − 1 year is 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−1
∴ Future value = 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 𝑛 + 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−1 + ⋯ … … … … … . + 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 2 + 𝑅 1 + 𝑖
= 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 + 1 + 𝑖 2 + ⋯ … … . . + 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−1 + 1 + 𝑖 𝑛
= 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 1 + 1 + 𝑖 + 1 + 𝑖 2 + ⋯ … … + 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−2 + 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−1
= 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 1 + 1 + 𝑖 + 1 + 𝑖 2 + ⋯ … … … 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑅 1+𝑖 1+𝑖 𝑛 −1
=
𝑖
In formula form,

Future value of an Annuity due is:

𝟏+𝒊 𝒏
𝑭𝑽 = 𝑷𝑴𝑻. . 𝟏+𝒊 −𝟏
𝒊
𝑃𝑀𝑇 = Periodic payment
𝑖 = Rate per period
𝑛 = Number of payments (Periods)
𝐹𝑉 = Future Value (Amount)
[Payments are made at the beginning of each
period/payments are made for every period]

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Case III: Annuity due

Is an annuity where the first payment falls due in the beginning of the first
period or interval, hence Case II.

Generation of Case II series above using time line.

Years
1𝑦𝑟 2𝑦𝑟 3𝑦𝑟 4𝑦𝑟 ………… 𝑛 − 2 𝑦𝑟 𝑛 − 1 𝑦𝑟
1 2 3 4 ………… 𝑛 − 2 𝑛−1 𝑛 No. of periods

𝑂 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 Deposits

𝑅 1+𝑖
2
𝑅 1+𝑖
3
𝑅 1+𝑖

FUTURE VALUE
𝑛−3
𝑅 1+𝑖
𝑛−2
𝑅 1+𝑖
𝑛−1
𝑅 1+𝑖
𝑅 1+𝑖 𝑛
Hence the sum of all the series plus interest
∴ Future value = 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 𝑛 + 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−1 + ⋯ … … … … … . + 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 2 + 𝑅 1 + 𝑖
= 𝑅 1 + 𝑖 1 + 1 + 𝑖 + 1 + 𝑖 2 + ⋯ … … + 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−2 + 1 + 𝑖 𝑛−1
General examples:
(Immediate Annuity)
1. A person wishes to deposit $ 1000 at the end of each year in a bank which
pays 10% 𝑝. 𝑎 Compound Interest. If installments are allowed to accumulate,
what will be the total accumulation at the end of 10 years?
Solution
At the end of 1𝑦𝑟, 1𝑠𝑡 installment of $ 1000 amounts in 9 years to:
1000 1 + 0.1 9 = 1000 1.1 9
The 2𝑛𝑑 installment of $ 1000 amounts in 8 years to: 1000 1 + 0.1 8 =
1000 1.1 8
The last installment of $ 1000 amounts to: 1000 1 + 0.1 0 = 1000
So the total accumulated at the end of 10 years is:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 1000 + 1000 1.1 + 1000 1.1 2 + ⋯ … … … . . +1000 1.1 8 + 1000 1.1 9 ,
which is a G.P of 10 terms.
1000 1.1 10 −1 1000 1.1 10 −1
= = = $ 15 937
1.1−1 0.1
Alternatively, using the formula,
𝑃 = $ 1000 , 𝑖 = 0.1 , 𝑛 = 10 , 𝐴 =?
𝑃 𝑛
𝐴= 1+𝑖 −1
𝑖
1000 10
= 1 + 0.1 − 1 = $ 15 937
0.1
(Immediate Annuity)
2. Jessica deposits $ 100 every 6 months in an account that pays 6% Compound
Interest compounded semi annually. If she made 6 deposits one at the end of
each interest payment period over 3 years, how much money will be on the
account after the last deposit is made?

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Solution
6
% 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝. 𝑎 = 6, % 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 6 − 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑕𝑠 = 2 = 3% . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖 = 0.03, 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑠 = 6
At the end of the 1𝑠𝑡 6 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑕𝑠, $100 is due, and this amounts to:
$ 100 1 + 0.03 5
The 2𝑛𝑑 installment of $ 100 amounts to: $ 100 1 + 0.03 4 = $ 100 1.03 4
The 3𝑟𝑑 installment of $ 100 amounts to: $ 100 1 + 0.03 3 = $ 100 1.03 3
The 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 installment of $ 100 amounts to: $ 100 1 + 0.03 0 = $ 100 1.03 0 =
$ 100
Thus the total accumulated at the end of the 6𝑡𝑕 deposit (at the end of 3
years) is:
= 100 + 100 1.03 + 100 1.03 2 + 100 1.03 3 + ⋯ … . + 100 1.03 5
= 100 1 + 1.03 + 1.03 2 + ⋯ … . + 1.03 5
100 1.03 6 −1
= 1.03−1
= $ 646.84
Alternatively, using the formula
6
𝑃 = $ 100 , 𝑖 = 2 = 3% = 0.03 , 𝑛 = 3 𝑦𝑟𝑠 = 6 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑠, 𝐴 =?
1.03 6 −1
𝐴 = 100 = $ 646.84
0.03
(Immediate Annuity)
3. When Jim started his first job after he finished college, he opened an
Individual Retirement Account (IRA). He plans to contribute$ 2 500 per year for
38 years until he reaches age 62. He hopes to earn an average annual
percentage rate (APR) of 8% over the 38 year period.
a) If Mr. Jim contributes to his IRA at the rate he plans, how much will his
account be worth when he is 62 years old?
b) How much interest will be earned on the account?
Solution
Given: 𝑃 = $ 2 500 , 𝑖 = 8% = 0.08 , 𝑛 = 38 𝑦𝑟𝑠
a) At the end of 1𝑠𝑡 year $ 2 500 is due, and this amounts to:
$ 2 500 1 + 0.08 37 = $ 2 500 1.08 37 for the remaining years.
The 2𝑛𝑑 installment of $ 2 500 amounts to:
$ 2 500 1 + 0.08 36 = $ 2 500 1.08 36
The 2𝑛𝑑 installment of $ 2 500 amounts to:
$ 2 500 1 + 0.08 35 = $ 2 500 1.08 35
∴ the 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 deposit amounts to:
$ 2 500 1 + 0.08 0 = $ 2 500 1.08 0 = $ 2 500
∴ the accumulated amount after 38 years is:
= 2500 + 2500 1.08 + 2500 1.08 2 + ⋯ … … + 2500 1.08 37
= 2500 1 + 1.08 + 1.08 2 + ⋯ … … + 1.08 37
2500 1.08 38 −1
= = $ 550 789.86
1.08−1
b) Mr. Jim will pay$ 2500 × 38 = $95 000 in to his IRA, so the account will earn:
$ 550 789.86 − 95 000 = $ 455 789.86
4. John, procrastinating, does not make his first $ 2000 deposit in to an IRA
account until he is 32, but then he continues to deposit $ 2000 on every
birthday until he is 65. If his account also earns 9% compounded annually,
how much (to the nearest dollar) will he have on his account when he makes
the last deposit on his 65𝑡𝑕 birth day?

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Solution
The 1𝑠𝑡 deposit is at when John is 32 years.
The 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 deposit is at when John is 65 years.
∴ number of deposits in all= 34, at the end of every year 𝑖 = 9% 𝑝. 𝑎, 𝑃 =
$ 2 000
The 1𝑠𝑡 deposit (at 32 years) grows to 2000 1 + 0.09 33
The 2𝑛𝑑 deposit (at 33 years) grows to 2000 1 + 0.09 32
∴ the last deposit (at 65 years) grows to 2000 1 + 0.09 0
∴ the total amount accumulated at the end of the 65𝑡𝑕 birthday is;
= 2000 + 2000 1 + 0.09 + 2000 1 + 0.09 2 + ⋯ … … … + 2000 1 + 0.09 33
= 2000 1 + 1.09 + 1.09 2 + ⋯ … … … … … + 1.09 33
2000 1.09 34 −1
= = $ 393 965
1.09−1
5. A man puts 𝑅𝑠. 10 at the end of every year in the savings Bank at 2 ½ %
compound interest. How much will his savings amount to in 15 years?
Solution
At the end of 1𝑠𝑡 year, 𝑅𝑠. 10 is due, and amounts to 10 1 + 0.025 14
At the end of the 2𝑛𝑑 year, 𝑅𝑠. 10 is again due, and amounts to 10 1 +
0.025 13
The last deposit grows to 10 1 + 0.025 0
∴ total amount = 10 + 10 1.025 + 10 1.025 2 + ⋯ … … … … + 10 1.025 14
= 10 1 + 1.025 + 1.025 2 + ⋯ … … … … . . + 1.025 14
10 1.025 15 −1
= = 𝑅𝑠. 179.32
1.025 −1
6. A man deposits $ 100 per month in to an account earning 9% compounded
monthly for 5 years. How much interest does he receive?
Solution
0.09 59
At the end of the 1𝑠𝑡 month, 1𝑠𝑡 deposit grows to $ 100 1 + in the
12
remaining 59 months.
0.09 58
At the end of the 2𝑛𝑑 month, 2𝑛𝑑 deposit grows to $ 100 1 + 12
in the
remaining 58 months.
0.09 0
∴ at the end of the last month of deposit, deposit grows to $ 100 1 + 12
=
$ 100
∴ total accumulation at the end of 5 years 60 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑕𝑠 is:
0.09 1 0.09 2 0.09 59
= 100 + 100 1 + + 100 1 + + ⋯ … … … … + 100 1 +
12 12 12
0.09 0.09 2 0.09 59
= 100 1 + 1 + 12
+ 1+ 12
+ ⋯……..+ 1+ 12
0.09 60 0.09 60
100 1+ −1 100 1+ −1
12 12
= 0.09 = = $ 7 542.41
1+ −1 0.0075
12

Now total amount deposited= 60 × 100 = 6 000

𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑠
interest= 7 542.41 − 6 000 = $ 1 542.41
Note:
0.09
Since 9% is compounded monthly, then 𝑖 = 12
= 0.0075

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7. Jane deposits $ 2000 a year in to an IRA account earning 9% compounded

annually. She makes her first deposit on her 24𝑡𝑕 birthday and her last
deposit on her 31𝑠𝑡 birthday (8 deposits in all). Making no additional deposits,
she leaves the accumulated amount from the 8 deposits in an account,
earning interest at 9% compounded annually until her 65𝑡𝑕 birthday. How
much to the nearest dollar will be in her account on her 65𝑡𝑕 birthday?
Solution
Given: 𝑃 = $ 2000 , 𝑖 = 9% = 0.09 , 𝑛 = 8
At the end of the 1𝑠𝑡 year, $ 2000 is due and amounts to 2000 1 + 0.09 7 in
the remaining 7 years.
At the end of the 2𝑛𝑑 year, $ 2000 is again due and amounts to 2000 1 +
0.09 8 in the remaining 6 years.
∴ the last deposit of $ 2000 grows to 2000 1 + 0.09 0 = 2000
∴ the total amount for the 8 years of depositing is:
= 2000 + 2000 1.09 + 20002000 1.09 2 + ⋯ … … … … + 2000 1.09 7
= 2000 1 + 1.09 + 1.09 2 + ⋯ … … … … + 1.09 7
2000 1.09 8 −1
= = $ 22 056.94759
1.09−1
Now since no other deposit after the 8 −deposits, the money grows at
compound interest at a rate of 9% 𝑝. 𝑎 for 34 years after the 31𝑠𝑡 birthday.
Using 𝐴 = 𝑃 1 + 𝑖 𝑛
𝐴 = 22 056.94759 1 + 0.09 34 = $ 413 092
(Annuity due)
8. A person invests £ 2000 every year with a company which pays interest 10%
p.a. he allows his deposit to accumulate at compound interest. Find the
amount to the credit of the person at the end of the 5𝑡𝑕 year.
Solution
At the beginning of the 1𝑠𝑡 year, £ 2000 is due and his sum amounts in 5
years to
£ 2000 1 + 0.1 5
At the beginning of the 2𝑛𝑑 year, another £ 2000 is due and his sum
amounts in 4 years to
£ 2000 1 + 0.1 4
The last deposit (5𝑡𝑕 year) grows to £ 2000 1 + 0.1 1
∴ total amount accumulated
= 2000 1 + 0.1 + 2000 1 + 0.1 2 + ⋯ … … . +2000 1 + 0.1 5
= 2000 1.1 1 + 1.1 + 1.1 2 + ⋯ … … … + 1.1 4
2000 1.1 1.1 5 −1 2000 1.1 1.1 5 −1
= 1.1−1
= 0.1
= £13 431.22

Alternatively by formula method

𝑃 1+𝑖
𝑃 = £ 2000 , 𝑛 = 5 , 𝑖 = 0.1 , 𝐴 = 𝑖
1+𝑖 𝑛
−1
1.1
𝐴 = £ 2000 × 0.1 × 1.1 5
− 1 = £13 431.22
(Annuity due)
9. Mr. John deposits £ 2000 per year in the bank for 10 years at 5% p.a. find
how much will he receive at the end of 10 years if the money accumulates at
compound interest.

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Solution
At the end of the 10𝑡𝑕 deposit, the last deposit grows to £ 2000 1 + 0.05
At the end of the 9𝑡𝑕 deposit, the amount grows to £ 2000 1 + 0.05 2
∴ the 1𝑠𝑡 deposit grows to £ 2000 1 + 0.05 10
∴ total amount accumulated = 2000 1.05 + 2000 1.05 2 + ⋯ … … … +
2000 1.05 10
= 2000 1.05 1 + 1.05 + 1.05 2 + ⋯ … … … + 1.05 9

2000 1.05 1.05 10 −1 2000 1.05 1.05 10 −1

= 1.05−1
= 0.05
= £ 26 413.57
10. Jack operates an account with a certain bank which pays a compound
interest rate of 13.5% p.a. he opened the account at the beginning of the year
with Sh. 500 000 and deposits the same amount of money at the beginning of
every year. Calculate how much will he receive at the end of 9 years. After
how long will the money have accumulated to Sh. 3.32 million.
Solution
At the beginning of the 1𝑠𝑡 year, Sh. 500 000 is due, and the amount in 9
years is
500 000 1 + 0.135 9 = 500000 1.135 9
At the beginning of the 2𝑛𝑑 year, another Sh. 500 000 is due and amounts
in 8years to
500 000 1 + 0.135 8 = 500000 1.135 8
∴ the last deposit in the 9𝑡𝑕 year, amounts to 500 000 1 + 0.135 1 =
500 000 1.135
∴ the total amount = 500000 1.135 + 500000 1.135 2 + ⋯ … … . +500000 1.135 9
= 500000 1.135 1 + 1.135 + 1.135 2 + ⋯ … … + 1.135 8
500000 1.135 1.135 9 −1 500000 1.135 1.135 9 −1
= =
1.135−1 0.135
= 𝑆𝑕. 8 936 281
Let the money accumulate in 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 to 3.32 million
The 1𝑠𝑡 deposit grows to 500 000 1 + 0.135 𝑛 = 500 000 1.135 𝑛 in 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
The 2𝑛𝑑 deposit grows to 500 000 1 + 0.135 𝑛−1 = 500 000 1.135 𝑛 in 𝑛 − 1 −
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
∴ the 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 deposit grows to 500 000 1.135
∴ the total amount after 𝑛 − 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
= 500 000 1.135 + 500 000 1.135 2 + ⋯ … … + 500 000 1.135 𝑛
= 500 000 1.135 1 + 1.135 + 1.135 2 + ⋯ … … . + 1.135 𝑛−1
500 000 1.135 1.135 𝑛 −1 500 000 1.135 1.135 𝑛 −1
= 1.135 −1
= 0.135
500 000 1.135 1.135 𝑛 −1
∴ 3.32 × 106 =
0.135
0.789779735 = 1.135𝑛 − 1 𝑜𝑟 1.135𝑛 = 1.789779735
ln 1.135 𝑛 = ln 1.789779735
ln 1.789779735
∴𝑛= = 4.6 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
ln 1.135
11. Five million shillings are invested each year at a rate of 20% interest. In how
many years will it accumulate to have more than 50 million shillings?
Solution
Since deposits are made each/every year, this is a case of annuity due.

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For the 1𝑠𝑡 year, 𝑆𝑕. 5 000 000 is due, and amounts in n years
to 𝑆𝑕. 5 000 000 1 + 0.2 𝑛
For the 2𝑛𝑑 year, another 𝑆𝑕. 5 000 000 is due, and amounts in 𝑛 − 1 years
to 𝑆𝑕. 5 000 000 1 + 0.2 𝑛−1
∴ the last deposit in the 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 year amounts to 𝑆𝑕. 5 000 000 1 + 0.2
∴ total accumulation after 𝑛 years is:
= 5 000 000 1.2 + 5 000 000 1.2 2 + ⋯ … … … . . +5 000 000 1.2 𝑛
= 5 000 000 1.2 1 + 1.2 + 1.2 2 + ⋯ … … . + 1.2 𝑛−1
5 000 000 1.2 1.2 𝑛 −1 5 000 000 1.2 1.2 𝑛 −1
= =
1.2−1 0.2
Given the total accumulation is 𝑆𝑕. 50 000 000
5 000 000 1.2 1.2 𝑛 −1
⇒ 50 000 000 = 0.2
5 8
⇒ 3 = 1.2𝑛 − 1 𝑜𝑟 1.2𝑛 = 3
8
8 ln
⇒ ln 1.2𝑛 = ln ∴𝑛= 3
= 5.379666948
3 ln 1.2
∴ in 6 years the money would have accumulated more than 50 million.

Task
1. Find the amount of annuity due of £ 2000 per year payable in the beginning
of every year for 10 years at 5% 𝑝. 𝑎 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: £ 𝟐𝟔 𝟒𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟎
2. Five million shillings are invested each year at a rate of 15% interest. In how
many years will it accumulate to more than Sh. 50 million?
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟔 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔
3. A man puts Rs. 10 at the end of every year in the savings Bank at 2 ½ %
compound interest. How much will his savings amount to in 15 years?
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑹𝒔. 𝟏𝟕𝟗
4. A company sets aside a sum of £ 20 000 annually to enable it pay off a
debenture issue of £ 230 000 at the end of 10 years. Assuming that the sum
accumulates at 4% 𝑝. 𝑎 compound interest, find the surplus after paying off a
debenture.
𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐓:
£ 20 000 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 10 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 20 000 1.04 10
𝑇𝑕𝑒 2𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜 20 000 1.04 9
∴ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 10𝑡𝑕 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑙 𝑏𝑒:
20 000 1.04 1 + 1.04 + 1.04 2 + ⋯ … … … … … … . + 1.04 9
20 000 1.04 1.04 10 −1
= = £ 249 080
0.04
𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑠 = 249 080 − 230 000 = £ 19 080

5. Phionah deposited $ 1000 every 6 months in to an account earning 8%

compounded semi annually. How much will the $ 1000 amount to at the end
of 10 years? How much of this value is interest?

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𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐓:
0.08 19
1𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡𝑜 1000 1 + 𝑖𝑛 19 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑕𝑠
2
0.08 18
2𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡𝑜 1000 1 + 2
𝑖𝑛 19 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑕𝑠
0.08 0
∴ 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡𝑜 1000 1 + 2
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 1000 1 + 1.04 + 1.04 2 + ⋯ … … + 1.04 19
= $ 29 778.4
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 29 778.4 − 20 × 1000 = $ 9 778.4
6. Beginning in January, a person plans to deposit $ 100 at the end of each
month in to an account earning 9% compounded monthly. Each year taxes
must be paid on the interest earned during that year. Find the interest earned
during each year for the first 3 −years.
𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐓:
0.09
𝑖 = 12 = 0.0075 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑕, 𝑃 = $ 100 , 𝑛 = 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 12 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑕𝑠.
100 1+0.0075 12 −1
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 1𝑠𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = = $ 1 250.76
0.0075
𝑠𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 1 250.76 − 12 × 100 = $ 50.76
100 1+0.0075 24 −1
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 2𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = = $ 2 618.85
0.0075
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 2 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 2 618.85 − 24 × 100 = $ 218.85
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 218.85 − 50.76 = $ 168.09
100 1+0.0075 36 −1
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 3𝑟𝑑 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = = $ 4 115.27
0.0075
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 3 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 4 115.27 − 36 × 100 = $ 512.27
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3𝑟𝑑 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
= 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
= 512.27 − 218.85 = $ 296.42

7. What is the annuity at the end of 5 years if $ 100 per month is deposited in to
an account earning 9% compounded monthly? How much of this value is
interest? 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: $ 𝟏 𝟓𝟒𝟐. 𝟒𝟏
8. A man pays a premium of £ 100 at the beginning of every year to an
insurance company on the understanding that at the end of fifteen years he
can receive back the premiums which he has paid with 5% compound
interest. What should he receive? (Give your answer correct to 3 𝑠. 𝑓)
𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐓:
𝐴𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟, £ 100 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜 £ 100 1 + 0.05 15
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 15 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
𝐴𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 2𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 £ 100 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜
£ 100 1 + 0.05 14 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 14 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡𝑜 £ 100 1 + 0.05
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 100 1.05 + 100 1.05 2 + ⋯ … … … . +100 1.05 15
100 1.05 1.05 15 −1
= 0.05
= 2 265.749177
≈ 22700
9. A man earned in a certain year £ 2000 from a certain source and his annual
earnings from this time continued to increase at a rate of 5%. Find to the
nearest £ the whole amount he received from this source in this year and the
next seven years. Give your answer correct to 3 𝑠. 𝑓.

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𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐓:
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 2000 1 + 0.05 = £ 2100
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡𝑜 2000 1 + 0.05 7 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 7 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡𝑜 2000 1 + 0.05 6 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 6 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 £ 2100 𝑎𝑠
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡.
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 3𝑟𝑑 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡𝑜 2000 1 + 0.05 6 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 6 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡𝑜 2000 1 + 0.05 5 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 5 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
∴ 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡𝑜 2000 1 + 0.05 0
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 7 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑠:
= 2000 + 2000 1.05 + 2000 1.05 2 + ⋯ … … + 2000 1.05 7
= 2000 1 + 1.05 + 1.05 2 + ⋯ … . . + 1.05 7
2000 1.05 8 −1
= = £ 19 098.21775
0.05
≈ £ 19 100

10. A credit society gives out a compound interest of 4.5% p.a. Mugaga deposits
Sh. 300 000 at the beginning of each year. How much money will he have at
the end of 4 years if there are no withdraws during this period.(Uneb
2006) 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝑺𝒉. 𝟏 𝟑𝟒𝟏 𝟐𝟏𝟑
11. A man invests £ 100 at the end of 1971, £ 200 at the end of1972, £ 300 at the
end of 1973, £ 400 at the end of 1974, £ 500 at the end of 1975. If all interest
accumulated at 5% 𝑝. 𝑎, what do his investments amount to at the end of
1976?

𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐓:
£ 100 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 5 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, £ 200 𝑓𝑜𝑟 4 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, £ 300 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, £ 400 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
£ 500 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 1976 𝑖𝑠;
𝐴 = 100 1.05 5 + 100 1.05 4 + 100 1.05 3 + 100 1.05 2 + 100 1.05 = £1 684.2

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PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

FACTORIALS:
Are used in the computations of permutations and combinations
Definition:
The continued product of the first 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑖. 𝑒. the continued
product of n-consecutive integers beginning with 1 and ending with n, is
𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛 , denoted by the symbol 𝑛!

∴ 𝒏! = 𝟏 × 𝟐 × 𝟑 × … … … … .× 𝒏
= 𝒏 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒏 − 𝟐 𝒏 − 𝟑 … … … .× 𝟐 × 𝟏

Examples
1. How many different 3-digit number can be constructed from numerals 5,7 and
8 taking each once?
Solution
3-choices arise for the 1𝑠𝑡 numeral and for each choice; there are a further
of 2-choices for the 2𝑛𝑑 numeral. The third numeral is the one that is left
∴ 3 × 2 × 1 = 6 choices for the 1𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑛𝑑 numerals combined exist.
𝑖. 𝑒. 3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6

2. How many 4-digit numbers can be constructed using numerals 1,2,3 and 4
once each?
Solution
4-choices arise for the 1𝑠𝑡 numeral; each choice leaves 3-ways to select2𝑛𝑑
numeral
⇒ 4 × 3 = 12 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 of selecting the first 2-numerals exist.
Each combination of the first two numerals leaves 2-ways to select the
third numeral.
⇒ 𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 of selecting first 3-numerals. The last
nmeral s the one left.
∴ 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 4! = 24 are the number of ways.

3. Evaluate
3!
a) 6! d)
0!
8! 5!
b) 3!
e) 5−2 !2!
c) 7−2 !
Solution
a) 6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720
8! 8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
b) 3!
= 3×2×1
= 6720
c) 7 − 2 ! = 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
3! 3×2×1
d) 0!
= 1
=6 ∵ 0! = 1
5! 5! 5×4×3×2×1
e) = = = 10
5−2 !2! 3!2! 3×2×1 . 2×1
Note
1) From the definition of n!
𝑛! = 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 𝑛 − 2 𝑛 − 3 … … … × 2 × 1

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=𝑛× 𝑛−1 !
𝑛!
∴ 𝑛 = 𝑛−1 !
2) 2𝑛! = 2 × 𝑛! ; 2𝑛 ! = 2𝑛 2𝑛 − 1 2𝑛 − 2 … . .× 2 × 1

Example
1. Simplify
2𝑛+1 !
a) 2𝑛−1 !
𝑛!
b) 𝑛 +1 !
𝑛 +1 !
c)
𝑛 −1 !
2𝑛 !
d) 2𝑛+2 !
Solution
2𝑛+1 ! 2𝑛+1 2𝑛+1−1 2𝑛+1−2 ×…………….×2×1
a) 2𝑛−1 !
= 2𝑛−1 !
2𝑛+1 2𝑛 2𝑛−1 !
= = 2𝑛 2𝑛 + 1
2𝑛−1 !
𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛! 1
b) = = =
𝑛+1 ! 𝑛 +1 𝑛+1−1 ! 𝑛+1 ×𝑛! 𝑛+1
𝑛+1 ! 𝑛 +1 𝑛+1−1 𝑛+1−2 …….×2×1
c) =
𝑛−1 ! 𝑛−1 !

𝑛+1 ×𝑛× 𝑛 −1 !
= =𝑛 𝑛+1
𝑛−1 !

2𝑛 ! 2𝑛 !
d) 2𝑛+2 !
= 2𝑛+2 2𝑛+2−1 2𝑛+2−2 ……×2×1
2𝑛 ! 1
e) = =2
2𝑛+2 2𝑛+1 2𝑛 ! 𝑛+1 2𝑛+1
2. Write each of the following in factorial notation
a) 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
b) 6 × 5 × 4
7×6 × 3×2×1
c) 2
Solution
a) 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 4!
6×5×4 ×3×2×1 6!
b) 6×5×4= =
3×2×1 3!
7×6 × 3×2×1 7×6 ×5×4×3×2×1 × 3×2×1 7!3!
c) 2
= 2×1 × 5×4×3×2×1
= 2!5!
Note
Some other terms have been introduced but without changing the meaning
of the question so as to apply 𝑛! definition.

PERMUTATIONS
The knowledge of permutations helps in finding the number of ways a set of
objects may be grouped/arranged under certain conditions.

Definition
Each arrangement/ordered set of objects which can be obtained from a
given set of objects by taking some or all at a time is called permutation of
the given set of objects.

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Notation
If the number of objects in the given set is n and the number of objects in
each permutation is 𝑟 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑛 ≥ 𝑟 , the total number of permutation is
denoted as n𝒑𝒓
Consider the example below

𝑸𝒏. Assuming in the department of math, there are four teachers A, B, C and
D; a committee consisting of two members is to be formed for drafting the
math syllabus, list the possible groups.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝐴𝐵 , 𝐴𝐶 , 𝐴𝐷 , 𝐵𝐶 , 𝐵𝐷 , 𝐶𝐷
Hence there is 6-groups altogether 𝑖. 𝑒. 6 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝑸𝒏. Suppose one is to be selected as a president of the syllabus committee

and the other as a secretary, list the possible groups.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑:
Let the 1𝑠𝑡 one denote the president and the 2𝑛𝑑 as the secretary.
The possibilities are;
𝐴𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 , 𝐵𝐴 , 𝐴𝐶 , 𝐶𝐴 , 𝐴𝐷 , 𝐷𝐴 , 𝐵𝐶 , 𝐶𝐵 , 𝐵𝐷 , 𝐷𝐵 , 𝐶𝐷 , 𝐷𝐶
Hence there is now 12-possibilities altogether.
⇒ This problem is not only one of grouping but also ordering them.
Thus each of the 12-arrangements made out of 4-letters A, B, C, D by
taking 2-letters at a time viz: 𝐴𝐵 , 𝐵𝐴 , 𝐴𝐶 , 𝐶𝐴 , 𝐴𝐷 , 𝐷𝐴 , 𝐵𝐶 , 𝐶𝐵 , 𝐵𝐷 , 𝐷𝐵 , 𝐶𝐷 , 𝐷𝐶
is a permutation of the 4-letters taken 2-at a time. 𝑖. 𝑒. 4𝒑𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐

NOTE
1. Permutations involve ordering and arranging. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐴 are different;
AB means A is the president , B is the secretary, while BA means B is the
president and A is the secretary.
However for purpose of grouping, AB and BA mean one and same group.
2. Grouping is more in combinations

IMPORTANT RESULTS OF PERMUTATIONS

a) Permutations of n-different objects

Permutations of n-different objects taken r-at a time 𝑟 < 𝑛 is

n 𝒏!
𝒑𝒓 = = 𝒏 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒏− 𝟐 ………… 𝒏 − 𝒓 + 𝟏
𝒏−𝒓 !

b) Permutations in which objects are repeated

The number of permutations of n-different objects taken r-at a time in
which each object is repeated r-times in any arrangement is 𝒏𝒓
c) Permutations of objects not all different
The number of permutations of n- objects of which p-objects are alike of
one kind, q-objects are alike of second kind, r-objects are alike of a third
kind, and all the rest are all different is
d) Circular permutations
𝒏!
𝒑!𝒒!𝒓!

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In circular permutations, fix the position of one object and then arrange the
remaining 𝑛 − 1 out of n-objects in all the possible ways. This can be done
in only
𝒏 − 𝟏 ! 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔
e) Restricted permutations
i) The number of permutations of n-different objects taken r-at a time
in which p-particular objects do not occur is
n-p
𝒑𝒓

ii) The number of permutations of n-different objects taken r-at a time

in which p-particular objects are present is
n-p
𝒑𝒓−𝒑 × r 𝒑𝒑

Examples
1. Find the value of n if:
a) n𝑝1 = 3
b) n𝑝2 = 2
c) 2n𝑝2 = 6
d) 3n𝑝2 = 30
Solution
𝑛! 𝑛 𝑛−1 !
a) n𝑝
1 =3⇒ = =3 ∴𝑛=3
𝑛 −1 ! 𝑛−1 !
𝑛! 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2 !
b) n𝑝
2 =2⇒ = 2 𝑜𝑟 =𝑛 𝑛−1 =2
𝑛−2 ! 𝑛−2 !
2
⇒ 𝑛 − 𝑛 − 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑛 = 2 , −1 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑛 = 2
2𝑛 ! 2𝑛 2𝑛−1 2𝑛−2 !
c) 2n𝑝
2 =6⇒ 2n𝑝
2 = = ∴ 2𝑛 2𝑛 − 1 = 6 𝑜𝑟 4𝑛 2 − 2𝑛 − 6 = 0
2𝑛−2 ! 2𝑛−2 !
solving𝑛 = 1.5 , −1. Since n is a counting number, then 𝑛 = 2
3𝑛 ! 3𝑛 3𝑛−1 3𝑛−2 !
d) 3n𝑝
2 = 30 ⇒ 3n𝑝
2 = =
3𝑛−2 ! 3𝑛−2 !
5
∴ 3𝑛 3𝑛 − 1 = 30 𝑜𝑟 9𝑛 − 3𝑛 − 30 = 0 . Solving 𝑛 = 2 , − 3 ∴
2

𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑛 = 2
2. Find n if
i) n𝑝5 ∶ n𝑝3 = 2 ∶ 1
ii) 2n+1 𝑝𝑛−1 ∶ 2n-1 𝑝𝑛 = 3 ∶ 5
iii) 56 𝑝𝑛+6 : 54 𝑝𝑛+3 = 30800 ∶ 1
Solution
𝑛!
2 𝑛! 𝑛 −3 !
i) n𝑝
5 ∶ n𝑝3 = 2 ∶ 1 ⇒ n𝑝5 / n𝑝3 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 −5 !
𝑛! = × =2
1 𝑛−5 ! 𝑛!
𝑛 −3 !

𝑛−3 ! 𝑛−3 𝑛−4 𝑛−5 !

⇒ 𝑛−5 !
= 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑛−5 !
∴ 𝑛−3 𝑛−4 = 2

⇒ 𝑛 2 − 7𝑛 + 10 = 0 ∴ 𝑛 = 2 𝑜𝑟 5
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛 > 𝑟, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑛 = 5 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑛 = 2
ii) 2n+1 𝑝
𝑛−1 ∶ 2n-1 𝑝 = 3 ∶ 5 ⇒ 2n+1 𝑝
𝑛 𝑛−1 /
2n-1 𝑝 = 3 / 5
𝑛
2𝑛+1 ! 2𝑛−1 ! 3
∴ ÷ =
2𝑛+1 − 𝑛−1 ! 2𝑛−1 −𝑛 ! 5

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2𝑛+1 ! 𝑛−1 ! 3 2𝑛+1 ! 𝑛−1 !

𝑛+2 !
×
2𝑛−1 ! 5
= ⇒
2𝑛−1 !
× 𝑛+2 !
2𝑛+1 2𝑛+1−1 2𝑛+1−2 ! 𝑛−1 ! 3
× =
2𝑛−1 ! 𝑛+2 𝑛+2−1 𝑛+2−2 𝑛+2−3 ! 5
2𝑛+1 2𝑛 2𝑛−1 𝑛 −1 ! 3
× =
2𝑛−1 ! 𝑛+2 𝑛+1 .𝑛. 𝑛−1 ! 5
2𝑛 2𝑛+1 3 2 2𝑛+1 3
⇒𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛+2
= 5 𝑜𝑟 𝑛+1 𝑛+2
=5
∴ 10 2𝑛 + 1 = 3 𝑛2 + 3𝑛 + 2 𝑜𝑟 3𝑛 2 − 11𝑛 − 4 = 0
1
⇒ 𝑛 − 4 3𝑛 + 1 = 0 ∴ 𝑛 = 1 , − 3 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑛 = 1
1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑛 = − 3 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
iii) 56 𝑝
𝑛+6 : 54 𝑝𝑛+3 = 30800 ∶ 1
56! 54! 30800
56 𝑝𝑛+6 / 54 𝑝𝑛+3 = 30800/1 ⇒ 56− 𝑛+6 !
÷ 54− 𝑛+3 !
= 1
56! 54! 30800 56! 51−𝑛 !
⇒ ÷ = ⇒ 54! × = 30800
50−𝑛 !
51−𝑛 1 ! 50−𝑛 !
56×55×54! 51−𝑛 51−𝑛−1 !
⇒ × = 30800
54! 50−𝑛 !
∴ 3080 51 − 𝑛 = 30800 𝑜𝑟 51 − 𝑛 = 10 ∴ 𝑛 = 41
Task
1) If 10 𝑝𝑛−1 ∶ 11 𝑝𝑛−2 = 30 ∶ 11, find n
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒏 = 𝟕
2) Find n if
a) 5 ×56 𝑝𝑛+6 = 12 ×n -1 𝑝3
b) n + 1 𝑝5 ∶ n - 1 𝑝5 = 9 ∶ 2
c) 2n - 1 𝑝𝑛 ∶ 2n + 1 𝑝𝑛−1 = 5 ∶ 3

THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING

Consider the figure below
𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 are 3-stations.
𝑥 , 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 are 3-routes from A to B
𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 are 4-routes from B to C

𝑎
𝑥
𝑦 𝑏
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑐
𝑧
𝑑
There are 3-independent ways of going from A to B, and corresponding to
each way of going from A to B, there are 4-ways of going from B to C.
Hence there 3 × 4 = 12 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 of going from A to C.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥𝑎 , 𝑥𝑏 , 𝑥𝑐 , 𝑥𝑑 , 𝑦𝑎, 𝑦𝑏 , 𝑦𝑐 , 𝑦𝑑 , 𝑧𝑎 , 𝑧𝑏 , 𝑧𝑐 , 𝑧𝑑
With this background the fundamental rules are;

1. Multiplication principle
If one operation can be performed independently in m different
ways, and another operation can be performed independently in n
different ways, the total number of ways in which both operations
can be performed simultaneously is 𝒎 × 𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔

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2. Addition principle
If one operation can be performed in m ways, and another
operation can be performed in n ways, and only one operation can
be done at a time, then either of the two operations can be
performed in 𝒎 + 𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔
Examples
1. There are four bus lines between A and B and three bus lines between B and
C.
a) In how many ways can a man travel by bus from A to C by way of B?
b) In how many ways can a man travel round trip by bus from A to C by
way of B, if he doe not want to use a bus line more than once?
Solution 𝑎
𝑥
𝑦 𝑏
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑐
𝑧
𝑑
a) 4 × 3 = 12 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
b) Travelling from A to C, 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 4 × 3 = 12 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠. Since the man doe not
want to use the bus line more than once, the number of bus lines from C to
B are 2 and from B to A are 3.
∴ 𝑛𝑜. of ways in which he can travel from C to A by way of B is 2 × 3 =
6 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
∴ the total umber of ways in which a man can travel round trip by bus from
A to C by way of B not using bus line more than once is 12 × 6 = 72 𝑤𝑎𝑦

General examples on permutations

1) Find the number of words that can be formed by considering all possible
permutations of the letters of the word “FATHER”. How many of these words
begin with A and end with R?
Solution
Since all the letters are different,
𝑛 = 6 , 𝑟 = 6 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑
6!
⇒ n 𝑝𝑟 =6 𝑝6 = 6! = 0! = 720 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Since A and R are fixed, permutations are to be done on FTHE
∴ 𝑛 = 4 , 𝑟 = 4 ⇒ 4 𝑝4 = 24 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

2) How many different words containing all the letters of the word TRIANGLE
can be formed?
How many of them
a) Begin with T?
b) Begin with E?
c) Begin with T and end with E?
Solution
All the letters are different
𝑛 = 8, 𝑟 = 8 ∴ 8 𝑝8 = 8!
a) Since T is fixed for all words, permutations are to be made on R ,I
,A,N,G,L,E

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∴ 𝑛 = 7 , 𝑟 = 7 ⇒7 𝑝7 = 7!
b) Since E is now fixed, permutations are to be made on the remaining
letters
∴ 𝑛 = 7 , 𝑟 = 7 ⇒7 𝑝7 = 7!
c) Now T and E are fixed, hence permutations are to be made on the
remaining 6-letters
∴ 𝑛 = 6 , 𝑟 = 6 ⇒6 𝑝6 = 6!

3) i) In how many ways can the letters of the word “MOBILE” be arranged so
that the consonants always occupy the odd places?
ii) How many words can be formed out of the letters “ARTICLE” so that the
vowels occupy the even places?
Solution
i) There are 6-letters of which 3 (M, B, L) are consonants and 3 (I, O, E) are
vowels.
The positions to be filled up with consonants are as below
1 2 3 4 5 6
(M) − (B) − (L) −
The total no. of ways consonants can be filled =3 𝑝3 = 3! = 6 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
The total no. of ways 3-vowels can be arranged =3 𝑝3 = 3! = 6 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
By fundamental principle,
Total arrangements = 6 × 6 = 36 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
ii) There are 7-letters of which 3 (I, O, E) are vowels
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
− 𝐴 − 𝐼 − 𝐸 −
Arrangements of vowels=3 𝑝3 = 3! = 6 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Remaining 4-letters can be arranged in 4 places in 4 𝑝4 = 4! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
By fundamental theorem, total no. of arrangements= 3! × 4! = 144 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

4) In how many ways can the letters of the word “STRANGE” be arranged so
that the vowels may appear in the odd places?
Solution
There are 7 letters with 2 (A, E) vowels.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(A) − (E) − −
The 2 vowels occupy only in the 2 out of 4 positions, in which this can be
done in
4!
4 𝑝2 = 2! = 12 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
The rest of the letters occupy empty spaces. This can be done in
5 𝑝 = 5! = 120 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
5
∴ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 120 × 12 = 1440 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

5) How many words can be formed from the letters of the word “FATEPUR”
when
i. The 3-letters PUR occur together?
ii. Vowels occur at even places?

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Solution
i. There are 8 letters. Since the 3 (PUR) letters occur together, we may
regard them as forming one letter, so there are now 6 letters for
permutation.
⇒ The 6 letters can be arranged in 6𝑝6 = 6! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
⇒ The 3 (PUR) letters can be arranged in 3𝑝3 = 3! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
By fundamental principle, total arrangement = 6! × 3! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
ii. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
− 𝐴 − 𝐸 − 𝑈 − −
3-vowels occupy 3 out of 4 positions in
4!
4 𝑝 3 = 1! = 24 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Remaining consonants occupy 5-empty spaces 1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 8 in
5 𝑝 = 5! = 120 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
5
∴ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 120 × 24 = 2880 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

6) How many different words containing all the letters of the word “TRIANGLE”
can be formed? How many of them
i) When consonants are never together?
ii) When no two vowels are never together?
iii) When consonants and vowels are both always together?
iv) Vowels occupy odd places?
v) Relative positions of vowels and consonants remain unaltered?
Solution
TRIANGLE contain 8- different letters, which can be arranged in 8 𝑝8 =
8! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Consonants are 𝑇 , 𝑅 , 𝑁, 𝐺 , 𝐿
Vowels are 𝐼 , 𝐴, 𝐸
i) When consonants are never together
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛
= −
𝑜𝑓 8 − 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟
Permutations for consonants when together =5 𝑝5 = 5!
Permutations for the word with consonants together . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑇𝑅𝑁𝐺𝐿 , 𝐼, 𝐴, 𝐸 . 𝑖. 𝑒.
4-letters can be arranged in 4 𝑝4 = 4! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
⇒ The total arrangements when consonants are together = 5! × 4!
∴ When consonants are never together = 8! − 4! × 5! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 can arise.
ii) When no two vowels are together = 8! − permutation for vowels when
together. Different arrangement for 2 vowels out of 3
3!
= 3 𝑝2 = = 3! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
1!
Arrangement for vowels (two) occurring together =2 𝑝2 = 2! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
Arrangement for the remaining consonants =5 𝑝5 = 5! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑠 = 2! × 3! × 5!
∴When no two vowels occur together = 8! − 2! × 3! × 5! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
iii) When consonants and vowels are both always together . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑇𝑅𝑁𝐺𝐿 , 𝐼𝐴𝐸
give two letters that can be arranged in
2 𝑝 = 2! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
2
Consonants are arranged in 5 𝑝5 = 5!
Vowels are arranged in 3𝑝3 = 3!

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∴ Total arrangements= 2! × 3! × 5!
iv) Vowels occupy odd places
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(A) − (I) − (E) − () −
Vowels occupy 3 out of 4 positions in 4 𝑝3 = 4! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Remaining consonants occupy 5 places in 5 𝑝5 = 5! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
∴ Total arrangements 4! × 5!
v) T R I A N G L E
⇒ For consonants, 5 𝑝5 = 5! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 occur
⇒ For vowels, 3 𝑝3 = 3! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 occur
∴ Relative positions of vowels and consonants remain unaltered in the word
is 5! × 3! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
7) How many permutations can be made out of the letters of the word
“MISSISSIPPI” taken altogether?

Solution
MISSISSIPPI contains repeated letters . 𝑖. 𝑒. “S” occurs 4-times, “I” occurs 4-
times and “P” occurs 2-times.
𝒏!
Using permutation of objects not all different . 𝑖. 𝑒. , ⇒ number of
𝒑!𝒒!𝒓!
11!
permutations for 11-letters will be= 4!4!2!
8) In how many ways can the letters of the word “CONSTITUTION” be
arranged? How many of these will have the letter “N” both at the beginning
and at the end?
Solution
Word “CONSTITUTION” consists of 12-letters having O, N, I two times each,
T- 3 times and
U, C, S once each.
12!
Required number of different ways is = 2!2!2!!3! = 9979200 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
For having both N at the beginning and at the end, then N is fixed at the
beginning and at the end, there by leaving 10-letters having the above
characteristics.
10!
∴ Required number of ways is = 2!2!3! = 151200
9) In how many ways can the letters of the word “ARRANGE” be arranged?
How many of these arrangements are there in which
a) The two R‟s come together?
b) The two R‟s do not come together?
c) The two R‟s and the two A‟s come together?
Solution
ARRANGE has 7-letters out of which 2 are A, 2 are R, 1 is N, 1 is G and 1 is
E
7!
∴ Required no. of ways = 2!2! = 1260 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
a) Two R‟s come together give the word 𝐴 𝑅𝑅 𝐴 𝑁 𝐺 𝐸 consisting of now 6-
letters.
Now word has 2 A‟s, N, G, E are all one.

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6!
⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 2! = 360 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
2!
𝐹𝑜𝑟 2𝑅′ 𝑠, 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = =1
2!
b) Required no. of arrangements = 1260 − 360 = 900 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
c) Treating both R and A as one individual letter the word becomes
𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝑅 𝑁𝐺𝐸 consisting of 5-letters that are different
∴ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 5! − 120 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
10) a) How many different arrangements can be made by using all the letters in
the word “MATHEMATICS”? How many of them begin with
i) C? ii) T?
b) How many permutations can be made out of the letters of the word
“INDEPENDENCE”? How many of them have vowels occurring together?
Solution
a) MATHEMATICS has 11-letters of which „M‟ occurs twice, „A‟ occurs twice
and „T‟ also occurs twice. Remaining letters . 𝑖. 𝑒. 11 − 6 = 5 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝐻 , 𝐸, 𝐼 , 𝐶 , 𝑆
are all different from one another.
∴ No. of permutations of these 11- letters taken all at a time is
11!
= 4989600 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
2!2!2!
i) Fixing C in first position, then the permutation shall be done on the
remaining letters. 𝑖. 𝑒. 10 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 with the above stated characteristics
10!
No. of ways = 2!2!2! = 453 600 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
ii) Fixing T in first position, permutation is to be done on the remaining
letters. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑇 , 𝑀, 𝐴 , 𝑇, 𝐻, 𝐸 𝑀, 𝐴, 𝐼, 𝐶, 𝑆 . 𝑖. 𝑒. in these 10-letters, M and A both
occur twice, T-no longer occurs twice for one of them occupied the first
position.
10!
∴ No. of ways = 2!2! = 907 200 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
b) INDEPENDENCE has 12-letters in which „N‟ occurs thrice, „D‟ occurs twice,
„E‟ occurs 4-times and the remaining 3-letters I, P, C are all different from
each other.
8!
∴ No. of permutations of 12-letters taking all at a time= 3!2!4!
INDEPENDENCE, consists of 5-vowels 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐼, 𝐸, 𝐸, 𝐸, 𝐸 4 − 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟
Taking the 5-vowels as one letter, then 𝐼𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝐷𝑃𝑁𝐷𝑁𝐶 is the word of 8-
letters consisting of 3 N‟s and 2 D‟s
8!
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 3!2!
5!
Permutation of the tied/bracketed vowels=
4!
8! 5!
∴ Total no. of arrangements = ×
3!2! 4!

11) a) How many numbers greater than 1 million can be formed with digits 4, 5,
5, 0, 5, 4, 3?
Solution
There are 7 digits in all, of which there are 2-fours, 3-fives and the rest are
different.
7!
∴ Total no. of arrangements = 2!3! = 420
Of these numbers, some begin with 0 and are less than 1-million, so they
must be rejected.

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6!
Fixing 0 at the beginning, possible no. of permutations are= 2!3! = 60
∴ Required number = 420 − 60 = 360

b) (i) Find all the six digit numbers formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
(ii) How many numbers of 4-digits can be formed from out of the digits 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 0 if no digit is to be repeated?
Solution
i) The digits can be arranged in 6 𝑝6 = 6! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Out of these 6! Ways, there are numbers that begin with “0”
∴ Number of such numbers=, 5 𝑝5 = 5!
6-digit number = 6! − 5! = 600
ii) From the 7-digits, 4-digit number is to be formed.
7!
Number of ways for this, 7 𝑝4 =
3!
Out of these numbers, there are numbers starting with 0-digit hence
reducing to 3- digit number.
6!
Number of ways for this = 6 𝑝3 = 3!
7! 6!
Required numbers = 3! − 3! = 720

c) How many odd numbers of 5-digits can be formed with digits 3, 2, 7, 4, 0

when no digit is repeated?
Solution
Odd numbers have 3 or 7 digit in the last place.
Odd numbers starting with 0 and have 3 or 7 in the last place exist.
Let us find all 5-digit odd numbers with 3 in last place =4 𝑝4 = 4! = 24 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Now all 5-digit odd numbers with 7 in last place =4 𝑝4 = 4! = 24 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Now finding all odd numbers with 0 in first place but ending with 3
. 𝑖. 𝑒. 4 − 𝑑𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
=3 𝑝3 = 3! = 6 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Also finding numbers with 0 in first place and 7 in the last place. 𝑖. 𝑒. 4 −
𝑑𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
=3 𝑝3 = 3! = 6 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Now total number of odd numbers with 0 in first place = 6 + 6 = 12 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
Total number of odd numbers = 24 + 24 = 48
∴ Number of odd numbers with 5-digits = 48 − 12 = 36

d) (i) How many numbers of 4-digits can be formed with digits 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, o

digit being repeated? How many of these will be greater 8000?
ii) A number of 4-different digits is to formed using digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7in
all possible ways. Find how many of such numbers can be formed. Hence
how many such numbers are greater than 3400?
Solution
i) 4-digit numbers =5 𝑝4 = 5!
For 4-digit number to be greater than 8000, 8 or 9 must occupy the first
place.
Permutations of the remaining digits . 𝑖. 𝑒 3out of 4 after the first being
occupied by 8 or 9

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=4 𝑝3 = 4! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Since numbers are of 2 types . 𝑖. 𝑒 8 𝑜𝑟 9 starting digits, then
Total number of numbers= 4! × 2 = 48
Alternatively
Number greater than 8000= 5! − 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑛 8000
Finding 4 − 𝑑𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 < 8000
Numbers < 8000 begin with 3, 5 or 7
Since first place is being occupied in 3-ways, then
4 − 𝑑𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 < 8000 = 3 × Permutation of the 3-digits after the first one
being occupied by 3 or 5 or 7
∴ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 < 8000 = 3 ×4 𝑝3 = 3 × 4!
Required 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 > 8000 = 5! − 3 × 4! = 48
7!
ii) 4-digit numbers formed out of 7-digits in 7 𝑝4 = 3! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
For a number to be greater than 3400,
Case I
6!
The first digit on LHS must be 4, 5, 6, 7 and the 3-digis occupied in 6 𝑝3 = 3!
The first place in 4-ways
Case II
The first digit on LHS is 3, the second digit must be 5, 6, 7 and the other
two places are occupied by any of the two remaining 5-digits

Case III
The first digit on LHS is occupied by 3, second digit by 4 and the other two
places are occupied by two of the remaining digits
For case I: Total arrangement= 4 × 6 𝑝3
For case II: Total arrangement = 3 × 5 𝑝2
For case III: Total arrangement =5 𝑝2
Total = 4 × 6 𝑝3 + 3 × 5 𝑝2 +5 𝑝2 = 560 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

e) How many numbers greater than 7000 can be formed with digits 3, 5, 7, 8,
9 no digit being repeated?
Solution
Cases in the question
Case I: All numbers with 5-digits are > 7000
This is done in 5 𝑝5 = 5! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Case II: There will be 4-digit numbers which are> 7000. These start with 8,
9 or 7 but never with 3 or 5
A. 4-digit number > 7000, starting with 8 or 9 are:
∵ 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 3 − 𝑑𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑠
2 × 4𝑝3
𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 4
B. If the number is to start with 7, the 3-digits must be filled up from
the 4-remaninig digits in 4𝑝3 = 4! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 4𝑝3 + 2 × 4𝑝3 + 5! = 192

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Task
1. Uneb 2004
How many arrangements can be made from the letters of the name
“MISSISSIPPI”
a. When all letters are taken at a time?
b. If the two letters P begin every word?
11!
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: a. b.
4!4!2!
𝐻𝐼𝑁𝑇: 𝑀𝐼𝑆𝑆𝐼𝑆𝑆𝐼 𝑃𝑃 𝐼 𝑕𝑎𝑠 10 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 9
9!
4!4! 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
2. How many different words can be formed with the letter of the word
“CAPTAIN”? In how many of these C and T are never together?
𝟕! 6!
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: , taking C and T as one unit⇒ 2! , 𝐶𝑇 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛 2𝑝2 = 2! ∴ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
𝟐!
6!
3!
× 2!
3. In how many ways the letters of the word “PETROL” can be arranged? How
many of these do not begin with P? How many begin with P but do not end
with L? Also find the number of words which can be formed if O and L are
never together?
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: i) 720 ii) 720 − 120 iii) 120 − 24 iv) 720 − 2 × 120
4. How many permutations can be made out of letters all taken together
a) EXAMINATION
b) PERMUTATION
c) ACCOUNTANT
d) MATAAMA
11! 10! 7!
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: a) 4 989 600 b) 2!
c) 2!2!2!
d) 2!4!

Circular permutation
1. In how many ways can 5 persons be seated on a round table conference?
Solution
Let the 5 persons be denoted by letters a, b, c, d and e
NOTE
If these persons are to be seated in a row the five linear arrangements are;
𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑒𝑎, 𝑐𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑏, 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑐, 𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 , are all different from one another. But if are
to be seated at a round table in the same sense as in the figure below,

𝑐 𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑒 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑐

𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒 𝑎
𝑒 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒

All the arrangements are the same, for starting with different letters and
reading them in clockwise direction.𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑒𝑎, 𝑐𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑏, 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑐, 𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 ,
which are the same as the linear arrangements.
∴ A single circular arrangement of the n letters is equivalent to n different
linear arrangements.

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i. e. 𝐧 × 𝐚 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 = 𝐧! × 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐧 − 𝐥𝐞𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬

⇒ 𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 = 𝐧 − 𝟏 !

Let the circular arrangement = 𝑥

⇒ 5 × 𝑥 = 5! 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 5 − 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
1
∴ 𝑥 = × 5! = 4!
5
∴ 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 5 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 5 − 1 ! = 4!
2. a) In how many ways can 7 gentlemen and 7 ladies sit at a round table so
that no two ladies are together?
b) In how many ways can 5 gentlemen and 3 ladies sit at a round table so
that no two ladies are together?

Solution
a) Man position No. of ways in which 7 gentlemen can sit on
round table= 7 − 1 ! = 6!
Lady position

Since no two ladies can be sitting together, ladies can be put in between the
men . 𝑖. 𝑒. there are exactly 7 places, 7 ladies can use. This can be done in 7!
Ways.
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 6! × 7! = 3 628 800
b)
Gentlemen position 5 gentlemen sit on a round
table in 5 − 1 ! = 4! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Lady position

5!
There are 5 positions 3 ladies can occupy in 5 𝑝3 = 2! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
5!
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 4! × = 1440 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
2!
Task
1. In how many ways can 7 people be arranged at a round table so that two
particular persons be together?
2. A family of 4 brothers and 3 sisters is to be arranged for a photograph in one
row. In how many ways can they be seated if
a) All sisters sit together?
b) No two sisters sit together?
HINT:
a) 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 = 5! × 3! = 720
Taken as one = 𝑆

𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3
𝐵1 𝐵2 𝐵3 𝐵4

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∴ Permutation of 𝐵1 𝐵2 𝐵3 𝐵4 𝑆 = 5!
Now permutation of 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 = 3!
Total permutation= 5! × 3!
𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3
ii)

𝐵1 𝐵2 𝐵 𝐵4
Permutation of all 7 persons= 7! 3
Permutations of sisters seated together
= 5! × 3!
∴ Total= 7! − 5! × 3! = 4320

3. There are 6 books of Economics, 3 of Math and 2 of Accountancy. In how

many ways can these be placed on a shelf if the books on the same subject
are to be together?
HINT: 6E‟s, 3M‟s and 2A‟s are different⇒ 6! × 3! × 2!

4. A library has 5 copies of one book, 4 copies of each of two books, 6 copies of
each of 3 books and a single copy of 8 books. In how many ways can all the
books be arranged on the shelf?
HINT: total number of books of same kind= 1 × 5 + 4 × 2 + 6 × 3 + 8 =
39 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘𝑠 of which same types are 5, 4, 4, 6, 6, and 6
39! 39!
∴ Total number of arrangements= 5!4!4!6!6!6! = 5! 4! 2 3
6!

COMBINATIONS
Definition:
The different groups/collections/selections that can be formed out of a
given set of objects by taking some or all of them at a time (without regard
to the order of arrangements) are called
Combinations
NOTATION
The number of combinations of n-different objects taken r-at a time is
denoted as
n 𝒏 𝒑𝒓 𝒏!
𝑪𝒓 = = 𝒓! , called combinatorial coefficient
𝒓! 𝒏−𝒓

IMPORTANT DEFINATIONS IN COMBINATIONS

a) Complementary combinations
i) n n . 𝑖. 𝑒.The number of combinations of n different
𝑪𝒓 = 𝑪𝒏−𝒓

objects taken r at a time is equal to the number of combinations of n

different objects taken 𝑛 − 𝑟 at a time.
Proof
𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛!
n 𝐶𝑟 = 𝑟! 𝑛 −𝑟 ! = = = n 𝐶𝑛−𝑟
𝑛 −𝑟 ! 𝑛−𝑛+𝑟 𝑛−𝑟 ! 𝑛 − 𝑛−𝑟

ii) n
𝑪𝒏 = n 𝑪𝟎 = 𝟏

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Proof
𝑛! 𝑛!
n 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑛! 𝑛−𝑛 ! = 𝑛!0! = 1
𝑛! 𝑛!
Also n 𝐶0 = = =1
𝑛! 𝑛−0 ! 𝑛!0!

iii) n n
𝑪𝒓 + 𝑪𝒓+𝟏 =
n+1
𝑪𝒓+𝟏 OR
n n
𝑪𝒓 + 𝑪𝒓−𝟏 =
n+1
𝑪𝒓

𝑖. 𝑒. The number of combination of n objects taken r at a time plus the

number of combinations of n taken (r+1) or (r-1) in the above formulae
respectively at a time is equal to the number of combinations (n+1) objects
taken (r+1) or respectively at a time.

Proof
n
𝐶𝑛 + n 𝐶𝑟+1 = n+1 𝐶𝑟+1
𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛!
n 𝐶𝑛 + n 𝐶𝑟+1 = + = +
𝑟! 𝑛−𝑟 ! 𝑟+1 ! 𝑛− 𝑟+1 ! 𝑟! 𝑛−𝑟 ! 𝑟 +1 ! 𝑛−𝑟−1 !
𝑛! 1 1
= + 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑛−𝑟−1 !𝑟! 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟+1
𝑛! 𝑟 +1+𝑛−𝑟 𝑛! 𝑛 +1
= 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = .
𝑛−𝑟−1 !𝑟! 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟 +1 𝑛 −𝑟−1 !𝑟! 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟+1
∵ 𝑛−𝑟−1 ! 𝑛−𝑟 = 𝑛−𝑟 !
𝑛+1 !
= 𝑟! 𝑟 + 1 = 𝑟 + 1 !
𝑛 −𝑟 ! 𝑟+1 !
𝑛! 𝑛 + 1 = 𝑛 + 1 !
𝑛+1 !
= ∵ 𝑛+1 − 𝑟+1 =𝑛−𝑟
𝑛+1 − 𝒓+1 ! 𝑟+1 !
= n+1 𝐶𝑟+1

b) Restricted combinations
i. The number of combinations on n objects taken r at a time in which p
particular objects are always included is
n -p
𝑪𝒓−𝒑

ii. The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time in which p

particular objects never occur is n -p
𝑪𝒓

c) Total number of combinations of n-objects all different

The total number of combinations of n-different objects taken some
or all at a time is
n
𝑪𝟏 + n 𝑪𝟐 + n 𝑪𝟑 +……………..+ n 𝑪𝒏 = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏

d) Group division
The number of ways in which 𝑚 + 𝑛 objects m and n being un
equal, can be divided in to two groups containing m and n objects
respectively is
𝒎+𝒏 !
𝒎!𝒏!

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Example
1. Evaluate
i) 6 𝑐3 ii) 7 𝑐2 iii) 4 𝑐4 iv) 5 𝑐1
Solution
6! 4!
i) 6 𝑐3 = 3!3! = 20 iii) 4 𝑐4 = 4!0! = 1
7! 5!
ii) 7 𝑐2 = = 21 iv) 5𝑐
1 = =5
5!2! 4!1!
2. Find n if:
a) n 𝑐2 = 3 b) 2n 𝑐3 : n 𝑐2 = 44: 3 c) 28 𝑐
2𝑛 :
24 𝑐2𝑛−4 = 225: 11
Solution
𝑛! 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2 !
a) n 𝑐2 = =3⇒ =3
𝑛−2 !2! 𝑛−2 !2!
𝑛 𝑛−1
⇒ = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 2 − 𝑛 − 6 = 0 ∴ 𝑛 = 3 , −2
2!
Taking 𝑛 = 3; 𝑛 = −2 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
2𝑛 ! 𝑛! 44 2𝑛 ! 𝑛−2 !2! 44
b) 2n 𝑐
3:
n 𝑐2 = ÷ = ⇒ × =
2𝑛−3 !3! 𝑛 −2 !2! 3 2𝑛−3 !3! 𝑛! 3
2𝑛 2𝑛−1 2𝑛−2 𝑛 −2 !2! 44
⇒ × =
3! 𝑛 𝑛 −1 𝑛−2 ! 3
2𝑛 2𝑛−1 2𝑛−2 2𝑛−3 2 44 4 2𝑛−1 44
⇒ ×𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟 =
6 𝑛−1 3 3 3
∴ 2𝑛 − 1 = 11 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 6

3. Find n if n 𝑝4 = 30. n 𝑐5
Solution
𝑛! 𝑛! 1 30
= 30 × ⇒ =
𝑛−4 ! 𝑛 −5 !5! 𝑛−4 𝑛−5 ! 𝑛 −5 !5!
1 1 1
⇒ 𝑛−4 = 5! = 4 ∴ 𝑛 − 4 = 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 8

4. There are 12 men and 9 women. In how man ways can they stand in a row
so that no two women are together?
Solution
Let the 12 men (denoted by M‟s) be put in a row as shown below.
×M×M×M×M×M×M×M×M×M×M×M×M×
In order that no two women may be put together the women can only be put
in places marked as ×, and the men are 12, the number of such places is
13.
∴ In order to place the 9 women we must choose any 9 out of 13 places. 𝑖. 𝑒.
13!
13 𝑐9 or 13 𝑐4 = = 715 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
9!4!

5. In how many ways can a committee of 3 ladies and 4 gentlemen be

appointed from a meeting consisting of 8 ladies and 7 gentlemen?
Solution
3 ladies can be selected from 8 in 8𝑐3 ways.
4 gentlemen can be selected from 7 in 7 𝑐4 ways
∴ The number of ways in which a committee can be selected is
8𝑐 × 7 𝑐 = 1 960 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
3 4
6. A committee of 4 men and 3 women is to be formed from 10 men and 8
women. In how many ways can the committee be formed? (𝒖𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟏)

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Solution
4 men can be selected from 10 men in 10 𝑐4
3 women are selected from 8 women in 8 𝑐3
Total number of ways of selecting committee =10 𝑐4 × 8 𝑐3 = 11 760 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

7. In how many ways can a committee of 6 men and 2 women be formed out of
10 men and 5 women?
Solution
6 men selected from 10 men in 10 𝑐6 ways
2 women selected from 5 women in 5 𝑐2
Total number of ways of selecting a committee =10 𝑐6 × 5 𝑐2 = 2 100

8. A group of nine has to be selected from 10 boys and 8 girls. It can consist of
either 5 boys and 4 girls or 4 boys and 5 girls. How many different groups
can be chosen? 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟔
Solution
Case I
5 boys selected from 10 boys in 10 𝑐5
4 girls selected from 8 girls in 8 𝑐4
Total number of selection = 10 𝑐5 ×8 𝑐4
Case II
4 boys selected from 10 boys in 10 𝑐4
5 girls selected from 8 girls in 8 𝑐5
Total number of selection = 10 𝑐4 ×8 𝑐5
∴ Overall total number of selection =10 𝑐5 ×8 𝑐4 +10 𝑐4 ×8 𝑐5 = 29 400

9. In a multinational company, 3 branches in a particular country are managed

by 4, 5 and 8 persons. In how many ways can 20 persons be allotted to the
different branches?

Solution
Let the branches be A, B and C
For branch A
Let the 1st 4 persons be selected out 20 persons.
Number of ways =20 𝑐4
Having selected 4 persons for branch A, 5 persons can be selected out of
the remaining 16 for branch B in 16 𝑐5 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
After this 8 persons for branch C out of the remaining 11 in 11𝑐8 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
By fundamental theorem, selection of persons can be made in
20 𝑐 × 16 𝑐 × 11𝑐 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
4 5 8

10. At an election 3 wards of a town are canvassed by 4, 5 and 8 respectively. If

20 men volunteer, in how many ways can they be allotted to the different
wards?
Solution
Let 3 wards be A, B and C
Let A be canvassed by the 1st 4 out of 20 in 20𝑐4 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
B will be canvassed by 5 out of remaining 16 in 16 𝑐5 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

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C will be canvassed by 8 out of the remaining 11 in 11𝑐

8 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
∴ Total number of ways =20 𝑐4 × 16 𝑐5 × 11𝑐8

11. From 6 boys and 4 girls, 5 are to be selected for admission for a particular
course. In how many ways can this be done if there must be exactly 2 girls?
Solution
Type of selection Boys (6) Girls (4)
A 3 2
⇒ A can be done in 6 𝑐3 × 4 𝑐2 = 120 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

12. From 5 gentlemen and 6 ladies, a committee of 5 is to be formed. In how

many ways can this be done if
a) The committee is to include at least a lady
b) There is no restriction about its formation
c) Not more than 3 gentlemen?
Solution
a) Lady (6) Gentlemen (5) No. ways of formation
1 4 6𝑐 × 5𝑐
1 4
2 3 6𝑐 × 5𝑐
2 3
3 2 6𝑐 × 5𝑐
3 2
4 1 6𝑐 × 5𝑐
4 1
5 0 6𝑐 × 5𝑐
5 0
∴ Number of ways in which a committee includes at least a lady is
= 6 𝑐1 × 5 𝑐4 +6 𝑐2 × 5 𝑐3 +6 𝑐3 × 5 𝑐2 +6 𝑐4 × 5 𝑐1 +6 𝑐5 × 5 𝑐0
= 30 + 50 + 200 + 75 + 6 = 461 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
b) When there is no restriction about formation 5 are selected out of 11 in
11 𝑐 = 231 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
5
c) Gentlemen (5) Lady (6) Type of committee No. of ways
0 5 A 5𝑐 × 6𝑐
0 5
1 4 B 5𝑐 × 6𝑐
1 4
2 3 C 5𝑐 × 6𝑐
2 3
3 2 D 5𝑐 × 6𝑐
3 2
∴ Number of ways in which a committee consisting of not more than 3
gentlemen is formed in
5 𝑐 × 6 𝑐 + 5 𝑐 × 6 𝑐 + 5 𝑐 × 6 𝑐 + 5 𝑐 × 6 𝑐 = 6 + 75 + 200 + 150 = 431 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
0 5 1 4 2 3 3 2
13. The question paper on math and statistics contains 10 questions divided in to
two groups of 5 questions each. In how many ways can an examinee select 6
questions taking at least 2 questions from each group?
Solution
Group (A) [5 questions] Group (B) [5 questions] No. of ways
2 4 5𝑐 × 5𝑐
2 4
3 3 5𝑐 × 5𝑐
3 3
4 2 5𝑐 × 5𝑐
4 2
5 1
6 0

Not considered since at least two questions from each group are to be
considered.

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∴ Total number of selection = 5 𝑐2 × 5 𝑐4 + 5 𝑐3 × 5 𝑐3 + 5 𝑐4 × 5 𝑐2

= 50 + 100 + 50 = 200 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
14. A council consists of 11 members of which 5 are permanent and the
remaining are temporary. A solution is declared to be passed by the council if
it receives at least 7 votes including all the permanent members. Find the
number of ways in which the resolution can be passed. What will be the
number of ways if;
a) For passing a resolution, only a simple majority was selected
b) Any 7 or more votes could secure the passing of the resolution?
Solution
Permanent vote (5) Temporary vote (6) No. of selection
5 2 5 𝑐 × 6 𝑐 = 15
5 2
5 3 5 𝑐 × 6 𝑐 = 20
5 3
5 4 5 𝑐 × 6 𝑐 = 15
5 4
5 5 5𝑐 × 6𝑐 =6
5 5
5 6 5𝑐 × 6𝑐 =1
5 6
∴ Total number of ways = 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 1 = 57
a) For simple majority either 6 or 7 or 8 or 9 or 10 or 11 votes out of
11 are required. This is done in
11 𝑐 + 11 𝑐 + 11 𝑐 +11 𝑐 + 11 𝑐 11 𝑐
6 7 8 9 10 + 11 = 1024 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
b) Number of ways =11 𝑐7 + 11 𝑐8 +11 𝑐9 + 11 𝑐10 + 11 𝑐11 = 562 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

15. A council consists of 10 members, 6 belonging to the party A and 4 to the

party B. in how many ways can a committee of 5 be selected so that the
members of the party A are in the majority?
Solution
A (6) B (4) No. of ways
5 0 6𝑐 × 4𝑐 =6
5 0
4 1 6 𝑐 × 4 𝑐 = 60
4 1
3 2 6 𝑐 × 4 𝑐 = 120
3 2
2 3
1 4

, cannot be taken since party (A) must be the majority.

∴ Total number of selection = 6 + 60 + 120 = 186

16. Among 20 members of a cricket club there are 2 wicket keepers and 5
bowlers. In how many ways can 11 be chosen so as to include only one of the
wicket keepers and at least 3 bowlers?
Solution
Type Wicket Bowler No. of players other Number of ways
players [5max] than Wicket of
𝟐 𝒎𝒂𝒙 Bowlers [13 max]
A 1 3 7 2 𝑐 × 5 𝑐 × 13 𝑐
1 3 7
B 1 4 6 2 𝑐 × 5 𝑐 × 13 𝑐
1 4 6
C 1 5 5 (Exhausted) 2 𝑐 × 5 𝑐 × 13 𝑐
1 5 5

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∴ Total number of ways = 2 𝑐1 × 5 𝑐3 × 13 𝑐7 + 2 𝑐1 × 5 𝑐4 × 13 𝑐6 + 2 𝑐1 × 5 𝑐5 × 13

𝑐5 = 54 054 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

16. A cricket team of 11 players is to be formed from 16 players including 4

bowlers and 2 wicket keepers. In how many ways can a team be formed so
that the team consists of at least 3 bowlers and at least one wicket keeper?
Solution
Wicket keeper (2 max) bowlers (4 max) Neither wicket nor keeper (10 max)
1 3 7
2 4 5
1 4 6
2 3 6
Further two possibilities
∴ Total selection = 2 𝑐1 × 4 𝑐3 × 10 𝑐7 + 2 𝑐1 × 4 𝑐4 × 10 𝑐6 + 2 𝑐2 × 4 𝑐3 × 10 𝑐6 + 2

𝑐2 × 4 𝑐4 × 10 𝑐5 = 2 472 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

3. a) A bag contains a mixture of 8 Rupee, 6 Fifty paise and 4 Twenty paise

coins. In how many ways selection of 3 coins can be made so that
i) all the three are Rupee coins
ii) one is of each denomination
iii) none is a Rupee coin
Solution
i) For all to be Rupee coins, the 3 coins are selected from 8 Rupee in
8 𝑐 × 6 𝑐 × 4 𝑐 = 56 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
3 0 0
ii) One of each denomination is to be chosen; 1 Rupee can be chosen out of
8 in 8 𝑐1 , 1 Fifty paise is taken out of 6 in 6 𝑐1 and 1 Twenty paise in 4 𝑐1
ways.
∴ Total number of choices = 8 𝑐1 × 6 𝑐1 × 4 𝑐1 = 192 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
iii) None is a Rupee coin if the 3 coins are to be selected from Fifty paise and
Twenty paise . 𝑖. 𝑒. a total of 6 + 4 = 10
∴ Total number of ways = 10 𝑐3 = 120 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

b ) A box contains 7 red, 6 white and 4 blue balls. How many selection of 3
balls can be made so that
i) All three are red balls
ii) None is a red ball
iii) There is one ball of each color?
Solution
i) All 3 balls are red and are selected from only 7 red balls in 7 𝑐3 = 35 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
ii) No red ball, the 3 balls are selected from the other colors . 𝑖. 𝑒. out of
6 + 4 = 10 balls
∴ 10 𝑐3 = 120 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
iii) One ball of each color is selected in 7𝑐1 × 6 𝑐1 × 4 𝑐2 = 168 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

c) A committee of 4 persons is to be appointed from 3 officers of the

production department, 3 officers of the sales department, 2 officers of the
purchase department and 1 cost accountant. In how many ways should a
committee be formed so that

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i) There must be one from each category

ii) It should have at least one from purchase department?
Solution
i) Number of ways of forming a committee from each category = 3𝑐1 × 3 𝑐1 × 2

𝑐1 × 1 𝑐1 = 18 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
ii) A committee with at least 1 from purchase department
= No. of ways of (1 − from purchase department +3 from other depts.)
+(2 − from purchase dept.+ 2 from other depts.)
= 2𝑐1 × 7 𝑐3 + 2𝑐2 × 7 𝑐2 = 92 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

d) An urn contains 8 white and 3 red balls. In how many ways should 2 balls
be drawn so that
i) Both are white
ii) Both are red
iii) One is of each color?
Solution
i) 2 white balls are drawn from 8 in 8𝑐2 = 28 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
ii) 2 red balls are drawn from 3 in 3𝑐2 = 3 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
iii) No. of ways in which 1 white and 1 red can be drawn out of 8 white
and 3red = 8𝑐1 × 3𝑐1 = 24 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

e) A subcommittee of 16 members is to be formed out of a group of 7 men and

4 ladies. In how many ways can the subcommittee be formed in order to
consist of
i) Exactly two ladies
ii) At least 3 ladies
Solution
i) 2 ladies out of 4 and 4 men out of 7 can be selected in
4𝑐 × 7𝑐 = 210 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
2 4
ii) The subcommittee will consist of at least 2 ladies if there are 2, 3 or
4 ladies in it in each case the number of men would be 4, 3 and 2
respectively.
No. of ways = 4𝑐2 × 7𝑐4 + 4𝑐3 × 7𝑐3 + 4𝑐4 × 7𝑐2 = 371 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
f) A bag contains 6 white and 9 black balls. Two drawings of 4 balls are
made such that
i) The balls are replaced before the second trial
ii) The balls are not replaced before the second trial
In how many ways should the first drawing give 4 white and the
second 4 black balls in each case? What if no restriction of which is
the first or second drawn, find the number of ways this can be done
in each case.
Solution
i) No. of ways in which 4 white balls are drawn = 6𝑐4 ways
No. of ways in which 4 black balls are drawn = 9𝑐4 ways
ii) At the first trial number of ways of drawing 4 white = 6𝑐4 ways. When 4
white balls have been removed the bag contains 2 white and 9 black balls
∴ No. of ways = 9𝑐4 ways
If no restriction; (i) 15𝑐4 × 15𝑐4 (ii) 15𝑐4 × 11𝑐4

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Task
1. A student has to answer 8 out of 10 questions in an examination.
a) How many choices have he?
b) How many if he must answer the first three questions
c) How many if he must answer at least 4 of the first five questions?

Solution
a) 8 out of 10 can be selected in 10𝑐8 = 45 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
b) Since the first three questions are compulsory only 5 out of the remaining
7 questions must be selected. This can be done in 7𝑐5 = 21 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
c) Case I: 4 from the first 5 questions and 4 from the remaining 5
questions
Case II: 5 from the first 5 questions and 3 from the 3 remaining questions
∴ No. of ways = 5𝑐4 × 5𝑐4 + 5𝑐5 × 5𝑐3 = 35
2. How many combinations can be formed of 8 counters marked 1. 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7 , 8 taking them 4 at a time, there being at least one odd and one even
counter in each combinations?
Solution
4𝑐 × 4𝑐 + 4𝑐 × 4𝑐 + 4𝑐 × 4𝑐 = 68
3 1 2 2 1 3
3. Find the number of combinations of the words “ACCOMMODATION”,
“COLLEGE” taken 4 at a time. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: For ACCOMMODATION: 167 ,
COLLEGE, 5𝒄𝟒 + 2𝒄𝟏 × 4𝒄𝟐 + 2𝒄𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖
4. i) n𝑐10 = n𝑐12 ii) n𝑐7 = n𝑐3 iii) n𝑐5 + n𝑐3 = 6 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: i 22 ii 10
5. Find the value of r if
a) n𝑝𝑟 = 30240 and n𝑐𝑟 = 252 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: r = 5
b) n𝑐𝑟 = n𝑐2𝑟−5
A committee of 4 men and 3 women is to be formed from 1o men and 8
women. In how many ways can the committee be formed? 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟏
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 10𝒄𝟒 × 8𝒄𝟑 = 𝟏𝟏 𝟕𝟔𝟎

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POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Polynomial functions of one variable

A Polynomial in the symbol 𝑥 over the real numbers ℝ, is an algebraic

expression that can be written:
𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟐 𝒙𝒏−𝟐 + ⋯ … … … … … + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟎, where n is a non-
negative integer, the coefficient 𝒂𝒊inℝ, and ℝ𝒂𝒏 ≠ 𝟎
The number n is said to be the degree of a polynomial and 𝒂𝒏 is called
the leading coefficient.
A polynomial function 𝒇 𝒙 is an algebraic function that can be written
as:
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟐 𝒙𝒏−𝟐 + ⋯ … … … … … + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟎, where x is a
variable whose domain is the set of real number ℝ

Examples of polynomial functions

i) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 3 + 1, degree = 5
ii) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 + 1, degree = 3
Examples of non-polynomial functions
1
a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 3 + 1 ; 𝑥 2 non permissible
3 3
b) 𝑟 𝑥 = 2 𝑖𝑥 2 + 2 ; 2 𝑖 ∉ ℝ

Division of a polynomial by another polynomial

Two methods may be applied
 Long division
 Synthetic division
The polynomial 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟐 𝒙𝒏−𝟐 + ⋯ … + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟎 can be
divided by a DIVISOR to either get a QUOTIENT only or 𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 +
REMAINDER. The polynomial being divided is called a DIVIDEND.

LONG DIVISION
Steps followed are:
1) Arrange the dividend in descending powers of the variable
2) Insert with 0 coefficients any missing terms of less than degree n
3) Divide the 1𝑠𝑡 term of the divisor in to the 1𝑠𝑡 term of the dividend
4) Multiply the divisor by the result from step (3) above, line up like terms
5) Subtract as arithmetic and bring down now the remaining terms
6) Repeat the process until the degree of the remainder is less than that of the
divisor.
NOTE:
Division of a polynomial by a divisor will be possible if the degree of
polynomial is greater than that of divisor.
Examples
Divide
a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 5 + 4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 by 2𝑥 − 3
b) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 6 − 2𝑥 4 + 2 by 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2
c) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 3 + 2 by 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 + 1

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Solution
a)
𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 3
2𝑥 − 3 4𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑
4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2
6𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5
6𝑥 2 − 9𝑥
6𝑥 + 5
6𝑥 − 9
14 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟

𝑓 𝑥 14
∴ 2𝑥−3 = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 3 + 2𝑥−3 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 3 2𝑥 − 3 + 14
In general, 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟

NOTE:
i) Divisor 2x − 3 is linear
ii) Dividend 4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 5 is of degree n = 3
iii) Quotient 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 3 is of degree n − 1 = 2
iv) Remainder 14 is a constant
𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 6
b)
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 6 + 0𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 − 2
𝑥 6 − 𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 4
𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥
𝑥 5 − 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 −2
𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 − 2
𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2
3𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 − 2
3𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥
6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 2
6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 12
12𝑥 + 10
𝑓 𝑥 12𝑥+10
∴ = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 +
𝑥 2 −𝑥−2 𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
NOTE:
i) Divisor 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 is a Quadratic
ii) Dividend 𝑥 6 − 2𝑥 4 + 2 by 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 is of degree n = 6
iii) Quotient 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 6 is of degree n − 2 = 4
iv) Remainder 12𝑥 + 10 is linear

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𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 6
𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 2
c)
𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2
𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 2
𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1
3

𝑓 𝑥 −𝑥 2 −𝑥+1 −𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1
∴ 𝑥 3 +𝑥+1 = 𝑥 2 + 1 + 𝑥 3 +𝑥+1
NOTE:
i) Divisor 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 + 1 is a Cubic
ii) Dividend 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 3 + 2is of degree n = 5
iii) Quotient 𝑥 2 + 1 is of degree n − 3 = 2
iv) Remainder −𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 is Quadratic

Summary of the results:

Degree of Divisor Degree of Remainder
Polynomial Quotient
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 𝑹
Linear 𝑛−1 Constant
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 𝟐 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩
𝑜𝑟 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 𝒑𝒙 + 𝒒 𝑜𝑟 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝑛−2 Linear
𝒏
Quadratic
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 𝟑
𝑜𝑟 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 𝒑𝒙 + 𝒒 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒏 𝑛−3 𝑨𝒙𝟐 + 𝑩𝒙 + 𝑪
𝑜𝑟 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅
Cubic

The above table is important in finding the remainder basing on the type of
the divisor. It is so much applied in remand theorem.

SYNTHETIC DIVISION
Key steps in synthetic division process
To divide 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 by𝒙 − 𝒂
1. Arrange the coefficients of 𝑓 𝑥 in descending powers of x. write zero as the
coefficient for each missing power
2. After writing the divisor in the form 𝑥 − 𝑎 , use 𝒂 to generate the 2𝑛𝑑 and 3𝑟𝑑
row s as follows: bring down the 1𝑠𝑡 coefficient of the dividend and
multiplying it by𝒂; then add the product to the 2𝑛𝑑 coefficient of the
dividend. Multiplying this sum by 𝒂 and add the product to the 3𝑟𝑑
coefficient of the dividend.
Repeat the procedure until a product is added to the constant term of
the𝑓 𝑥 .
3. The last nu number to the right in the 3𝑟𝑑 row of numbers is the remainder.
The other numbers in the 3𝑟𝑑 row are the coefficients of the quotient which
is of degree< 𝑓 𝑥 .
Examples
Use synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder resulting from
dividing;
a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 5 − 30𝑥 3 − 50𝑥 − 2 by 𝑥 + 3

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b) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 − 5 by 𝑥 + 2
Solution
a) 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 = 𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 − −3 ∴ 𝑎 = −3
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 4𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 − 30𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 50𝑥 − 2

1𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑤: 4 0 − 30 0 − 50 −2

2𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑤: −12 36 − 18 54 − 12

−3 4 − 12 6 − 18 4 − 14
∴ The quotient is:4𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 4
The remainder is: −14
𝑓 𝑥 14
∴ = 4𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 4 − 𝑥+3
𝑥+3
b) 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 = 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 − −2 ∴ 𝑎 = −2
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 5

2 3 0 −1 − Dividend Coefficient
5 −4 2 −4 10
−2 2 −1 2 − Remainder
5 5
𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

∴ The quotient is:2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5

The remainder is: 5
𝑓 𝑥 5
∴ = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5 − 𝑥+2
𝑥+2

THE REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREM

Remainder Theorem

If 𝒇 𝒙 is a polynomial of degree n , 𝑛 > 0 and if 𝒄 is a number, then the

remainder in division of 𝒇 𝒙 by 𝒙 − 𝒄 is 𝒇 𝒄 . In symbols,

𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙 − 𝒄 . 𝑸 𝒙 + 𝒇 𝒄 , where 𝑸 𝒙 is a quotient of degree 𝒏 − 𝟏

Proof:
Dividing 𝒇 𝒙 by 𝒙 − 𝒄 , you obtain a quotient and a remainder r (a real
number)
𝑓 𝑥 𝑟
⇒ =𝑄 𝑥 +
𝑥−𝑐 𝑥−𝑐
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑥−𝑐 +𝑟
This is an identity, true for all values of 𝑥.
If 𝑥 = 𝑐, then 𝑓 𝑥𝑐 = 𝑄 𝑐 . 𝑐 − 𝑐 + 𝑟
∴𝒓=𝒇 𝒄

NOTE:
The theorem is stated in terms of 𝒙 − 𝒄 , the difference between 𝑥 and the
number 𝑐.

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The factor Theorem

A number c is a zero of polynomial function f of degree 𝑛, 𝑛 > 0, if

and only if 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

Proof:
From the remainder theorem 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑥 − 𝑐 + 𝑟 , if 𝑓(𝑐) = 0
(Remainder𝑓(𝑐) = 0), then 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑐). 𝑄(𝑥).
Consequently (𝑥 − 𝑐) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Now from 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑐). 𝑄(𝑥), for 𝑥 = 𝑐 then 𝑓 𝑐 = 𝑄 𝑐 . 𝑐 − 𝑐 = 0. Thus for
a polynomial function 𝑓 𝑥 , if 𝑥 − 𝑐 is its factor, then 𝑓 𝑐 = 0. 𝑖. 𝑒. remainder
is zero.

To test whether or not a linear polynomial 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 , 𝑚 ≠ 0 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)

you write;
𝑏 𝑏
𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑚 = 𝑚 𝑥 − − 𝑚
𝑏
, and see whether 𝑓 − 𝑚 = 0
𝑏
By factor theorem,𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) if and only if𝑓 − 𝑚 = 0
Examples
1. Find the remainder when𝑥 5 + 𝑥 − 9 is divided by;
a) 𝑥 + 2
b) 𝑥 − 3
Solution
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 − 9
a) 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 − −2
∴ 𝑓 −2 = −2 5 + −2 − 9 = −43
b) 𝑥−3
∴ 𝑓 3 = 3 5 + 3 − 9 = 239
2. Find the remainder when 4𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 4 when divided by;
a) 2𝑥 − 1
b) 2𝑥 + 3
Solution
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 4
1
a) 2𝑥 − 1 = 2 𝑥 − 2
1 1 3 1
∴𝑓 =4 −5 +4=2
2 2 2
3 3 3 3
∴ 𝑓 −2 = 4 −2 − 5 − 2 + 4 = −2
3. Find the value of constant a if;
i) 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 5 has a remainder 17 when divided by 𝑥 − 3
ii) 𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 2 has a remainder 6 when divided by 𝑥 + 2
iii) 4𝑥 3 − 𝑎𝑥 + 5 has a remainder 2 ½ when divided by 2𝑥 − 1
iv) 3𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 3 has a remainder 5 when divided by 3𝑥 + 1
Solution
i) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 5, Remainder= 17 when divided by 𝑥 − 3
∴ Remainder= 𝑓 3 = 17
⇒ 3 3 − 3 3 2 + 𝑎 3 + 5 = 17

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∴ 3𝑎 + 5 = 17 ∴ 𝑎 = 4
ii) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 2, Remainder= 6 when divided by 𝑥 + 2;
Divisor = 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 − −2
Remainder= 𝑓 −2 = 6
⇒ −2 5 + 4 −2 4 − 6 −2 2 + 𝑎 −2 + 2 = 6
∴ −2𝑎 + 10 = 6 ∴ 𝑎 = 2
1
iii) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 − 𝑎𝑥 + 5, Remainder= 2 when divided by 2𝑥 − 1
2
1
Divisor = 2𝑥 − 1 = 2 𝑥 − 2
1 1
Remainder= 𝑓 2
= 22
1 3 1 1
⇒4 −𝑎 +5 =2
2 2 2
𝑎 11 5
∴2+ = 2 ∴ 𝑎 = −6
2
iv) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 3, Remainder= 5 when divided by 3𝑥 + 1
1 1
Divisor = 3𝑥 + 1 = 3 𝑥 + =3 𝑥−
3 3
1
Remainder= 𝑓 − 3 = 5
1 3 1 2 1
⇒ 3 −3 + 𝑎 −3 − 6 −3 + 3 = 5
𝑎 46
∴9+ = 5 ∴ 𝑎 = −1
9
4. Show that;
i) 12𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 is divisible by 2𝑥 − 1
ii) 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 4is divisible by 2𝑥 + 1
iii) 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑥 + 1 are factors of 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
Solution
i) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 12𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3
𝑓 𝑥 is divisible by 2𝑥 − 1 if Remainder = 0
1 1
Remainder= 𝑓 = 0 ∵ 2𝑥 − 1 = 2 𝑥 −
2 2
1 1 3 1 2 1
⇒𝑓 2
= 12 2
+ 16 2
−5 2
−3=0
∴ 2𝑥 − 1is a factor of 12𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 or 12𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 is divisible
by 2𝑥 − 1
ii) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 4
1
2𝑥 + 1 = 2 𝑥 − − 2 is a factor of 𝑓 𝑥 if Remainder = 0
1 1 3 1 2 1
Remainder = 𝑓 − =2 − + − −8 − −4 =0
2 2 2 2
∴ 2𝑥 + 1is a factor of2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 8𝑥 − 4 3 2

iii) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 − −2 is a factor of 𝑓 𝑥 if Remainder = 𝑓 −2 = 0
⇒ 𝑓 −2 = 2 −2 3 + 5 −2 2 + −2 − 2 = 0. Hence 𝑥 + 2 is a factor.
Also 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 − −1 is a factor of 𝑓 𝑥 if Remainder = 𝑓 −1 = 0
⇒ 𝑓 −1 = 2 −1 3 + 5 −1 2 + −1 − 2 = 0. Hence 𝑥 + 1 is a factor.

NOTE:
For all the above examples the factors and divisors used are all linear. Now
let us look at examples of non-linear divisors.

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Examples
1. Find the remainder when;
a) 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 7 is divided by 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 3
b) 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 7 is divided by 𝑥 2 − 4
c) 𝑥 5 − 7𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 2 is divided by 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 3
d) 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3 is divided by 𝑥 2 − 4 𝑥 + 1
Solution
a) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 7
Divisor = 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 3 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟.
Let Remainder= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟.
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 3 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
For 𝑥 = 1
⇒ 𝑓 1 = 1 − 1 1 − 3 .𝑄 1 + 𝐴 1 + 𝐵 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ∴ 𝑓 1 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
Also from 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 7 ⇒ 𝑓 1 = 1 4 − 5 1 3 + 6 1 2 − 7 = −5
∴ 𝑓 1 = −5
∴ 𝐴 + 𝐵 = −5 ………………………………………………… (1)
Also for 𝑥 = 3
⇒ 𝑓 3 = 3 − 1 3 − 3 . 𝑄 3 + 𝐴 3 + 𝐵 = 3𝐴 + 𝐵 ∴ 𝑓 3 = 3𝐴 + 𝐵
Now from 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 7 ⇒ 𝑓 3 = 3 4 − 5 3 3 + 6 3 2 − 7 = −7
∴ 𝑓 3 = −7
∴ 3𝐴 + 𝐵 = −7 ……………………………………………… (2)
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously, eqn. (1)− eqn. (2)
⇒ −2𝐴 = 2 ∴ 𝐴 = −1
From eqn. (1), 𝐵 = −5 − 𝐴 = −5 + 1 = −4
∴ Remainder = −𝑥 − 4
b) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 7
Divisor = 𝑥 2 − 4 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟.
Let Remainder= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟.
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 7 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 . 𝑄 𝑥 +
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
For 𝑥 = 2
𝑓 2 = 2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 2 4 + 2 2 − 7 = 13
∴ 2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 13 …………………………………….…………… (1)
For 𝑥 = −2
𝑓 −2 = −2𝐴 + 𝐵 = −2 4 + −2 2 − 7 = 13
∴ −2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 13 ……………………………………….……… (2)
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously, eqn. (1)+ eqn. (2)
⇒ 2𝐵 = 26 ∴ 𝐵 = 13
1 1
From eqn. (1), 𝐵 = 13 − 𝐵 = 13 − 13 = 0
2 2
∴ Remainder = 13
c) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 − 7𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 2
Divisor = 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 3 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐶𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟.
Let Remainder= 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟.
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 3 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 = 𝑥 5 − 7𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 2
For 𝑥 = 1
𝑓 1 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 1 5 − 7 1 3 + 4 1 − 2 = −4
∴ 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = −4 ………………………………………………….. (1)

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For 𝑥 = −1
𝑓 −1 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶 = −1 5 − 7 −1 3 + 4 −1 − 2 = 0
∴ 𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 0 …………………………………………………….. (2)
For 𝑥 = 3
𝑓 3 = 9𝐴 + 3𝐵 + 𝐶 = 3 5 − 7 3 3 + 4 3 − 2 = 64
∴ 9𝐴 + 3𝐵 + 𝐶 = 64 ………………………………………………….. (3)
Solving the equations simultaneously
𝐸𝑞𝑛. (1) − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2) to eliminate C

𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = −4
− 𝐴−𝐵+𝐶 = 0
2𝐵 = −4 ∴ 𝐵 = −2

𝐸𝑞𝑛. (1) − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3) to eliminate C

𝐴−𝐵+𝐶 =0
− 9𝐴 + 3𝐵 + 𝐶 = 64

−8𝐴 − 4𝐵 = −64

From 𝐵 = −2 , −8𝐴 = −64 + 4𝐵 = −64 − 8 = −72

∴𝐴=9
From 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 , 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = −4
⇒ 9 − 2 + 𝐶 = −4 ∴ 𝐶 = −11
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 11

d) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3
Divisor = 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 2 − 4 = 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 2 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐶𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟.
Let Remainder= 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟.
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 1 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 = 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3
For 𝑥 = 2
𝑓 2 = 4𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 𝐶 = 2 5 + 2 2 − 4 2 − 3 = 25
∴ 4𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 𝐶 = 25 …………………………………………..……….. (1)
For 𝑥 = −2
𝑓 −2 = 4𝐴 − 2𝐵 + 𝐶 = −2 5 + −2 2 − 4 −2 − 3 = −23
∴ 4𝐴 − 2𝐵 + 𝐶 = −23 ………………………………………………….. (2)
For 𝑥 = −2
𝑓 −1 = 4𝐴 − 2𝐵 + 𝐶 = −1 5 + −1 2 − 4 −1 − 3 = 1
∴ 𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 1 …………………………………..……………………….. (3)
Solving the equations simultaneously
𝐸𝑞𝑛. (1) − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2) to eliminate C
4𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 𝐶 = 25
− 4𝐴 − 2𝐵 + 𝐶 = −23
4𝐵 = 48
∴ 𝐵 = 12
𝐸𝑞𝑛. (2) − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3) to eliminate C
4𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 𝐶 = 25
−
𝐴 − 𝐵+𝐶 =1
3𝐴 − 𝐵 = −24

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From 𝐵 = 12 , 3𝐴 = 𝐵 − 24 = 12 − 24 = −12
∴ 𝐴 = −4
From 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3 , 𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 1
⇒ −4 − 12 + 𝐶 = 1 ∴ 𝐶 = 17
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = −4𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 17

NOTE:
If the divisor is not factorisable to linear factors, you can use long division
to find the remainder.
2. Find the quotient when;
a) 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4 is divided by 𝑥 − 2
b) 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 5 is divided by 𝑥 + 1
Solution
a) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝑅 ; 𝑅 = 𝑓 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Now 𝑓 2 = 2 2 3 − 3 2 2 + 2 2 − 4 = 4
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 .𝑄 𝑥 + 4
𝑓 𝑥 −4
⇒ = 𝑄 𝑥 . Here 𝑄 𝑥 has no remainder.
𝑥−2
2𝑥 3 −3𝑥 2 +2𝑥−4−4 2𝑥 3 −3𝑥 2 +2𝑥−8
∴𝑄 𝑥 = =
𝑥 −2 𝑥−2
Using long division,
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 4
𝑥−2 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8
2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2
∴ 𝑄 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 4
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8
−
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
4𝑥 − 8
−
4𝑥 − 8
Alternatively
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4, 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒: 𝑛 = 3
Divisor = 𝑥 − 2
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
But 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝑓 2 = 2 2 3 − 3 2 2 + 2 2 − 4 = 4
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 .𝑄 𝑥 + 4
Since the quotient has degree 𝑛 − 1 = 3 − 1 = 2, then the quotient must be a
quadratic. . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 . 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 + 4
∴ 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4 ≡ 𝑥 − 2 . 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 + 4
≡ 𝐴𝑥 3 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 − 2𝐴𝑥 2 − 2𝐵𝑥 − 𝐶 + 4
≡ 𝐴𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 𝐵 − 2𝐴 + 𝑥 𝐶 − 2𝐵 + 4 − 2𝐶
Comparing coefficients;
For 𝑥 3 ∶ 2 = 𝐴
For 𝑥 2 ∶ −3 = 𝐵 − 2𝐴; 𝐵 = −3 + 2𝐴 = −3 + 4 = 1
For 𝑥 ∶ 2 = 𝐶 − 2𝐵 ⇒ 𝐶 = 2 + 2𝐵 = 2 + 2 = 4
For 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠: ; −4 = 4 − 2𝐶 ⇒ 2𝐶 = 8 ∴ 𝐶 = 4
∴ 𝑄 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 4

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b) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 5; 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 = 𝑥 + 1
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝑅 ; 𝑅 = 𝑓 −1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Now 𝑓 −1 = −1 4 − −1 3 + −1 − 5 = −4
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 .𝑄 𝑥 − 4
𝑓 𝑥 +4
⇒ = 𝑄 𝑥 . Here 𝑄 𝑥 has no remainder.
𝑥+1
𝑥 4 −𝑥 3 +𝑥−5+4 𝑥 4 −𝑥 3 +𝑥−1 𝑥 4 −𝑥 3 +0𝑥 2 +𝑥−1
∴𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑥+1
= 𝑥+1
= 𝑥+1
By long division,
𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1
𝑥+1 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
𝑥4 + 𝑥3 ∴ 𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1
−2𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
− −2𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
−
2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
−𝑥 − 1
− −𝑥 − 1
Alternatively
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 5, 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒: 𝑛 = 4
Divisor = 𝑥 + 1
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
But 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝑓 −1 = −1 4 − −1 3 + −1 − 5 = −4
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 .𝑄 𝑥 − 4
Since the quotient has degree 𝑛 − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3, then the quotient must be a
cubic. . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴𝑥 3 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 . 𝐴𝑥 3 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷 − 4
∴ 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 5 ≡ 𝑥 + 1 . 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 − 4
≡ 𝐴𝑥 4 + 𝐴𝑥 3 + 𝐵𝑥 3 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐷 − 4
≡ 𝐴𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝑥 2 𝐵 + 𝐶 + 𝑥 𝐶 + 𝐷 + 𝐷 − 4
Comparing coefficients;
For 𝑥 4 ∶ 1 = 𝐴
For 𝑥 3 ∶ −1 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = −1 − 𝐴 = −1 − 1 = −2
For 𝑥 2 ∶ 0 = 𝐵 + 𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶 = −𝐵 = − −2 = 2
For 𝑥 ∶ 1 = 𝐶 + 𝐷 ⇒ 𝐷 = 1 − 𝐶 = 1 − 2 = −1
For 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠: ; −5 = 𝐷 − 4 ⇒ 𝐷 = −1
∴ 𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1
NOTE:
To determine the quotient using method II, given the polynomial function
and divisor, first establish the degree of the quotient basing on that of the
divisor, then determine the coefficients as presented as above.
3. Determine the quotient when;
a) 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 7 is divided by 𝑥 2 − 4
b) 𝑥 5 − 7𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 2 is divided by 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥 − 3
Solution
a) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 7, 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒: 𝑛 = 4

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Divisor = 𝑥 2 − 4
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 4 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
Let the remainder= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 4 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
𝑂𝑟 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 7 ≡ 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
First obtaining the remainder,
For 𝑥 = 2
⇒ 2 4 + 2 2 −7 ≡ 2+2 2−2 .𝑄 2 + 𝐴 2 +𝐵
∴ 2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 13 …………………………………………………. (1)
For 𝑥 = −2
⇒ −2 4 + −2 2 − 7 ≡ −2 + 2 2 − 2 . 𝑄 −2 + 𝐴 −2 + 𝐵
∴ −2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 13 ………………………………………………. (1)
Solving eqn. (1) and eqn. (2) simultaneously,
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 + 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐴
2𝐵 = 26 ∴ 𝐵 = 13
1 1
From eqn. (1), 𝐴 = 2 13 − 𝐵 = 2 0 = 0
Remainder = 13
Now 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 13
Since the degree of 𝑓 𝑥 is 𝑛 = 4 and the divisor is of degree 𝑛 − 2 = 2, then
the quotient is a quadratic . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑝
Let the quotient 𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑝
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 . 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑝 + 13
∴ 𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 7 ≡ 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 . 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑝 + 13
≡ 𝑥 2 − 4 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑝 + 13
≡ 𝑚𝑥 4 + 𝑛𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 4𝑚𝑥 2 − 4𝑛𝑥 − 4𝑝 + 13
≡ 𝑚𝑥 4 + 𝑛𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 𝑝 − 4𝑚 − 4𝑛𝑥 + −4𝑝 + 13
Comparing coefficients;
For 𝑥 4 ∶ 1 = 𝑚
For 𝑥 3 ∶ 0 = 𝑛
For 𝑥 2 ∶ 1 = 𝑝 − 4𝑚 ⇒ 𝑝 = 1 + 4𝑚 = 1 + 4 = 5
For 𝑥 ∶ 0 = −4𝑛 ∴ 𝑛 = 0
For 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠: ; −7 = 13 − 4𝑝 ∴ 𝑝 = 5
∴ 𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 5
b) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 − 7𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 2, 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒: 𝑛 = 5
Divisor = 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥 − 3
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥 − 3 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
Let the remainder= 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟
∴ 𝑥 5 − 7𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 2 ≡ 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥 − 3 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟
𝑂𝑟 𝑥 5 − 7𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 2 ≡ 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 3 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟
First obtaining the remainder,
For 𝑥 = 1
1 5 − 7 1 3 + 4 1 − 2 ≡ 1 + 1 1 − 1 1 − 3 .𝑄 1 + 𝑝 1 2 + 𝑞 1 + 𝑟
∴ 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟 = −4 ………………………………….……………………. (1)
For 𝑥 = −1
−1 5 − 7 −1 3 + 4 −1 − 2 ≡ −1 + 1 −1 − 1 −1 − 3 . 𝑄 −1 + 𝑝 −1 2 +
𝑞 −1 + 𝑟

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∴ 𝑝 − 𝑞 + 𝑟 = 0 …………………………………………………………. (2)
For 𝑥 = 3
3 5 − 7 3 3 + 4 3 − 2 ≡ 3 + 1 3 − 1 3 − 3 .𝑄 3 + 𝑝 3 2 + 𝑞 3 + 𝑟
∴ 9𝑝 + 3𝑞 + 𝑟 = 64 …………………………………………..…..……. (3)
Solving eqn. (1), eqn. (2) and eqn. (3) simultaneously,
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟
⇒ 2𝑞 = −4 ∴ 𝑞 = −2
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟
⇒ −8𝑝 − 4𝑞 = −64 , 𝑞 = −2
∴ −8𝑝 + 8 = −64 , 𝑝 = 9
From eqn. (2), 𝑝 − 𝑞 + 𝑟 = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = 𝑞 − 𝑝 = −2 − 9 = −11
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 11
Now ∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥 − 3 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 11
Since the degree of 𝑓 𝑥 is 𝑛 = 5 and the divisor is of degree 𝑛 − 3 = 2, then
the quotient is a quadratic . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
Let the quotient 𝑄 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥 − 3 . 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 + 9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 11
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 ≡ 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥 − 3 . 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 + 9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 11
≡ 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 + 9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 11
≡ 𝐴𝑥 5 + 𝐵𝑥 4 + 𝐶𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 4 − 3𝐵𝑥 3 − 3𝐶𝑥 2 − 𝐴𝑥 3 − 𝐵𝑥 2 − 𝐶𝑥 + 3𝐴𝑥 2 + 3𝐵𝑥 + 3𝐶 +
9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 11
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 ≡ 𝐴𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 𝐵 − 3 + 𝑥 3 𝐶 − 3𝐵 − 𝐴 + 𝑥 2 −3𝐶 − 𝐵 + 3𝐴 + 9 + 𝑥 −𝐶 + 3𝐵 −
2 + 3𝐶 − 11
Given 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 − 7𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2
Comparing coefficients,
For 𝑥 5 ∶ 1 = 𝐴
For 𝑥 4 ∶ 0 = 𝐵 − 3 ⇒ 𝐵 = 3
For 𝑥 3 ∶ −7 = 𝐶 − 3𝐵 − 𝐴 ⇒ 𝐶 = −7 + 9 + 1 = 3
−3+3+9
For 𝑥 2 ∶ 0 = −3𝐶 − 𝐵 + 3𝐴 + 9 ⇒ 𝐶 = = 3 𝐴𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
3
For 𝑥 ∶ 4 = −𝐶 + 3𝐵 − 2 ⇒ 𝐶 = 9 − 2 − 4 = 3 𝐴𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
For 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠: ; −2 = 3𝐶 − 11 ⇒ 𝐶 = 3 𝐴𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
∴ 𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 3

NOTE:
The above examples on determination of remainder and quotient when a
polynomial is divided by a divisor using the above methods can still be done
using long division.

4. Find the constants 𝑝 , 𝑞 , 𝑟 if;

a) 𝑥 3 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 is divided by 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 leaves a remainder 4𝑥 − 1
b) 𝑝𝑥 4 + 𝑞𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 has a remainder 𝑥 + 1 when divided by
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
c) 𝑥 − 1 and 𝑥 + 1 are factors of the expression 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 a
nd it leaves a remainder of 12 when divided by 𝑥 − 2
Solution
a) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞
Divisor = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2

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Remainder = 4𝑥 − 1
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 ≡ 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 + 4𝑥 − 1
∴ 𝑥 3 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 ≡ 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 + 4𝑥 − 1
For 𝑥 = 1 , 1 3 − 𝑝 1 + 𝑞 ≡ 𝑄 1 . 1 − 1 1 − 2 + 4 1 − 1
⇒ 1 − 𝑝 + 𝑞 = 3 ∴ 𝑞 − 𝑝 = 2 …………………………………………..…….. (1)
For 𝑥 = 2 , 2 3 − 𝑝 2 + 𝑞 ≡ 𝑄 2 . 2 − 1 2 − 2 + 4 2 − 1
⇒ 8 − 2𝑝 + 𝑞 = 7 ∴ 𝑞 − 2𝑝 = −1 ………………………………………….. (2)
Solving eqn. (1) and eqn. (2) simultaneously
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , eliminate 𝑞
⇒𝑝=3
From 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 , 𝑞 − 𝑝 = 2 ⇒ 𝑞 = 2 + 3 = 5
∴ 𝑝 = 2,𝑞 = 5
Alternatively
By long division
𝑥 + 3
3 2 Comparing the remainder,
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 0𝑥 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞
−𝑝 + 7 𝑥 + 𝑞 − 6 ≡ 4𝑥 − 1
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
⇒ −𝑝 + 7 = 4 ∴ 𝑝 = 3
3𝑥 2 + −𝑝 − 2 𝑥 + 𝑞
− ⇒ 𝑞 − 6 = −1 ∴ 𝑞 = 5
3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 6
−𝑝 + 7 𝑥 + 𝑞 − 6
b) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑝𝑥 4 + 𝑞𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3
Divisor = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2
Remainder = 𝑥 + 1
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 ≡ 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑥−1 𝑥−2 +𝑥+1
∴ 𝑝𝑥 4 + 𝑞𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 ≡ 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 + 𝑥 + 1
For 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑝 1 4 + 𝑞 1 3 + 3 1 2 − 2 1 + 3 ≡ 𝑄 1 . 1 − 1 1 − 2 + 1 + 1
⇒ 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 3 − 2 + 3 = 2 ∴ 𝑝 + 𝑞 = −2 ……….………………….…….. (1)
For 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑝 2 4 + 𝑞 2 3 + 3 2 2 − 2 2 + 3 ≡ 𝑄 2 . 2 − 1 2 − 2 + 2 + 1
⇒ 16𝑝 + 8𝑞 + 12 − 4 + 3 = 3
∴ 16𝑝 + 8𝑞 = −8 𝑜𝑟 2𝑝 + 𝑞 = −1 ………………………………………….. (2)
Solving eqn. (1) and eqn. (2) simultaneously
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , eliminate 𝑞
⇒ −𝑝 = −1 ∴ 𝑝 = 1
From 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 , 𝑝 + 𝑞 = −2 ⇒ 𝑞 = −2 − 1 = −3
∴ 𝑝 = 1 , 𝑞 = −3
c) Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟
Divisor = 𝑥 − 1 , Remainder = 0
Divisor = 𝑥 + 1 , Remainder = 0
Divisor = 𝑥 − 2 , Remainder = 12
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 ≡ 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑥−1 𝑥+1
∴ 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 ≡ 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 1
For 𝑥 = 1 , 1 3 + 𝑝 1 2 + 𝑞 1 + 𝑟 ≡ 𝑄 1 . 1 − 1 1 + 1
⇒ 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟 = −1 ……………………………………………….. (1)
For 𝑥 = −1 , −1 3 + 𝑝 −1 2 + 𝑞 −1 + 𝑟 ≡ 𝑄 −1 . −1 − 1 −1 + 1
⇒ 𝑝 − 𝑞 + 𝑟 = 1 …………………………………..…………….. (2)
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 ≡ 𝐻 𝑥 . 𝑥 − 2 + 12

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∴ 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 ≡ 𝐻 𝑥 . 𝑥 − 2 + 12
For 𝑥 = 2 , 2 3 + 𝑝 2 2 + 𝑞 2 + 𝑟 ≡ 𝐻 2 . 2 − 2 + 12
⇒ 4𝑝 + 2𝑞 + 𝑟 = 4 ……..………………………….………….. (3)
Eliminating 𝑟 from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2), 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2
2𝑞 = −2 ∴ 𝑞 = −1
Eliminating 𝑟 from eqn. (2) and eqn. (3), 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3
−3𝑝 − 3𝑞 = −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 + 𝑞 = 1
But 𝑞 = −1 ∴ 𝑝 = 1 − 𝑞 = 1 + 1 = 2
From (1) 𝑟 = −1 − 𝑝 − 𝑞 = −1 − 2 + 1 = −2
∴ 𝑝 = 2 , 𝑞 = −1 , 𝑟 = −2
5. Given the polynomial 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑅 𝑥 where 𝑄 𝑥 is the quotient ,
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝛼 𝑥 − 𝛽 and 𝑅 𝑥 is the remainder, show that
𝑥−𝛽 𝑓 𝛼 + 𝛼−𝑥 𝑓 𝛽
𝑅 𝑥 = when 𝑓 𝑥 is divided by 𝑔 𝑥 .
𝛼 −𝛽
Hence find the remainder when 𝑓 𝑥 is divided by 𝑥 2 − 9 given that 𝑓 𝑥
divided by 𝑥 − 3 and when divided by 𝑥 + 3, the remainders are respectively 2
and −3.
Solution
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑄 𝑥 .𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑅 𝑥
Divisor = 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝛼 𝑥 − 𝛽
Remainder = 𝑅 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑥 − 𝛼 𝑥 − 𝛽 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
Now for 𝑥 = 𝛼
𝑓 𝛼 = 𝐴𝛼 + 𝐵 …………………………………………………….. (1)
Now for 𝑥 = 𝛽
𝑓 𝛽 = 𝐴𝛽 + 𝐵 …………………………………………………….. (2)
Since 𝑓 𝑥 is known, 𝑓 𝛼 and 𝑓 𝛽 will be known. Now finding the
unknowns A and B,
Eliminating B from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2), 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2
⇒ 𝑓 𝛼 −𝑓 𝛽 = 𝐴 𝛼−𝛽
𝑓 𝛼 −𝑓 𝛽
∴𝐴= ……………………………………………………... (3)
𝛼 −𝛽
From eqn. (1), 𝑓 𝛼 = 𝐴𝛼 + 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = 𝑓 𝛼 − 𝐴𝛼
𝑓 𝛼 −𝑓 𝛽 𝛼𝑓 𝛼 −𝛽𝑓 𝛼 −𝛼𝑓 𝛼 +𝛼𝑓 𝛽
⇒ 𝐵 =𝑓 𝛼 −𝛼 𝛼 −𝛽
= 𝛼 −𝛽
𝛼𝑓 𝛽 −𝛽𝑓 𝛼
∴𝐵= …………………………………………………. (4)
𝛼 −𝛽
∴ 𝑅 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 becomes
𝑓 𝛼 −𝑓 𝛽 𝛼𝑓 𝛽 −𝛽𝑓 𝛼 𝑥𝑓 𝛼 −𝑥𝑓 𝛽 +𝛼𝑓 𝛽 −𝛽𝑓 𝛼
𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑥+ =
𝛼 −𝛽 𝛼 −𝛽 𝛼 −𝛽
𝑥−𝛽 𝑓 𝛼 + 𝛼−𝑥 𝑓 𝛽
∴𝑅 𝑥 = , as required.
𝛼 −𝛽
From 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑥 − 𝛼 𝑥 − 𝛽 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
Divisor = 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝛼 𝑥 − 𝛽 ≡ 𝑥 2 − 9 = 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 3
By comparison, 𝛼 = 3 , 𝛽 = −3
Given: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐺 𝑥 . 𝑥 − 3 + 2 ⇒ 𝑓 3 = 2 ≡ 𝑓 𝛼
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐻 𝑥 . 𝑥 + 3 − 3 ⇒ 𝑓 −3 = −3 ≡ 𝑓 𝛽
, where 𝐺 𝑥 and 𝐻 𝑥 are the new quotients due to different divisors.
𝑥−𝛽 𝑓 𝛼 + 𝛼 −𝑥 𝑓 𝛽
Remainder= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 is given by 𝛼 −𝛽

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𝑥−3 2 + 3−𝑥 −3 5𝑥−3

⇒𝑅 𝑥 = 3− −3
= 6
5𝑥−3
∴ Remainder when 𝑓 𝑥 is divided by 𝑥 2 − 9 is
6
6. A polynomial 𝑃 𝑥 leaves a remainder 6 when divided by 𝑥 2 − 4 and a
remainder 𝑥 + 𝑎 when divided by 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2. Find;
a) The value of the constant 𝑎
b) The remainder when 𝑃 𝑥 is divided by;
i) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2
ii) 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 4
Solution
Case I:
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑥2 − 4 + 6
=𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑥+2 𝑥−2 +6
For 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑃 2 = 6
For 𝑥 = −2 , 𝑃 −2 = 6
Case II:
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝐻 𝑥 . 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑎
=𝐻 𝑥 . 𝑥−2 𝑥+1 +𝑥+𝑎
For 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑃 2 = 2 + 𝑎
For 𝑥 = −1 , 𝑃 −1 = −1 + 𝑎
a) But 𝑃 2 = 6 = 2 + 𝑎 ∴ 𝑎 = 4
b) (i) 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝐺 𝑥 . 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
∵ 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝐺 𝑥 . 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 2 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
For 𝑥 = −1 , 𝑃 −1 = −𝐴 + 𝐵
For 𝑥 = −2 , 𝑃 −2 = −2𝐴 + 𝐵
But 𝑃 −1 = −1 + 𝑎 = −𝐴 + 𝐵 ; −1 + 𝑎 = −1 + 4 = 3
⇒ −𝐴 + 𝐵 = 3 …………………………………………………. (1)
Also 𝑃 −2 = −2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 6……………………………. (2)
Eliminating B from eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2
∴ 𝐴 = −3
From eqn. (1) −𝐴 + 𝐵 = 3
⇒ 𝐵 = 𝐴 + 3 = −3 + 3 = 0 ∴ 𝐵 = 0
Remainder when 𝑃 𝑥 is divided by 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 is −3𝑥
(ii) 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑥 . 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 4 + 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑙
= 𝐹 𝑥 . 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 + 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑙
For 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑃 2 = 4𝑚 + 2𝑛 + 𝑙
For 𝑥 = −2 , 𝑃 −2 = 4𝑚 − 2𝑛 + 𝑙
For 𝑥 = −1 , 𝑃 −1 = 𝑚 − 𝑛 + 𝑙
But 𝑃 2 = 6 , 𝑃 −2 = 6 , 𝑃 −1 = 3
⇒ 4𝑚 + 2𝑛 + 𝑙 = 6 ………………………………………….. (i)
⇒ 4𝑚 − 2𝑛 + 𝑙 = 6 …………………………………………… (ii)
⇒ 𝑚 − 𝑛 + 𝑙 = 3 ……………………………………………….. (iii)
Eliminating 𝑙 from eqn. (i) and eqn. (ii)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 𝑖 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 𝑖𝑖
4𝑛 = 0 ∴ 𝑛 = 0
Eliminating 𝑙 from eqn. (ii) and eqn. (iii)

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𝑒𝑞𝑛. 𝑖𝑖 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 𝑖𝑖𝑖

3𝑚 − 𝑛 = 3 , 𝑛 = 0
∴ 3𝑚 = 3 ⇒ 𝑚 = 1
From eqn. (iii) 𝑚 − 𝑛 + 𝑙 = 3 ⇒ 𝑙 = 3 − 𝑚 + 𝑛
⇒ 𝑙 = 3−1+0 =2
∴ Remainder is 𝑥 2 + 2

Task
1. Find the value of the constant k so that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑘𝑥 3 − 2𝑘𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5 has
𝑥 − 1 as a factor. 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝒌 = −𝟏
2. Find the value of k so that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 12 has a factor 𝑥 − 3
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝒌 = −𝟐
3. Find the value of a if;
i) 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 5 has a remainder 17 when divided 𝑥 − 3.
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟒
ii) 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 has remainder 8 when divided by 𝑥 − 2
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟐
iii) 𝑥 − 𝑎 will divide 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2 with a remainder of −1
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝒂 = −𝟑 , −𝟏
4. Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 if;
i) When 𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏is divided by 𝑥 2 − 1 the remainder is 2𝑥 + 3
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝒂 = 𝟏 , 𝒃 = −𝟏
ii) When 𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3 has a remainder 3𝑥 + 5 when divided
by 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝒂 = 𝟏 , 𝒃 = −𝟏
iii) 𝑥 − 3 and 𝑥 + 7 are factors of the quadratic 𝑎𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝒂 = 𝟑 , 𝒃 = −𝟔𝟑
5. a) If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 is exactly divisible by 𝑥 − 𝑎 and 𝑥 − 𝑏, show that
𝑝 = −𝑎 − 𝑏 and
𝑞 = 𝑎𝑏
b) Show that;
i) 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor of 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 w hen 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
ii) 𝑥 + 𝑎 is a factor of 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛 w hen 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻:
𝑓 −𝑎 = −𝑎 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 . 𝐼𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑, −𝑎 𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 −𝑎 = 0. 𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓
𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛 . 𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑛−3 − ⋯ … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝑎𝑛−1

c) Show that the remainder when the polynomial 𝑓 𝑥 is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑎

is 𝑓 𝑎 . Show further that if 𝑓 𝑥 is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑏 where 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏, then
𝑓 𝑎 −𝑓 𝑏 𝑎𝑓 𝑏 −𝑏𝑓 𝑎
the remainder is; 𝑎 −𝑏
𝑥+ 𝑎−𝑏

d) A polynomial 𝑓 𝑥 is divided by 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 where 𝑎 ≠ 0 and the remainder is

1 1
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 prove that 𝑝 = 𝑓 𝑎 − 𝑓 −𝑎 , 𝑞 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 −𝑎
2𝑎 2𝑎
6. When a polynomial 𝑝 𝑥 is divided by 2𝑥 + 1, the quotient is 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 and the
remainder is 3. Find 𝑝 𝑥 𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻: 𝑝 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 . 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 + 3
7. When a polynomial 𝑝 𝑥 is divided by 3𝑥 − 4, the quotient is 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 2 and
the remainder is −1. Find 𝑝 𝑥 . 𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻: 𝑝 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 4 . 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 2 − 1

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8. a) When the quadratic expression 𝑎𝑝2 + 𝑏𝑝 + 𝑐 is divided by 𝑝 − 1 , 𝑝 − 2

and 𝑝 + 1, the remainders are 1 , 2 and 25 respectively. Determine the factors
of the expression.
𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻: 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛𝑠. 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1, 4𝑎 − 12𝑏 + 𝑐 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 25. 𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑓 𝑝 = 4𝑝2 − 12𝑝 + 9. 𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓 𝑝 = 2𝑝 − 3 2𝑝 − 3

b) Express 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3 in the form 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 where

𝑄 𝑥 a polynomial in is 𝑥 and 𝐴 and 𝐵 are constants. Determine the values of
constants A and B and the expression 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝑸 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑 , 𝑨 =
−𝟑 , 𝑩 = 𝟑 (𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑)

9. if 4𝑥 3 + 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 2 is divisible by 𝑥 2 + 𝜆2, prove that 𝑘𝑝 = 8.

𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 + 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 2 ≡ 𝑥 2 + 𝜆2 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 ,
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 1 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓 𝑥
𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 3
10. A polynomial expression 𝑃 𝑥 when divided by 𝑥 − 1 leaves a remainder of 3
and when divided by 𝑥 − 2 leaves a remainder of 1. Show that when divided
by 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 it leaves a remainder of −2𝑥 + 5.
𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻: 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 1 = 3
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 . 𝐻 𝑥 + 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 2 = 1
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 . 𝐺 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
𝑃 1 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 3 ; 𝑃 2 = 2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 1
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛𝑠. 𝐴 = −2, 𝐵 = 5
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = −2𝑥 + 5
11. Find the quotient and the remainder when 𝑓 𝑥 is divided by a linear factor
i) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 , 𝑥 − 2
ii) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 7 − 31𝑥 2 , 𝑥 − 2
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑖 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + 𝟒 ; 𝟎 𝑖𝑖 𝒙𝟔 + 𝟐𝒙𝟓 + 𝟒𝒙𝟒 + 𝟖𝒙𝟑 + 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + 𝟐 ; 𝟐
12. Find the constant p such that 𝑥 2 + 2 is a factor of 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 𝑝. Hence factorize
it. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒑 = −𝟏𝟔 , 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝟐

REPEATED ROOTS
(Equal Roots)
From factor theorem which states that “If for a polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥)
if 𝑓 𝑎 = 0 then 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)"
If 𝑓(𝑥) has a repeated factor 𝑥 − 𝑎 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑎 2 . 𝑔 𝑥 , then;
𝑑
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑎 2. 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 . 2 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑥 − 𝑎 2 . 𝑔′ 𝑥
= 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 . 𝑔′ 𝑥 + 2𝑔 𝑥
𝑖. 𝑒. If 𝑓(𝑥) has a repeated factor 𝑥 − 𝑎 , then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 has a repeated factor
𝑥 − 𝑎 . This is true if and only if 𝑓 𝑎 = 0 , 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 = 0.
Examples
1. Without using long division find the remainder when 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 2 is
divided by 𝑥 − 2 2 .
Solution
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 2
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 2 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 ………………………………………………. (*)
For 𝑥 = 2
𝑓 2 = 2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 2 3 − 5 2 2 + 6 2 − 2

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∴ 2𝐴 + 𝐵 = −2 ……………………………………………….. (1)
No other condition linking A and B can be obtained from eqn. (*) without
involving 𝑄 𝑥 .
But from 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 2, 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 6
𝑑
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 2 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 = 𝑄 𝑥 . 2 𝑥 − 2 + 𝑥 − 2 2 . 𝑄 ′ 𝑥 + 𝐴
𝑑𝑥
⇒ 3𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 6 = 𝑄 𝑥 . 2 𝑥 − 2 + 𝑥 − 2 2 . 𝑄 ′ 𝑥 + 𝐴
= 𝑥 − 2 2𝑄 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2 . 𝑄 ′ 𝑥 + 𝐴
For 𝑥 = 2
𝑓 ′ 2 = 3 2 2 − 10 2 + 6 = 𝐴 ∴ 𝐴 = −2
From eqn. (1) 2𝐴 + 𝐵 = −2 ⇒ 𝐵 = −2 + 4 = 2
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = −2𝑥 + 2
2. Find the constants m and n such that when 𝑥 4 − 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛 is divided by
𝑥 + 1 2 the remainder is 5𝑥 − 2.
Solution
Let 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛 = 𝑥 + 1 2 . 𝑄 𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 2
For 𝑥 = −1
𝑃 −1 = −1 4 − 𝑚 −1 2 + 𝑛 = 5 −1 − 2
∴ 𝑛 − 𝑚 = −8 ………………………………………………….. (1)
Since the divisor is a repeated factor, then
𝑃 ′ 𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 − 2𝑚𝑥 = 𝑄 𝑥 . 2 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 + 1 2 . 𝑄 ′ 𝑥 + 5
= 𝑥 + 1 2𝑄 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1 . 𝑄 ′ 𝑥 + 5
For 𝑥 = −1
𝑃 ′ −1 = 4 −1 3 − 2𝑚 −1 = 5
9
⇒ 2𝑚 − 4 = 5 ∴ 𝑚 = 2
9 7
From eqn. (1), 𝑛 = 𝑚 − 8 = 2 − 8 = − 2
9 7
𝑚 = 2 ,𝑛 = −2
3. If the equation 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0 has two equal roots, find the
possible values of p.
Solution
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 𝑝
The equation 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 has two equal roots if 𝑓 𝑥 has two equal factors.𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠.
Any linear factor of 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 is a possible repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ≡ 12𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 6
≡ 6 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 + 1
For 𝑥 − 1 to be a repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥 , then 𝑓 1 = 0
⇒ 𝑓 1 =3 1 4 +2 1 3−6 1 2 −6 1 +𝑝 = 0 ∴ 𝑝 =7
Similarly 𝑥 + 1 is a repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥 , if 𝑓 −1 = 0
⇒ 𝑓 −1 = 3 −1 4 + 2 −1 3 − 6 −1 2 − 6 −1 + 𝑝 = 0 ∴ 𝑝 = −1
1
For 2𝑥 + 1 to be a repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥 , then 𝑓 − =0
2
1 1 4 1 3 1 2 1
⇒ 𝑓 −2 = 3 −2 + 2 −2 − 6 −2 − 6 −2 + 𝑝 = 0
23
∴𝑝=−
16
4. Determine whether 𝑓 𝑥 ≡ 3𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 24𝑥 − 13 has any repeated
factors, and if so find them.

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Solution
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ≡ 12𝑥 3 − 24𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 24
≡ 12 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
≡ 12 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 ≡ 12 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 2
Now 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 if 𝑥 = 1 , −1 , 2
′

Checking the value of 𝑓 𝑥 for these values of𝑥 ,

⇒ 𝑓 1 = 0 , 𝑓 −1 ≠ 0 , 𝑓 2 ≠ 0
So 𝑥𝑥 + 1 and 𝑥𝑥 − 2 are not factors of 𝑓 𝑥 . Hence 𝑥𝑥 − 1 is the only
repeated factor of 𝑓 𝑥
5. a) Find the values of p and q which make 𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3 + 13𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 a perfect
square.
b) The polynomial 𝑝 𝑥 ≡ 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 is a perfect square of degree
two. Show that 𝑐 + 8 = 2𝑏 , 16𝑑 = 𝑐 2 . Given that 𝑃 𝑥 leaves a remainder of 4
when divided by 𝑥 + 1, determine the possible values of the constants 𝑏 , 𝑐
and 𝑑.
Solution
a) Since 𝑝 𝑥 ≡ 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 is of degree four 40 , then its perfect
square must be a quadratic.
Let 𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3 + 13𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 ≡ 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 2 ≡ 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 2
≡ 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 2𝐶 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 2
≡ 𝐴2 𝑥 4 + 2𝐴𝐵𝑥 3 + 𝐵2 𝑥 2 + 2𝐴𝐶𝑥 2 + 2𝐵𝐶𝑥 + 𝐶 2
≡ 𝐴2 𝑥 4 + 2𝐴𝐵 𝑥 3 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐶 𝑥 2 + 2𝐵𝐶 𝑥 + 𝐶 2
Comparing coefficients
For 𝑥 4 : 1 = 𝐴2 ∴ 𝐴 = ±1
3
For 𝑥 3 : 6 = 2𝐴𝐵 ∴ 𝐵 = 𝐴 = ±3
13−𝐵 2 13−9
For 𝑥 2 : 13 = 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐶 ∴ 𝐶 = = = ±2
2𝐴 2 ±1
For 𝑥: 𝑝 = 2𝐵𝐶 ∴ 𝑝 = 2 ±3 ±2 = ±12
For 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠: 𝑞 = 𝐶 2 ∴ 𝑞 = ±2 2 = 4
∴ 𝑝 = 12 , 𝑞 = 4
b) Let 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 ≡ 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐷 2
≡ 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐷 2
≡ 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 2𝐷 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐷2
≡ 𝐴2 𝑥 4 + 2𝐴𝐵𝑥 3 + 𝐵2 𝑥 2 + 2𝐴𝐷𝑥 2 + 2𝐵𝐷𝑥 + 𝐷2
≡ 𝐴2 𝑥 4 + 2𝐴𝐵 𝑥 3 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐷 𝑥 2 + 2𝐵𝐷 𝑥 + 𝐷2
Comparing coefficients
For x4 : 1 = A2 ∴ A = ±1
2
For x3 : 4 = 2AB ∴ B = A = ±2
For x2 : b = B2 + 2AD ∴ b = 4 ± 2D
For x: c = 2BD ∴ c = ±4D
For Constants: d = D2 ∴ q = ±2 2 = 4
From b = 4 + 2D and 𝑐= 4𝐷(Taking the +𝑣𝑒
sign for both), eliminating D from
the equations,
2𝑏 = 8 + 4𝐷 , but 𝑐 = 4𝐷
⇒ 2𝑏 = 8 + 𝑐 ∴ 𝑐 + 8 = 2𝑏
𝑐
From 𝑑 = 𝐷2 and 𝑐 = 4𝐷 𝑜𝑟 𝐷 = , eliminating D from the equations,
4

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𝑐 2
⇒𝑑= 4
∴ 16𝑑 = 𝑐 2
Given that 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑄 𝑥 . 𝑥 + 1 + 4
For 𝑥 = −1 , 𝑃 −1 = 4
From 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
⇒ 𝑃 −1 = −1 4 + 4 −1 3 + 𝑏 −1 2 + 𝑐 −1 + 𝑑
⇒ 4 =1−4+𝑏−𝑐+𝑑
∴ 𝑏 − 𝑐 + 𝑑 = 7 ……………………………………………….. (1)
𝑐2
From 16𝑑 = 𝑐 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑑 =
16
𝑐2
∴ 𝑏 − 𝑐 + 16 = 7 ……………………………………………….. (2)
𝑐+8
From 𝑐 + 8 = 2𝑏 𝑜𝑟 2
=𝑏
Eqn. (2) becomes,
𝑐+8 𝑐2
2
− 𝑐 + 16 = 7 …………………… × 16
⇒ 64 + 8𝑐 − 16𝑐 + 𝑐 2 = 112 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 2 − 8𝑐 − 48 = 0
Solving the equation, 𝑐 = 12 , −4
𝑐+8 12+8 −4+8
∴𝑏= = 𝑜𝑟
2 2 2
∴ 𝑏 = 10 , 𝑐 = 12; 𝑏 = 2 , 𝑐 = −4
𝑐2
Now from 𝑑 = 16
16
For 𝑐 = −4 , 𝑑 = 16 = 1
144
For 𝑐 = 12 , 𝑑 = =9
16
∴ 𝑏 = 10 , 𝑐 = 12 , 𝑑 = 9 ; 𝑏 = 2 , 𝑐 = −4 , 𝑑 = 9
Task
1) Find the remainder when 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 7 is divided by 𝑥 − 1 2 .𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟕𝒙
2) If the equation 2𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0 has two equal roots, find the possible
values of p. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: − 𝟓 , −𝟒
3) Find the value of 𝑎 for which the function 2𝑥 3 − 𝑎𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 7 has a repeated
factor. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟑
4) If 𝑥 + 1 2 is a factor of 2𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵. Find the values of 𝐴 and 𝐵.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑨 = 𝟕 , 𝑩 = 𝟎
5) Given that 𝑥 2 + 𝑐 2 is a factor of 5𝑥 4 + 𝑝𝑥 3 + 𝑞𝑥 2 + 𝑟𝑥 + 4, show that 5𝑟 2 + 4𝑝2 −
4𝑝𝑟 = 0
6) Show that if 𝑥 3 + 3𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 is a perfect cube for all real values of 𝑥 then
𝑞3 = 27𝑟 2
7) Show that 𝑥 2 + 3 is a factor of 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 3
8) Find the constant m for which 𝑥 2 + 1 is a factor of 𝑚𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 1. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟐
9) Determine whether the given functions have any repeated factors, and if any,
find them.
a) 𝑥 4 − 16 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑵𝒐
b) 𝑥 − 18𝑥 + 81 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 − 𝟑 𝒙 + 𝟑
4 2

c) 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 1 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 − 𝟏
d) 𝑥 𝑥 4 − 4 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝑵𝒐
10) Find the constants p and q such that 𝑥 − 1 is a common factor of 𝑥 4 − 2𝑝𝑥 2 +
𝟑
2 and 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑞. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒑 = ,𝒒 = 𝟐
𝟐

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SOLVING POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS BY FACTORING

Important Theorems used:
a) The Factor Theorem
„‟For a polynomial 𝑃 𝑥 , 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor if and only if 𝑃 𝑎 = 0‟‟
b) The Rational Theorem
„‟Let 𝑃 𝑥 be a polynomial of degree n with integral coefficients 𝑎𝑖 and non
zero constant term, 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ … … … … … … … … + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
where 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐼.
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
If one of the roots of the equation 𝑃 𝑥 = 0 is 𝑥 = , ≠ 0 , 𝑞 > 0 and is
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
expressed in lowest terms, then p must be a factor of 𝑎0 and q must be a
factor of 𝑎𝑛
c) The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
If the complex system consisting of all real and imaginary numbers, if 𝑃 𝑥
is a polynomial of degree n, 𝑛 > 0 with complex coefficients, then the
equation 𝑃 𝑥 = 0 has exactly 𝑛 −roots (provided a double root is counted as
two roots, a triple is counted as 3 − roots

Example
 2𝑖𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 3 + 2𝑖 𝑥 + 7 − 0 has 3 − roots
 3𝑥 4 − 11𝑥 3 + 19𝑥 2 + 25𝑥 − 36 = 0 has 4 − roots

Other Theorems
 „‟ If 𝑃 𝑥 is a polynomial of odd degree with real coefficients, then the
equations 𝑃 𝑥 = 0 has at least on real root‟‟
 The relationship between the roots of a polynomial equation and coefficients
of the polynomial is;
For the equation 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ … … … … … … … … + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟎 = 𝟎 with
𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then
𝒂
Sum of roots = − 𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝒏
𝒂𝟎
𝒂𝒏
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
Product of roots = 𝒂𝟎
−𝒂 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝒏

Example
1. a) If one of the roots of the equation 𝑃 𝑥 = 3𝑥 4 + 13𝑥 3 + 15𝑥 2 − 4 = 0 is in
𝑝
the form 𝑥 = 𝑞 , state the possible rational roots of the equation 𝑃 𝑥 = 0.
b) Determine whether any of the possible rational roots really are roots.
Then find all the other roots, real/imaginary.
Solution
𝑝
a) 𝑥 = 𝑞 is a possible rational root if p divides −4 and q divides 3
⇒ p could be equal to: ±1 , ±2 𝑜𝑟 ± 4 and
𝑞 could be equal to: ±1 , ±3
𝑝 1 2 4
∴ 𝑞 = ±1 , ±2 , ±4 , ± 3 , ± 3 , ± 3
b) Using Factor Theorem
From 𝑃 𝑥 = 3𝑥 4 + 13𝑥 3 + 15𝑥 2 − 4
Let 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑃 1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 1 is not a factor

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𝑥 = −1 , 𝑃 −1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = 2 , 𝑃 2 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 2 is not a factor
𝑥 = −2 , 𝑃 −2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 2 is a factor
Now by long division,
3𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
𝑥+2 3𝑥 4 + 13𝑥 3 + 15𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 − 4
3𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3
7𝑥 3 + 15𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 − 4 ∴ 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 3𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0
−
7𝑥 3 + 14𝑥 2
𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 − 4
−
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
−2𝑥 − 1
− −2𝑥 − 1

Now finding roots of the depressed equation 3𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0

𝑝
If 𝑥 = 𝑞 is the root of the equation, p divides −2 and q divides 3
p could be equal to: ±1 , ±2 and
𝑞 could be equal to: ±1 , ±3
𝑝 1 2
∴ 𝑞 = ±1 , ±2 , ± 3 , ± 3
Let 𝑄 𝑥 = 3𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0
For 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑄 1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = −1 , 𝑄 −1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = 2 , 𝑄 2 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 2 is not a factor
𝑥 = −2 , 𝑄 −2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 2 is a factor
By long division, 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
𝑥+2 3𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
3𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2
− 2 ∴ 𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0
𝑥 + 2𝑥
−𝑥 − 2
−𝑥 − 2
2
∴ 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥+2 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0

Now solving 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0
−1± 1 2 +4 3 1 −1± 13
𝑥= 2 3
= 6
−1± 13
∴Roots are: 𝑥 = 6
, 𝑥 = −2 , 𝑥 = −2
2. Find all the zeros and if possible, all the other real zeros of;
a. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 + 24
b. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 14
c. 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2
Solution
For rational zeros, 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 is an equation to be solved.

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a. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 + 24 = 0
𝑝
Let 𝑥 = , 𝑝 divides 24, q divides 1
𝑞
p could be equal to: ±1 , ±2 , ±3 , ±4 , ±5 , ±6 , ±8 , ±12 , ±24 and
𝑞 could be equal to: ±1
𝑝
∴Possible values of 𝑥 = = ±1 , ±2 , ±3 , ±4 , ±5 , ±6 , ±8 , ±12 , ±24
𝑞
By factor theorem,
For 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑓 1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = −1 , 𝑓 −1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = −2 , 𝑓 −2 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 2 is not a factor
𝑥 = 2 , 𝑓 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 2 is a factor
By long division,
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 12
𝑥−2 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 + 24
∴𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 12 = 0
𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 Solving 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 12 = 0
2

𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 + 24 ⇒ 𝑥+4 𝑥−3 =0

− 2
𝑥 − 2𝑥 ∴ 𝑥 = −4 , 3
−12𝑥 + 24 ∴The rational zeros are:
∴ 𝑥 = 2 , −4 , 3
−12𝑥 − 24

b. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 14 = 0
𝑝
Let 𝑥 = 𝑞 , 𝑝 divides 14, q divides 1
Possible values of 𝑝 = ±1 , ±2 , ±7 , ±14
Possible values of 𝑞 = ±1
Possible values of 𝑥 = ±1 , ±2 , ±7 , ±14
By factor theorem,
For 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑓 1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = −1 , 𝑓 −1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 1 is a factor
𝑥 = 2 , 𝑓 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 2 is a factor
𝑥 = 7 , 𝑓 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 7 is a factor
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+1 𝑥−2 𝑥−7 = 0
The zeros of 𝑓 𝑥 are: −1 , 2 , 7
c. 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2 = 0
𝑝
Let 𝑥 = 𝑞 , 𝑝 divides 2, q divides 3
Possible values of 𝑝 = ±1 , ±2
Possible values of 𝑞 = ±1 , ±3
1 2
Possible values of 𝑥 = ±1 , ±2 , ± 3 , ± 3
By factor theorem,
For 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑓 1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = −1 , 𝑓 −1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = 2 , 𝑓 2 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 2 is not a factor
1 1 1
𝑥 = − 3 , 𝑓 − 3 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 3 is not a factor
1 1 1
𝑥 = 3 ,𝑓 3
≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 3 is a factor

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By long division

3𝑥 2 − 6 1
1 ∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 6 𝑥− =0
𝑥− 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2 3
3
3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2
−6𝑥 + 2
− −6𝑥 + 2
1
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 6 𝑥− = 0 ⇒ 3𝑥 2 − 6 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = ± 2
3
1
The zeros of 𝑓 𝑥 are: ± 2 ,
3
3. Factorize the polynomial 𝑃 𝑥 , hence find the zeros of 𝑃 𝑥 .
a) 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 18
b) 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 11𝑥 2 + 28
c) 𝑃 𝑥 = 2𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 12
Solution
a) 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 18
𝑝
Let 𝑥 = 𝑞 , 𝑝 divides−18, q divides 1
Possible values of 𝑝 = ±1 , ±2 , ±3 , ±6 , ±9 , ±18
Possible values of 𝑞 = ±1
Possible values of 𝑥 = ±1 , ±2 , ±3 , ±6 , ±9 , ±18
By factor theorem,
For 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑃 1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = −1 , 𝑃 −1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = −2 , 𝑃 −2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 2 is a factor
𝑥 = 3 , 𝑃 3 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 3 is a factor
𝑥 = −3 , 𝑃 −3 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 3 is a factor
∴ 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥+3 𝑥−3 𝑥+2
The zeros of 𝑃 𝑥 are: ±3 , −2
b) 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 11𝑥 2 + 28
𝑝
Let 𝑥 = 𝑞 , 𝑝 divides 28, q divides 1
Possible values of 𝑝 = ±1 , ±2 , ±3 , ±4 , ±7 , ±14 , ±28
Possible values of 𝑞 = ±1
Possible values of 𝑥 = ±1 , ±2 , ±3 , ±4 , ±7 , ±14 , ±28
By factor theorem,
For 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑃 1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = −1 , 𝑃 −1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = 2 , 𝑃 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 2 is a factor
𝑥 = −2 , 𝑃 −2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 2 is a factor
∴ 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 . 𝑀 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 4 . 𝑀 𝑥
Since 𝑥 + 2 , 𝑥 − 2 are factors of 𝑃 𝑥 , then 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥 2 − 4 must also
be a factor.
By long division to obtain 𝑀 𝑥

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Divisor = 𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥2 − 7
𝑥 2 − 4 𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 28 ∴ 𝑀 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 7

𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2
−7𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 28
7𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 28
−
∴ 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥2 − 7 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 ± 7
The zeros of 𝑃 𝑥 are: ±2 , ± 7
c) 𝑃 𝑥 = 2𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 12
𝑝
Let 𝑥 = 𝑞 , 𝑝 divides 12, q divides 2
Possible values of 𝑝 = ±1 , ±2 , ±3 , ±4 , ±6 , ±12
Possible values of 𝑞 = ±1 , ±2
1 3
Possible values of 𝑥 = ±1 , ±2 , ±3 , ±4 , ±6 , ±12 , ± 2 , ± 2
By factor theorem,
For 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑃 1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = −1 , 𝑃 −1 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 1 is not a factor
𝑥 = 2 , 𝑃 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 2 is a factor
𝑥 = −2 , 𝑃 −2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 + 2 is a factor
𝑥 = 3 , 𝑃 3 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 − 3 is a factor
∴ 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 3 . 𝑀 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 4 𝑥 − 3 . 𝑀 𝑥
Since 𝑥 + 2 , 𝑥 − 2 , 𝑥 − 3 are factors of 𝑃 𝑥 , then 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 3 must
also be a factor. By long division to obtain 𝑀 𝑥
Divisor = 𝑥 2 − 4 𝑥 − 3 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 12
2𝑥 + 1
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 12 2𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 12
2𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 24𝑥
𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 28
−
𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 28

∴ 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 3 2𝑥 + 1
1
The zeros of 𝑃 𝑥 are: ±2 , − 2 , −3
Task
1) Factorize𝑓 𝑥 , hence state the zeros of 𝑓 𝑥
a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟑 𝒙 − 𝟏 ; 𝒁𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔: − 𝟐 , −𝟑 , 𝟏
b) 𝑓 𝑥 = 6𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
𝟏 𝟏
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝒙 − 𝟏 ; 𝒁𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔: − , ,𝟏
𝟐 𝟑
c) 3
𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 − 13𝑥 − 6
𝟏 𝟑
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑 ; 𝒁𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔: − ,− ,𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
2) Solve the equation giving real and imaginary roots if any;
𝟐± 𝟐
a) 2𝑥 3 — 7𝑥 + 2 = 0 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟐
, −𝟐
𝟏
b) 3 2
3𝑥 — 4𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2 = 0 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: − 𝟏 , 𝟐 ,
𝟑
c) 𝑥 4 — 10𝑥 2 + 9 = 0 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: ± 𝟏 , ±𝟑

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THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

Pascal’s triangle
This is used to give the coefficients of the emerging terms during the
expansion.
The coefficients are obtained as below.
Consider an array of triangular combinatorial coefficients.
COLUMN (r)
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0𝐶
ROW (n)

1 1 𝐶0 1 𝐶1
2 2𝐶0 2 𝐶1 2𝐶2
3 3𝐶0 3𝐶
1
3𝐶2 3 𝐶3
4 4𝐶
0
4 𝐶1 4𝐶
2
4 𝐶3 4𝐶
4

Superscript on the left of each of the coefficients denotes row number and
the subscript on the right denote column number.
Note:
1. Superscript must be greater than or equal to subscript. 𝑖. 𝑒. for n 𝐶𝑟 , 𝑛 ≥ 𝑟
2. The above array is generated using n
𝐶𝑟 + n 𝐶𝑟+1 = n + 1 𝐶𝑟+1
Simplifying the table
COLUMN (r)
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
ROW

0 1
1 1 1 𝐶1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1
(n)

4 1 4 6 4 1

From the above table, from the coefficients of each expansion, the
coefficient of the next expansion can be obtained using n 𝐶𝑟 + n 𝐶𝑟+1 = n+1

𝐶𝑟+1
1 1
𝐶0 𝐶1
𝐚𝐝𝐝
1 1
𝐶0 𝐶1

1 1
𝐶0 𝐶0 + 1 𝐶1 = 2 𝐶1 1
𝐶1
𝐚𝐝𝐝
1 2 1
𝐶0 𝐶1 𝐶1

1 2
𝐶0 𝐶1 + 1 𝐶0 = 3 𝐶1 1
𝐶1 + 2 𝐶1 = 3 𝐶2 1
𝐶1
𝐚𝐝𝐝
1 3 3 1
𝐶0 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶1
1 3 1 4 3 3 4 1 3 4 1
𝐶0 𝐶1 + 𝐶0 = 𝐶1 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 𝐶3 𝐶1

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Observation
1 1
1 1 𝐚𝐝𝐝
𝑎+𝑏 2
coeff: 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝐚𝐝𝐝
1 2 1
3
𝑎+𝑏 coeff: 𝟏 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏 𝐚𝐝𝐝
1 3 3 1
4
𝑎+𝑏 coeff: 𝟏 𝟒 𝟔 𝟒 𝟏 𝐚𝐝𝐝
1 4 6 4 1
5
𝑎+𝑏 coeff: 𝟏 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝟏

Pascal’s triangle is
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1

Binomials
Definition
An algebraic expression containing two numbers/terms is a binomial.
Examples
𝑥 + 𝑦 , 𝑎 + 𝑏 , 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 , 4𝑎 − 3𝑏 𝑒𝑡𝑐
Pascal‟s triangle shall be applied to binomials raised to a real
number. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑛 , where n is a particular number.
𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑛 when being expanded using Pascal‟s triangle has the following
features:
i) There are 𝑛 + 1 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 in the expansion.
ii) The sum of the powers of „a‟ and „b‟ in each term equal to „n‟ in the
expansion.
iii) The first term of expansion is 𝑎𝑛 and the last term is 𝑏𝑛 .
iv) The power of „a‟ decrease by 1 and subsequent terms and that of b
start with 1 in the second term, and increasing by 1 in every
succeeding term.
Examples
1) Expand in descending powers of x in each of the following.
i. 𝑥+6 6 iii. 2𝑥 + 1 3
1 4 1 5
ii. 2𝑥 − 4 iv. 𝑥−𝑥
Solution
i. 𝑥+6 6 =?
There are 7 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠. 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑥6 𝑥5 6 1 𝑥4 6 2 𝑥3 6 3 𝑥2 6 4 𝑥1 6 5
6 6

Coefficients from Pascal‟s triangle

𝟏 𝟔 𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟔 𝟏

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6
⇒ 𝑥+6 = 𝟏. 𝑥 6 + 6. 𝑥 5 6 1
+ 15. 𝑥 4 6 2
+ 20. 𝑥 3 6 3
+ 𝟏𝟓. 𝑥 2 6 4
+ 𝟔. 𝑥 1 6 5
+ 𝟏. 6 6

= 𝑥 6 + 36𝑥 5 + 540𝑥 4 + 4320𝑥 3 + 19440𝑥 2 + 46656𝑥 + 46656

1 4
ii. 2𝑥 − =?
4
There are 5 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠. 𝑖. 𝑒.
4 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 4
2𝑥 2𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 2𝑥 − −
4 4 4 4
Coefficients from Pascal‟s triangle
𝟏 𝟒 𝟔 𝟒 𝟏
1 4 4 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 4
⇒ 2𝑥 − = 𝟏. 2𝑥 + 𝟒. 2𝑥 − + 𝟔. 2𝑥 − + 𝟒. 2𝑥 − + 𝟏. −
4 4 4 4 4
3 1 1
= 16𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 + 2 𝑥 2 − 8 𝑥 3 + 256
iii. 2𝑥 + 1 3 = ?
There are 4 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠. 𝑖. 𝑒.
2𝑥 3 2𝑥 2 1 1 2𝑥 1 1 2 1 3
Coefficients from Pascal‟s triangle
𝟏 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏
⇒ 2𝑥 + 1 3 = 𝟏. 2𝑥 3 + 𝟑. 2𝑥 2 1 1 + 𝟑. 2𝑥 1
1 2
+ 𝟏. 1 3

= 8𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 1
1 5
iv. 𝑥−𝑥 =?
There are 6 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠. 𝑖. 𝑒.
1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
𝑥5 𝑥4 − 𝑥 𝑥3 − 𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥 𝑥 −𝑥 −𝑥
Coefficients from Pascal‟s triangle
𝟏 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝟏
1 5 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
⇒ 𝑥− = 𝟏. 𝑥 5 + 𝟓. 𝑥 4 − + 𝟏𝟎. 𝑥 3 − + 𝟏𝟎. 𝑥 2 − + 𝟓. 𝑥 − + 𝟏. −
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
10 10 𝟓 1
= 𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 2 + − + −
𝑥 𝑥4 𝑥7 𝑥 10

Finding approximations by Pascal’s triangle expansions

1 4
2) Expand 3 + 𝑥 in ascending powers of x. by putting 𝑥 = 0.2 in the first three
8
terms of the expansion, find the approximate value of 3.025 4
to 3𝑑. 𝑝.
Solution
1 4
3+8𝑥 has 5 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠. 𝑖. 𝑒.
4 3 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥 4
3 3 3 3
8 8 8 8
Coefficients: 𝟏 𝟒 𝟔 𝟒 𝟏
1 4 2 𝑥 3 𝑥 4
4 3 𝑥 2 𝑥
∴ 3+ 𝑥 = 𝟏. 3 + 𝟒. 3 + 𝟔. 3 + 𝟒. 3 + 𝟏.
8 8 8 8 8
108 54 2 12 𝑥4
= 81 + 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥3 +
8 64 512 4096
27 27 2 3 𝑥4
= 81 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥3 +
2 32 128 4096
Taking the first 3 –terms
1 4 27 27
3+8𝑥 = 81 + 2
𝑥 + 32 𝑥 2
For 𝑥 = 0.2
1 4 27 27 2
⇒ 3 + × 0.2 = 81 + × 0.2 + × 0.2
8 2 32
4
∴ 3.025 ≈ 83.734

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1 3 1
3) Expand 1 + 𝑥 as far as 𝑥 3 . Hence find the value of 1.025 3
giving your
answer to 4 𝑠. 𝑓.
Solution
1 3
1+ has 4 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠. 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑥
3 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 3
1 1 𝑥
1 𝑥 𝑥
Coefficients from Pascal‟s triangle: 𝟏 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏
1 3 3 2 1 1 1 1
2 1 3
∴ 1+ = 𝟏. 1 + 𝟑. 1 + 𝟑. 1 + 𝟏.
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
3 3 1
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3
Now finding a suitable value of 𝑥 for substitution
1 3 3 1
⇒ 1+ = 1.025 ∴ 1 + = 1.025 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 40
𝑥 𝑥
1 3 3 3 1
3
∴ 1 + 40 = 1.025 = 1 + 40 + 40 2 + 40 3 = 1.0779
3
∴ 1.025 ≈ 1.077
𝑥 4
4) Write down the expansion of 1 + af far as 𝑥 3 . Hence find the value of
4
1.025 4 correct to 3𝑑. 𝑝𝑠.
Solution
𝑥 4
1+ has 5 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠. 𝑖. 𝑒.
4
4 3 𝑥 1 2 𝑥
2
1 𝑥
3 𝑥 4
1 1 1 1
4 4 4 4
Coefficients from Pascal‟s triangle: 𝟏 𝟒 𝟔 𝟒 𝟏
1 3 4 3 𝑥 1 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥 4
∴ 1+𝑥 = 𝟏. 1 + 𝟒. 1 + 𝟔. 1 2 4 + 𝟒. 1 1
+ 𝟏.
4 4 4
3 2 1 3 𝑥 4
≈1+𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 ; 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
8 16 4
Now finding a suitable value of 𝑥 for substitution
𝑥 4 4 𝑥
⇒ 1+4 = 1.025 ∴ 1 + 4 = 1.025 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0.1
0.1 3 4 3 2 1 3
∴ 1+ = 1.025 = 1 + 0.1 + 8 0.1 + 16 0.1 = 1.104
4
4
∴ 1.025 ≈ 1.104
5) Using Pascal’s triangle, find the exact value of
a) 2.95 3
b) 2.998 4
Solution
a) 2.95 3 = 3 − 0.05 3 = 2 + 0.95 3 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑐𝑕𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒
Using 2.95 3 = 3 − 0.05 3 , has 4 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠. 𝑖. 𝑒.
3 3 3 2 −0.05 1 3 1 −0.05 2 −0.05 3
Coefficients from Pascal‟s triangle: 𝟏 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏
⇒ 2.95 3 = 3 − 0.05 3 = 𝟏. 3 3 + 𝟑. 3 2 −0.05 1 + 𝟑. 3 1 −0.05 2 + 𝟏. −0.05 3

= 27 − 1.35 + 0.0225 − 0.000125

= 25.672375
b) 2.998 = 3 − 0.002 4 = 2 + 0.998 4
4

Using 2.998 4 = 3 − 0.002 4, has 5 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠. 𝑖. 𝑒.

3 4 3 3 −0.002 1 3 2 −0.002 2 3 1 −0.002 3 −0.002 4
Coefficients from Pascal‟s triangle: 𝟏 𝟒 𝟔 𝟒 𝟏

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4
⇒ 2.998 = 3 − 0.05 3
= 𝟏. 3 4 + 𝟒. 3 3
−0.002 1
+ 𝟔. 3 2
−0.002 2
+ 𝟒. 3 1
−0.002 3
+
4
𝟏. −0.002
= 81 − 0.216 + 0.000216
= 80.784
Task
1) Expand 2 − 𝑥 6 in ascending powers of 𝑥 .Taking the first 3-terms, find the
value of 1.998 6 as accurately as possible. 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟔𝟑. 𝟔𝟏𝟕
2) Write down the first three terms of 3 − 𝑥 6 . Hence find the value of 2.998 6 as
accurately as possible. 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟖𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟒
Note:
1) Pascal‟s triangle is applicable to 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑛 where n is relatively small. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑛 ≤ 6
and is a natural number.
2) If n is large or negative of fractional, Binomial theorem can be used.

THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

This states that if n is a particular number then

𝑎+𝑏 𝑛
= n 𝐶0 𝑎𝑛 𝑏0 + n 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏1 + n 𝐶2 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 +………………+ n 𝐶𝑛 𝑎𝑛−𝑛 𝑏𝑛
= 𝑎𝑛 + n 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏1 + n 𝐶2 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 +…………………..……+ 𝑏𝑛

However if few terms of an expansion are required the theorem is used in

the form

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2

𝑎+𝑏 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏1 + 2!
𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 + 3!
𝑎𝑛−3 𝑏3 +……+𝑏𝑛

Note:
𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛 𝑛 −1 𝑛! 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
n 𝐶1 = = 𝑛 , n 𝐶2 = = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 n 𝐶3 = = 𝑒. 𝑡. 𝑐
𝑛−1 ! 𝑛−2 !2! 2! 𝑛−3 !3! 3!
Putting all these results in the first stated Binomial theorem yields the
second stated theorem above.
Example
Expand by Binomial theorem.
1 5 1
a) 𝑥+𝑥 as far as term in 𝑥 5
𝑥 4
b) 3+ as far as term in 𝑥 3
5
𝑥 8
c) 4+ as far as term in 𝑥 4
8
Solution
5
a) 𝑥 + 1𝑥 =?
Using 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑛
= 𝑎𝑛 + n 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏1 + n 𝐶2 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 +…………………..……+𝑏𝑛
1 5 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4
⇒ 𝑥+𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 5 𝐶1 𝑥 5−1 𝑥
+ 5 𝐶2 𝑥 5−2 𝑥
+ 5 𝐶3 𝑥 5−3 𝑥
+ 5 𝐶4 𝑥 5−4 𝑥
+5
1 5
𝐶5 𝑥 5−5 𝑥
5! 𝑥4 5! 𝑥3 5! 𝑥2 5! 𝑥
= 𝑥 5 + 4!1! . 𝑥
+ .
3!2! 𝑥 2
+ 2!3! . 𝑥 3 + 1!4! . 𝑥 4

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1 5 10 5 1
∴ 𝑥+ = 𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 + + +
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5
𝑥 4
b) 3 + 5 =?
𝑥 4 4 4−1 𝑥
1
4−2 𝑥
2 𝑥 3 𝑥 4
3+ = 3 + 4 𝐶1 3 + 4 𝐶2 3 + 4 𝐶3 3 4−3 + 4 𝐶4
5 5 5 5 5
4! 2 𝑥 3 𝑥4
3 𝑥 4! 2 𝑥 4!
= 81 + 3 + 3 + 3 +
3!1! 5 2!2! 5 1!3! 5 625
𝑥 4 108 54 2 12 3
∴ 3+ = 81 + 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥
5 5 25 125
𝑥 8 1 2 𝑥 3 4
c) 4 + 8 = 4 8
+ 8 𝐶1 4 7 𝑥
8
+ 8 𝐶2 4 6 𝑥
8
+ 8 𝐶3 4 5
8
+ 8 𝐶4 4 4 𝑥
8
𝑥 8 35
∴ 4+ = 65536 + 16384𝑥 + 1792𝑥 2 + 112𝑥 3 + 𝑥4
8 8

The general term of Binomial expansion

Recall: 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑛 = n 𝐶0 𝑎𝑛 𝑏0 + n 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏1 + n 𝐶2 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 +……+ n 𝐶𝑛 𝑎𝑛−𝑛 𝑏𝑛
Each term looks like n 𝐶𝑟 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏𝑟 where 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛.
Thus the expression n𝑪𝒓 𝒂𝒏−𝒓 𝒃𝒓 is typical of each term in the expansion of
𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑛 . Hence it is called general term.
Any specific term can be derived from the general term.
Example:
If 𝑟 = 2, the general term becomes;
𝑛!
n 𝐶2 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 = 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 , which is the 3𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of the expansion of 𝑎+
𝑛−2 !2!
𝑏 𝑛.
∴ The 3𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 is obtained by letting 𝑟 = 2.

General deduction
n
𝑪𝒓 𝒂𝒏−𝒓 𝒃𝒓 represents 𝑟 + 1 𝑡𝑕
𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 in the expansion of
𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛
Example
1. State the required term in the expansions written in ascending powers of x.
a) 10𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑥 15
𝑥 12
b) 8𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 2 − 3
3 8
c) 4𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 2 − 𝑥
Solution
Using 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝒏 expansion with general term n𝑪𝒓 𝒂𝒏−𝒓 𝒃𝒓 for 𝒓 + 𝟏 𝒕𝒉
𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎
a) 1 + 𝑥 15 gives: 𝑎 = 1 , 𝑏 = 𝑥 , 𝑛 = 15 , 𝑟 + 1 = 10 ⇒ 𝑟 = 9
15!
∴ 10𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 15 𝐶9 1 15−9 9
𝑥 = 𝑥9
15−9 !9!
151
= 𝑥 9 = 5005𝑥 9 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
6!9!
𝑥 12 𝑥
b) 2−3 gives: 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = − 3 , 𝑛 = 12 , 𝑟 + 1 = 8 ⇒ 𝑟 = 7
𝑥 7 12! 𝑥7
∴ 8𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 12 𝐶7 2 12−7
− = 2 5. 7
3 5!7! −3
792×32 7 2816 7
= −2187
𝑥 =− 243
𝑥
3 8 3
c) 2−𝑥 gives: 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = − 𝑥 , 𝑛 = 8 , 𝑟 + 1 = 4 ⇒ 𝑟 = 3

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3 3 8! −3 3 48384
∴ 4𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 8 𝐶3 2 8−3
−𝑥 = 5!3! 2 5 . 𝑥3
=− 𝑥3
Note:
Sometimes a coefficient of term can be required. The general term can be
used to state the required coefficient.
The required coefficient of term is derived by finding a suitable r.

2. Find the coefficient of 𝑥10 in the expansion of 2𝑥 − 3 14 .

Solution
From the general term 𝑼𝒓+𝟏 = n𝑪𝒓 𝒂𝒏−𝒓 𝒃𝒓 of expansion of 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝒏
For 2𝑥 − 3 14 , 𝑎 = 2𝑥 , 𝑏 = −3 , 𝑛 = 14 , 𝑟 + 1 = ? ⇒ 𝑟 = ?
⇒ 𝑈𝑟+1 = 14𝐶𝑟 2𝑥 14−𝑟 −3 𝑟 = 14 𝐶𝑟 . 2 14−𝑟 . 𝑥 14−𝑟 . −3 𝑟
Since term in 𝑥10 is required, then equating 𝑥10 = 𝑥 14−𝑟 gives the value of r
which is the key determinant of required coefficient.
⇒ 10 = 14 − 𝑟 ∴ 𝑟 = 4
Thus the required coefficient is in the 5𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of the expansion of 2𝑥 − 3 14
14−4 14−4 4 14!
∴ 𝑈5 = 14 𝐶4 . 2 . 𝑥 . −3 = 10!4! . 210 . −3 4 . 𝑥10
Required coefficient = 1001 × 210 × −3 4
= 83026944
3 8
3. Find the coefficient of 𝑥 −4
in the expansion of 2 − 𝑥 .
Solution
3 8 3
For 2 − 𝑥 , 𝑎 = 2,𝑏 = −𝑥 ,𝑛 = 8,𝑟 +1 = ? ⇒ 𝑟 =?
8−𝑟 3 𝑟 8−𝑟 −𝑟 𝑟
⇒ 𝑈𝑟+1 = 8𝐶𝑟 2 − = 8 𝐶𝑟 . 2 . 𝑥 . −3
𝑥
Finding a suitable value of r;
Since term in 𝑥 −4 is required, then equating 𝑥 −4 = 𝑥 −𝑟 gives the value of r
. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑟 = 4
3 8
Thus the required coefficient is in the 5𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of the expansion of 2−𝑥
8−4 −4 4 8!
∴ 𝑈5 = 8 𝐶4 . 2 . 𝑥 . −3 = 4!4! . 24 . −3 4 . 𝑥 −4
8!
Required coefficient = 4!4! . 24 . −3 4
= 90 720
4. Find the coefficient of 𝑎 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑥 20 .
6 14

Solution
For 𝑎 + 𝑥 20 , 𝐴 = 𝑎 , 𝐵 = 𝑥, 𝑁 = 20 , 𝑅 + 1 = ? ⇒ 𝑅 = ?
⇒ 𝑈𝑅+1 = 20𝐶𝑅 𝑎20−𝑅 𝑥 𝑅
Finding a suitable value of R;
Since term in 𝑎6 𝑥14 is required, then equating either 𝑥14 = 𝑥 𝑅 giving the
value of 𝑅 = 14 or 𝑎6 = 𝑎20−𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅 = 14 𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
Thus the required coefficient is in the 15𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of the expansion of 𝑎 + 𝑥 20

∴ 𝑈15 = 20 𝐶14 𝑎20−14 𝑥14 =20 𝐶14 . 𝑎6 𝑥14

∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 20 𝐶14 = 38 760
5. Write down the coefficient of the term in 𝑥 4 𝑦 5 in the expansion of 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 9
Solution
For 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 9 , 𝑎 = 2𝑥 , 𝑏 = 3𝑦 , 𝑛 = 9 , 𝑟 + 1 = ? ⇒ 𝑟 = ?
⇒ 𝑈𝑟+1 = 9𝐶𝑟 2𝑥 9−𝑟 3𝑦 𝑟 = 9𝐶𝑟 . 2 9−𝑟 . 𝑥 9−𝑟 . 3 𝑟 𝑦 𝑟
Finding a suitable value of r;

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Since term in 𝑥 4 𝑦 5 is required, then equating either 𝑥 4 = 𝑥 9−𝑟 giving the

value of 𝑟 = 5 or 𝑦 5 = 𝑦 𝑟 ⇒ 𝑟 = 5 𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
Thus the required coefficient is in the 6𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of the expansion of 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 9

∴ 𝑈6 = 9𝐶5 . 2 9−5 . 𝑥 9−5 . 3 5 𝑦 5 = 9𝐶5 . 2 9−5 . 3 5 . 𝑥 4 𝑦 5

∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 9𝐶5 . 2 9−5 . 3 5 = 489 988
10 10 1
6. Expand 1 + 𝑥
in terms of descending powers of x as far as term in 𝑥 3 .
Find: a) The 8𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
b) The coefficient of 𝑥 −8
Solution
The expansion is left as an exercise.
a) Using 𝑈𝑟+1 = n𝐶𝑟 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏𝑟 for 𝑟 + 1 𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
10 10 10
For 1+ ,𝑎 = 1 ,𝑏 = , 𝑛 = 10
𝑥 𝑥
Given: 𝑟 + 1 = 8 ∴ 𝑟 = 7
7 10 7 10 7
10−7 10 10!
∴ 𝑈8 = 10 𝐶7 1 = 10 𝐶7 . = 7!3! .
𝑥 𝑥7 𝑥7
1.2×10 9
∴ 8𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑥7
10
b) From 𝑈𝑟+1 = n𝐶
𝑟𝑎
𝑛−𝑟 𝑟
𝑏 ,𝑎 = 1 ,𝑏 = , 𝑛 = 10 , 𝑟 + 1 = ? ⇒ 𝑟 = ?
𝑥
10−𝑟 10 𝑟
𝑈𝑟+1 = 10 𝐶𝑟 1 = 10 𝐶𝑟 . 10𝑟 . 𝑥 −𝑟 ∵ 1 10−𝑟
=1
𝑥
Finding a suitable value of r;
Equating 𝑥 −𝑟 = 𝑥 −8 ∴ 𝑟 = 8
⇒ 𝑈9 = 10 𝐶8 . 108 . 𝑥 −8
8 10!
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 10 𝐶
8 . 10 = 2!8! × 108 = 4.5 × 108
7. Write down the middle terms of the expansions
a) 𝑎 + 𝑏 14
b) 𝑎 − 𝑏 16
c) 1+𝑥 9
Solution
15+1 𝑡𝑕
a) 𝑎+𝑏 14
, has 15 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠. Required term is the 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 8𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
2
𝑛+1 𝑡𝑕
∵ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠, 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
2
Using 𝑈𝑟+1 = n𝐶𝑟 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏𝑟 for 𝑟 + 1 𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
⇒8=𝑟+1 ∴𝑟=7
∴ 𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 8𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 14𝐶7 𝑎14−7 𝑏7
=14𝐶7 𝑎7 𝑏7 = 3432𝑎7 𝑏7
17+1 𝑡𝑕
b) 𝑎−𝑏 16
, has 17 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠(𝑜𝑑𝑑). Required term is the 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 9𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
2
The 9𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑟 + 1 ∴ 𝑟 = 8
⇒ 𝑈9 = 16𝐶8 𝑎16−8 −𝑏 8 =16𝐶8 𝑎8 𝑏8 = 12 870𝑎8 𝑏8
c) 1 + 𝑥 9 , has 10 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠(𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛). Hence there are 2 − 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠.
𝑛 𝑡𝑕 𝑛 𝑡𝑕
∵ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠, 𝑡𝑕𝑒 2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 2
+ 1 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
10 𝑡𝑕 10 𝑡𝑕
Required terms are 𝑎𝑛𝑑 +1 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 2
For 5 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 , 𝑟 + 1 = 5 ∴ 𝑟 = 4
𝑡𝑕

⇒ 5𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 9𝐶4 1 9−4 𝑥 4 = 9𝐶4 . 𝑥 4 = 126𝑥 4

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For 6𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 , 𝑟 + 1 = 6 ∴ 𝑟 = 5

⇒ 6𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 9𝐶5 1 9−5 𝑥 5 = 9𝐶5 . 𝑥 5 = 126𝑥 5
8. Find the last three terms of 2𝑥 + 𝑦 7
Solution
2𝑥 + 𝑦 7 has 8 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
Required terms are: 8𝑡𝑕 , 7𝑡𝑕 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 each corresponding to 𝑟 −
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠: 7 , 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5 respectively.
∴ 8𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 7 𝐶7 2𝑥 7−7 𝑦7 = 𝑦 7
∴ 7𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 7 𝐶6 2𝑥 7−6 𝑦6 = 7 × 2𝑥𝑦 6 = 14𝑥𝑦 6
6𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 7 𝐶5 2𝑥 7−5 𝑦5 = 21 × 2𝑥 2 𝑦5 = 84𝑥 2 𝑦 5
9. Write down the terms involving:
1 2
a) 𝑥4
𝑥
1 3 1 6
b) 𝑥 3
, in the expansion of 𝑥 + 𝑥
𝑥
Solution
1 6 1
For 𝑥 + 𝑥 ,𝑎 = 𝑥 ,𝑏 = 𝑥 ,𝑛 = 6
1 𝑟
⇒ 𝑈𝑟+1 = 6 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑥 6−𝑟 =6 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑥 6−𝑟 𝑥 −𝑟 . 1 𝑟
= 6 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑥 6−2𝑟 . 1 𝑟
𝑥
1 2
a) Now term involving 𝑥 4 = 𝑥 4 . 𝑥 −2 . 12 = 𝑥 2 is equated to 𝑥 6−2𝑟
𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 6−2𝑟 ∴ 2 = 6 − 2𝑟 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑟 = 2
∴ 3𝑟𝑑 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 6 𝐶2 . 𝑥 6−2×2 . 1 2 = 15𝑥 2
1 3
b) For term involving 𝑥 3 𝑥
= 𝑥 3 . 𝑥 −3 1 3
= 𝑥0
Equating 𝑥 0 = 𝑥 6−2𝑟 ⇒ 0 = 6 − 2𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 = 3
∴ 4𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 6 𝐶3 . 𝑥 6−2×3 . 1 3 = 20
10. Write down the constant terms in the expansion of:
1 8
a. 𝑥−𝑥
1 6
b. 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥
Solution
A constant term does not contain x. finding the suitable value for r;
1 8 1 𝑟
a. 𝑥−𝑥 = 8 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑥 8−𝑟 . 𝑥
= 8 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑥 8−𝑟 . 𝑥 −𝑟 . 1 𝑟
= 8 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑥 8−2𝑟 . 1 𝑟

For a constant term, . 𝑥 8−2𝑟 = 𝑥 0 ⇒ 8 − 2𝑟 = 0 ∴ 𝑟 = 4

The 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 5𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 8 𝐶4 . 𝑥 8−2×4 . 1 4 = 8 𝐶4 = 70
1 6 1 𝑟
b. 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 6 𝐶𝑟 . 2𝑥 2 6−𝑟
. −𝑥 = 8 𝐶𝑟 . 26−𝑟 . 𝑥12−2𝑟 . 𝑥 −𝑟 . −1 𝑟

= 8 𝐶𝑟 . 26−𝑟 . 𝑥12−3𝑟 . −1 𝑟
For a constant term, . 𝑥12−3𝑟 = 𝑥 0 ⇒ 12 − 3𝑟 = 0 ∴ 𝑟 = 4
The 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 5𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 6 𝐶4 . 26−4 . 𝑥12−3×4 . −1 4
= 6 𝐶4 × 4 = 60
11. Find the coefficients of the terms indicated in the expansions below.
1 6
a) 𝑥+𝑥 , 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 4
1 7 1
b) 2𝑥 + 𝑥 , 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 5
2 8
c) 𝑥−𝑥 , 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 6

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𝑥 10
d) 2+2 , 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 7
Solution
Using 𝑈𝑟+1 = n𝐶𝑟 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏𝑟 for 𝑟 + 1 𝑡𝑕
𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑛

1 6 1 𝑟
a) 𝑥+ = 6 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑥 6−𝑟 . = 6 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑥 6−𝑟 . 𝑥 −𝑟 . 1 𝑟
𝑥 𝑥
6−2𝑟
= 6 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑥 . 1 𝑟
For term in 𝑥 a suitable value of r is;
4

𝑥 4 = 𝑥 6−2𝑟 ⇒ 4 = 6 − 2𝑟 ∴ 𝑟 = 1
∴ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 4 = 6 𝐶1 . 𝑥 6−2×1 . 1 1 = 6𝑥 4
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 4 = 6
1 7 1 𝑟
b) 2𝑥 + = 7 𝐶𝑟 . 2𝑥 7−𝑟
. = 7 𝐶𝑟 . 27−𝑟 . 𝑥 7−𝑟 . 𝑥 −𝑟 . 1 𝑟
𝑥 𝑥
= 7 𝐶𝑟 . 27−𝑟 . 𝑥 7−2𝑟
. 1 𝑟
1
For term in a suitable value of r is;
𝑥5
𝑥 −5 = 𝑥 7−2𝑟 ⇒ −5 = 7 − 2𝑟 ∴ 𝑟 = 6
1
∴ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 = 7 𝐶6 . 𝑥 7−2×6 . 1 6
= 14𝑥 −5
𝑥5
1
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 = 14
𝑥5
2 8 2 𝑟
c) 𝑥−𝑥 = 8 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑥 8−𝑟 . − 𝑥 = 8 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑥 8−𝑟 . −2 𝑟 𝑥 −𝑟
= 8 𝐶𝑟 . −2 𝑟 . 𝑥 8−2𝑟
For term in 𝑥 6 a suitable value of r is;
𝑥 6 = 𝑥 8−2𝑟 ⇒ 6 = 8 − 2𝑟 ∴ 𝑟 = 1
∴ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 6 = 8 𝐶1 . 𝑥 8−2×1 . −2 1 = −16𝑥 6
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 6 = −16
𝑥 10 10−𝑟 𝑥
𝑟 1 𝑟
d) 2+2 = 10 𝐶
𝑟.2 . 2 = 10 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑥 𝑟 . 210−𝑟 . 2
= 10 𝐶𝑟 . 210−2𝑟 . 1 𝑟 . 𝑥 𝑟
For term in 𝑥 a suitable value of r is;
7

𝑥7 = 𝑥𝑟 ∴ 𝑟 = 7
15
∴ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 7 = 10 𝐶7 . 𝑥 7 . 210−2×7 = 10 𝐶7 . 2−4 . 𝑥 7 = 𝑥7
2
15
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 7 =
2

The binomial expansion of 1 + 𝑥 𝑛

From 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + n 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏1 + n 𝐶2 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 +…………………..……+ 𝑏𝑛 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 =
1 , 𝑏 = 𝑥 , then;
1 + 𝑥 𝑛 = 1𝑛 + n 𝐶1 1 𝑛−1 𝑥1 + n 𝐶2 1 𝑛−2 𝑥 2 +…………………..……+ 𝑥 𝑛
= 1 + n 𝐶1 𝑥 + n 𝐶2 𝑥 2 +……………………………………………..……+ 𝑥 𝑛

𝒏 𝒏 𝒏 𝟐
𝟏+𝒙 =𝟏+ 𝒙+ 𝒙 +………………………………………… + 𝒙𝒏 1
𝟏 𝟐
𝒏 𝒏−𝟏
= 𝟏 + 𝒏𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 + +……………………………………… + 𝒙𝒏 2
𝟐!

NOTE:
1) The expansion of 1 + 𝑥 𝑛 has 𝑛 + 1 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠.
2) The term in 𝑥 2 is the 3𝑟𝑑 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 , the term in 𝑥 3 is the 4𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 and the
term in 𝑥 𝑟 is the 𝑟 + 1 𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚.

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𝑛
∴ 𝑟 𝑡𝑕 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = . 𝑥 𝑟 −1 = n 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑥 𝑟
𝑟−1
𝑛
3) The coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 = n 𝐶𝑟 =
𝑟
4) The form of the expansion given in (1) is useful when the coefficient of a
larger power of x is required, or when general term is required.
The form of the expansion given in (2) is useful when the first few terms of
an expansion are required.
5) The expansion of 𝑎 + 𝑥 𝑛 where n is a positive integer can be done as;
𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑛
𝑎+𝑏 = 𝑎 1+ = 𝑎𝑛 1 +
𝑎 𝑎
𝑥
Replacing 𝑥 𝑏𝑦 in the binomial expansion series gives;
𝑎
𝑛 𝑛 𝑥
𝑛 𝑛 𝑥 2 𝑛 𝑥 𝑟 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝑛
𝑎+𝑥 =𝑎 1+ + + ⋯……+ + ⋯…………… + 𝑥
1 𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑟 𝑎 𝑛 𝑎
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛 −2 2 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑟 𝑟 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
=𝑎 + 𝑎 𝑥+ 𝑎 𝑥 + ⋯…………+ 𝑎 𝑥 + ⋯………+ 𝑎 𝑥
1 2 𝑟 𝑛

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛−2 2 𝑛 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑎+𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎 𝑥+ 𝑎 𝑥 + …………… + 𝑎 𝑥 + ………+ 𝑎 𝑥
1 2 𝑟 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑎+𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 2 +……………………………………………………+ 𝑥 𝑛
2!

Example:
1) Write down the first 3 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 in the expansion in ascending powers of x
𝑥 10
a) 1−2
b) 3 − 2𝑥 8

Solution
𝑛 𝑛−1
Using 1 + 𝑥 𝑛
= 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 2!
𝑥 2 + ………………………………… + 𝑥 𝑛
𝑥
Replacing 𝑥 𝑏𝑦 −
2
𝑥 10 𝑥 10×9 𝑥 2
a) 1− = 1 + 10 − + − + ………………….
2 2 2! 2
45
= 1 − 5𝑥 + 4 𝑥2 +……………………
𝑛 𝑛−1
b) Using 𝑎 + 𝑥 𝑛
= 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 2 +……………..…………+ 𝑥 𝑛
2!
Replacing 𝑥 𝑏𝑦 − 2𝑥
8 7
⇒ 3 − 2𝑥 8
= 38 + 8 3 7
−2𝑥 + 3 6
−2𝑥 2
+ …………………...
2!
= 3 − 16 3 𝑥 + 112 3 𝑥 + ……………………………
8 7 6 2

2) Write down the binomial expansion in ascending powers of x as far as and

including the term in 𝑥 2 for each of the following;
a) 1+𝑥 1−𝑥 9
b) 1 − 𝑥 1 + 2𝑥 10
𝑥 20
c) 2+𝑥 1 − 20
d) 1 + 𝑥 2 1 − 5𝑥 14

e) 1 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 8
f) 1 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 5

Solution
a) 1+𝑥 1−𝑥 9
=?

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Expanding 1 − 𝑥 9
as far as 𝑥 2
9 8
1−𝑥 9
= 1 + −𝑥 9
= 1 + 9 −𝑥 + 2!
−𝑥 2
+ ………………..
= 1 − 9𝑥 + 36𝑥 + ………. 2
9
∴ 1+𝑥 1−𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 1 − 9𝑥 + 36𝑥 2
= 1 1 − 9𝑥 + 36𝑥 2 + 𝑥 1 − 9𝑥 + 36𝑥 2
= 1 − 9𝑥 + 36𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 9𝑥 2 + ………………….
∴ 1+𝑥 1−𝑥 9 = 1 − 8𝑥 + 27𝑥 2 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 3 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
b) 1 − 𝑥 1 + 2𝑥 10
Expanding 1 + 2𝑥 10
as far as 𝑥 2
10 9
1 + 2𝑥 10
= 1 + 10 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2
+ ……………
2!
= 1 + 20𝑥 + 180𝑥 + ……………………….. 2

∴ 1 − 𝑥 1 + 2𝑥 10 = 1 − 𝑥 1 + 20𝑥 + 180𝑥 2
= 1 1 + 20𝑥 + 180𝑥 2 − 𝑥 1 + 20𝑥 + 180𝑥 2
= 1 + 20𝑥 + 180𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 20𝑥 2 + ………………….
∴ 1 + 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 9 = 1 + 19𝑥 + 160𝑥 2 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 3 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑥 20
c) 2+𝑥 1 − 20
𝑥 20
Expanding 1 − 20 as far as 𝑥 2
𝑥 20 𝑥 20 𝑥 20 19 𝑥 2
1 − 20 = 1 + − 20 = 1 + 20 − 20 + − 20 + ……………
2!
19
= 1 − 𝑥 + 40 𝑥 + ……………………….. 2

𝑥 20 19
∴ 2+𝑥 1− = 2+𝑥 1−𝑥+ 𝑥2
20 40
19 19
= 2 1 − 𝑥 + 40 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 + 40 𝑥 2
38
= 2 − 2𝑥 + 40 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + …………………
𝑥 20 1
∴ 2+𝑥 1− =2−𝑥− 𝑥2
20 20
d) 2
1 + 𝑥 1 − 5𝑥 14

Expanding 1 + 𝑥 2
as far as 𝑥 2
2 2 1 2
1+𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2
2!
Expanding 1 − 5𝑥 14
as far as 𝑥 2
14 14 14 13 2
1 − 5𝑥 = 1 + −5𝑥 = 1 + 14 −5𝑥 + 2!
−5𝑥
= 1 − 70𝑥 + 2275𝑥 2
∴ 1 + 𝑥 2 1 − 5𝑥 14 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 1 − 70𝑥 + 2275𝑥 2
= 1 1 − 70𝑥 + 2275𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 1 − 70𝑥 + 2275𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 1 − 70𝑥 + 2275𝑥 2
= 1 − 70𝑥 + 2275𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 140𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
∴ 1 + 𝑥 2 1 − 5𝑥 14 = 1 − 68𝑥 + 2136𝑥 2
e) 1 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 8
1 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 8 = 1 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 8 = 1 + 𝑥 + −2𝑥 2 8
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛−2 2 𝑛 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
Using 𝑎 + 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎 𝑥+ 𝑎 𝑥 +…+ 𝑎 𝑥 +…+ 𝑎 𝑥
1 2 𝑟 𝑛
Replacing 𝑎 𝑏𝑦 1 + 𝑥 and 𝑥 𝑏𝑦 −2𝑥 2

8 8
1 + 𝑥 + −2𝑥 2 8 = 1 + 𝑥 8 + 1 + 𝑥 7 −2𝑥 2 + 1 + 𝑥 6 −2𝑥 2 2 +……
1 2
Now expanding 1 + 𝑥 8 and 1 + 𝑥 7 as far as term in 𝑥 2
8 8 7
1+𝑥 = 1 + 8𝑥 + 𝑥 2 = 1 + 8𝑥 + 28𝑥 2
2!

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7 7 5
1+𝑥 = 1 + 7𝑥 + 2!
𝑥 2 = 1 + 7𝑥 + 21𝑥 2
The 3𝑟𝑑 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 in the expansion of 1 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 8 yield higher power terms
greater than 2
8
∴ 1 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 8 = 1 + 8𝑥 + 28𝑥 2 + 1 + 7𝑥 + 21𝑥 2 −2𝑥 2
1
8
= 1 + 8𝑥 + 28𝑥 2 + −2𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
1
= 1 + 8𝑥 + 28𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 2
∴ 1 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 8 = 1 + 8𝑥 + 12𝑥 2
f) 1 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 5
5
1 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 5
= 1 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 8
= 1−𝑥 5
+ 1−𝑥 4
2𝑥 2 +………
1
𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑠
Now expanding 1 − 𝑥 5 and 1 − 𝑥 4 as far as term in 𝑥 2
5 5 4
1−𝑥 = 1 − 5𝑥 + 𝑥 2 = 1 − 5𝑥 + 10𝑥 2
2!
4 4 3
1−𝑥 = 1 − 4𝑥 + 𝑥 2 = 1 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑥 2
2!
5
∴ 1 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 5 = 1 − 5𝑥 + 10𝑥 2 + 1 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 2𝑥 2
1
= 1 − 5𝑥 + 10𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 2 1 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑥 2
= 1 − 5𝑥 + 10𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 2
3
𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
∴ 1 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 8 = 1 − 5𝑥 + 20𝑥 2
Task
Expand the following as far as term in 𝑥 3
a) 1 − 𝑥 − 𝑥2 4
b) 3 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 4
c) 3 − 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 4
d) 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 8
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑:
a) 1 − 4𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 3
b) 81 + 108𝑥 + 54𝑥 2 + 120𝑥 3
c) 81 − 216𝑥 + 324𝑥 2 − 312𝑥 3
d) 1 − 8𝑥 + 36𝑥 2 − 112𝑥 3

USING BINOMIAL EXPANSION TO FIND APPROXIMATIONS

1) If 𝑥 is so small that 𝑥 2 and higher power terms can be neglected, show that
𝑥 10
a) 1−𝑥 5
2+2 ≅ 29 2 − 5𝑥
b) 2𝑥 + 3 1 − 2𝑥 10
≅ 3 − 58𝑥 + 500𝑥 2
𝑥+3
c) 1+𝑥 2
≅ 3 − 5𝑥 + 7𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 3
1+𝑥
d) 1−𝑥
≅ 1 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 3
Solution
𝑥 10
a) 1−𝑥 5
2+ ≅ 29 2 − 5𝑥
2
Since the R.H.S contains terms with highest power as one 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥1 , then,
ignoring terms in 𝑥 2 and higher power terms
1 − 𝑥 5 = 1 − 5𝑥

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𝑥 10 10 9 𝑥
2+ = 210 + 2 . = 210 + 5. 29 𝑥
2 1 2
5 𝑥 10
∴ 1−𝑥 2+ ≅ 1 − 5𝑥 210 + 5. 29 𝑥
2
≅ 29 1 − 5𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 ∵ 29 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡
9 2
≅ 2 2 + 5𝑥 − 10𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
5 𝑥 10
∴ 1−𝑥 2+2 ≅ 29 2 − 5𝑥
b) 2𝑥 + 3 1 − 2𝑥 10 ≅ 3 − 58𝑥 + 500𝑥 2
Since the R.H.S contains terms with highest power as two . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 2 , then,
ignoring terms in 𝑥 3 and higher power terms
10 10 9 2
1 − 2𝑥 = 1 + 10 −2𝑥 + 2!
−2𝑥
= 1 − 20𝑥 + 180𝑥 2
∴ 2𝑥 + 3 1 − 2𝑥 10 ≅ 2𝑥 + 3 1 − 20𝑥 + 180𝑥 2
≅ 2𝑥 − 40𝑥 2 + 3 − 60𝑥 + 540𝑥 2
10
∴ 2𝑥 + 3 1 − 2𝑥 ≅ 3 − 58𝑥 + 500𝑥 2
𝑥+3
c) ≅ 3 − 5𝑥 + 7𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 3
1+𝑥 2
𝑥+3 −2
2
= 𝑥+3 1+𝑥
1+𝑥
Expanding 1 + 𝑥 −2
as far as term in 𝑥 3 neglecting higher power terms
−2 −2 −3 −2 −3 −4
⇒ 1+𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3
2! 3!
= 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 3 2
𝑥+3
∴ ≅ 𝑥 + 3 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 ≅ 𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 3 + 3 − 6𝑥 + 9𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 3
1+𝑥 2
𝑥+3
∴ 2
≅ 3 − 5𝑥 + 7𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 3
1+𝑥
1+𝑥
d. ≅ 1 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 3
1−𝑥
1+𝑥 −1
= 1+𝑥 1−𝑥 ≈ 1 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 3
1−𝑥
Expanding 1 − 𝑥 −1
as far as term in 𝑥 3 neglecting higher power terms
−1 −1 −2 −1 −2 −3
⇒ 1−𝑥 =1+𝑥+ 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3
2! 3!
1+𝑥
∴ 1−𝑥 ≅ 1 + 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 2

≅ 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 𝑥 4 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
1+𝑥
∴ 1−𝑥 ≅ 1 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 3

NOTE:
In all the above examples on binomial theorem, the power on the brackets
𝑝
is an integer not a rational number. 𝑖. 𝑒. of the form .
𝑞

EXPANSION OF 1 + 𝑥 𝑛 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1 AND n IS RATIONAL

. 𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒑/𝒒
The binomial theorem used is;
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
1+𝑥 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 3 + ………………
2! 3!

Note:
𝑥 < 1 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 − 1 < 𝑥 < +1 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

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Application
 Expansion of expressions
 Finding the 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 of a number
 Finding errors in numbers
Examples
1
1) Expand 1 − 3𝑥 4 in ascending powers of x as far as the term in 𝑥 3 . Hence
4
evaluate 13 correct to 3 𝑠. 𝑓.
Solution
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
Using 1 + 𝑥 𝑛
= 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 3 + ………… for 𝑥 < 1
2! 3!
1 3 1 3 7
1
1 − − −
2 3
⇒ 1 − 3𝑥 4 = 1 + 4 −3𝑥 + 4 2!
4
−3𝑥 +4 4
3!
3
−3𝑥 +….
3 27 189
= 1−4𝑥 − 32 𝑥 2 − 128 𝑥 3

1
1 − 3𝑥 4 is valid for expansion if −3𝑥 < 1 𝑜𝑟 3𝑥 < 1 𝑜𝑟 − 1 < 3𝑥 < 1
1 1
− 3 < 𝑥 < 3 is the validity interval for expansion.
4
Since the value of x to be used to estimate 13 in the expansion in the
1 1
range − < 𝑥 < ,then
3 3
4 4
13 = 16 − 3 ∵ 13 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑛𝑜. 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 4𝑡𝑕 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡
1
4 4 3 3 4
= 16 − 3 = 16 1 − = 2 1−
16 16
1 1
Now expressing x as a rational for the interval − 3 < 𝑥 < 3
4 3
Comparing 1− 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 4 1 − 3𝑥
16
3 1 1 1
⇒ ≡ 3𝑥 ∴ 𝑥 = , which is in the range − < 𝑥 <
16 16 3 3
3 27 189 1
From 1 − 3𝑥 = 1 − 4 𝑥 − 32 𝑥 2 − 128 𝑥 3 , for 𝑥 = 16 , then
4

4 3 3 1 27 1 2 189 1 3
1 − 16 ≅ 1 − 4 − 32 − 128 ≅ 0.94946812
16 16 16
4
∴ 13 = 2 × 0.94946812 ≈ 1.90
1
4
2) Expand 1 − 16𝑥 4 as far as 𝑥 3 . Hence evaluate 39 correct to 5. 𝑠. 𝑓. Take
1
𝑥=
10000
Solution
1 3 1 3 7
1
1 − − −
2 3
1 − 16𝑥 4 = 1 + 4 −16𝑥 + 4 4
−16𝑥 +4 4 3
−16𝑥 +….
2! 3!
2 3
= 1 − 4𝑥 − 24𝑥 − 224𝑥
1
16 4 4 24 224
⇒ 1− =1− − −
10000 10000 10000 2 10000 3
1
9984 4
10000
≅ 0.99996
4
256 ×39 4 0.99996×10 0.99996×10
≅ 0.99996 ∴ 39 ≅ 4 ≅
10 254 4
4
∴ 39 ≅ 2.4999

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NOTE:
1) In general, if x is small so that successive powers of x quickly become
negligible in value, then the sum of the first few terms in the expansion of
1 + 𝑥 𝑛 gives the approximate value for 1 + 𝑥 𝑛 . The number of terms
required to obtain a good approximation depends on;
a) The value of x (the smaller x is, the fewer are the terms needed to
obtain a good approximation)
b) The accuracy required (an answer correct to 3 s.f needs fewer terms
than the answer to 6 s.f)
2) When finding an approximation, the binomial expansion of 1 + 𝑥 𝑛 and not
𝑎 + 𝑥 𝑛 should be used if n is rational.𝑒. 𝑔. Find an approximate value of
1 1 1
3.006 5 . here use 35 1 + 0.002 5
1
3) Expand 1 − 𝑥 3 in ascending powers of x as far as the fourth term. Taking
1 3
𝑥 = 1000 , find 37 𝑡𝑜 6. 𝑠𝑓.
Solution
1 2 1 2 5
1 1
1 − − −
2 3
1−𝑥 3 = 1 + −𝑥 3 = 1 + 3 −𝑥 + 3 3
−𝑥 +3 3 3
−𝑥
2! 3!
1 1 5
= 1 − 3 𝑥 − 9 𝑥 2 − 81 𝑥 3
1
Putting 𝑥 = 1000
1
3
1 3 1 5 999 2998
⇒ 1 − 1000 = 1 − 9×10 6 − 81×10 9 = = 2999
10
3 3 2998
∴ 999 = 27 × 37 =
2999
3 29980
∴ 37 = 3 ≅ 3.33222
2999× 27
1
4) Expand 1 + 8𝑥 2 as far as 𝑥 2 . Hence find 3 𝑡𝑜 3. 𝑝.
Solution
1 1
1
1 −
2
1 + 8𝑥 2 ≅ 1 + 2 8𝑥 + 2 2
8𝑥
2!
≅ 1 + 4𝑥 − 8𝑥 2
1 1
Since the expansion is valid for 8𝑥 < 1 𝑜𝑟 − 1 < 8𝑥 < +1 𝑜𝑟 − 8 < 𝑥 < 8 , x‟ s
suitable substitution should be selected to find 3 but with in this interval.
1
From 3 = 4−1 = 2 1−4
1 1
Comparing 1 + 8𝑥 ≡ 1 − 4 ⇒ 𝑥 = − 32
1
1
From 1 + 8𝑥 2 ≅ 1 + 4𝑥 − 8𝑥 2 , for 𝑥 = −
32
1 1 8
1− ≅ 1− −
4 8 32 2
3 111 111
∴ ≅ 𝑜𝑟 3 ≅
2 128 64
Finding suitable value of x for substitution
1
Let 𝑥 = 𝑎 , where „𝑎‟ has an exact square root
8 𝑎+8
⇒ 1 + 8𝑥 = 1 + = = 3𝑁 , N = no. also with exact sq. root
𝑎 𝑎
Using try and error method

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4+8 12 3×4 1 1
For 𝑎 = 4, 1 + 8𝑥 = 4
= 4
= 4
. This is convenient but − 8 < 𝑥 < 8 , hence
1
𝑥 = is not in the range hence rejected.
4
16+8 24 3×8
For 𝑎 = 16, 1 + 8𝑥 = = = , 8 has no exact square root
16 16 16
25+8 33 3×11
For 𝑎 = 25, 1 + 8𝑥 = 25
= 25 = 25
, 25 has no exact square root

100 +8 108 3×36

For 𝑎 = 100, 1 + 8𝑥 = = = , 36 has an exact square root
100 100 100

1 1 1
∴𝑥= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − < 𝑥 < can be use.
100 8 8

1
1
From 1 + 8𝑥 2 ≅ 1 + 4𝑥 − 8𝑥 2 , 𝑥 =
100

1
8 2 4 8
1 + 100 ≅ 1 + 100 − 100 2

108 10.392
≅ 1.0392 ∴ 3 ≅ ≅ 1.732
10 36

1
5) Expand 1 − 3𝑥 4 in ascending powers of x up to the term in 𝑥 3 . Hence
4
evaluate 13
Solution
1 3 1 3 7
1
1 − − −
2 3
1 − 3𝑥 4 ≅ 1 + 4 −3𝑥 + 4 2!
4
−3𝑥 +4 4
3!
4
−3𝑥
3 27 2 819
≅ 1−4𝑥 − 32 𝑥 − 128 𝑥 3
4
Now to find 13 , we need a suitable value of x-value in the range
1 1
−3𝑥 < 1 𝑜𝑟 − < 𝑥 <
3 3
Br try and error method
1
Let 𝑥 = 𝑎 , 𝑎 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 4𝑡𝑕 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡
3 𝑎−3 13𝑁
⇒ 1 − 3𝑥 = 1 − 𝑎 = = . 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 4𝑡𝑕 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡
𝑎 𝑎
16−3 13 13 1 4
For 𝑎 = 16 , 1 − 3𝑥 = = =
16 16 16
1
Hence 𝑥 = 16 can be used
1 3 1 3 7
1
1 − − −
2 3
1 − 3𝑥 4 ≅1+ −3𝑥 + 4 4
−3𝑥 +4 4 4
−3𝑥
4 2! 3!
1
3 3 3 27 3 2 819 3 3
4
1− ≅1− − −
16 4 16 32 16 128 16
≅ 0.9495
4 4
∴ 13 ≅ 0.9495 × 16 ≅ 1.899
1
6) Expand 1 − 𝑥 3 in ascending powers of x as far as 4𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚. By taking the
3
first two terms of x find the value of 37 , correct to 6 𝑠. 𝑓.
Solution
1 2 1 2 5
1
1 − − −
2 3
1−𝑥 3 ≅ 1 + 3 −𝑥 + 3 3
2!
−𝑥 +3 3
3!
3
−𝑥

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1 1 5
≅ 1 − 3 𝑥 − 9 𝑥 2 − 81 𝑥 3
3
Finding a suitable value of x for approximation of 37
1
Let 𝑥 = , 𝑎 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡
𝑎
1 𝑎 −1 37𝑁
⇒ 1−𝑥 =1− = = . 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
8−1 7
For 𝑎 = 8 , 1 − 𝑥 = 8
= 8, this does not contain 37
63
For 𝑎 = 64 , 1 − 𝑥 = 64 , which does not contain 37

999 27×37
For 𝑎 = 1000 , 1 − 𝑥 = 1000 = 1000
, this holds
1
Taking 𝑥 = in the interval −1 < 𝑥 < 1
1000
1
1 1 5
1−𝑥 3 ≅ 1 − 3 𝑥 − 9 𝑥 2 − 81 𝑥 3
1
3
1 3 1 1 2999 999 2999
1 − 1000 ≅ 1−3 1000
≅ 3000 ≅ 10
≅ 3000
3 2999
37 × 27 ≅
300
3 2999 1
∴ 37 ≅ × ≅ 3.33222
300 3

NOTE:
Examples (4), (5) and (6) illustrate how you can use try and error method to
obtain a suitable value of x for approximation of 𝑛 𝑡𝑕 root using binomial
expansion.
See example below.
1
3
7) Expand 1 + 𝑥 3 up to term in 𝑥 2 . Hence evaluate 9 correct to 3 𝑑. 𝑝.
Solution
1 2
1
1 − 1 1
1+𝑥 3 ≅ 1+3𝑥+3 3
𝑥2 ≅ 1 + 3 𝑥 − 9 𝑥2
2!
3
To find 9, a suitable x value must be got.
1
Let 𝑥 = 𝑎 , 𝑎 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡
1 𝑎 +1 9𝑁
⇒ 1+𝑥 =1+𝑎 = = . 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡
𝑎 𝑎
8+1 9 9 1 3 1
For 𝑎 = 8 , 1 + 𝑥 = =8= , hence 𝑥 = 8 can be used
8 8
1
1 1
1+𝑥 3 ≅ 1 + 3 𝑥 − 9 𝑥2
1
1 3 1 1 1 1 2 601
1+8 ≅ 1+3 8
−9 8
≅ 576
3 601
∴ 9≅ × 2 ≅ 2.087
576

Task:
1
Expand 1 − 3𝑥 3 in ascending powers of x a far as the term in 𝑥 3 . Hence
3
evaluate 5
1
Hint: 𝑥 = 8

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More examples on Binomial theorem

1. Use binomial theorem to find
a) 1.001 𝑡𝑜 6. 𝑝
1
b) 2
𝑡𝑜 4𝑑. 𝑝
1.02
c) 0.998 𝑡𝑜 6. 𝑝
1
d) 0.98
𝑡𝑜 4𝑑. 𝑝
Solution
1
a) 1.001 = 1 + 0.001 2 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 0.001
1 1 1 1 3
1
1 − − − 1 1 1
1+𝑥 2 ≅ 1+2𝑥+2 2!
2
𝑥2 + 2 2
3!
2
𝑥 3 ≅ 1 + 2 𝑥 − 8 𝑥 2 + 16 𝑥 3
Now 𝑥 = 0.001
1
1 1 2 1 3
⇒ 1 + 0.001 2 ≅ 1 + 2 0.001 − 8 0.001 + 16 0.001 ≅ 1.000500
1 1
b) 2
= −2
= 1 + 0.02 −2
; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 0.02
1.02 1.02
−2 −2 −3 −2 −3 −4
1+𝑥 ≅ 1 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 3 ≅ 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3
2! 3!
Now 𝑥 = 0.02
⇒ 1 + 0.02 −2 ≅ 1 − 2 0.02 + 3 0.02 2
− 4 0.02 3
1
∴ 2
≅ 0.9612
1.02
1
c) 0.998 = 1 − 0.002 = 1 − 0.002 2
1 1 1 1 3
1
1 − − − 1 1 1
1+𝑥 2 ≅1+ 𝑥+2 2
𝑥2 + 2 2 2
𝑥3 ≅ 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3
2 2! 3! 2 8 16
Now 𝑥 = −0.002
1
1 1 2 1 3
⇒ 1 − 0.002 2 ≅ 1 + 2 −0.002 − 8 −0.002 + 16 −0.002
∴ 0.998 ≅ 0.998999
1 1
1 − −
d) = 0.98 2 = 1 − 0.02 2 ; let x = −0.02
0.98
1 1 1 1 3
1
1 − − − 1 1 1
1+𝑥 2 ≅ 1+2𝑥+ 2 2
𝑥2 + 2 2 2
𝑥 3 ≅ 1 + 2 𝑥 − 8 𝑥 2 + 16 𝑥 3
2! 3!
Now x = −0.02
1
1 1 2 1 3
⇒ 1 − 0.02 2 ≅ 1 + 2 −0.02 − 8 −0.02 + 16 −0.02
1
∴ ≅ 1.0102
0.98

Task:
3
Use binomial theorem to find 1.03 correct to 5s.f
2. Use Binomial theorem to evaluate
a) 23 to 3 d. p
b) 37 to 5 s. f
3
c) 8.01 to 5 s. f
3
d) 64.08 to 5 s. f
Solution
1
2 2
a)
2
23 = 25 − 2 = 25 1 − 25 = 5 1 − 25
1
1 1 1
From 1 + 𝑥 2 ≅ 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3
2 8 16

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1 2 1 2 2
∴ 23 ≅ 5 1 + − − − 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
2 25 8 25
≅ 4.796

NOTE:
2 2
− 25 < 1 . 𝑖. 𝑒. −1 < 25 < 1
1
1 1
b) 37 = 36 + 1 = 36 1 + = 6 1+ 2
36 36
1 1 1 1 2
∴ 37 ≅ 6 1 + − 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 ≅ 6.0828
2 36 8 36
NOTE:
36 + 1 , could not be expanded directly by binomial because 36 > 1 yet the
required interval of 1 + 𝑥 𝑛 expansion is 𝑥 < 1.
1
3 3 0.01 0.01
c) 8.01 = 3 8 + 0.01 =
3
8 1+ =2 1+
8 8
1 2
1 0.01 3
−
3 0.01 2
≅2 1+3 +
8 2! 8
3 0.01
∴ 8.01 ≅ 2 1 + 24
≅ 2.0008
1
3 3 3 0.08 0.08 3
d) 64.08 = 64 + 0.08 = 64 1 + = 4 1+
64 64
3 0.08
∴ 64.08 ≅ 4 1 + 64×3 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 ≅ 4.0017

Proofs in Binomial expansion

1. Show that, if x is small enough for terms in 𝑥 3 and higher power terms
neglected,
1−𝑥 𝑥2
1+𝑥
≅1−𝑥+ 2
1 83
By putting 𝑥 = 8 , show that 7 ≅ 2 128
Solution
1 1 1
1−𝑥 −1 −
= 1−𝑥 1+𝑥 2 = 1−𝑥 2 1+𝑥 2
1+𝑥
1 1
1
1 −
2 2 2
1−𝑥 2 ≅ 1 + 2 −𝑥 + −𝑥
2!
1 1 2
≅ 1+2𝑥−8𝑥
1 3
−
1
1 − −
1+𝑥 2 ≅ 1−2𝑥+ 2!
2 2
𝑥2
1 3
≅ 1−2𝑥 + 8 𝑥2
1−𝑥 1 1 1 3
∴ ≅ 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥2 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥2
1+𝑥 2 8 2 8
1 3 1 1 1 𝑥2
≅ 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥2 ≅ 1 − 𝑥 + 2
2 8 2 4 8 2
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
1
Now 𝑥 =
8

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1
1−
8 1 1 1 2 7 113
1 ≅1−8+2 8
≅ 9
≅ 128
1 +
8

113 83
∴ 7≅3× =2
1128 128

Task:
If x is so small that its cube and higher powers can be neglected, show that
1+𝑥 1 1 359
1−𝑥
≅ 1 + 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 . By putting 𝑥 = 17 , show that 2 ≅ 1 867

2. Show that the first 3 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 in the expansion in ascending powers of x of

1
1+5𝑥
1 + 8𝑥 4 are the same as the first 3 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 in the expansion 1+3𝑥. Use the
1
1+5𝑥
corresponding approximation 1 + 8𝑥 4 ≅ 1+3𝑥 to obtain approximation to
1
1.16 4 as a rational fraction in its lowest form.
Solution
1 3
1
1 −
4 4 2
1 + 8𝑥 4 ≅ 1 + 4 8𝑥 + 8𝑥
2!
2
≅ 1 + 2𝑥 − 6𝑥
1+5𝑥 −1
≅ 1 + 5𝑥 1 + 3𝑥
1+3𝑥
−1 −2 2
≅ 1 + −1 3𝑥 + 2!
3𝑥 1 + 5𝑥
2
≅ 1 − 3𝑥 + 9𝑥 1 + 5𝑥
≅ 1 − 3𝑥 + 9𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 15𝑥 2
≅ 1 + 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 2
1
1+5𝑥
∴ 1 + 8𝑥 4 ≅ 1+3𝑥 ≅ 1 + 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 2
1
1+5𝑥
Using 1 + 8𝑥 4 ≅ 1+3𝑥 ≅ 1 + 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 2
1 1
1.16 4 = 1 + 0.16 4
By comparison, 8𝑥 = 0.16 ∴ 𝑥 = 0.02
1
1+5 0.02
⇒ 1 + 0.16 4 ≅ 1+3
0.02
1.1 59
≅ =
1.06 53

1
3. a) It is given that 𝑓 𝑥 = 1+𝑥 2
+ 4 + 𝑥. Show that if 𝑥 3 and higher powers
are ignored, 𝑓 𝑥 ≅ 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 , and find the values of a, b and c
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
b) Show that 3𝑛 = +2 +4 + ⋯ … … + 2𝑛 . Hence evaluate 36
0 1 2 𝑛
c) Given that the first three terms in the expansion in ascending powers of x
1
1+𝑎𝑥
of 1 − 8𝑥 4 are the same as the first 3-terms in the expansion of . Find the
1+𝑏𝑥
1
𝑝
values of a and b. hence find an approximation to 0.6 4 in the form 𝑞 .
Solution
1 𝑥
a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2
+ 4+𝑥 = 1+𝑥 −2
+ 4 1+
1+𝑥 4
−2 −2 −3
1+𝑥 ≅ 1 + −2 𝑥 + 2!
𝑥 ≅ 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2
2

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1 1 1
𝑥 𝑥 2 1 𝑥 2
−
2 𝑥 2
4 1+ = 2 1+ ≅ 2 1+ +
4 4 2 4 2! 4
𝑥 1 𝑥 1
≅2 1+ − 𝑥2 ≅ 2 + − 𝑥2
8 128 4 64
𝑥 1
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 ≅ 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 2 + − 𝑥2
4 64
191
≅3−𝑥+ 64
𝑥2
191
3−𝑥+ 𝑥 2 ≡ 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 , comparing corresponding coefficients;
64
191
∴ 𝑎 = 3 , 𝑏 = −1 , 𝑐 =
64
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
b) 3𝑛 = +2 +4 + ⋯ … … + 2𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛
3𝑛 = 1 + 2 𝑛 ; By binomial theorem
3𝑛 = 1 + n 𝐶1 . 2 1 + n 𝐶2 . 2 2 + ……………. + n 𝐶𝑛 2 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
3𝑛 = +2 +4 + ⋯ … … + 2𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛
6 6 𝑛 6
For 𝑛 = 6, 36 = + 21 + 2 2 + ⋯ … … + 26
0 1 2 6
36 = 1 + 12 + 60 + 8. 6 𝐶3 + 16. 6 𝐶4 + 32. 6𝐶5 + 64. 6 𝐶6
= 729
1
1+𝑎𝑥
c) 1 − 8𝑥 4 ≅
1+𝑏𝑥
1 3
1
1 −
4 4 2
1 − 8𝑥 4 ≅ 1 + 4 −8𝑥 + −8𝑥
2!
2
≅ 1 − 2𝑥 − 6𝑥
1+𝑎𝑥 −1
≅ 1 + 𝑎𝑥 1 + 𝑏𝑥
1+𝑏𝑥
−1 −2 2
≅ 1 + −1 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 1 + 𝑎𝑥
2!
≅ 1 − 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 1 + 𝑎𝑥
≅ 1 − 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎𝑏𝑥 2
𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 3 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 ∵ 𝑑𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 1𝑠𝑡 3 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
≅ 1 + 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 2
∴ 1 − 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 ≡ 1 + 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 2
By comparison of coefficients of corresponding terms,
For 𝑥: − 2 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 ………………………………………………….…….. (1)
For 𝑥 2 : − 6 = 𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑏 = −𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑏 ……………………………... (2)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
2 𝑎 −𝑏 1
− −6 = −𝑏 𝑎 −𝑏
= −𝑏 ∴ 𝑏 = −3
From (1) 𝑎 = 𝑏 − 2 = −3 − 2 = −5
1
1−5𝑥
∴ 1 − 8𝑥 4 ≅ ≅ 1 − 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 2
1−3𝑥
1 1 1
0.6 = 1 − 0.4 = 1 − 8𝑥
4 4 4

⇒ 0.4 = 8𝑥 ∴ 𝑥 = 0.05
1
1−5𝑥
From 1 − 8𝑥 4 ≅ 1−3𝑥 ≅ 1 − 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 , 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0.05
1
1−5 0.05 0.75 15
0.6 4 ≅ 1−3 0.05
= 0.85 = 17

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

Task:
1+2𝑥
1. Expand as a series of ascending powers of x up to and including
1−2𝑥
1
terms in 𝑥 2 . Using 𝑥 = , find an approximation of 51 stating the number of
100
significant figures to which your answer is accurate. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝟕. 𝟏𝟒𝟏 (4 𝑠. 𝑓)
2 1+𝑥 10
2. Find the first three terms of the binomial expansion 𝑥
. Hence evaluate 15
1−
4

correct to 3d.p.
𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻:
1 1 3
2 1+𝑥 𝑥 −2 1 𝑥 −
2
−
2 𝑥 2
𝑥
= 2 1+𝑥 1−4 ≅ 2 1 + 𝑥 1 + −2 −4 + 2!
−4
1−
4
𝑥 3
≅ 2 1 + 𝑥 1 + 8 + 128 𝑥 2
𝑥 3 𝑥2
≅ 2 1 + 8 + 128 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 +
8
9 19
≅2 1+ 𝑥+ 𝑥2
8 128
10
Now finding suitable value of x for evaluation of
15
2 1+𝑥 10 1+𝑥 5
⇒ = 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑥 15 𝑥 15
1− 1−
4 4

1+𝑥 2 25 5 4 1+𝑥 2 5
⇒ 𝑥 = = 𝑜𝑟 =
1− 15 3 4−𝑥 3
4

⇒ 12 + 24𝑥 + 12𝑥 2 = 20 − 5𝑥 𝑜𝑟 12𝑥 2 + 29𝑥 − 8 = 0

1 8
Solving 𝑥 = 4 , − 3
𝑥 𝑥 1
Since the expansion 1 − 4 is valid for < 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 4, then taking 𝑥 = 4
4
1
2 1+
4 9 1 19 1 2
⇒ ≅ 2 1+8 + 128
1 4 4
1−
16
10
4 264 ×2
⇒ ≅
15 2048
16
10
∴ ≅ 2.581
15
𝑥 4
3. Determine the binomial expansion of 1 + . Hence evaluate 2.1 4
correct to
2
2d.p (𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟓)
𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐓:
𝑥 4 3 𝑥3
1+ = 1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 +
2 2 2
0.1 4 0.1 4
4 4
2.1 = 2 + 0.1 = 2 1+ = 16 1 +
2 2
𝑥 0.1
𝐵𝑢𝑡 = ∴ 𝑥 = 0.1
2 2
0.1 4 3 2 0.1 3
⇒ 16 1 + 2
≅ 16 1 + 2 0.1 + 2 0.1 + 2
≅ 19.448
1+5𝑥
4. Expand as far as and including the term in 𝑥 3 . Taking the first three
1−5𝑥
1
terms and 𝑥 = evaluate 14
9

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

5. Show that 1 + 4𝑎𝑥 ≅ 1 + 2𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 4𝑎3 𝑥 3 + ……, and deduce the
1
expansion for 1 − 4𝑥 up to the term in 𝑥 4. Letting 𝑥 = 10 , evaluate 6
to 5 𝑑. 𝑝.
𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐓: 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 + 4𝑎𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 1 − 4𝑥 , 𝑎 = −1
1
6. Expand 1 − 𝑥 3 in ascending powers of x up to term in 𝑥 3 . Hence
3
evaluate 998.
3
𝐇𝐢𝐧𝐭: 998 = 3 1000 − 2 = 3 1000 1 − 0.002 = 10 3 1 − 0.002
7. If x is sufficiently small and allow any terms in 𝑥 5 or higher power terms be
neglected, show that 1 + 𝑥 6 1 − 2𝑥 3 10 ≅ 1 + 6𝑥 + 15𝑥 2 − 105𝑥 4
1
8. Expand using binomial theorem 1 + 4𝑥 2 up to the fourth term. Hence
1
evaluate 6 to 3 𝑑. 𝑝 using 𝑥 = 100
1+𝑥
9. a) Expand in ascending powers of x to a term in 𝑥 2 .
1−𝑥

b) (i) Using the expansion of 1 + 𝑥 up to the term in 𝑥 3 , find the value of

1.08 𝑡𝑜 4 𝑑. 𝑝
𝑎
(ii) Express 1.08 in the form 𝑏 𝑐. Hence evaluate 3 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑠. 𝑓. 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟎
10. show that if x is so small in comparison with unity that 𝑥 3 and higher power
1 1
1−4𝑥 2 . 1+3𝑥 3 3 33
terms can be neglected, 1+𝑥
≅ 1−2𝑥 − 8
𝑥2

PERCENTAGES AND ERRORS IN BINOMIAL APPROXIMATION

The knowledge of measuration is applicable.
Examples
1) The radius of a cylinder is reduced by 3% and its height increased by 4%.
Determine the appropriate percentage change in;
a) Its volume
b) In curved surface area
(Neglect product of small changes)
Solution
a) Let r and h be the original values of radius and height respectively
Volume of cylinder, 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕
100−3 100+4
New values of r and h are respectively; 𝑟, 𝑕
100 100
2
100−3 100 +4
New volume, 𝑉 ′ = 𝜋 100
𝑟 100
𝑕

= 𝜋 1 − 0.03 2 𝑟 2 . 1 + 0.04 𝑕
= 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕. 1 − 0.03 2 . 1 + 0.04
But 1 − 0.03 ≅ 1 + 2 −0.03
2

≅ 1 − 0.06 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠

∴ 𝑉 ′ = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕. 1 − 0.06 . 1 + 0.04
= 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕. 1 + 0.04 − 0.06 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠
= 0.98𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕
𝑉−𝑉 ′
%𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉 = × 100
𝑉
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕 −0.98𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕
= × 100 = 2%
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 2%
b. Curved surface area of a cylinder, 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑕
100 −3 100 +4
New curved surface area, 𝐴′ = 2𝜋 𝑟. 𝑕
100 100
′
⇒ 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑕. 1 − 0.03 . 1 + 0.04
= 2𝜋𝑟𝑕 1 + 0.04 − 0.03 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
∴ 𝐴′ = 2𝜋𝑟𝑕. 1.01
𝐴−𝐴′
%𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴 = × 100
𝐴
2𝜋𝑟 𝑕. 1.01 −2𝜋𝑟 𝑕
= × 100 = 1%
2𝜋𝑟 𝑕
∴ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 1%
2) Pressure P and volume V are elated by the expression 𝑃𝑉 3 = 𝐶 where C is a
constant. Find the appropriate percentage change in C when P is increased
by 2% and volume decreased by 0.8%.
Solution
Let P and V be original values of pressure and volume respectively.
100 +2
New value of 𝑃 = 𝑃 = 1 + 0.02 𝑃
100
100−0.8
New value of 𝑉 = 𝑉 = 1 − 0.008 𝑉
100
Now new value of 𝐶 = 𝐶 ′ = 1 + 0.02 𝑃 1 − 0.008 𝑉 3
⇒ 𝐶 ′ = 𝑃𝑉 3 . 1 + 0.02 . 1 − 0.008 3
𝐵𝑢𝑡 1 − 0.008 3 ≅ 1 − 3 0.008 , 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
∴ 𝐶 ′ = 𝑃𝑉 3 . 1 + 0.02 . 1 − 3 0.008
= 𝑃𝑉 3 . 1 − 3 0.008 + 0.02 , 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
= 𝑃𝑉 3 . 0.996
𝐶−𝐶 ′ 𝑃𝑉 3 − 𝑃𝑉 3 . 0.996
∴ %𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐶 = 𝐶
× 100 = 𝑃𝑉 3
× 100
∴ %𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐶 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.4%

3) An error is made in measuring the radius of a sphere. Find the percentage

error in surface area.
Solution
Let the error lead to increase in radius.
Area of sphere, 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 where A and r are original values.
2
New value of 𝑟 = 1 + 100 𝑟 = 1 + 0.02 𝑟
New value of 𝐴 = 𝐴′ = 4𝜋 1 + 0.02 𝑟 2
= 4𝜋𝑟 2 1 + 0.02 2
= 4𝜋𝑟 2 1 + 2 0.02 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 1.04
𝐴−𝐴′
∴ %𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴 = × 100
𝐴
4𝜋𝑟 2 1.04 −4𝜋𝑟 2
= × 100 = 4%
4𝜋𝑟 2
NOTE:
If error was to lead to a decrease in r you get the same percentage change
4%.
1
4) An error of 2 2 % is made in measurement of the area of a circle. What
percentage error results in the radius and circumference?

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

Solution
Area 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 , where A and r are original values of area and radius of circle
respectively.
100 +2.5
New value of 𝐴 = 𝐴 = 1 + 0.025 𝐴 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴
100
𝐴
From 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ⇒ 𝑟 =
𝜋
1
1+0.025 𝐴 𝐴
Now new value of 𝑟 = = . 1 + 0.025 2
𝜋 𝜋

𝐴 1 𝐴
= 𝜋
. 1 + 2 0.025 , 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 1.0125 𝜋
𝐴 𝐴
1.0125 −
𝜋 𝜋
%𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟 = × 100 = 1.25%
𝐴
𝜋

Circumference 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟 , where C and r are original values of circumference

1
and radius respectively. Since the error of 2 2 % leads to an increase in r by
1.25%, then;
100+1.25
New value of 𝑟 = 100
𝑟 = 1 + 0.0125 𝑟
∴ New value of 𝐶 = 2𝜋 1 + 0.0125 𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟 1 + 0.0125
2𝜋𝑟 1+0.0125 −2𝜋𝑟
∴ %𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐶 = × 100 = 1.25%
2𝜋𝑟
Alternatively
𝐴
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ⇒ 𝑟 =
𝜋

𝐴
𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟 ⇒ 𝐶 = 2𝜋 = 2 𝜋. 𝐴 = 2 𝜋𝐴
𝜋
New value of A due to error = 1 + 0.025 𝐴
New value of 𝐶 = 𝐶 ′ = 2 𝜋. 1 + 0.025 𝐴
1
= 2 𝜋𝐴. 1 + 0.025 2

0.025
≅ 2 𝜋𝐴. 1 + = 2 𝜋𝐴 1 + 0.0125 , 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
2
2 𝜋𝐴 1+0.0125 −2 𝜋𝐴
∴ %𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐶 = × 100 = 1.25% 𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
2 𝜋𝐴
5) One side of a rectangle is 3-times the other. If the perimeter increases by 2%,
what is the percentage increase in area?
Solution
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 = 3𝑤

𝑃 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 = 𝑤 𝑃 = 2 3𝑤 + 𝑤 = 8𝑤

100 +2
New value of 𝑃 = 𝑃 ′ = 𝑃 = 1 + 0.02 𝑃
100
Now area, 𝐴 = 3𝑤 2
𝑃
From 𝑃 = 8𝑤 ⇒ 𝑤 =
8
𝑃 2 3 2
∴𝐴=3 = 𝑃
8 64
3
New value of 𝐴 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑃 = 𝐴′ = 64 1 + 0.02 𝑃 2

3 2 3
= 𝑃 2 1 + 0.02 = 𝑃 2 1 + 2 0,02 , 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
64 64

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3
= 1.04 64
𝑃2
3 2
1.04−1 𝑃
64
∴ %𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 3 2 × 100 = 4%
𝑃
64

Alternatively
𝑃
𝑃 = 8𝑤 ⇒ 𝑤 = 8
; 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑃 = 1 + 0.02 𝑃
Finding percentage change in w due to 2% increase in P
1+0.02 𝑃
New 𝑤 = 𝑤 ′ =
8
1+0.02 𝑃 𝑃
−
8 8
%𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑃 × 100 = 2%
8

Now area , 𝐴 = 3𝑤 2
New area due to increase in w= 3 1 + 0.02 𝑤 2
= 3𝑤 2 1 + 0.02 2 ≅ 3𝑤 2 1 + 2 0.02
= 3𝑤 2 . 1.04
3𝑤 2 . 1.04 −3𝑤 2
∴ %𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 100 = 4%
3𝑤 2
6) The height cylinder 10cm and its radius is 4cm. find an approximate increase
in volume when the radius increases to 4.02.
Solution
Volume, 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕 ; assuming h is constant
⇒ 𝑟 = 4𝑐𝑚 , 𝑕 = 10𝑐𝑚
4.02−4
Finding %𝑔𝑒 change in r= × 100 = 0.5%
4
100 +0.5 2
Now new value of 𝑉 − 𝑉 ′ = 𝜋 𝑟 .𝑕
100
2
= 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕 1 + 0.005
≅ 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕 1 + 2 0.005
𝑉 ′ = 1.01𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 1.01𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕 − 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕
= 0.01𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕 = 0.01𝜋 × 42 × 10
= 1.6𝜋 𝑐𝑚3
7) The base radius of a right circular cone increases and the volume changes by
2%. If the height remains constant, find the percentage increase in the
circumference of the base. 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟏
Solution
Let radius increase by 𝑥%
1
Let 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕 , where r and V are original values of radius and volume
respectively
1 100+𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 ′ = 𝜋 𝑟 𝑕
3 100
1
= 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕 1 + 0.01𝑥 2
3
𝜋 𝑟2𝑕
= 1 + 0.02𝑥 𝐻𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
3
𝑉 ′ −𝑉
Now %𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = × 100 = 2
𝑉
𝜋 𝑟 2𝑕 𝜋 𝑟 2𝑕
1+0.02𝑥 −
3 3
∴ 𝜋 𝑟 2𝑕
× 100 = 2
3

⇒ 0.02𝑥 = 0.02 ∴ 𝑥 = 1
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑦 1%
Now circumference, 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟

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100+1
New value of C after increase in radius by 1% = 𝐶 ′ = 2𝜋 100
𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟 1.01
2𝜋𝑟 1.01 −2𝜋𝑟
∴ %𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟
× 100 = 1%
8) If L is the length of a pendulum and t(s) is the time of one complete swing. It
is known that
𝐿 = 𝑘𝑡 2 . If the length of a pendulum increases by x%, x being small, find the
corresponding increase in the time of swing.
Solution
𝐿 = 𝑘𝑡 2 , taking k a constant
100 +𝑥
Increase in length = 𝐿 = 1 + 0.01𝑥 𝐿
100
𝐿
Now 𝑡 =
𝑘
1
1+0.01𝑥 𝐿 𝐿
∴ New value of 𝑡 = 𝑡 ′ = 𝑘
= 𝑘
. 1 + 0.01𝑥 2

𝐿 1 𝐿
≅ . 1 + 2 0.01𝑥 ≅ . 1 + 0.005𝑥
𝑘 𝑘
𝑡 ′ −𝑡
∴ %𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = × 100
𝑡
𝐿 𝐿
. 1+0.005𝑥 −
𝑘 𝑘
= 𝐿
× 100 = 0.5𝑥%
𝑘

𝑙
9) The period T of a pendulum is calculated from the formula 𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝑔
where l
is the length of a pendulum and g is acceleration due to gravity. Find the
percentage change in the period caused by lengthening the pendulum by 2%.
Solution
𝑙 100 +2
𝑇 = 2𝜋 , new value of 𝑙 = 𝑙 = 1 + 0.02 𝑙
𝑔 100

1+0.02 𝑙
∴ 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑇 = 𝑇 ′ = 2𝜋
𝑔
1
𝑙
= 2𝜋 . 1 + 0.02 2
𝑔

𝑙 0.02
= 2𝜋 . 1+ 𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑔 2

𝑙
∴ 𝑇 ′ = 2𝜋 𝑔
. 1.01
𝑇 ′ −𝑇
∴ %𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑇 = 𝑇
× 100
𝑙 𝑙
2𝜋 . 1.01 −2𝜋
𝑔 𝑔
= 𝑙
× 100 = 1%
2𝜋
𝑔

10) Find the approximate percentage change in the square of a quantity when the
quantity itself changes by 0.1%. hence find the approximate value for 10.01 2
Solution
Let the quantity be x
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥2
Let percentage change in square of quantity be an increase
100 +0.1
∴ 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 1 + 0.001 𝑥
100

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𝑦 ′ −𝑦
Now percentage change in square of quantity. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑦 = × 100
𝑦
But 𝑦 ′ = 1 + 0.001 𝑥 2 = 1 + 0.001 2 𝑥 2
≅ 1 + 2 0.001 𝑥 2 ≅ 1.002𝑥2
∴ Required %𝑔𝑒 change in square of a quantity
1.002𝑥 2 −𝑥 2
= × 100 = 0.2%
𝑥2
Now let 𝑦 = 10.01 = 10 + 0.01 2
2

Hence if 𝑥 = 10 , then x increases by 0.01 = 1%

Since 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 2 ≅ 1.002𝑥 2 , 𝑥 = 10
⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 1.002 × 102 = 100.2
𝑨𝒍𝒕: 10.01 2 = 10 + 0.01 2 = 10.01 2 = 10 + 0.01 2

0.01 2
2
= 10 1 + = 100 1 + 0.001 = 102 × 1 + 2 0.001 = 100.2
10

NOTE:
The above examples on percentages and errors in binomial expansion can
also be done using the knowledge of differentiation.𝑖. 𝑒. Small increments and
percentages

Task:
𝑅 4𝜃
1. The modulus of rigidity G is given by 𝐺 = where R is radius, 𝜃 is the angle
𝐿
of twist and L is length. Find the approximate percentage in G when R is
measured 1.5% too large and 𝜃 is measured 5% too small.𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟏%
1 2𝜋
2. The volume of a cone is given by 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕. If the volume increases by 3 𝑐𝑚3 /
𝑚𝑖𝑛 and height increase by 0.03𝑐𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛 . Find the rate of change of the radius
r when 𝑟 = 10 𝑐𝑚 and
𝑕 = 5 𝑐𝑚. 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟓
3. If the radius of a spherical bubble increases from 1 𝑐𝑚 to 1.02 𝑐𝑚, find the
approximate increase in volume.𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝝅 𝒄𝒎𝟑
4. If 𝑅 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 and an error of 𝑥% is made in measuring r, prove that an error of
𝑛𝑥% will result in R
5. The volume of a sphere is increased by 3%. Find the percentage increase in
the radius.𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟏%

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VECTORS
Definition:
A quantity that can be specified with magnitude and direction 𝑒. 𝑔. force,
acceleration, displacement, velocity 𝑒𝑡𝑐 is a vector.
Representation of a vector
A vector is represented symbolically as 𝑎 or a or a
Graphically, it is represented by a line
𝐴
𝑂
𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
The length of a line is the magnitude and the arrow on the line is the
direction of the vector.
Classification of vectors
Vectors are classified depending on their behavior and properties.
a) Null vector or Zero vector
A vector with a null/zero magnitude, and is denoted as O
b) Unit vector
A vector with a unit magnitude is a unit vector. It is denoted with a cap . 𝑖. 𝑒.
for a vector, its unit vector I a
NOTE
𝑉𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑅
= 𝑈𝑁𝐼𝑇 𝑉𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑅
𝑉𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑅

c) Like/unlike vectors
Like vectors are vectors with the same direction regardless of their
magnitude𝑎 𝑏

Unlike vectors are vectors with different directions

𝑎 𝑏

d) Negative vectors
Negative vectors are vectors with same magnitude but opposite in direction.
Consider the figure below

𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐴 𝐴𝐵 = −𝐵𝐴 Application:
subtraction of vectors

e) Equal vectors
Equal vectors arte vectors with same magnitude and direction
Application
 Rhombus
 Parallelogram
 Rectangles
 Squares
Consider the figure below

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𝐷 𝐶
For a rectangle
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐷𝐶 and 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶
Note
𝐴𝐵 is parallel to 𝐷𝐶 , 𝐴𝐷 is parallel to 𝐵𝐶 . Thus equal vectors are also
parallel but with the same magnitude and direction.
f) Collinear/ parallel vectors
Are vectors with the same line of action or having line of action parallel to
one another.
Consider the figure below 𝑦
a) 𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐶 , act on point B,
𝐶
but both have 𝑥𝑦 line of action,
𝐵 hence 𝐴𝐵 is parallel to 𝐵𝐶

𝑥 𝐴
b) 𝐷 𝐶 ABCD is a parallelogram.
𝐴𝐵 is parallel to 𝐷𝐶
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴𝐷 is parallel to 𝐵𝐶 . Thus 𝐴𝐵 and
𝐷𝐶 are collinear and also 𝐴𝐷 and
𝐵𝐶 are collinear/parallel.

Condition for collinear/parallel vectors

From fig (a)
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑘𝐵𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝐵 = 𝜆𝐴𝐶

From fig (b)

𝐴𝐵 = 𝑘𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝐷 = 𝜆𝐵𝐶
Where k and λ are scalars or constants
g) Position vectors
Are vectors that specify position of a point with respect to a fixed point
𝑂 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛
Application
Used mainly in coordinate system, for locating a point in 𝑥 − 𝑦 or
𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 planes
h) Coplanar vectors
Are vectors which lie in the same plane or vectors paralleled to the
same plane

ADDITION OF VECTORS
Vectors are added by finding their resultant, a single or equivalent vector.
Consider the following cases of vector addition.
1) Case I: Addition of TWO vectors.

𝐶 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶
𝑐
𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑐
𝐴 𝐵
𝑎

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This is called triangle law of addition of vectors.

In general, to find the sum of two vectors a and b , draw them as a chain,
starting the second where the first ends; the sum c is given by the single
vector joining the start of the first to the end of the second.
2) Case II: Addition of a number of vectors; 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 + 𝒅 +…………..
A) 𝐸 a) Draw the vectors as achain
𝑑 b) Then;
𝐴 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝐴𝐶 , 𝐴𝐶 + 𝒄 = 𝐴𝐷
𝑎 𝑐 ∴ 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝐴𝐷
𝐴𝐷 + 𝒅 = 𝐴𝐸
𝐵 𝐶
𝑏 ∴ 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 + 𝒅 = 𝐴𝐸
𝑖. 𝑒. The sum of all the vectors 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 , 𝒅 is given by the single
vector joining the start of the first to the end of the last . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴𝐸
B)
𝑅
𝑇 𝑃𝑄 + 𝑄𝑅 + 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑆𝑇 = 𝑃𝑇
𝑄
𝑆

𝑃
3) Case III: Sum of vectors = 0 for a closed figure
Consider the figure below

𝑑 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 + 𝐷𝐸 + 𝐸𝐴 = 0
𝐸
𝐷 𝑖. 𝑒. . 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 + 𝒅 + 𝒆 = 𝟎
𝑐
𝑒
𝐶
𝐴 𝑏
NOTE 𝑎
The end of the last vector 𝐵
coincides with the beginning of the first, so the
resultant vector is zero with no magnitude.
COMPONENTS OF A GIVEN VECTOR
A single vector can be replaced by any number of component vectors so
long as they form a chain in the vector diagram, beginning at initial point
and ending at the terminal point.
𝒃 𝒄 𝑃𝑇 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 + 𝒅
See examples immediately
after subtraction
𝒂 of vectors.
𝒅
𝑃 𝑇
SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS
During the addition of vectors in a specified direction it may be encountered
that the direction of a vector needs to be changed in order for it to be added.
Once a direction of vector is changed, a negative vector is formed, hence
addition, subtraction of a vector occurs.

NOTE
Triangle law is still used for subtraction of two vectors.

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𝐶
𝒄 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶
𝒃
But 𝐵𝐶 = −𝐶𝐵
𝐴 𝒂 𝐵 ∴ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 − 𝐶𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝒄 = 𝒂 − 𝒃

Examples on components of vectors

1. ABCD is a quadrilateral, with G and H the midpoints of DA and BC
respectively. Show that 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐷𝐶 = 2𝐺𝐻
Solution
𝐴 𝐵 By chain vectors, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐺 + 𝐺𝐻 + 𝐻𝐵
Also 𝐷𝐶 = 𝐷𝐺 + 𝐺𝐻 + 𝐻𝐶
𝐺 𝐻
Now 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐷𝐶 = 𝐴𝐺 + 𝐺𝐻 + 𝐻𝐵 + 𝐷𝐺 + 𝐺𝐻 + 𝐻𝐶
𝐷 𝐶 = 2𝐺𝐻 + 𝐴𝐺 + 𝐷𝐺 + 𝐻𝐵 + 𝐻𝐶
But G is the midpoint of AD, ⇒ 𝐴𝐺 = 𝐺𝐷 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝐺 = −𝐷𝐺 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Also H is the midpoint of BC, ⇒ 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐻𝐶 𝑜𝑟 − 𝐻𝐵 = 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐻𝐶
∴ 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐷𝐶 = 2𝐺𝐻 + −𝐷𝐺 + 𝐷𝐺 + −𝐻𝐶 + 𝐻𝐶 = 2𝐺𝐻
2. Points L, M, N are midpoints of the sides AB, BC, CA of the triangle ABC.
Show that;
a. 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 0 𝐶
b. 2𝐴𝐵 + 3𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐿𝐶
c. 𝐴𝑀 + 𝐵𝑁 + 𝐶𝐿 = 0
Solution
a. 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 0 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐴 𝐵
b. To show that 2𝐴𝐵 + 3𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐿𝐶
𝐶𝐴 = 𝐶𝐿 + 𝐿𝐴
𝐶
∴ 2𝐴𝐵 + 3𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 4𝐴𝐿 + 3𝐵𝐿 + 3𝐿𝐶 + 𝐶𝐿 + 𝐿𝐴
= 4𝐴𝐿 + 3 −𝐿𝐵 + 3𝐿𝐶 + −𝐿𝐶 + −𝐴𝐿
= 3𝐴𝐿 − 3𝐿𝐵 + 2𝐿𝐶
Since 𝐴𝐿 = 𝐿𝐵, 3𝐴𝐿 − 3𝐿𝐵 = 0 𝐵
𝐴
∴ 2𝐴𝐵 + 3𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐿𝐶
c. To show that 𝐴𝑀 + 𝐵𝑁 + 𝐶𝐿 = 0
From the figure (b) above
𝐴𝑀 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝑀 , 𝐵𝑁 = 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝑁 , 𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐴 + 𝐴𝐿
𝐴𝑀 + 𝐵𝑁 + 𝐶𝐿 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝑀 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 + 𝐴𝐿 + 𝐶𝑁
= 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 + 𝐵𝑀 + 𝐴𝐿 + 𝐶𝑁
1 1
=0+ 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 0
2 2
Task
Prove that the line joining he midpoint of sides of a triangle is parallel to the
third side and half its length.

3. ABCD is a parallelogram. If L, M are the midpoints of BC and CD, express 𝐴𝐿

3
and 𝐴𝑀 in terms of 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐷. Show that 𝐴𝐿 + 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐴𝐶
2

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Solution
𝑀 𝐴𝐿 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐿
𝐷 𝐶 1 1
But 𝐵𝐿 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐷 [∵ 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶 ]
2 2
𝐿 ∴ 𝐴𝐿 = 𝐴𝐵 + 2 𝐵𝐶
1

𝐴𝑀 = 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐷𝑀
𝐴 𝐵 1 1
But 𝐷𝑀 = 2 𝐷𝐶 , 𝐷𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 , ∴ 𝐷𝑀 = 2 𝐴𝐵
1
⇒ 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐴𝐵
2
3
Now to show: 𝐴𝐿 + 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐴𝐶
2
1 1
⇒ 𝐴𝐵 + 2 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐴𝐷 + 2 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐿 + 𝐴𝑀
3 3 3
⇒ 𝐴𝐿 + 𝐴𝑀 = 2 𝐴𝐵 + 2 𝐴𝐷 = 2 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐷
But 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶
3
∴ 𝐴𝐿 + 𝐴𝑀 = 2 𝐴𝐶
4. If P, Q, R are midpoints of the sides AB, BC and CA of the triangle ABC and O
be a point with in t, prove that 𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵 + 𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑂𝑄 + 𝑂𝑅
Solution
𝐵
𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝐴
𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝑄 + 𝑄𝐵
𝑃 𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝑅 + 𝑅𝐶
𝑄
∴ 𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵 + 𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑂𝑄 + 𝑄𝐵 + 𝑂𝑅 + 𝑅𝐶
= 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑂𝑄 + 𝑂𝑅 + 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶
𝐴 𝐶 1 1 1
𝑅 But 𝑃𝐴 = 2 𝐵𝐴 , 𝑄𝐵 = 2 𝐶𝐵 , 𝑅𝐶 = 2 𝐴𝐶
1 1 1 1 1
⇒ 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 = 2 𝐵𝐴 + 2 𝐶𝐵 + 2 𝐴𝐶 = 2 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐶𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 = 2 × 0 = 0
∴ 𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵 + 𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑂𝑄 + 𝑂𝑅
NOTE
Parameters can also be applied in solving the above examples through
forming parametric equations.
5. ABCD is a rectangle. By vectors show that the diagonals bisect each other.
Solution
Points A, M and C are collinear, and B, M and D are also collinear.
Let 𝐴𝐵 = 𝒂 and 𝐴𝐷 = 𝒃
𝐷 𝐶
𝑀 Now 𝐴𝑀 = 𝜆𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝑀 = 𝜇𝐵𝐷 where 𝜆 , 𝜇 are
𝒃 constants.
𝐴 𝐵
𝒂
𝐴𝑀 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝑀 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇𝐵𝐷
But 𝐵𝐷 = 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐴𝐷 = −𝒂 + 𝒃
∴ 𝐴𝑀 = 𝒂 + 𝜇 −𝒂 + 𝒃
Also 𝐴𝑀 = 𝜆𝐴𝐶; 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 ∵ 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝒃
∴ 𝐴𝑀 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝜆 ………………………………………………………….……… (1)
Also 𝐴𝑀 = 𝒂 + 𝜇 −𝒂 + 𝒃 = 1 − 𝜇 𝒂 + 𝜇𝒃 ……………………… (2)

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Since (1) and (2) are the same

⇒ 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝜆 = 𝒂 + 𝜇 −𝒂 + 𝒃 = 1 − 𝜇 𝒂 + 𝜇𝒃
Equating coefficients of corresponding vectors
For 𝒂: 𝝀 = 1 − 𝜇 ………………………… (3)
For 𝒃: 𝜆 = 𝜇 ………………………………. (4)
Solving (3) and (4) simultaneously
1
𝜇 = 1 − 𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝜇 = 2 = 𝜆
1 1
Since𝐴𝑀 = 𝜆𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝑀 = 𝜇𝐵𝐷, then 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝑀 = 𝐵𝐷
2 2
∴ 𝑀 is the midpoint of the diagonals, and hence diagonals bisect.
6. If ABCD is a parallelogram and E is the midpoint of AB, show by vector
method that DE trisects and is trisected by AC.
Solution
Points A, M and Care collinear and D, M and E are also collinear
𝐷 Let 𝐴𝐵 = 𝒂 and 𝐴𝐷 = 𝒃
𝐶 𝐴𝑀 = 𝜆𝐴𝐶 , 𝐷𝑀 = 𝑘𝐷𝐸 , where 𝑘 , 𝜆 are
𝑀 constants
𝐴𝑀 = 𝜆𝐴𝐶 ; 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶
𝐴 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐷 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 ∵ 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝒃
𝐸
∴ 𝐴𝑀 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝜆 ………………………….. (1)
𝐷𝑀 = 𝑘𝐷𝐸 ; 𝐷𝑀 = 𝐷𝐴 + 𝐴𝑀 = −𝒃 + 𝐴𝑀
⇒ 𝐷𝑀 = −𝒃 + 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝜆 ……………………………………………………………… (2)
1 1
Now 𝐷𝐸 = 𝐷𝐴 + 𝐴𝐸 = −𝒃 + 2 𝐴𝐵 = −𝒃 + 2 𝒂
∴ 𝐷𝑀 = 𝑘𝐷𝐸 gives;
1 𝑘
−𝒃 + 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝜆 = 𝑘 −𝒃 + 𝒂 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 − 1 𝒃 + 𝜆𝒂 = −𝑘𝒃 + 𝒂
2 2
Equating coefficients of corresponding vectors
𝑘
For 𝒂: 𝜆 = 2 …………………………………… (3) 𝐷
𝐶
For 𝒃: 𝜆 − 1 = −𝑘 …………………………. (4) 2
2 𝑀
𝐸𝑞𝑛. (3) in to 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (4) gives 1
𝑘 3 2
− 1 = −𝑘 ⇒ 2 𝑘 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 3 , 1
2 𝐴 𝐵
and from (1) 𝜆 = 2 × 3 = 3
1 2 1 𝐸
1 2
∴ 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑀 = 𝐷𝐸 , hence DE trisects and is trisected by AC.
3 3
7. Show that the line joining the midpoints of two non parallel sides of a
trapezium is parallel to the other sides and half their sum.
Solution
Let 𝐴𝐵 = 𝒂 and 𝐴𝐷 = 𝒃
𝐷 𝐶
Since 𝐴𝐵 // 𝐷𝐶 , then 𝐷𝐶 = 𝜆 𝐴𝐵 = 𝜆𝒂
Now expressing 𝑀𝑁 in terms of 𝒂 and 𝒃
𝑀 𝑁
𝒃 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑀𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝑁
1 1
𝐴 𝐵 𝑀𝐴 = 𝐷𝐴, 𝐵𝑁 = 𝐵𝐶
2 2
⇒ 𝑀𝑁 = −𝒂2 𝒃 + 𝒂 + 2 𝐵𝐶
1 1

But 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐷𝐶 = −𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝜆𝒂
1 1
⇒ 𝑀𝑁 = − 2 𝒃 + 𝒂 + 2 −𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝜆𝒂

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1 1 1 𝟏 1 1 1
= − 2 𝒃 + 𝒂 − 2 𝒂 + 2 𝒃 + 𝟐 𝜆𝒂 = 2 𝒂 + 2 𝜆𝒂 = 2 1 + 𝜆 𝒂
1 1
Since 2
1 + 𝜆 is a scalar, let 2 1 + 𝜆 = 𝜇
∴ 𝑀𝑁 = 𝜇𝒂 , which shows that 𝑀𝑁 // 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐷𝐶
1 1 1 1 1 1
From 𝑀𝑁 = 1 + 𝜆 𝒂 = 𝒂 + 𝜆𝒂 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐷𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐷𝐶 , as required.
2 2 2 2 2 2
8. OAB is a triangle M and N are points on AB and OB respectively, such that
1 3
𝐴𝑀 = 𝐴𝐵 and 𝑂𝑁 = 𝑂𝐵. If 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒂 and 𝑂𝐵 = 𝒃, find the position vector of P,
3 4
the intersection of AN and OM, in terms of 𝒂 and 𝒃
Solution:
1 𝐴𝑀 1
B 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐴𝐵 ⇒ = 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑀: 𝐴𝐵 = 1: 3
3 𝐴𝐵 3
3 𝑂𝑁 3
𝑂𝑁 = 4 𝑂𝐵 ⇒ 𝑂𝐵 = 4

2 Points O, P, M and A, P, N are collinear.

𝑁
Let 𝑂𝑃 = 𝜆𝑂𝑀 ; 𝐴𝑃 = 𝜇𝐴𝑁

𝒃 𝑀 Now expressing 𝑂𝑃 in terms of 𝜆, 𝜇, 𝒂, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃

𝑃 1
𝑂 𝐴
𝒂 1
𝑂𝑃 = 𝜆𝑂𝑀 ; 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝑀 = 𝑂𝐴 + 3 𝐴𝐵
1
⇒ 𝑂𝑃 = 𝜆 𝑂𝐴 + 3 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑂 + 𝑂𝐵 = 𝒃 − 𝒂
1 2 1
∴ 𝑂𝑃 = 𝜆 𝒂 + 3 𝒃 − 𝒂 = 3 𝜆𝒂 + 3 𝜆𝒃 …………………………………… (1)
Also 𝐴𝑃 = 𝜇𝐴𝑁 ; 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴𝑂 + 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝒂
3
𝐴𝑁 = 𝐴𝑂 + 𝑂𝑁 ; 𝑂𝑁 = 𝑂𝐵
4
3 3
∴ 𝐴𝑁 = 𝐴𝑂 + 𝑂𝐵 = −𝒂 + 𝒃
4 4
3 3
⇒ 𝑂𝑃 − 𝒂 = 𝜇 −𝒂 + 4 𝒃 = 1 − 𝜇 𝒂 + 4 𝜇𝒃
3
∴ 𝑂𝑃 = 1 − 𝜇 𝒂 + 4 𝜇𝒃 ……………………………..……………………..…… (2)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 1 = 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2
2 1 3
𝜆𝒂 + 3 𝜆𝒃 = 1 − 𝜇 𝒂 + 4 𝜇𝒃
3
2
𝜆 = 1 − 𝜇 ………………………………………………………………… (3)
3
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝒂
1 3
3
𝜆 = 4 𝜇 …………………………………………………………………….. (4)
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝒃
2
From eqn. (3) 𝜇 = 1 − 𝜆 …………………………………………… (4)
3
Eqn. (5) in to eqn. (4) gives
1 3 2 3 1 1 1 3
𝜆= 1− 𝜆 = − 𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 + 𝜆 =
3 4 3 4 2 3 2 4
5 3 9
∴ 6 𝜆 = 4 ⇒ 𝜆 = 10
2 9 2
From eqn. (4), 𝜇 = 1 − 3 × 10 = 5
2 1 2 9 1 9 3 3
𝑂𝑃 = 𝜆𝒂 + 𝜆𝒃 = 𝒂+ 𝒃 = 𝒂+ 𝒃
3 3 3 10 3 10 5 10
Task
Show that the diagonals of a square, rhombus and parallelogram bisect each
other.

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

POSITION OF A POINT DIVIDING A LINE AB IN THE RATIO 𝑚: 𝑛

(Ratio Theorem)

Let the line AB be divided by a point P in the ratio 𝑚: 𝑛

𝑚 𝑛

𝐴 𝑃 𝐵
𝑚 𝐴𝑃
Ratio 𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑚: 𝑛 𝑜𝑟 = ⇒ 𝑛𝐴𝑃 = 𝑚𝑃𝐵
𝑛 𝑃𝐵
By position vectors,
𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴𝑂 + 𝑂𝑃 = −𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝑃 , 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝑂 + 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐵
⇒ 𝑛 −𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑚 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐵
⇒ 𝑛𝑂𝑃 + 𝑚𝑂𝑃 = 𝑚𝑂𝐵 + 𝑛𝑂𝐴 ∴ 𝑂𝑃 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑂𝐴 + 𝑚𝑂𝐵
𝑛 𝑚
⇒ 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵
𝑚 +𝑛 𝑚 +𝑛
If the position vectors of A and B are respectively 𝒂 and 𝒃, then
𝑂𝐴 = 𝒂 , 𝑂𝐵 = 𝒃. The ratio theorem becomes,
𝑛 𝑚
𝑂𝑃 = 𝒂+ 𝒃
𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛
NOTE
1. P is a point that divides AB either internally or externally in the ratio the
ratio 𝑚: 𝑛
a) For internal division, the ratio is represented as
𝐴𝑃 : 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑚: 𝑛 𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒
𝑚 𝑛
𝐴 𝑃 𝐵
b) For external division, the ratio is represented as
𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑚: −𝑛 𝑜𝑟 − 𝑚: 𝑛 𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
i)
𝑃 𝐴 𝐵
ii)
𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑚: 𝑛
𝐴 𝐵 𝑃

2. The knowledge of position vectors is applicable in ratio theorem.

Examples
1. Find the position vector (p.v) of a point which divides the line segment AB in
the ratio
a) 8: 3
b) 5: −4
Solution
a) Ratio 8: 3 = 𝑚: 𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑃 8
𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝐵 = 8: 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝐵
= 3 ⇒ 3𝐴𝑃 = 8𝑃𝐵
By position vectors, 3 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 8 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝑃 ⇒ 3𝑂𝑃 − 3𝑂𝐴 = 8𝑂𝐵 − 8𝑂𝑃
3 8
11𝑂𝑃 = 3𝑂𝐴 + 8𝑂𝐵 ⇒ 𝑂𝑃 = 11 𝑂𝐴 + 11 𝑂𝐵
3 8
Let 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒂 and 𝑂𝐵 = 𝒃 then 𝑂𝑃 = 𝒂+ 𝒃
11 11

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b) Ratio 5: −4 = 𝑚: 𝑛 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐴𝑃 5
𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝐵 = 5: −4 𝑜𝑟 = ⇒ −4𝐴𝑃 = 5𝑃𝐵
𝑃𝐵 −4
By position vectors, −4 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 5 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝑃 ⇒ −4𝑂𝑃 + 4𝑂𝐴 = 5𝑂𝐵 − 5𝑂𝑃
𝑂𝑃 = 5𝑂𝐵 − 4𝑂𝐴 ∴ 𝑂𝑃 = −4𝒂 + 5𝒃

VECTOR “𝒓” IN TERMS OF UNIT VECTORS 𝒊, 𝒋 AND 𝒌

Consider the figure below
𝑂𝑃 = 𝒓 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝑃
𝑧
Let 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑥 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠,
𝐸 𝐷
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 , 𝐵𝑃 = 𝑧 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
From 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 × 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟,
𝑃 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑥. 𝒊 , 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑧. 𝒋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑃 = 𝑧. 𝒌
𝐹
𝒌 𝒓 ∴ 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥. 𝒊 + 𝑦. 𝒋 + 𝑧. 𝒌
𝑦
𝒊 𝑂 𝒋 𝐶 A point 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 has a p.v
𝑂𝑃 = 𝒓 = 𝑥. 𝒊 + 𝑦. 𝒋 + 𝑧. 𝒌
𝑥
𝐴 𝐵 or 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑦
𝑥 𝑧

MODULUS/MAGNITUDE/LENGTH OF A VECTOR r
From 𝛥𝑂𝑃𝐵, by Pythagoras theorem,
2 2 2
𝑂𝑃 = 𝒓 𝟐
= 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐵𝑃 ; But 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥. 𝒊 + 𝑦. 𝒋
2 2 2
𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 ∵ 𝛥𝑂𝐴𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑑
= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
2
∴ 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 ⇒ 𝑂𝑃 = 𝒓 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧2

DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS

If 𝒓𝟏 = 𝑥1 . 𝒊 + 𝑦1 . 𝒋 + 𝑧1 . 𝒌 and 𝒓𝟐 = 𝑥2 . 𝒊 + 𝑦2 . 𝒋 + 𝑧2 . 𝒌 , distance between 𝒓𝟏
and 𝒓𝟐 is

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 2 + 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 2 + 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 2

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More examples on Ratio Theorem

1. Given the position vector 𝑂𝐴 = 3, −2, 5 and 𝑂𝐵 = 9, 1, −1 . Find the position
vector of point C such that C divides 𝐴𝐵 internally in the ratio 5: −3
𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟑
Solution
Method I

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐴𝐶 5
𝐴𝐶 : 𝐶𝐵 = 5: −3 ⇒ = 𝑜𝑟 − 3𝐴𝐶 = 5𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝐵 −3
⇒ −3 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴 = 5 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐶
⇒ −3𝑂𝐶 + 3𝑂𝐴 = 5𝑂𝐵 − 5𝑂𝐶 ∴ 2𝑂𝐶 = 5𝑂𝐵 − 3𝑂𝐴
9 3
5 3 5 3
⇒ 𝑂𝐶 = 2 𝑂𝐵 − 2 𝑂𝐴 = 2 1 − 2 −2
−1 5
45 9
−2
2 18
5 6 11 11
= + = 2
∴ 𝑂𝐶 = 18𝒊 + 𝒋 − 10𝒌
2 2 2
− −
5 15 −10
2 2
Method II
By Ratio Theorem 𝐴𝐶 : 𝐶𝐵 = 5: −3 = 𝑚: 𝑛
𝑛 𝑚
𝑂𝐶 = 𝑚 +𝑛 𝑂𝐴 + 𝑚 +𝑛 𝑂𝐵
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 3 5 5 3
∴ 𝑂𝐶 = − 5+ −3 𝑂𝐴 + 5+ −3 𝑂𝐵 = 2 𝑂𝐵 − 2 𝑂𝐴
𝑂 9 3
5 3
= 2 1 − 2 −2
−1 5
45 9
−2
2 18
5 6 11 11
∴ 𝑂𝐶 = +2 = 2
⇒ ∴ 𝑂𝐶 = 18𝒊 + 𝒋 − 10𝒌
2 2
−2 −
5 15 −10
2
2. A and B are points whose position vectors are 𝒂 = 2𝒊 + 𝒌 and 𝒃 = 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 3𝒌
respectively. Determine the p.v of the point that divides AB internally in the
ratio 4: −1 𝒖𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟑
Solution
Method I
𝐴𝑃 4
Ratio of division is 𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝐵 = 4: −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝐵
= −1 ⇒ −𝐴𝑃 = 4𝑃𝐵
⇒ −𝑂𝑃 + 𝑂𝐴 = 4𝑂𝐵 − 4𝑂𝑃
4 1 4 1
⇒ 3𝑂𝑃 = 4𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 ∴ 𝑂𝑃 = 3 𝑂𝐵 − 3 𝑂𝐴 = 3 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 3𝒌 − 3 2𝒊 + 𝒌
4 2 4 12 1 2 4 11
⇒ 𝑂𝑃 = − 𝒊− 𝒋+ − 𝒌= 𝒊− 𝒋+ 𝒌
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Method II
Using Ratio Theorem
𝑛 𝑚
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵 , 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜: 𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝐵 = 4: −1 = 𝑚: 𝑛
𝑚 +𝑛 𝑚 +𝑛
−1 4 1 4
∴ 𝑂𝑃 = 4+ −1 𝑂𝐴 + 4+ −1 𝑂𝐵 = − 3 𝑂𝐴 + 3 𝑂𝐵
1 4 2 4 11
= − 3 2𝒊 + 𝒌 + 3 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 3𝒌 = 3 𝒊 − 3 𝒋 + 3
𝒌

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NOTE
You can work the vectors in terms of 𝒊, 𝒋, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒌 or write the given vectors in
1
terms of column vectors. 𝑖. 𝑒. For 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 3𝒌 = −1
3
3. Given that the position vectors of A, B and C are
1 3 7
𝑂𝐴 = −2 , 𝑂𝐵 = 2 and 𝑂𝐶 = 10
2 −1 −7
i) Prove that A, B and C are collinear
ii) If OABD is a parallelogram, find the p.v of E and F such that E divides DA
in the ratio 1: 2 and F divides it externally in the ratio 1: 2 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟕
Solution
i) Shall be tackled later after looking at collinear vectors

ii) For a parallelogram, 𝑂𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵 and 𝑂𝐴 = 𝐷𝐵

𝑥
𝐷 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝐵 3, 2, −1 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴
𝑧
𝑚 3 1 2
1 = 2 − −2 = 4
𝐸 𝑛
−1 2 −3
2
∴ 𝐷 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝐷 2, 4, −3
𝑂 0, 0, 0 𝐴 1, −2, 2

Now finding coordinates of E that divides DA internally in the ratio 1:2

Using Ratio Theorem
𝑛 𝑚
𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐷 + 𝑂𝐴 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐷 𝑡𝑜 𝐴
𝑚 +𝑛 𝑚 +𝑛
2 1
= 2+1 𝑂𝐷 + 2+1 𝑂𝐴
𝐷 2, 4, −3
2 1 𝐸
2 1 1 2
= 3 𝑂𝐷 + 3 𝑂𝐴 = 3 4 + 3 −2 1
−3 2
2 1 2 𝐴 1, −2, 2
𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝐸 = 3 2𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 3𝒌 + 3 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 2𝒌
4 1
+3 5
3
8 2 3 5 4
−3 = 2 ∴ 𝑂𝐸 = 3 𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 3 𝒌
3 4
6 2
−3 +3 3

Now finding E, for external division

𝐷 𝐴 𝐸 Ratio 𝐷𝐸 : 𝐸𝐴 = 1: −2 = 𝑚: 𝑛

Using Ratio Theorem

𝑛 𝑚
𝑂𝐸 = 𝑚 +𝑛 𝑂𝐷 + 𝑚 +𝑛 𝑂𝐴
−2 1
⇒ 𝑂𝐸 = 1+ −2 𝑂𝐷 + 1+ −2 𝑂𝐴 = 2𝑂𝐷 − 𝑂𝐴
2 1 4−1 5
𝑂𝐸 = 2 4 − −2 = 8 + 2 = 10 ∴ 𝑂𝐸 = 5𝒊 + 10𝒋 − 8𝒌
−3 2 −6 − 2 −8

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Examples on Distance between two points

1. Prove that the points 2𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝒌 , 𝒊 − 3𝒋 − 5𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝒊 − 4𝒋 − 4𝒌 are vertices of a
right angled Δ.
Solution
Let 𝑃 2, −1, 1 , 𝑄 1, −3, −5 , 𝑅 3, −4, −4
1 2 −1
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑃 = −3 − −1 = 2 ⇒ 𝑃𝑄 = −1 2 + 22 + −6 2 = 41
−5 1 −6
3 1 2
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑂𝑅 − 𝑂𝑄 = −4 − −3 = −1 ⇒ 𝑄𝑅 = 22 + −1 2 + 12 = 6
−4 −5 1
3 2 1
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑂𝑅 − 𝑂𝑃 = −4 − −1 = −3 ⇒ 𝑃𝑅 = 12 + −3 2 + −5 2 = 35
−4 1 −5 𝑄
For a right angled triangle,
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 = 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
2 2 2
⇒ 𝑄𝑅 + 𝑃𝑅 = 𝑃𝑄
𝑅 𝑃
2. Prove that the vectors 2𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 6𝒌 , 6𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝒊 + 6𝒋 − 2𝒌 form the sides
of an equilateral triangle.
Solution
Let 𝒂 = 6𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 , 𝒃 = 2𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 6𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒄 = 3𝒊 + 6𝒋 − 2𝒌
𝒂 = 62 + −2 2 + 32 = 7 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝒄
𝒂 𝒃 = 22 + 32 + −6 2 = 7 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝒄 = 32 + 62 2
+ −2 = 7 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝒃 ∴ Vectors form sides of an equilateral triangle.
General examples
3. Show that the points A, B and C with position vectors
a) 4𝒊 − 8𝒋 − 13𝒌, 3𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 3𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝒊 + 𝒋 − 2𝒌
b) 5𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 2𝒌, 2𝒊 − 𝒋 + 3𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 10𝒌
c) 7𝒊 + 10𝒌, −𝒊 + 6𝒋 + 𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝒊 + 9𝒋 + 6𝒌
, are vertices of a triangle.
Solution
a) 𝐴 4, −8, −13 , 𝐵 3, −2 , −3 𝐶 3, −1, −2
𝐶
For a closed figure of three sides, 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 0
3 4 −1
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = −2 − −8 = 6
−3 −13 10
3 3 0
𝐵𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐵 = 1 − −2 = 3 , 𝐴 𝐵
−2 −3 1
4 3 1
and 𝐶𝐴 = 𝑂𝐴 − 𝑂𝐶 = −8 − 1 = −9
−13 −2 −11
−1 0 1 0
Now 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 6 + 3 + −9 = 0 = 0
10 1 −11 0
b) 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒
c) 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒

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4. Given that the p.vs of P and Q are 4𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 5𝒌 and 𝒊 + 2𝒌 respectively, find

the coordinates of the point R such that 𝑃𝑄: 𝑃𝑅 = 2: 1
Solution
1 1 Then R is the midpoint of PQ or R divides
PQ internally in the ratio 1: 1
𝑃 𝑅 𝑄
Method I
𝑃𝑄 2
𝑃𝑄: 𝑃𝑅 = 2: 1 ⇒ = 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑄 = 2𝑃𝑅
𝑃𝑅 1
⇒ 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑃 = 2 𝑂𝑅 − 𝑂𝑃 = 2𝑂𝑅 − 2𝑂𝑃
1
𝑂𝑃 = 2𝑂𝑅 − 𝑂𝑄 ⇒ 𝑂𝑅 = 2 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑂𝑄
5
4 1 2
1 3 5 3 7
∴ 𝑂𝑅 = 2 −3 + 0 = −2 ∴𝑅 2
,−2 ,2
5 2 7
2
Method II
By ratio theorem, 𝑃𝑄: 𝑅𝑄 = 1: 1 ≡ 𝑚: 𝑛
𝑛 𝑚
𝑂𝑅 = 𝑚 +𝑛 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑚 +𝑛 𝑂𝑄
5
4 1 2
1 1 1 11 3
= 2 𝑂𝑃 + 2 𝑂𝑄 = 2 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑂𝑄 = 2 2 −3 + 0 = −2
5 2 7
2
5 3 7
∴𝑅 ,− ,
2 2 2
5. The points A and B have p.vs a and b respectively relative to origin, where
𝒂 = 2𝒊 + 𝒋 − 3𝒌 and 𝒃 = −4𝒊 + 𝑠𝒋 + 𝑡𝒌. Find the possible values of s and t if
𝐴𝐵 = 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 = 2𝑡

Solution
−4 2 −6
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑠 − 1 = 𝑠−1
𝑡 −3 𝑡+3
𝐴𝐵 = −6 2 + 𝑠 − 1 2 + 𝑡 + 3 2 = 7
Squaring both sides
36 + 𝑠 − 1 2 + 𝑡 + 3 2 = 49
𝑠 − 1 2 + 𝑡 + 3 2 = 13…………………………… (1)
Now
𝑠 = 2𝑡 ……………………………………………..(2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛, 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 (1)
2𝑡 − 1 2 + 𝑡 + 3 2 = 13
4𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 + 1 + 𝑡 2 + 6𝑡 + 9 = 13 ⇒ 5𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 − 3 = 0
5𝑡 2 + 5𝑡 − 3𝑡 − 3 = 0
5𝑡 𝑡 + 1 − 3 𝑡 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 5𝑡 − 3 𝑡 + 1 = 0
3
∴ 𝑡 = −1 ,
5
3 6
For 𝑡 = −1 , 𝑠 = 2𝑡 = −2 and for 𝑡 = , 𝑠 = 2𝑡 =
5 5
6 3
∴𝑠= ,𝑡 = ; 𝑠 = −2, 𝑡 = −1
5 5

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6. A and B are points with p.vs 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 4𝒌 and 7𝒊 − 𝒋 − 2𝒌 respectively. Find the

coordinates of P and Q which divide AB
a) Internally in the ratio 1: 2
b) Externally in the ratio 3: 1
Solution
a) 𝑚 𝑛 Ratio: 𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝐵 = 1: 2 ⇒ 𝑃𝐵
𝐴𝑃

1
𝐴 𝑃 𝐵 = 2 𝑜𝑟 2𝐴𝑃 = 𝑃𝐵

⇒ 2 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝑃 ∴ 3𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝐵 + 2𝑂𝐴
1 2
⇒ 𝑂𝑃 = 7𝒊 − 𝒋 − 2𝒌 + 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 4𝒌 = 3𝒊 − 𝒋 + 3𝒌 ∴ 𝑃 3, −1, 3
3 3
b)
𝐴 𝐵 𝑄
Ratio: 𝐴𝑄: 𝑄𝐵 = 3: −1 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒄𝒌 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔
𝐴𝑄 3
= −1 ⇒ −𝐴𝑄 = 3𝑄𝐵
𝑄𝐵

⇒ 2 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝐴 = 3 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝑄
3
2𝑂𝑄 = 3𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 ⇒ 𝑂𝑄 = 2 7𝒊 − 𝒋 − 2𝒌 − 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 4𝒌
19 1 19 1
𝑂𝑄 = 𝒊 − 2 𝒋 − 7𝒌 ∴ 𝑄 , − 2 , −7
2 2
7. The vertices A, B and C of a triangle have p.vs a, b, and c respectively.
The point P divides BC internally in the ratio 3:1, the point Q is the midpoint
of CA and the point R divides AB externally in the ratio 1:3. If the p.vs of P, Q
and R are p, q and r respectively, express r in terms of p and q. find also the
ratio 𝑃𝑅: 𝑄𝑅.
Solution 𝐶
1 Given: 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒂 , 𝑂𝐵 = 𝒃, 𝑂𝐶 = 𝒄
1 𝑃
𝐵𝑃 : 𝑃𝐶 = 3: 1 , 𝐴𝑄: 𝑄𝐶 = 1: 1
𝑄 𝐴𝑅: 𝑅𝐵 = −1: 3
3
1 𝑂𝑃 = 𝒑 , 𝑂𝑄 = 𝒒 , 𝑂𝑅 = 𝒓
𝑅 𝐴 𝐵

From 𝐴𝑅: 𝑅𝐵 = −1: 3

𝐴𝑅 1
⇒ 𝑅𝐵 = − 3 𝑜𝑟 3𝐴𝑅 = −𝑅𝐵
⇒ 3 𝑂𝑅 − 𝑂𝐴 = − 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝑅 = −𝑂𝐵 + 𝑂𝑅
3 1
⇒ 2𝑂𝑅 = 3𝑂𝐴 − 𝑂𝐵 ∴ 𝑂𝑅 = 2 𝒂 − 3 𝒃 ................................................. (1)
𝐵𝑃 3
From 𝐵𝑃 : 𝑃𝐶 = 3: 1 ⇒ 𝑃𝐶 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑃 = 3𝑃𝐶
⇒ 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐵 = 3 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝑃 = 3𝑂𝐶 − 3𝑂𝑃
⇒ 4𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝐵 + 3𝑂𝐶 = 𝒃 + 3𝒄
1 3
∴ 𝑂𝑃 = 4 𝒃 + 4 𝒄 …………………………………………………………………. (2)
From 𝐴𝑄: 𝑄𝐶 = 1: 1 ⇒ 𝐴𝑄 = 𝑄𝐶
⇒ 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝑄
1 1
⇒ 2𝑂𝑄 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐶 ∴ 𝑂𝑄 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐶
2 2

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1 1
∴ 𝒒 = 2 𝒂 + 2 𝒄 ……………………………………………………… (3)
Solving (1) , (2) and (3) simultaneously by expressing 𝒂, 𝒃 and 𝒄 in terms of 𝒑
and 𝒒
1 3
𝒑 = 4 𝒃 + 4 𝒄 𝑜𝑟 4𝒑 = 𝒃 + 3𝒄 ……………………………. (4)
1 1
𝒒 = 𝒂 + 𝒄 𝑜𝑟 2𝒒 = 𝒂 + 𝒄 …………………………….. (5)
2 2
Eliminating c from (4) and (5)
4𝒑 = 𝒃 + 3𝒄 × 3 ⇒ 4𝒑 = 𝒃 + 3𝒄
2𝒒 = 𝒂 + 𝒄 6𝒒 = 3𝒂 + 3𝒄
4𝒑 − 6𝒒 = −3𝒂 + 𝒃 ……………… (6)
3 1
From (1) 𝑂𝑅 = 𝒓 = 𝒂 − 𝒃 𝑜𝑟 2𝒓 = 3𝒂 − 𝒃 ……………….….. (7)
2 3
Eliminating a and b from (6) and (7), adding the equations
⇒ 4𝒑 − 6𝒒 + 2𝒓 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝒑 − 3𝒒 + 𝒓 = 0
∴ 𝒓 = 3𝒒 − 2𝒑
𝑃𝑅
Ratio 𝑃𝑅: 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑄𝑅
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑂𝑅 − 𝑂𝑃 = 3𝒒 − 2𝒑 − 𝒑 = 3 𝒒 − 𝒑
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑂𝑅 − 𝑂𝑄 = 3𝒒 − 2𝒑 − 𝒒 = 2 𝒒 − 𝒑
𝑃𝑅 3 𝒒−𝒑 3
∴ 𝑄𝑅 = 2 𝒒−𝒑
=2
∴ 𝑃𝑅: 𝑄𝑅 = 3: 2 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
8. A, P, Q, B are points on a straight line such that 𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝐵 = 1: 4, 𝐴𝑄: 𝑄𝐵 = 3: 1.
Find;
a) 𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝑄: 𝑄𝐵
b) 𝐴𝑄: 𝑄𝑃
Solution
1 4 Let p.v of A and B be a and b
respectively.
𝐴 𝑃 𝑄 𝐵 4 1
3 1 For 𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝑄 = 1: 4 ⇒ 𝑂𝑃 = 5 𝒂 + 5 𝒃
1 3
For 𝐴𝑄: 𝑄𝐵 = 3: 1 ⇒ 𝑂𝑄 = 4 𝒂 + 4 𝒃

4 1 1
a) 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 − 𝒂 = 𝒃−𝒂
5 5 5
1 3 4 1 11 11 11
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑃 = 𝒂+ 𝒃 − 𝒂+ 𝒃 =− 𝒂+ 𝒃= 𝒃−𝒂
4 4 5 5 20 20 20
1 3 1 1 1
𝑄𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝑄 = 𝒃 − 𝒂+ 𝒃 =− 𝒂+ 𝒃= 𝒃−𝒂
4 4 4 4 4
1
𝐴𝑃 𝒃−𝒂 4
5
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝑄 = = 11 = ∴ 𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝑄 = 4: 11
𝑃𝑄 𝒃−𝒂 11
20
11
𝒃−𝒂 11
Also 𝑃𝑄: 𝑄𝐵 = 20
1 = ∴ 𝑃𝑄: 𝑄𝐵 = 11: 5
𝒃−𝒂 5
4
Combining the ratios using the ratio algebra,
𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝑄 = 4: 11 ; 𝑃𝑄: 𝑄𝐵 = 11: 5 ∴ 𝐴𝑃: 𝑃𝑄: 𝑄𝐵 = 4: 11: 5
𝐴𝑄
b) 𝐴𝑄: 𝑄𝑃 = 𝑄𝑃
1 3 3
𝐴𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒂+ 𝒃 −𝒂 = 𝒃−𝒂
4 4 4
4 1 1 3 11
𝑄𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝑄 = 5
𝒂+5𝒃 − 4
𝒂 + 4 𝒃 = − 20 𝒃 − 𝒂

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3
𝐴𝑄 𝒃−𝒂 3 20 15
4
∴ 𝐴𝑄: 𝑄𝑃 = = 11 = × = ∴ 𝐴𝑄: 𝑄𝑃 = 15: −11
𝑄𝑃 − 𝒃−𝒂 4 −11 −11
20

NOTE:
4 1 1 3
Vectors 𝑂𝑃 = 5 𝒂 + 5 𝒃 and 𝑂𝑄 = 4 𝒂 + 4 𝒃 have been deduced using Ratio
Theorem
Task
1. If the points A and B have p.vs a and b respectively, find in terms of a and b
the p.vs of
a) The point P which divides AB internally in the ratio 5:3
b) The point Q which divides AB externally in the ratio 3:1
c) The point R such that A is the midpoint of BR
1 1
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: a) 3𝒂 + 5𝒃 , b) 3𝒃 − 𝒂 c) 2𝒂 − 𝒃
8 2
2. Write down, in terms of I , j and k the position vectors of the points
𝐴 2, −5, 3 and 𝐵 7, 0, −2 . Hence find the coordinates of C which divides AB
internally in the ratio 2:3 and point D which divides it externally in the ratio
3:8.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 2𝒊 − 5𝒋 + 3𝒌; 7𝒊 − 2𝒌; 4, −3 , 1 , −1, −8 , 6
3. The points A, B, C and D have coordinates 𝐴 −7, 9 , 𝐵 3 , 4 , 𝐶 1 , 2 and
𝐷 −2. −9 . Find the position vector of a point P that divides AB in the ratio
2: 3 and Q that divides it in the ratio 1: −4
4. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑:Show that the points A, B and C with p.vs 3𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 𝒌 , 8𝒊 + 7𝒋 + 4𝒌
and 11𝒊 + 4𝒋 + 5𝒌 respectively are vertices of a triangle. 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟏
5. Given that 𝒂 = 2𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 𝒌 , 𝒃 = 𝒊 + 2𝒌 , 𝒄 = 𝒊 + 2𝒋 and 𝒅 = −4𝒋 + 8𝒌. Express d
in terms of a, b and c.
Answer: Left as an exercise
𝐻𝐼𝑁𝑇: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝒅 =
𝜆𝒂 + 𝜇𝒃 + 𝑘𝒄 , 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 3 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠

COLLINEARITY OF VECTORS
Vectors are either collinear or parallel.
Consider three collinear points A, B and C

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Vectors 𝐴𝐵 , 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐴𝐶 are collinear if 𝜆𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇𝐵𝐶 + 𝛾𝐴𝐶 = 0
where 𝜆 , 𝜇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 are
𝜆+𝜇+𝛾 = 0
Scalars/constants and
When vectors are given in the form 𝒊 − 𝒋 – 𝒌, 3-equations are formulated
containing only scalars. The 3 equations are solved for the scalars using
cross multiplication, and when put in , and satisfies then
𝜆+𝜇+𝛾 = 0
the vectors are collinear.

Alternatively, (commonly used)

For 𝐴𝐵, 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐴𝐶 to be collinear/parallel, then 𝐴𝐵 = 𝜆𝐵𝐶 = 𝜇𝐴𝐶
, where 𝜆 , 𝜇 are scalars.
Examples
1. Show that the points with the position vectors

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a) 𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 5𝒌 , 3𝒊 + 2𝑗 + 𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 3𝒌
b) 𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌 , 4𝒊 + 3𝒋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10𝒊 + 7𝒋 − 2𝒌
, are collinear.
Solution
a) Let 𝐴 1 , 2 , 5 , 𝐵 3 , 2 ,1 , 𝐶 2 , 2 , 3
For A, B and C to be collinear, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝜆𝐴𝐶
3 1 2
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 2 − 2 = 0
1 5 −4
2 1 1
𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴 = 2 − 2 = 0
3 5 −2
Now 𝐴𝐵 = 𝜆𝐴𝐶 gives
2 1
0 = 𝜆 0 ⇒ 2 = 𝜆 …………….. (1)
−4 −2
⇒ −4 = −2𝜆 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 = 2 ………………… (2)
Since the 𝜆 = 2 is consistent for the two equations formulated, the points
are collinear.
Alternatively (Not commonly used)
Let 𝐴 1 , 2 , 5 , 𝐵 3 , 2 ,1 , 𝐶 2 , 2 , 3 have position vectors 𝑂𝐴 , 𝑂𝐵 and 𝑂𝐶
respectively.
For the vectors to be collinear, then 𝜆𝑂𝐴 + 𝜇𝑂𝐵 + 𝛾𝑂𝐶 = 0
1 3 2
⇒ 𝜆 2 +𝜇 2 +𝛾 2 =0
5 1 3
⇒ 𝜆 + 3𝜇 + 2𝛾 = 0 ………………..……… (1)
⇒ 2𝜆 + 2𝜇 + 2𝛾 = 0 ……………………… (2)
⇒ 5𝜆 + 𝜇 + 𝛾 = 0…………………..……… (3)
Also 𝜆 + 𝜇 + 𝛾 = 0 …………………….…. (4)
Expressing 𝜆 , 𝜇 in terms of 𝛾 only
Considering eqn. (1) and eqn. (2), eliminating 𝜆
𝜆 + 3𝜇 + 2𝛾 = 0 ×2
2𝜆 + 2𝜇 + 2𝛾 = 0 ×1
1
4𝜇 + 2𝛾 = 0 ⇒ 𝜇 = − 2 𝛾…………… (5)
Eqn. (5) in to eqn. (1) gives
1 1
𝜆 + 3 − 𝛾 + 2𝛾 = 0 ⇒ 𝜆 = − 𝛾 ………. (6)
2 2
Eqn. (5), (6) in to (3) and (4) for confirmation
From eqn. (3),
5 1
5𝜆 + 𝜇 + 𝛾 = 0 ⇒ − 𝛾 − 𝛾 + 3𝛾 = 0 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡
2 2
From eqn. (4) 𝜆 + 𝜇 + 𝛾 = 0
1 1
⇒ − 𝛾 − 𝛾 + 𝛾 = 0 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 . Hence points are collinear.
2 2
b) 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒
2. Show that the points R, P and T with position vectors are
1 1 1
a) 3𝒂 − 𝒃 , 53𝒂 + 17𝒃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒂 + 4𝒃
2 70 5
b) 7𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄, 10𝑎 + 2𝒃 + 9𝒄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒂 − 𝒃 + 3𝒄
1 29 4
c) 2
17𝑎 + 20𝒃 + 3𝒄 , 10𝒂 + 11𝒃 + 2𝒄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8𝒂 + 3
𝒃 + 3 𝒄, are collinear.

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Solution
a) For R, P and T to be collinear, 𝑅𝑃 = 𝜆𝑅𝑇
1 1
𝑅𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝑅 = 53𝒂 + 17𝒃 − 3𝒂 − 𝒃
70 2
26 26 26
= − 35 𝒂 + 35 𝒃 = 35 𝒃 − 𝒂
1 1
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑂𝑇 − 𝑂𝑅 = 𝒂 + 4𝒃 − 3𝒂 − 𝒃
5 2
13 13 13
=− 𝒂+ 𝒃= 𝒃−𝒂
10 10 10
Now 𝑅𝑃 = 𝜆𝑅𝑇 yields
26 13 26 13 2
𝒃−𝒂 = 𝜆 𝒃−𝒂 ⇒ = 𝜆 ∴𝜆= 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
35 10 35 10 3
2
∴ 𝑅𝑃 = 3 𝑅𝑇 , if R, P and T are collinear
b) 𝑅𝑃 = 𝜆𝑅𝑇
𝑅𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝑅 = 10𝒂 + 11𝒃 + 2𝒄 − 7𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 3𝒂 + 𝒃 + 2𝒄
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑂𝑇 − 𝑂𝑅 = 𝒂 − 𝒃 + 3𝒄 − 7𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄
= −6𝑎 − 2𝒃 − 4𝒄 = −2 3𝒂 + 𝒃 + 2𝒄
⇒ 3𝒂 + 𝒃 + 2𝒄 = −2 3𝒂 + 𝒃 + 2𝒄 𝜆
1
⇒ 1 = −2𝜆 ∴ 𝜆 = − 2 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
1
∴ 𝑅𝑃 = − 2 𝑅𝑇 , if R, P and T are collinear
3. Given that 𝒂 = 2𝒊 + 6𝒋 , 𝒃 = 3𝒊 + 𝑡𝒋 and 𝒄 = 2𝜆𝒊 − 𝒋. Find the value of 𝜆𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 if
a) a and b are parallel
b) a and c are collinear
Solution
a) For a and b to be parallel, 𝒂 = 𝜇𝒃
⇒ 2𝒊 + 6𝒋 = 𝜇 3𝒊 + 𝑡𝒋 = 3𝜇𝒊 + 𝑡𝜇𝒋
Equating coefficients of unit vectors
2
For 𝒊: 2 = 3𝜇 ⇒ 𝜇 = 3
2
For 𝒋: 6 = 𝑡𝜇 ⇒ 6 = 3 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑡 = 9

b) a and c are collinear/parallel if 𝒂 = 𝑘𝒄

⇒ 2𝒊 + 6𝒋 = 𝑘 2𝜆𝒊 − 𝒋 = 2𝜆𝑘𝒊 − 𝑘𝒋
Equating coefficients of unit vectors
For 𝒊: 2 = 2𝑘𝜆 …………………………… (1)
For 𝒋: 6 = −𝑘 ⇒ 𝑘 = −6 ……………… (2)
Eqn. (2 in to (1)
1 1
2 = −12𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 = − ∴ 𝑘 = −6 , 𝜆 = −
6 6
4. Given that 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒂 and 𝑂𝐵 = 𝒃, point R is on 𝑂𝐵 such that 𝑂𝑅: 𝑅𝐵 = 4: 1. Point P
is on BA such that 𝐵𝑃: 𝑃𝐴 = 2: 3, and when RP and OA are both produced they
meet at point Q. Find
a) 𝑂𝑅 and 𝑂𝑃 in terms of a and b
b) 𝑂𝑄 in terms of a (𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟔)

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Solution
𝐵 𝑂𝑅 4
a) From 𝑂𝑅: 𝑅𝐵 = 4: 1 ⇒ =
𝑅𝐵 1
1
𝑂𝑅 = 4𝑅𝐵
4 𝑃
𝒃 ⇒ 𝑂𝑅 = 4 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝑅 ⇒ 𝑂𝑅 =
4
𝑂𝐵
𝑂 𝑄 5
𝒄 𝐴 4
∴ 𝑂𝑅 = 5 𝒃
𝐵𝑃 2
From 𝐵𝑃 : 𝑃𝐴 = 2: 3 ⇒ 𝑃𝐴 = 3 ⇒ 3𝐵𝑃 = 2𝑃𝐴
⇒ 3 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐵 = 2 𝑂𝐴 − 𝑂𝑃 ⇒ 5𝑂𝑃 = 2𝑂𝐴 + 3𝑂𝐵
2 3 2 3
⇒ 𝑂𝑃 = 5 𝑂𝐴 + 5 𝑂𝐵 ∴ 𝑂𝑃 = 5 𝒂 + 5 𝒃
b) Since O,A and Q are collinear, then
𝑂𝑄 = 𝜆𝑂𝐴 = 𝜆𝒂 …………………………………….. (1)
Since R, P and Q are also collinear, then
𝑅𝑄 = 𝜇𝑅𝑃 ⇒ 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑅 = 𝜇 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝑅
∴ 𝑂𝑄 = 𝑂𝑅 + 𝜇 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝑅 = 1 − 𝜇 𝑂𝑅 + 𝜇𝑂𝑃
4 2 3 4−4𝜇 3 2
= 1 − 𝜇 .5 𝒃 + 𝜇 𝒂+5𝒃 = +5𝜇 𝒃+5𝜇 𝒂
5 5
4−𝜇 2
∴ 𝑂𝑄 = 𝒃 + 5 𝜇 𝒂 ……………………….. (2)
5
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 = 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (1)
2 4−𝜇
⇒ 𝜆𝒂 = 5 𝜇 𝒂 + 𝒃
5
Equating corresponding vectors
2
𝜆 = 5 𝜇 ………………………………………………. (3)
4−𝜇
0= 5
⇒ 𝜇 = 4……………………………… (4)
8
∴𝜆=5
8
From eqn. (1), 𝑂𝑄 = 𝜆𝑂𝐴 = 𝜆𝒂 = 5 𝒂
5. The vertices of a triangle are 𝑃(2, −1, 5), 𝑄(7, 1, −3) and 𝑅(2 , −2, 0). Find the
coordinates of S if PQRS is a rectangle.
𝑅
Solution 𝑆
using 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑆𝑅 or 𝑃𝑆 = 𝑄𝑅
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑆𝑅 , gives 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑅 − 𝑂𝑆
∴ 𝑂𝑆 = 𝑂𝑅 + 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝑄 𝑃 𝑄
2 2 7 −3
= −2 + −1 − 1 = −4 ∴ 𝑆 −3 , −4, 8
0 5 −3 8
6. The vertices of a parallelogram are 𝐴 1 , 1 , 𝐵 5 , 3 , 𝐶(3 , 7) and D. find the
coordinates of D.
Solution
𝐷 For a parallelogram, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷 or 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐵𝐷
𝐶
Using 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷
𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐷 − 𝑂𝐶 ⇒ 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴
3 5 1 7
𝐵 𝑂𝐷 =
7
+
3
−
1
=
9
∴ 𝐷 7 ,9
𝐴

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PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

There are two types of products
 Scalar or Dot product
 Vector or Cross product
SCALAR/DOT PRODUCT
Consider two position vectors 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒂 and 𝑂𝐵 = 𝒃 making and angle of 𝜃
with each other. The scalar product is defined as

𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
The product will either be +𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 − 𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 depending on the value of θ.
NOTE
Two vectors can be dot multiplied if they are in same direction.

Geometric Representation of Scalar product

𝑂𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is the projection of 𝑂𝐴 and 𝑂𝐵
𝐴
𝑂𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝒃 are in the same direction.
𝑂𝐴 Multiplying their scalars
𝑂𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ⇒ 𝑂𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝒂. 𝒃
𝜃
∴ 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑂 𝑂𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐵

PROPERTIES OF SCALAR PRODUCT

The properties below are very useful in the computations involving
product of vectors.
1) 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒃. 𝒂 commutative property
2) 𝛌𝒂 . 𝒃 = λ 𝒂. 𝒃 where 𝜆 = 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
3) 𝝀𝒂 . 𝜇𝒃 = 𝜇𝜆 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝜇𝒂. 𝜆𝒃
4) 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒂. 𝒄 Distributive property
5) 𝒂 + 𝒃 . 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝟐 = 𝒂. 𝒂 + 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒃. 𝒃
= 𝑎𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝑏𝟐 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are now 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠
6) 𝒂 + 𝒃 . 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 𝒂. 𝒂 − 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒃. 𝒃
= 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 𝒂 ≠ 𝑎 . Here a and b are scalars
7) 𝒂 − 𝒃 . 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 𝒂 − 𝒃 𝟐 = 𝒂. 𝒂 − 𝒂. 𝒃 − 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒃. 𝒃
= 𝑎𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝑏𝟐 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are now 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠
8) For 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
a) If 𝜃 = 900 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝒂 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝒃 , then 𝒂. 𝒃 = 0
∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠900 = 0 . Hence a and b are perpendicular if

𝒂. 𝒃 = 0
b) If 𝜃 = 180 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝒂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, then
0

𝒂. 𝒃 = − 𝒂 𝒃 ∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠1800 = −1
c) Angle between a and b is given from

𝒂 𝒃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝒂.𝒃

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MULTIPLICATION OF UNIT VECTORS 𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌

Unit vectors are mutually perpendicular
𝒌 𝒊. 𝒊 = 𝒊𝟐 = 𝒊 𝒊 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1
𝒋. 𝒋 = 𝒋𝟐 = 𝒋 𝒋 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1
𝒌. 𝒌 = 𝒌𝟐 = 𝒌 𝒌 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1
𝒌. 𝒊 = 𝒌 𝒊 𝑐𝑜𝑠90 = 0
𝒋
𝒊. 𝒋 = 𝒊 𝒋 𝑐𝑜𝑠90 = 0
𝒊 𝒌. 𝒋 = 𝒌 𝒋 𝑐𝑜𝑠90 = 0
The above results in conjunction
with the above properties of dot product are useful in vector product
computations.
Example
1. Given that 𝒂 = 2𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌 , 𝒃 = 𝒊 + 𝒋 − 3𝒌 and 𝒄 = 𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 − 3𝒌. Find
a) 𝒂. 𝒃
b) 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒄
c) 𝒂. 𝒃 . 𝒂 − 𝒃
Solution
a) 𝒂. 𝒃 = 2𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌 . 𝒊 + 𝒋 − 3𝒌 = 2𝒊. 𝒊 + 𝟐𝒊. 𝒋 − 6𝒊. 𝒌

+𝒋. 𝒊 + 𝒋. 𝒋 − 3𝒋. 𝒌 +𝒌. 𝒊 + 𝒌. 𝒋 − 3𝒌. 𝒌

=2+0−0+0+1+0+0+0−3 =2+1−3 = 0

b) 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒄 ; 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝒊 + 𝒋 − 3𝒌 + 𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 − 3𝒌 = 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 6𝒌
⇒ 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 2𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌 . 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 6𝒌
= 𝒊. 𝒊 + 𝟐𝒊. 𝒋 − 3𝒊. 𝒌 +𝒋. 𝒊 + 𝒋. 𝒋 − 3𝒋. 𝒌 −3𝒌. 𝒊 − 6𝒌. 𝒋 + 9𝒌. 𝒌
= 2 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 2 − 0 + 0 + 0 − 6 = 2 + 2 − 6 = −2
c) 𝒂. 𝒃 . 𝒂 − 𝒃 ; 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 2𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌 − 𝒊 + 𝒋 − 3𝒌 = 𝒊 + 0𝒋 + 4𝒌
But 𝒂. 𝒃 = 0 ⇒ 𝒂. 𝒃 . 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 0. 𝒊 + 0𝒋 + 4𝒌 = 0
NOTE
When doting two vectors in multiplication always dot the corresponding
vectors only. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖 2 , 𝑗 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 2 , since other products of not similar unit vectors
yield zero results
2. Given that 𝒂 = 4𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 7𝒌 , 𝒃 = 7𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌 and 𝒄 = 3𝒊 − 4𝒋 + 9𝒌. Find
a) 𝒂. 𝒃
b) 𝒃. 𝒄
c) 𝒂. 𝒂 + 𝒃
d) 𝒂. 𝒃 . 𝒃 + 𝒄
Solution
a) 𝒂. 𝒃 = 4𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 7𝒌 . 7𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌

= 28 + 10 − 7 = 31
b) 𝒃. 𝒄 = 7𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌 . 3𝒊 − 4𝒋 + 9𝒌

= 21 − 8 + 9 = 22
c) 𝒂. 𝒂 + 𝒃 ; 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 4𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 7𝒌 + 7𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌 = 11𝒊 + 7𝒋 − 6𝒌

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⇒ 𝒂. 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 4𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 7𝒌 . 11𝒊 + 7𝒋 − 6𝒌 = 44 + 35 + 42 = 121
Alternatively
Using 𝒂. 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒂. 𝒂 + 𝒂. 𝒃
𝒂. 𝒂 = 4𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 7𝒌 . 4𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 7𝒌 = 16 + 25 + 49 = 90
∴ 𝒂. 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 90 + 31 = 121
d) 𝒂. 𝒃 . 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 31 × 7𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌 + 3𝒊 − 4𝒋 + 9𝒌
= 31 10𝒊 − 𝟐𝒋 + 10𝒌 = 310𝒊 − 62𝒋 + 310𝒌
NOTE
When two vectors are dot multiplied the answer is a constant value not a
vector.
3. Given that 𝒂 = 7, 𝒃 = 4 and 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝟖, calculate:
a) 𝒂 + 𝒃 . 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒂 − 𝒃 . 𝒂 − 𝒃
b) Hence find 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒂 − 𝒃
Solution
a) 𝒂 + 𝒃 . 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒂. 𝒂 + 2𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒃. 𝒃 = 𝒂. 𝒂 + 𝒃. 𝒃 + 2 8
But if 𝒂 = 𝑥1 𝒊 + 𝑥2 𝒋 + 𝑥3 𝒌 , 𝒂 = 𝑥1 2 + 𝑥2 2 + 𝑥3 2
, and 𝒂. 𝒂 = 𝑥1 𝒊 + 𝑥2 𝒋 + 𝑥3 𝒌 . 𝑥1 𝒊 + 𝑥2 𝒋 + 𝑥3 𝒌 = 𝑥1 2 + 𝑥2 2 + 𝑥3 2
∴ 𝒂 2 = 𝒂. 𝒂 = 49 , 𝒃 2 = 𝒃. 𝒃 = 16
⇒ 𝒂 + 𝒃 . 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 49 + 16 + 16 = 81
b) 𝒂 − 𝒃 . 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 𝒂. 𝒂 − 2𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒃. 𝒃
= 𝒂. 𝒂 − 2𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒃. 𝒃 = 49 − 2 × 8 + 16 = 49
From 𝒂 2 = 𝒂. 𝒂 ⇒ 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝟐 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 . 𝒂 + 𝒃
∴ 𝒂+𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 . 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 81 = 9
Also 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 𝒂 − 𝒃 . 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 49 = 7
Task
Given that 𝒙 = 5 , 𝒚 = 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙. 𝒚 = 22, calculate 𝒙 + 𝒚 and 𝒙 − 𝒚
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟏𝟑 , 𝟗
4. Vectors a, b and c are such that 𝒂. 𝒄 = 3, 𝒃. 𝒄 = 4. Given that the vector
𝒅 = 𝒂 + 𝜆𝒃 is perpendicular to c, find the value of 𝜆.
Solution
𝒅 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝒄 𝑖𝑓 𝒅. 𝒄 = 0 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝒅 = 𝒂 + 𝜆𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝜆𝒃 . 𝒄 = 𝒂. 𝒄 + 𝜆𝒃. 𝒄 = 0 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
3
⇒ 3 + 4𝜆 = 0 ∴ 𝜆 = −
4
5. Given that 𝒂 = 2𝒊 + 6𝒋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 = 3𝒊 + 𝜆𝒋. Find the value of 𝜆 such that a and b
are perpendicular.
Solution
For a and b to be perpendicular 𝒂. 𝒃 = 0
⇒ 2𝒊 + 6𝒋 . 3𝒊 + 𝜆𝒋 = 0
⇒ 6 + 6𝜆 = 0 ∴ 𝜆 = 1
6. Find the angle between vectors
a) 8𝒊 − 𝒋 + 4𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 𝒌
b) 𝒋 + 7𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 5𝒊 + 4𝒋 + 3𝒌
c) 2𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 8𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6𝒊 − 4𝒋 − 3𝒌
Solution
a) Let 𝒂 = 8𝒊 − 𝒋 + 4𝒌 , 𝒃 = 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 𝒌
From dot product, 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒂. 𝒃 = 8𝒊 − 𝒋 + 4𝒌 . 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 𝒌 = 16 − 2 − 4 = 10

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𝒂 = 82 + −1 2 + 42 = 9 , 𝒃 = 22 + 22 + −1 2 =3
10
∴ 10 = 9 × 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
27
10
⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 27
= 68.30
b) 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 600
c) Let 𝒂 = 2𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 8𝒌 , 𝒃 = 6𝒊 − 4𝒋 − 3𝒌
From dot product, 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒂. 𝒃 = 2𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 8𝒌 . 6𝒊 − 4𝒋 − 3𝒌 = 12 + 12 − 24 = 0
∴ 0 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0 = 900

Proofs involving dot product

1. Given that 𝒂 = 3, 𝒃 = 8 and 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 7, show that the angle between a and
b is 600 .
Solution
By dot product, 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
But 𝒂 2 = 𝒂. 𝒂 , 𝒃 2 = 𝒃. 𝒃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒂 − 𝒃 2 = 𝒂 − 𝒃 2
From 𝒂 − 𝒃 2 = 49 = 𝒂 − 𝒃 . 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 𝒂. 𝒂 − 2𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒃. 𝒃
⇒ 49 = 32 − 2𝒂. 𝒃 + 82 = 73 − 2𝒂. 𝒃
⇒ −24 = −2𝒂. 𝒃 ∴ 𝒂. 𝒃 = 12
𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 12
1
⇒ 12 = 3 × 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
2
1
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 = 600
2
2. The points A, B and C have 𝑝. 𝑣𝑠 𝒂 = 5𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 2𝒌 , 𝒃 = 2𝒊 − 𝒋 + 3𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝒄 = 7𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 10𝒌 respectively. Show that < 𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒.
Solution
NOTE: indicated vectors originate from B
𝐶
Given: 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒂, 𝑂𝐵 = 𝒃 , 𝑂𝐶 = 𝒄
𝐵𝐴 = 𝒅 = 𝑂𝐴 − 𝑂𝐵
𝜃 = 5𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 2𝒌 − 2𝒊 − 𝒋 + 3𝒌
𝐵 𝐴
= 3𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 𝒌
𝐵𝐶 = 𝒆 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐵 = 7𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 10𝒌 − 2𝒊 − 𝒋 + 3𝒌
= 5𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 7𝒌
For d and e to be perpendicular, 𝒅. 𝒆 = 𝟎, by dot product 𝒅. 𝒆 = 𝒅 𝒆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
⇒ 𝒅. 𝒆 = 3𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 𝒌 . 5𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 7𝒌 = 15 − 8 − 7 = 0
∴ 𝒅. 𝒆 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0 ∴ 𝜃 = 900
3. The vertices of a Δ are 𝑃 2, −1, 5 , 𝑄 7, 1, −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 13, −2, 0 . Show that <
𝑃𝑄𝑅 = 900 . Find the coordinates of S if PQRS is a rectangle. 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟐
Solution
𝑃 𝑆 7 2
Let 𝑃𝑄 = 𝒑 = 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑃 = 1 − −1
𝒑 −3 5
5
𝜃 = 2
𝑄 𝑅
𝒒 −8

13 7 6
𝑄𝑅 = 𝒒 = 𝑂𝑅 − 𝑂𝑄 = −2 − 1 = −3
0 −3 3

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For p and q to be perpendicular, 𝒑. 𝒒 = 𝟎

5 6
⇒ 𝒑. 𝒒 = 2 . −3 = 30 − 6 − 24 = 0
−8 3
𝑜𝑟 𝒑. 𝒒 = 5𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 8𝒌 . 6𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 3𝒌 = 30 − 6 − 24 = 0
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜃 = 900
For a rectangle, 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑃𝑆
⇒ 𝒒 = 𝑂𝑆 − 𝑂𝑃 ∴ 𝑂𝑆 = 𝒒 + 𝑂𝑃
6 2 8
⇒ 𝑂𝑆 = −3 + −1 = −4 ∴ 𝑆 8, −4, 8
3 5 8
4. ABCD is a quadrilateral with 𝐴 2 , −2 , 𝐵 5 , −1 , 𝐶 6 , 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 3 , 1 . Show
that the quadrilateral is a rhombus.
Solution
𝑦 For a rhombus
𝐴  All sides are equal
𝐷  Diagonals meet at 900
𝐵  All opposite angles are equal but
𝐴 𝑥 not right angles

5 2 3
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = − =
−1 −2 1
6 3 3
𝐷𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐷 = − =
2 1 1
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐷𝐶 = 32 + 12 = 10
3 2 3
𝐴𝐷 = 𝑂𝐷 − 𝑂𝐴 = − =
1 −2 1
6 5 3
𝐵𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐵 = − =
2 −1 1
2
𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶 = 3 + 1 = 10 2

Hence all sides are equal= 10 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Now diagonals are 𝐵𝐷 and 𝐴𝐶
3 5 −2
𝐵𝐷 = 𝑂𝐷 − 𝑂𝐵 = − =
1 −1 2
6 2 4
𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴 = − =
2 −2 4
For 𝐵𝐷 and 𝐴𝐶 to be perpendicular, 𝐵𝐷. 𝐴𝐶 = 0
−2 4
𝐵𝐷. 𝐴𝐶 = . = 8 − 8 = 0. Hence diagonals meet at 900
2 4
Now angles are as in the figure.
< 𝜃1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐵
𝜃4 𝜃2
⇒ 𝐴𝐷 . 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐷 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1
𝜃3 1 3
𝜃1 . = 10 × 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
3 1
3+3
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 = ⇒ 𝜃1 = 53.10
10
< 𝜃2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐷
⇒ 𝐶𝐵 . 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐵 𝐶𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2
But 𝐶𝐵 = −𝐵𝐶 , 𝐶𝐷 = −𝐷𝐶
∴ 𝐶𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐷𝐶 = 10

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∴ 𝐶𝐵 . 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶 . 𝐷𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2
1 3
⇒ . = 10 × 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2
3 1
∴ 𝜃1 = 𝜃2 = 53.10
< 𝜃3 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐵
⇒ 𝐵𝐶 . 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3
1 −3
⇒ . = 10 × 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3 ∵ 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵
3 −1
−3 − 3 = 10𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3 𝑜𝑟 10𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3 = −0.6 ∴ 𝜃3 = 126.90
< 𝜃3 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐷𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝐶 = 126.90
Hence this is a rhombus.
5. The points 𝑃 4 , −6 , 1 , 𝑄 2 , 8 , 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 3 , 7 , 14 lie in the same plane. Show
14
that the angle formed between 𝑃𝑄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 .
209×102
Solution
2 4 −2
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑃 = 8 − −6 = 14
4 1 5
3 2 1
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑂𝑅 − 𝑂𝑄 = 7 − 8 = −1
14 4 10
Using dot product 𝑃𝑄. 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑃𝑄 𝑄𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
−2 1
𝑃𝑄. 𝑄𝑅 = 14 . −1 = −2 − 14 + 30 = 14
5 10
𝑃𝑄 = −2 2 + 142 + 32 = 209
𝑄𝑅 = 12 + −1 2 + 102 = 102
14 14 14
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 209× 102
= 209×102
⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 209×102
6. Show that A, B and C with p.vs respectively are vertices of a triangle of a
ΔABC
a) 2𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝒌 , 𝒊 − 3𝒋 − 5𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝒊 − 4𝒋 − 4𝒌
b) 4𝒊 − 5𝒋 − 2𝒌 ,8 𝒊 − 5𝒋 + 6𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛
c) 7𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 𝒌 , 𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 2𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝒊 − 𝒋 − 𝒌
Solution
a) Let 𝐴 2 , −1 ,1 , 𝐵 1 , −3 , −5 , 𝐶 3 , −4 , −4
For A, B and C to be vertices of a ΔABC, then
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝒐𝒓
Sum of angles at A, B and C is 1800
Considering the first case
1 2 −1
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = −3 − −1 = −2
−5 1 −6
3 2 1
𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴 = −4 − −1 = −3
4 1 −5
3 1 2
𝐵𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐵 = −4 − −3 = −1
−4 −5 1

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−1 1 2
Now from 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = −2 + −3 + −1 = 0. Hence the vectors are
−6 −5 1
vertices of a triangle.
𝐶
Now considering second case 𝜃3
< 𝜃1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐵
By dot product 𝐴𝐶 . 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 . 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝜃1 𝜃2
𝐴 𝐵
1 −1
⇒ −3 . −2 = 12 + −3 2 + −5 2 . −1 2 + −2 2 + −6 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1
−5 −6
35
−1 + 6 + 30 = 35 × 41. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 = ∴ 𝜃1 = 22.490
35×41
< 𝜃2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐵𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐶
⇒ 𝐵𝐴 . 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐴 𝐵𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐵𝐴 = −𝐴𝐵
1 2
⇒ 2 . −1 = 12 + 22 + 62 × 22 + −1 2 + 12 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2
6 1
6
⇒ 2 − 2 + 6 = 41 × 6. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 = 41× 6 ∴ 𝜃2 = 67.510
< 𝜃3 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐵
But 𝐶𝐴 = −𝐴𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐵 = −𝐵𝐶
⇒ −𝐴𝐶 . −𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 . 𝐵𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3 ∵ 𝐴𝐶 = −𝐴𝐶 , 𝐵𝐶 = −𝐵𝐶
⇒ 𝐴𝐶 . 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 . 𝐵𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3
1 2
−3 . −1 = 12 + −3 2 + −5 2 × 22 + −1 2 + 12 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3
−5 1
2 + 3 − 5 = 35 × 6. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3 = 0 ∴ 𝜃 = 900
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃3 = 22.490 + 67.510 + 900 = 1800 , which satisfy the condition.
Hence points are vertices of a triangle.
b) 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒
c) 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒

NOTE
The question can also be done using 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 0
Other Scalar Product Proofs
1. The points A and B have p.vs a and b with respect to the origin O. show that
the area of a triangle OAB is given by
1
𝛥= 𝑎2 𝑏2 − 𝒂. 𝒃 𝟐 , where 𝑎 = 𝒂 , 𝑏 = 𝒃
2
Solution
𝐴 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝛥 = × 𝑂𝐵 × 𝐴𝑃
2
From dot product, 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒂 From 𝛥𝑂𝐴𝑃, 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑂𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1 1
𝜃 ∴ 𝛥 = × 𝑏 × 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑂 𝐵 2 2
𝒃 𝑃
But 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 ∵ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏
From 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒂.𝒃
⇒ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑎𝑏

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𝒂.𝒃 2 1
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1− = 𝑎2 𝑏2 − 𝒂. 𝒃 2
𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏
1 1 1
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝛥 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎𝑏 × 𝑎2 𝑏2 − 𝒂. 𝒃 2
2 2 𝑎𝑏
1
∴𝛥= 𝑎2 𝑏2 − 𝒂. 𝒃 𝟐 𝐴𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
2
2. In a ΔABC with vectors 𝐴𝐶 = 𝒃 , 𝐴𝐵 = 𝒄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐶 = 𝒂 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
, the cosine rule where 𝑎 = 𝒂 , 𝑏 = 𝒃
Solution
𝐶 𝑎2 = 𝒂. 𝒂 = 𝒃 − 𝒄 . 𝒃 − 𝒄
= 𝒃. 𝒃 − 2𝒃. 𝒄 + 𝒄. 𝒄
𝒃 𝒂 = 𝑏𝟐 − 𝟐𝒃. 𝒄 + 𝑐 2
But 𝒃. 𝒄 = 𝒃 𝒄 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 = 𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
𝐴 𝐵 ∴ 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 − 2𝑏𝑐. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 + 𝑐 2
𝒄
2 2 2
𝒐𝒓 𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 2𝑏𝑐. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝐴𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
Note: the figure is very important in the derivation.
3. Show that any angle inscribed in a semi circle is a right angle.
Solution
𝑄 Let O be the centre of the semi circle,
𝑃𝑂 = 𝑂𝑅 = 𝒂 and
𝑂𝑄 = 𝒃
𝒃 Required: 𝑄𝑃 . 𝑄𝑅 = 0 . 𝑖. 𝑒. < 𝑃𝑄 𝑅 = 900
𝑄𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝑄 = −𝒂 − 𝒃 = − 𝒂 + 𝒃
𝑅
𝑃 𝒂 𝒂 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑂𝑅 − 𝑂𝑄 = 𝒂 − 𝒃
Now 𝑄𝑃. 𝑄𝑅 = − 𝒂 + 𝒃 . 𝒂 − 𝒃 = − 𝒂. 𝒂 − 𝒃. 𝒃
But 𝒂. 𝒂 = 𝑎2 , 𝒃. 𝒃 = 𝑏2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
⇒ 𝑄𝑃. 𝑄𝑅 = − 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑎2 = 0 ∴< 𝑃𝑄 𝑅 = 900
4. In ΔABC, the altitudes through A, B and C intersect at point O. show that if
𝑂𝐴 = 𝒂, 𝑂𝐵 = 𝒃 and 𝑂𝐶 = 𝒄, then 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂. 𝒄 and 𝒃. 𝒂 = 𝒃. 𝒄. show also further
that 𝒂. 𝒄 = 𝒃. 𝒄
Solution
𝐶
From the figure, points A, O, F; B, O,
D and C, O, E are collinear.
𝒄
⇒ 𝐴𝐹 = 𝜆𝑂𝐴 , 𝐵𝐷 = 𝜇𝑂𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝐸 = 𝑘𝑂𝐶 ,
𝐷 𝐹
where 𝜆, 𝜇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 are either
positive/negative constants. Since
𝒂 𝒃 𝐴𝐹 ┴ 𝐵𝐶 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝐹 . 𝐵𝐶 = 0 ………………… (1)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴𝐷 ┴ 𝐴𝐶 , then 𝐴𝐷. 𝐴𝐶 = 0………….. (2)
𝐸
𝐶𝐸 ┴ 𝐴𝐵 , then 𝐶𝐸. 𝐴𝐵 = 0 ……….. (3)
From eqn. (1)
𝐴𝐹. 𝐵𝐶 = 0 , 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐵 = 𝒄 − 𝒃
⇒ 𝜆𝑂𝐴. 𝒄 − 𝒃 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝒂. 𝒄 − 𝒃 = 0
∴ 𝒂. 𝒄 − 𝒂. 𝒃 = 0 ⇒ 𝒂. 𝒄 = 𝒂. 𝒃
From eqn. (2)
𝐴𝐷. 𝐴𝐶 = 0 , 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒄 − 𝒂
⇒ 𝜇𝑂𝐵. 𝒄 − 𝒂 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝒃. 𝒄 − 𝒂 = 0

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∴ 𝒃. 𝒄 − 𝒃. 𝒂 = 0 ⇒ 𝒃. 𝒂 = 𝒃. 𝒄
From 𝒂. 𝒄 = 𝒂. 𝒃 ⇒ 𝒂. 𝒄 − 𝒂. 𝒃 = 0 ………………………… (4)
From 𝒃. 𝒂 = 𝒃. 𝒄 ⇒ 𝒃. 𝒂 − 𝒃. 𝒄 = 0 ……………………….. (5)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. (4) + 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (5)
𝒂. 𝒄 − 𝒃. 𝒄 = 0 ∴ 𝒃. 𝒄 = 𝒂. 𝒄

AREA OF A TRIANGLE, BY DOT PRODUCT

Consider A, B and C be vertices of a triangle ABC
𝐶 Let 𝐴𝐵 = 𝒂 , 𝐴𝐶 = 𝒃
𝐴𝐶 = 𝒃 , 𝐴𝐵 = 𝒂
𝒃 1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 , 𝛥 = × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 = × 𝐴𝐵 × 𝐴𝐶
2 2
𝜃 But 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝒃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐴 𝐵
𝒂 𝑃 Now finding 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
By dot product, 𝐴𝐶 . 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒃.𝒂
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝒃 𝒂
1 1
⇒ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝛥 = 2 × 𝒂 × 𝒃 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2 × 𝒂 × 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 ∵ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽 = 𝟏
1 𝒃.𝒂 2 1
=2× 𝒂 × 𝒃 × 1− =2 𝒂 2 𝒃 2 − 𝒂. 𝒃 2
𝒃 𝒂

1 2
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝛥 = 2 𝒂 𝒃 2 − 𝒂. 𝒃 2

Examples
Find the area of the triangle with vertices
a) 𝐴 4 , −5 , −2 , 𝐵 8 , −5 , 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛
b) 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒊 − 𝒋 , 𝑂𝐵 = 5𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 𝒌 , 𝑂𝐶 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 𝒌
c) 𝐴 0 , −2 , 1 , 𝐵 1 , −1 , −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 −1 , 1 , 0
Solution
𝑂 0 ,0, 0
a)

𝜃
𝐴 4 , −5 , −2 𝐵 8 , −5 , 6
1 𝑃
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝛥 = × 𝐴𝐵 × 𝑂𝑃
2
8 4 4
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = −5 − −5 = 0
6 −2 8
𝐴𝐵 = 4𝟐 + 02 + 82 = 80
𝑂𝑃 = 𝐴𝑂 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ; 𝐴𝑂 = 4𝟐 + −5 2 + −2 2 = 45
From dot product, 𝐴𝑂. 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑂 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4 4
𝐴𝑂. 𝐴𝐵 = − −5 . 0 = − 16 + 0 − 16 = 0
−2 8
∴ 𝐴𝑂. 𝐴𝐵 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0 ∴ 𝜃 = 900
1 1
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝛥 = × 𝐴𝐵 × 𝑂𝑃 = × 80 × 45 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛900
2 2
1 1
= 2 × 16 × 5 × 9 × 5 = 2 × 60 = 30 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

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b) 2 2 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
c) 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 30 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

VECTOR/CROSS PRODUCT
For two vectors a and b, the cross product of a and b is such that

𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝒏 , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 3600

Consider the figure below
𝒂×𝒃

𝒏 𝒃

𝑂 𝜃
+𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒

𝒏 = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ┴ 𝒂 , 𝒃 and is resultant of 𝒂 × 𝒃

Properties of cross product
1. 𝒂 × 𝒃 ≠ 𝒃 × 𝒂 ∵ 𝒂 × 𝒃 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝒂 × 𝒃 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2. 𝑚 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝑚𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 × 𝑚𝒃
3. From the definition 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝒏
a) For 𝜃 = 00 , 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 0 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝒂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙. Thus for a and b to be
parallel or collinear, 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 0

b) For 𝜃 = 900 , 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 . 𝒏 , 𝒂 ┴ 𝒃. Thus for perpendicular vectors

𝒂┴𝒃
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 .𝒏

4. 𝒂 × 𝒂 = 𝒃 × 𝒃 = 𝒄 × 𝒄 = 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜃 = 0
5. 𝒂× 𝒃×𝒄 ≠ 𝒂×𝒃 ×𝒄

MULTIPLICATION OF UNIT VECTORS 𝒊, 𝒋 , 𝒌

𝒊×𝒋= 𝒌
𝒋×𝒌= 𝒊 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝒌
+𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 𝒌×𝒊 =𝒋

𝒋 × 𝒊 = −𝒌
𝒊 × 𝒌 = −𝒋 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝒋
𝒌 × 𝒋 = −𝒊
𝒊
Examples
Given that 𝒂 = 𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 , 𝒃 = 4𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 6𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒄 = 7𝒊 + 8𝒋 + 9𝒌 , find;
a) 𝒂 × 𝒃
b) 𝒂 × 𝒃 × 𝒄
Solution
a) 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 × 4𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 6𝒌

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= 4𝒊 × 𝒊 + 5𝒊 × 𝒋 − 6𝒊 × 𝒌 +
8𝒋 × 𝒊 + 10𝒋 × 𝒋 − 12𝒋 × 𝒌 +
12𝒌 × 𝒊 + 15𝒌 × 𝒋 − 18𝒌 × 𝒌
= 0 + 5𝒌 + 6𝒋 +
−8𝒌 + 0 − 12𝒊 +
12𝒋 − 15𝒊 − 0
= −27𝒊 + 18𝒋 − 3𝒌
b) 𝒂 × 𝒃 × 𝒄 = −27𝒊 + 18𝒋 − 3𝒌 × 7𝒊 + 8𝒋 + 9𝒌
= 186𝒊 + 222𝒋 − 342𝒌 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒊𝒔𝒆
NOTE:
The same results can still be obtained using multiplication of vectors
using Rectangular Components.

MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS

Consider 𝒂 = 𝑎1 𝒊 + 𝑎2 𝒋 + 𝑎3 𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 = 𝑏1 𝒊 + 𝑏2 𝒋 + 𝑏3 𝒌
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2
⇒ 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 = 𝒊 𝑏 𝑏 − 𝒋 𝑏 𝑏 + 𝒌 𝑏 𝑏 , where the
2 3 1 3 1 2
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
elements in give a matrix whose determinant is of a 2 × 2 square
matrix
Example
Referring to the above example
𝒂 = 𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 , 𝒃 = 4𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 6𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒄 = 7𝒊 + 8𝒋 + 9𝒌
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
2 3 1 3 1 2
a) 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 1 2 3 =𝒊 −𝒋 +𝒌
5 −6 4 −6 4 5
4 5 −6
= −12 − 15 𝒊 + −6 − 12 𝒋 + 5 − 8 𝒌
= −27𝒊 + 18𝒋 − 3𝒌 𝐴𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
18 −3 −27 −3 −27 18
b) 𝒂 × 𝒃 × 𝒄 = −27 18 −3 = 𝒊 −𝒋 +𝒌
8 9 7 9 7 8
7 8 9
= 186𝒊 + 222𝒋 − 342𝒌 𝐴𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
NOTE:
Using Rectangular Components in multiplication of two vectors is easier to
handle to handle than the first method.

GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION OF VECTOR PRODUCT

The magnitude of a vector product of two vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃 is the area of a
parallelogram whose adjacent sides are represented by 𝒂 and 𝒃.
𝒂×𝒃 From the definition;
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝒏 ,
𝒏 𝑄
𝒃 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒏 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ┴
𝑡𝑜 𝒂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃
𝑃 𝜃 𝑕 ∴ 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝒏 ; 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝒏 = 1
𝑅 ⇒ 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑇
𝒂 From 𝛥𝑃𝑄𝑇 , 𝑕 = 𝒃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓
𝑆 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

⇒ 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 × 𝑕 , where 𝒂 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

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∴ 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

But 𝛥𝑠 𝑃𝑄𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑄𝑅𝑆 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙
1
∴ 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 2 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝛥𝑃𝑄𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝛥 = × 𝒂 × 𝒃
2

Examples
1. Find the unit vector perpendicular to each vector 𝒂 = 2𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 4𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 = 3𝒊 +
𝒋 + 2𝒌 . find also the angle between a and b
Solution
𝒂×𝒃
Using 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝒏 ⇒ 𝒏 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
But 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∵ 𝒏 = 1

𝒂×𝒃
⇒𝒏= = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝒂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃
𝒂×𝒃

𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
−2 4 2 4 2 −2
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 2 −2 4 = 𝒊 −𝒋 +𝒌 = −8𝒊 + 8𝒋 + 8𝒌
1 2 3 2 3 1
3 1 2
𝒂 × 𝒃 = −8 𝟐 + 8𝟐 + 8𝟐 = 8 3
−8𝒊+8𝒋+8𝒌 1
∴𝒏= = = −𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌
8 3 3
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜃
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , 𝒂 = 22 + −2 2 + 42 = 24 , 𝒃 = 32 + 12 + 22 = 14
𝒂×𝒃 8 3 3 8
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = =8 =
𝒂 𝒃 24× 14 24×14 112
8
∴ 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 = 4.10
112
2. Find the unit vector perpendicular to vectors 𝒂 = 6𝒊 − 3𝒋 − 14𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 = 3𝒊 + 2𝒋 −
3𝒌. Hence also find the angle between them.
Solution
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
−3 −14 6 −14 6 −3
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 6 −3 −14 = 𝒊 −𝒋 +𝒌 = 37𝒊 − 24𝒋 + 21𝒌
2 −3 3 −3 3 2
3 2 −3
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 37𝟐 + 24𝟐 + 212 = 2386
𝒂×𝒃 1
∴𝒏= = 37𝒊 − 24𝒋 + 21𝒌
𝒂×𝒃 2386

𝒂 = 62 + −3 2 + −14 2 = 241 , 𝒃 = 32 + 22 + −3 2 = 22
𝒂×𝒃 2386
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =
𝒂 𝒃 241 × 22
0
∴ 𝜃 = 26.7
3. Find the area of the triangle with vertices
a) 3 , −1 , 2 , 4, 5 , 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 −2 , 4 , 6
b) 𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 3𝑘 , −3𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛
c) 1 , −1 , 2 , 2, 1 , −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 , −1 , 2
Solution
a) Let 𝐴 3 , −1 , 2 , 𝐵 4, 5 , 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 −2 , 4 , 6
𝐵 4 ,5 ,3

𝜃
𝐴 3 , −1 , 2 𝐶 −2 , 4, 6

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4 3 1
Let 𝒂 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 5 − −1 = 6
3 2 1
−2 4 −5
𝒃 = 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴 = 4 − 5 = 5
6 3 4
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓𝛥 = 𝒂 × 𝒃
2
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
6 1 1 1 1 6
𝒂×𝒃 = 1 6 1 =𝒊 −𝒋 +𝒌 = 19𝒊 − 9𝒋 + 35𝒌
5 4 −5 4 −5 5
−5 5 4
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 192 + −9 2 + 352 = 1667
1
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 1667 = 20.41 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
2
b) 3 5 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠Let
c) Left as an exercise 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟏𝟑 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
4. Calculate the area of a parallelogram having diagonals;
a) 𝐴𝐶 = 3𝒊 + 𝒋 − 2𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐷 = 𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 4𝒌
b) 𝐴𝐵 = 2𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 6𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝐶 = 4𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 8𝒌
Solution 𝐷
𝐶
a) Let 𝑂 = 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐷
Now there are 4 − 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 of the same area 𝑂
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 = 4 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
Consider 𝛥𝑂𝐶𝐷 𝐴 𝐵
𝐴 𝑂𝐵 = −𝐵𝑂
Let 𝑂𝐶 = 𝒄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝐵 = 𝒃
1 1
But 𝐵𝑂 = 2 𝐵𝐷 = 2 𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 4𝒌
1
⇒ 𝑂𝐵 = 𝒃 = 2 −𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 4𝒌
𝜃
𝑂 𝐵 1
Also 𝑂𝐶 = 𝒄 = 2 𝐴𝐶 = 2 3𝒊 + 𝒋 − 2𝒌
1

1 1
𝒃 × 𝒄 = 2 −𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 4𝒌 × 2 3𝒊 + 𝒋 − 2𝒌
1
= 4 −𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 4𝒌 × 3𝒊 + 𝒋 − 2𝒌 ∵ 𝒂𝑚 × 𝒃𝑛 = 𝑚𝑛 𝒂 × 𝒃
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
1 3 −4 −1 −4 −1 3
𝒃 × 𝒄 = 4 −1 3 −4 = 𝒊 −𝒋 +𝒌
1 −2 3 −2 3 1
3 1 −2
1 1
= −2𝒊 + 14𝒋 − 10𝒌 = −𝒊 + 7𝒋 − 5𝒌
4 2
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓𝛥 = 2 𝒃 × 𝒄
1 2 1 1
𝒃×𝒄 = 2 −1 + 72 + −5 2 = 2 75 = 2 × 5 3
1 1 1 5
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓𝛥 = 𝒃×𝒄 = × ×5 3= 3 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
2 2 2 4
5
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 = 4 × 4 3 = 5 3 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
b) 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒. 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 30 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Task
Find the unit vector perpendicular to vectors;
𝟐
a) 𝒂 = 𝒊 − 𝒋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 = 𝒊 ; 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟐
𝟐
b) 𝒂 = 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 = 𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 − 𝒌 ; 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟑

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VECTOR EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

a) To find the vector equation of a line passing through a given point A
and parallel to a given vector.
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝑃 ; 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑃 𝑖𝑠 // to 𝒅
𝒅 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝐵 ∴ 𝐴𝑃 = 𝜆𝒅
𝐴
⇒𝑂
𝑃 = 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝜆𝒅
𝒓 𝒃 ∴ 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝜆𝒅
𝒂

𝑂
, which is in parametric form of equation of a line

b) To find the Cartesian equation of a line through a given point

𝐴 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 and parallel to the given line whose direction cosines are
directly proportional to 𝐵 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3
𝒅 Given line with 𝑑. 𝑣 𝒅 given

𝐴 Required line
𝑫 𝑃 𝐵

From (a) above, the required equation is

∴ 𝒓 =𝒂+𝑘𝒅
But 𝒅 𝑖𝑠 // 𝑫 ⇒ 𝑫 = 𝜇𝒅
∴ 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝑘 𝜇𝒅 , replacing 𝑘𝜇 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝜆
⇒ 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝜆𝒅
𝑎1 𝑏1
Where 𝒂 = 𝑎2 , 𝒅 = 𝑏2
𝑎3 𝑏3
𝑥 𝑎1 𝑏1
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑎2 + 𝜆 𝑏2
𝑧 𝑎3 𝑏3
𝑥−𝑎 1
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 𝜆 𝑏1 ∴𝜆=
𝑏1
𝑦 −𝑎 2
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑎2 + 𝜆 𝑏2 ∴ 𝜆 = 𝑏2
𝑧−𝑎 3
⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑎3 + 𝜆 𝑏3 ∴ 𝜆 = 𝑏3
∴ 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠
𝑥−𝑎 1 𝑦 −𝑎 2 𝑧−𝑎 3
𝑏1
= 𝑏2
= 𝑏3

c) To find the equation of a line passing through two given points A and B
Let 𝐴 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝑃 ; 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑃 𝑖𝑠 // 𝐴𝐵 𝒅 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝐵
∴ 𝐴𝑃 = 𝜆𝐴𝐵 𝐴
𝑏1 𝑎1
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝒓 𝒃
𝑏3 𝑎3 𝒂
∴ 𝑂𝑃 = 𝒓 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝜆𝐴𝐵
𝑂
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𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑎1
⇒ 𝒓 = 𝑎2 + 𝜆 𝑏2 − 𝑎2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑎3

VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN NON-PARAMETRIC FORM

Let 𝐴 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3
𝐴
𝑃 𝐵
𝐴𝑃 𝑖𝑠 // 𝐴𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴𝑃 × 𝐴𝐵 = 0
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒓 − 𝒂 , 𝒂 = 𝑂𝐴
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒃 − 𝒂 = 𝒅

𝒓−𝒂 ×𝒅= 0

General examples
1. Find the vector equation of a line through a point 4𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 3𝒌 and parallel to
the vector −2𝒊 + 𝒋 + 6𝒌. Express the equation in;
a) Cartesian form
b) Non-parametric form
Solution
−2
Let the point be 𝐴 4 , 2 , −3 , 𝒅 = 1
6
𝐴
𝒅 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝐵
𝐴𝑃 𝑖𝑠 // 𝒅 , 𝐴𝑃 = 𝜆𝒅
4
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒓 − 2
−3
4 −2
⇒ 𝒓− 2 =𝜆 1
−3 6
4 −2
∴ 𝒓 = 2 +𝜆 1
−3 6
𝑥
Let 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑦 = 𝒓
𝑧
𝑥 4 −2
⇒ 𝑦 = 2 +𝜆 1
𝑧 −3 6
𝑥−4
𝑥 = 4 − 2𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 = −2
𝑦 −2
𝑦 =2+𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 =
1
𝑧+3
𝑧 = −3 + 6𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 = 6
𝑥−4 𝑦 −2 𝑧+3
∴ = = , 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
−2 1 6
Now expressing in Non-parametric form
𝐴𝑃 𝑖𝑠 // 𝒅 ⇒ 𝐴𝑃 × 𝒅 = 0 For parallel vectors

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4 −2
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒓 − 2 , 𝒅= 1
−3 6
4 −2
∴ 𝒓− 2 × 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝒓 − 4𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 3𝒌 × −2𝒊 + 𝒋 + 6𝒌 = 0
−3 6
2. Find the equation of a straight line through points;
a) 𝐴 1 , −1 , −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 3 , 4 ,2
b) 𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4𝒊 − 3𝒋 − 5𝒌
c) 𝐴 1 , 2 ,5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛
Express the equation in Cartesian form
Solution
a) 𝐴 1 , −1 , −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 3 , 4 ,2

𝐴
𝒅 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝐵
𝐴𝑃 𝑖𝑠 // 𝐴𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴𝑃 = 𝜆𝐴𝐵
𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝜆 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴
⇒ 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝜆 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴
1 3 1
∴ 𝒓 = −1 + 𝜆 4 − −1
−1 2 −1
1 2
∴ 𝒓 = −1 + 𝜆 5
−1 3
Now expressing in Cartesian form
𝑥 1 2
𝑦 = −1 + 𝜆 5
𝑧 −1 3
𝑥−1
⇒ 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 =
2
𝑦 +1
⇒ 𝑦 = −1 + 5𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 =
5
𝑧+1
⇒ 𝑧 = −1 + 3𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 =
3
𝑥−1 𝑦 +1 𝑧+1
∴ = =
2 5 3
𝑥−1 𝑦 −2 𝑧−3
b) 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: = =
3 −5 −8
𝑥−1 𝑦 −2 𝑧−5
c) 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: −1
= −2
= −5
3. Given the points 𝐴 −3 , 3 ,4 , 𝐵 5 , 7 ,2 and 𝐶 1 , 1 ,4 . Find the vector equation
of a line which joins the midpoints of 𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐶.
Solution
Let M and N be the points of 𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐶 respectively.
−3+5 3+7 4+2
𝑀 2
, 2 2
, = 𝑀 1,5,3
5+1 1+7 4+2
𝑁 2
, 2
, 2
= 𝑁 3 ,4 ,3

𝑀
𝒅 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑁
𝑀𝑃 //𝑀𝑁 ⇒ 𝑀𝑃 = 𝜆𝑀𝑁
𝑥 1 𝑥−1
𝑀𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑦 − 5 = 𝑦 − 5
𝑧 3 𝑧−3

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3 1 2
𝑀𝑁 = 𝑂𝑁 − 𝑂𝑀 = 4 − 5 = −1
3 3 0
𝑥−1 2 𝑥 1 2
∴ 𝑦 − 5 = 𝜆 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 5 + 𝜆 −1
𝑧−3 0 𝑧 3 0
4. Given that 𝐴 1 , 2 ,3 , 𝐵 4 , 3 ,2 , 𝐶 −1 , −4 , −5 and 𝐷 −5 , −2 , −1 . Find the
vector equation of a line joining points M and N such that M is the midpoint of
𝐴𝐵 and N divides 𝐶𝐷 in the ratio −4: 1.
Solution

𝐴 𝑀 𝑁 𝐶 𝐷 𝑁
1+4 2+3 3+2 5 5 5
𝑀 , , =𝑀 , ,
2 2 2 2 2 2
Finding the coordinates of N
Ratio of division: 𝐶𝑁: 𝑁𝐷 = −4: 1
𝐶𝑁 4
𝑁𝐷
= − 1 ⇒ 𝐶𝑁 = −4𝑁𝐷
𝑂𝑁 − 𝑂𝐶 = −4 𝑂𝐷 − 𝑂𝑁 = −4𝑂𝐷 + 4𝑂𝑁
−1 −5 19
1 1
−3𝑂𝑁 = 𝑂𝐶 − 4𝑂𝐷 ⇒ 𝑂𝑁 = − 3 −4 − 4 −2 = −3 4
−5 −1 −1
19 4 1
∴ 𝑁 − 3 ,−3 ,3

𝑀 𝑃 𝑁

𝑀𝑃 = 𝜆𝑀𝑁 ⇒ 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝑀 = 𝜆 𝑂𝑁 − 𝑂𝑀
5 19 5 53
− −
2 3 2 6 53
5 4 5 23 𝜆
⇒ 𝒓− =𝜆 −3 − = − = − 6 23
2 2 6
5 1 5 13 13
3
−
2 2 6
2.5 53 2.5 53
𝜆
𝐿𝑒𝑡 − = 𝑘 , ⇒ 𝒓 − 2.5 = 𝑘 23 𝑜𝑟 𝒓 = 2.5 + 𝑘 23
6
2.5 13 2.5 13

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EQUATION OF A PERPENDICULAR AND PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE

OF A POINT FROM A GIVEN LINE:
Dot or vector product may be used.
2
1. Find the equation of perpendicular line from point 𝑨 = −1 on to the line 𝒓 =
4
1 2
0 + 𝜆 1 . Find also perpendicular distance of A from r
2 2
Solution
1 2
The line 𝒓 = 0 + 𝜆 1 passes through the point 𝐵 1,0,2 with direction
2 2
2 𝐴 2, −1, 4
vector 𝒅 = 1
2
𝜃 2
𝐵 1,0,2 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝒅= 1
2
Finding the equation of perpendicular AP:
Vectors 𝐴𝑃 ┴ 𝒅
⇒ 𝐴𝑃.𝒅 = 0
𝑥 2 𝑥−2
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑦 − −1 = 𝑦 + 1
𝑧 4 𝑧−4
𝑥−2 2
⇒ 𝑦 + 1 . 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 − 4 + 𝑦 + 1 + 2𝑧 − 8 = 0
𝑧−4 2
2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 11 ………………………………………………………. (1)
But 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 lies on the line
𝑥 1 2
⇒𝒓= 𝑦 = 0 +𝜆 1
𝑧 2 2
⇒ 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝜆 , 𝑦 = 𝜆 , 𝑧 = 2 + 2𝜆 ………………………………. (2)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (1)
⇒ 2 1 + 2𝜆 + 𝜆 + 2 2 + 2𝜆 = 11
5
⇒ 2 + 4𝜆 + 𝜆 + 4 + 4𝜆 = 11 ∴ 𝜆 = 9
10 5 10 19 5 28
𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑃 1 + 2𝜆 , 𝜆 ,2 + 2𝜆 ⇒ 𝑃 1 + ,9 ,2+ =𝑃 ,9 ,
9 9 9 9
Now finding equation of 𝐴𝑃
19 5 28
𝐴 2, −1, 4 𝑄 𝑃 , ,
9 9 9
𝐴𝑄 = 𝜆𝐴𝑃 ⇒ 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝜆 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴
𝑥 2
19 5 28
⇒ 𝑦 − −1 = 𝜆 9 𝒊 + 9 𝒋 + 9 𝒌 − 2𝒊 − 𝒋 + 4𝒌
𝑧 4
1 14 8 𝜆 𝜆
= 𝜆 𝒊 + 𝒋 − 𝒌 = 𝒊 + 14𝒋 − 8𝒌 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 =𝜇
9 9 9 9 9
𝑥 2 1
⇒ 𝑦 − −1 = 𝜇 14
𝑧 4 −8

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2 1
∴ 𝒓 = −1 + 𝜇 14
4 −8
Now finding 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
1 14 8
𝐴𝑃 = 𝒊 + 𝒋− 𝒌
9 9 9
1 2 14 2 8 2 29
∴ 𝐴𝑃 = + + − = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
9 9 9 3

Alternative method of finding perpendicular distance of a point from a

line:
𝐴𝑃 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝒏 𝐴 2, −1, 4 By cross product,
𝒅 × 𝐵𝐴 = 𝒅 𝐵𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝒏
𝜃 2 𝒅 × 𝐵𝐴 = 𝒅 𝐵𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∵ 𝒏 = 1
𝐵 1,0,2 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝒅= 1 𝒅×𝐵𝐴
∴ 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝒅
2 1 1
2
𝐵𝐴 = 𝑂𝐴 − 𝑂𝐵 = −1 − 0 = −1
4 2 2
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒅 × 𝐵𝐴 = 2 1 2 = 4𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 3𝒌 𝑆𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑕𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
1 −1 2
𝒅 × 𝐵𝐴 = 42 + −2 2 + −3 2 = 29 ; 𝒅 = 22 + 12 + 22 = 3
29
∴ 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
3
2. Find the equation and length of perpendicular drawn from a point
𝑦 +1 𝑧−2
𝑅 −2 , 2 , −3 to the line 𝑥 − 3 = =
2 −4
Solution
Expressing the equation in parametric form
𝑦+1 𝑧−2
Let 𝑥 − 3 = = =𝜆
2 −4
⇒ 𝑥 − 3 = 𝜆 ,𝑥 = 3 +𝜆
𝑦 +1
⇒ 2
= 𝜆 , 𝑦 = −1 + 2𝜆
𝑧−2
⇒ 𝜆 , 𝑧 = 2 − 4𝜆
−4
3 1
∴ 𝒓 = −1 + 𝜆 2
2 −4
This line passes through point 𝐴 3 , −1 , 2 and has a direction vector
𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 4𝒌
𝑅 −2, 2, −3

𝜃 1
𝐴 3, −1,2
𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝒅= 2
−4

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Finding the equation of perpendicular PR:

Vectors 𝑃𝑅 ┴ 𝒅
⇒ 𝑃𝑅.𝒅 = 0
−2 𝑥 −2 − 𝑥
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑂𝑅 − 𝑂𝑃 = 2 − 𝑦 = 2−𝑦
−3 𝑧 −3 − 𝑧
−2 − 𝑥 1
⇒ 2 − 𝑦 . 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 − 2 − 𝑥 + 4 − 2𝑦 + 12 + 4𝑧 = 0
−3 − 𝑧 −4
−𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −14 ………………………………………………………. (1)
But 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 lies on the line
3 1 𝑥
⇒ 𝒓 = −1 + 𝜆 2 = 𝑦
2 −4 𝑧
⇒ 𝑥 = 3 + 𝜆 , 𝑦 = −1 + 2𝜆 , 𝑧 = 2 − 4𝜆 ………………………………. (2)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (1)
⇒ − 3 + 𝜆 − 2 −1 + 2𝜆 + 4 2 − 4𝜆 = −14
⇒ −3 − 𝜆 + 2 − 4𝜆 + 8 − 16𝜆 = −14 𝑜𝑟 − 21𝜆 = −21 ∴ 𝜆 = 1
𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑃 3 + 𝜆 , −1 + 2𝜆 , 2 − 4𝜆 ⇒ 𝑃 3 + 1 , −1 + 2 , 2 − 4 = 𝑃 4 ,1 , −2
Now finding equation of 𝑅𝑃
𝑃 4 ,1 , −2
𝑅 −2, 2, −3 𝑄
𝑅𝑄 = 𝜆𝑅𝑃 ⇒ 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑅 = 𝜆 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝑅
𝑥 −2 4 −2 6
⇒ 𝑦 − 2 =𝜆 1 − 2 = 𝜆 −1
𝑧 −3 −2 −3 1

𝑥 −2 6 𝑥 −2 6
⇒ 𝑦 − 2 = 𝜆 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 2 + 𝜆 −1
𝑧 −3 1 𝑧 −3 1
−2 6
∴ 𝒓 = 2 + 𝜆 −1
−3 1
Now finding 𝑃𝑅 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
6
𝑃𝑅 = −1
1
∴ 𝑃𝑅 = 6 2 + −1 2 + 1 2 = 38 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Alternative method of finding perpendicular distance of a point from a

line:
𝑃𝑅 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝒏 𝑅 −2, 2, −3 By cross product,
𝒅 × 𝐴𝑅 = 𝒅 𝐴𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝒏
𝜃 𝒅 × 𝐴𝑅 = 𝒅 𝐴𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∵ 𝒏 = 1
1
𝐴 3, −1,2 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝒅= 2
−4
𝒅×𝐴𝑅
∴ 𝑃𝑅 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝒅

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−2 3 −5 1
𝐴𝑅 = 𝑂𝑅 − 𝑂𝐴 = 2 − −1 = 3 ; 𝒅 = 2
−3 2 −5 −4
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒅 × 𝐴𝑅 = 1 2 −4 = 2𝒊 + 25𝒋 + 13𝒌
−5 3 −5
𝒅 × 𝐴𝑅 = 22 + 25 2 + 13 2 = 798 ; 𝒅 = 12 + 22 + −4 2 = 21
798
∴ 𝐴𝑃 = 21
= 38 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

NOTE:
A student must know how to identify the point through which the line is
passing If the equation is in Cartesian form. This can easily be deduced
from the parametric form.
Examples
Express the following equations in parametric form.
𝑦 −2 𝑧−1
a) 𝑥−1= =
0 3
𝑥−1 4−𝑦 3−𝑧
b) 2
= 3
= 0
𝑦 −2 3−𝑧
c) 2𝑥 + 1 = =
4 2
Solution
𝑦 −2 𝑧−1
a) 𝑥−1= =
0 3
Let 𝑥 − 1 = 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1 + 𝜆
𝑦 −2
𝐹𝑜𝑟 , 𝑦 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = 2 = 2 + 0𝜆
0
𝑧−1
= 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑧 = 1 + 3𝜆
3
𝑥 1 1 1 1
∴ 𝑦 = 2 +𝜆 0 ⇒𝒓= 2 +𝜆 0
𝑧 1 1 1 1
𝑥−1 4−𝑦 3−𝑧
b) = 3 = 0
2
𝑥−1
Let = 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝜆
2
4−𝑦
= 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑦 = 4 − 3𝜆
3
3−𝑧
𝐹𝑜𝑟 , 3 − 𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 3 = 3 + 0𝜆
0
𝑥 1 2
∴ 𝒓 = 𝑦 = 4 + 𝜆 −3
𝑧 3 0
𝑦 −2 3−𝑧
c) 2𝑥 + 1 = =
4 2
1 1
Let 2𝑥 + 1 = 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑥 = − 2 + 2 𝜆
𝑦 −2
4
= 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑦 = 2 + 4𝜆
3−𝑧
= 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑧 = 3 − 2𝜆
2
1 1
𝑥 −2 2
∴𝒓= 𝑦 = 2 +𝜆 4
𝑧 3 −2
−0.5 1 −0.5 1
𝜆
𝑜𝑟 𝒓 = 2 + 2 8 𝑜𝑟 𝒓 = 2 +𝜇 8
3 −4 3 −4

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INTERSECTION OF TWO LINES

Let the lines be;
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑑1
𝒓1 = 𝑎2 + 𝜆 𝑏2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓2 = 𝑐2 + 𝜇 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑑3
For two lines to intersect,

𝒓1 = 𝒓2
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑑1
⇒ 𝑎2 + 𝜆 𝑏2 = 𝑐2 + 𝜇 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑑3
⇒ 𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏1 = 𝑐1 + 𝜇𝑑1 ……………………….. (1)
⇒ 𝑎2 + 𝜆𝑏2 = 𝑐2 + 𝜇𝑑2 ……………………….. (2)
⇒ 𝑎3 + 𝜆𝑏3 = 𝑐3 + 𝜇𝑑3 ……………………….. (3)
Solving for the constants 𝜆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇 in any two equations, the values should
satisfy the third equation . 𝑖. 𝑒. the three equations must be consistent for
𝜆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇.

Examples
Show that the pair of lines intersect, and find the coordinates of point of
intersection.
𝑥−4 𝑦 +3 𝑧+1 𝑥−1 𝑦+1 𝑧+10
a) = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = =
1 −4 7 2 −3 8
1 2 3 2
b) 𝒓 = 2 + 𝜆 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓 = 7 + 𝜇 1
3 2 5 2
𝑥−1 𝑦 −2 𝑧−1
c) = = and the line passing through 𝐴 2 , 2 , 5 and 𝐵 1 , 2 , 3 .
1 0 3
Solution
𝑥−4 𝑦 +3 𝑧+1 𝑥−1 𝑦 +1 𝑧+10
a) = = ; = =
1 −4 7 2 −3 8
𝑥 4 1 𝑥 1 2
𝒓1 = 𝑦 = −3 + 𝜆 −4 ; 𝒓2 = 𝑦 = −1 + 𝜇 −3
𝑧 −1 7 𝑧 −10 8
For intersection 𝒓1 = 𝒓2
4 1 1 2
⇒ −3 + 𝜆 −4 = −1 + 𝜇 −3
−1 7 −10 8
⇒ 4 + 𝜆 = 1 + 2𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 − 2𝜇 = −3 ……………….. (1)
⇒ −3 − 4𝜆 = −1 − 3𝜇 𝑜𝑟 − 4𝜆 + 3𝜇 = 2……… (2)
⇒ −1 + 7𝜆 = −10 + 8𝜇 𝑜𝑟 7𝜆 − 8𝜇 = −9 ……. (3)
Solving eqn. (1) and eqn. (2) simultaneously
4 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 + 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2
⇒ 4𝜆 − 8𝜇 = −12
⇒ −4𝜆 + 3𝜇 = 2
From eqn. (1) 𝜆 = −3 + 2𝜇 = −3 + 4 = 1
−5𝜇 = −10 , 𝜇 = 2
∴ 𝜆 = 1 , 𝜇 = 2 ……………………………………………….. (4)
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3)
7 − 16 = −9 = 𝑹𝑯𝑺. Hence lines intersect.
𝑥 4 1
From 𝒓1 = 𝑦 = −3 + 𝜆 −4 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆 = 1 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 5 , 𝑦 = −7 , 𝑧 = 6
𝑧 −1 7

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∴ 5 , −7 , 6 is the point of intersection.

1 2 3 2
b) 𝒓 = 2 + 𝜆 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓 = 7 + 𝜇 1
3 2 5 2
1 2 3 2
2 +𝜆 5 = 7 +𝜇 1
3 2 5 2
⇒ 1 + 2𝜆 = 3 + 2𝜇 𝑜𝑟 2𝜆 − 2𝜇 = 2 ……………….. (1)
⇒ 2 + 5𝜆 = 7 + 𝜇 𝑜𝑟 5𝜆 − 𝜇 = 5……………..……… (2)
⇒ 3 + 2𝜆 = 5 + 2𝜇 𝑜𝑟 2𝜆 − 2𝜇 = 2………….……. (3)
Solving eqn. (1) and eqn. (2) simultaneously
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2
⇒ 𝜆−𝜇 =1
⇒ 5𝜆 − 𝜇 = 5

−4𝜆 = −4 , 𝜆 = 1
From eqn. (1) 𝜆 − 𝜇 = 1 , 𝜆 = 1 ⇒ 𝜇 = 0 ………….. (4)
Eqn. (4) in to eqn. (3) ⇒ 2 − 0 = 2. Hence lines intersect.
𝑥 1 2 𝑥 3
From 𝒓 = 𝑦 = 2 + 𝜆 5 , 𝜆 = 1 ⇒ 𝑦 = 7
𝑧 3 2 𝑧 5
∴ 3 , 7 , 5 is the point of intersection of the lines.
𝑥 1 1
𝑥−1 𝑦 −2 𝑧−1
c) = = ⇒ 𝒓1 = 𝑦 = 2 +𝜇 0
1 0 3
𝑧 1 3

𝐵 1 ,2 ,3
𝐴 2, 2,5 𝑃
𝐴𝑃 = 𝜆𝐴𝐵
⇒ 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝜆 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴
2 1 2 −1
⇒ 𝒓− 2 =𝜆 2 − 2 = 0
5 3 5 −2
2 −1
∴ 𝒓2 = 2 + 𝜆 0 Is the equation through the two given points.
5 −2
For intersection of lines, 𝒓1 = 𝒓2
1 1 2 −1
⇒ 2 +𝜇 0 = 2 +𝜆 0
1 3 5 −2
⇒ 1 + 𝜇 = 2 − 𝜆 𝑜𝑟 𝜇 + 𝜆 = 1 ………………..…….. (1)
⇒ 1 + 3𝜇 = 5 − 2𝜆 𝑜𝑟 3𝜇 + 2𝜆 = 4 ……………….. (2)
Solving equations simultaneously

2 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)

2𝜆 + 2𝜇 = 2
− 2𝜆 + 3𝜇 = 4
−𝜇 = −2 ⇒ 𝜇 = 2
From eqn. (1) , 𝜆 = 1 − 2 = −1
𝑥 1 1 𝑥 1 2 3
From 𝒓1 = 𝑦 = 2 + 𝜇 0 , 𝜇 = 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = 2 + 0 = 2
𝑧 1 3 𝑧 1 6 7
∴ 3 , 2 , 7 is the point of intersection.

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Alternative approach to these questions:

Expressing the equations in Cartesian form;
𝑥−4 𝑦 +3 𝑧+1
a) = = ………………………….. (1)
1 −4 7
𝑥−1 𝑦 +1 𝑧+10
2
= −3
= 8
………………………… (2)
Splitting the equations in to two other equations;
𝑥−4 𝑦 +3 𝑦 +3 𝑧+1
For eqn. (1) 1
= −4
, −4
= 7
𝑥−1 𝑦 +1 𝑦 +1 𝑧+10
For eqn. (2) = , =
2 −3 −3 8
𝑥−4 𝑦 +3
⇒ = 𝑜𝑟 − 4𝑥 + 16 = 𝑦 + 3
1 −4
∴ 4𝑥 + 𝑦 = 13 ………………………………..… (3)
𝑦 +3 𝑧+1
⇒ = 𝑜𝑟 7𝑦 + 21 = −4𝑧 − 4
−4 7
∴ 7𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −25 ……………………………… (4)
𝑥−1 𝑦 +1
⇒ = 𝑜𝑟 − 3𝑥 + 3 = 2𝑦 + 2
2 −3
∴ 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 1 ………………………………….. (5)
𝑦 +1 𝑧+10
⇒ = 𝑜𝑟 8𝑦 + 8 = −3𝑧 − 30
−3 8
∴ 8𝑦 + 3𝑧 = −38 ………………………………. (6)
Solving any three equations simultaneously for point of intersection;
Solving eqn. (3) and eqn. (5)
2 × 4𝑥 + 𝑦 = 13 ⇒ 8𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 26
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 1 ⇒ 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 1
Subtracting the equations; 5𝑥 = 25 ⇒ 𝑥 = 5
From 4𝑥 + 𝑦 = 13 ; 𝑥 = 5 ⇒ 20 + 𝑦 = 13 ∴ 𝑦 = −7
From eqn. (4); 7𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −25 , 𝑦 = −7 ⇒ −49 + 4𝑧 = −25 ∴ 𝑧 = 6
∴ 5 , −7 , 6 is the point of intersection.
This must satisfy the fourth equation if the lines intersect.
8𝑦 + 3𝑧 = −38 ; 𝑦 = −7 , 𝑧 = 6
⇒ 8 −7 + 3 6 = −38 = 𝑹𝑯𝑺. Hence lines intersect at 5 , −7 , 6
1 2
𝑥−1 𝑦 −2 𝑧−3
b) 𝒓 = 2 + 𝜆 5 ⇒ 2 = 5 = 2 ……………………… (1)
3 2

3 2
𝑥−3 𝑦−7 𝑧−5
𝒓 = 7 + 𝜇 1 ⇒ 2 = 1 = 2 ……………………… (2)
5 2
𝑥−1 𝑦 −2
From eqn. (1): 2 = 5 ⇒ 5𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 1…………………. (3)
𝑦−7 𝑧−5
1
= 2
⇒ 2𝑦 − 5𝑧 = −11……………. (4)
𝑥−3 𝑦 −7
From eqn. (2): = ⇒ 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −11 ……………….. (5)
2 1
𝑦−7 𝑧−5
= ⇒ 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 9……………………. (6)
1 2
Solving any three equations simultaneously for point of intersection;
Solving eqn. (3) and eqn. (5)
5𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 1
−
𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −11
4𝑥 = 12 ⇒ 𝑥 = 3
From 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −11 , 𝑥 = 3 ⇒ 3 − 2𝑦 = −11 ∴ 𝑦 = 7
From eqn. (4): 2𝑦 − 5𝑧 = −11, 𝑦 = 7 ⇒ 14 − 5𝑧 = −11 ∴ 𝑧 = 5

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∴ 3 , 7 , 5 is the point of intersection.

This must satisfy eqn. (6)
2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 9 ⇒ 14 − 5 = 9 = 𝑹𝑯𝑺. Hence lines intersect at 3,7,5
𝑥−4 𝑦 +3 𝑧+1 𝑥−1 𝑦 +1 𝑧+10
2. Prove that the lines = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = intersect. Find the
1 −4 7 2 −3 8
point of intersection of the lines.𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 5 , −7 , 6
3. Find the equation of a straight line perpendicular to both lines
𝑥−1 𝑦 −1 𝑧+2 𝑥+2 𝑦 −5 𝑧+3
= = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = and passing through their point of
1 2 3 2 −1 2
intersection.
Solution
1 1
𝑥−1 𝑦 −1 𝑧+2
1
= 2 3
= 1 , 𝒓=
+ 𝜆 2
−2 3
−2 2
𝑥+2 𝑦 −5 𝑧+3
= −1 = 2 , 𝒓 = 5 + 𝜇 −1
2
−3 2
For intersection to occur, 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒓𝟐
1 1 −2 2
⇒ 1 + 𝜆 2 = 5 + 𝜇 −1
−2 3 −3 2
⇒ 1 + 𝜆 = −2 + 2𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 − 2𝜇 = −3 …………………….. (1)
⇒ 1 + 2𝜆 = 5 − 𝜇 𝑜𝑟 2𝜆 + 𝜇 = 4……………..……………… (2)
⇒ −2 + 3𝜆 = −3 + 2𝜇 𝑜𝑟 3𝜆 − 2𝜇 = −1………….……. (3)
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously
2 × 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
2𝜆 − 4𝜇 = −6
− 2𝜆 + 𝜇 = 4
−5𝜇 = −10 ⇒ 𝜇 = 2
From eqn. (1) 𝜆 − 2𝜇 = −3 , 𝜇 = 2 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜆 = 1
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 3 , 3𝜆 − 2𝜇 = −1 ⇒ 3 − 4 = −1, 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡
1 1 𝑥 2
From 𝒓 = 1 + 𝜆 2 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆 = 1 ⇒ 𝑦 = 3
−2 3 𝑧 1
∴ 2 , 3 , 1 is the point of intersection.
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
1 1
𝒓 = 1 +𝜆 2 −2 2
−2 3 𝒓= 5 + 𝜇 −1
𝒅𝟏 −3 2
𝒅𝟐
𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐸 2
𝑃 2,3,1
Required line is // to 𝒏 and perpendicular to direction vectors of the given
lines.
𝒅1 ×𝒅𝟐
𝒏= 𝒅1 ×𝒅𝟐
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒅1 × 𝒅𝟐 = 1 2 3 = 7𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 5𝒌
2 −1 2
𝒅 ×𝒅 7𝒊+4𝒋−5𝒌
∴𝒏= 1 𝟐 =
𝒅1 ×𝒅𝟐 90

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7𝒊+4𝒋−5𝒌
∴ 𝒅 = 𝑑. 𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 90
. 𝛾 ∵ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝒅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒏 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝒅 = 𝛾𝒏
Required line: 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝛼 𝒅
2 7 2 7
𝛼𝛾 𝛼𝛾
⇒𝒓= 3 + . 4 𝑜𝑟 𝒓 = 3 + 𝛽 4 , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 =𝛽
90 90
1 −5 1 −5

NOTE:
To avoid over manipulation of constants when finding the direction vector of
the required line after crossing 𝒅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒅𝟐 , then 𝒅1 = 𝒏 since for parallel
lines the ratio of direction vectors for both lines must be the same.
𝒔𝒆𝒆 𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔
3. Find the equation of the line through the point 1 , 3 , −2 and perpendicular to
the line passing through points 𝐴 0 , 0 , −8 , 𝐵 1 , 2 , −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓 = 4𝒊 + 𝒋 + 3𝒌 +
𝜆 −2𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 𝒌
Solution
Equation of line through A and B;
𝐵 1 ,2 , −3
𝐴 0, 0, −8 𝑃

𝐴𝑃 = 𝜇𝐴𝐵 , 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴
1 0 1
= 2 − 0 = 2
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
−3 −8 5
0
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒓 − 0
−8 𝒅𝟐
0 1 𝒅𝟏 𝒏 4 1
∴ 𝒓𝟏 = 0 + 𝜇 2 𝒓𝟐 = 1 + 𝜆 2
−8 5 3 5
4 1 0 1
𝒓𝟐 = 1 + 𝜆 2 𝒓𝟏 = 0 + 𝜆 2
3 5 −8 5
0 1
For 𝒓𝟏 , 𝒅𝟏 = 0 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝒓𝟐 , 𝒅𝟐 = 2
−8 5
Direction vector or perpendicular is
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒅𝟏 × 𝒅𝟐 = 1 2 5 = −17𝒊 − 9𝒋 + 4𝒌
−2 3 −1
1 −17
Required line: 𝒓 = 3 + 𝜇 −9
−2 4
4. Given the two lines are parametrically given by:
𝒓𝟏 = −𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌 + 𝑡 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝒓𝟐 = −3𝒊 + 𝑝𝒋 + 7𝒌 + 𝑠 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 2𝒌
If the lines intersect, find the
a. the value of 𝑡 , 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝.
b. Coordinates of the points of intersection.
Solution
For lines to intersect, 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒓𝟐
⇒ −𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌 + 𝑡 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 = −3𝒊 + 𝑝𝒋 + 7𝒌 + 𝑠 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 2𝒌

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−1 1 −3 1
⇒ 2 + 𝑡 −2 = 𝑝 + 𝑠 −1
1 3 7 2
⇒ −1 + 𝑡 = −3 + 𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑠 = −2 ………………………………..….. (1)
⇒ 2 − 2𝑡 = 𝑝 − 𝑠 𝑜𝑟 2𝑡 − 𝑠 = 2 − 𝑝 ………………………………….. (2)
⇒ 1 + 3𝑡 = 7 + 2𝑠 𝑜𝑟 3𝑡 − 2𝑠 = 6 ……………………….…………….. (3)
Solving eqn. (1) and eqn. (3) simultaneously
2 × 𝑡 − 𝑠 = −2 ⇒ 2𝑡 − 2𝑠 = −4
3𝑡 − 2𝑠 = 6 ⇒ 3𝑡 − 2𝑠 = 6
Subtracting; −𝑡 = −10 ∴ 𝑡 = 10
From 𝑡 − 𝑠 = −2 , 𝑡 = 10 ⇒ 𝑠 + 10 + 2 = 12
∴ 𝑠 = 12 , 𝑡 = 10
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 2𝑡 − 𝑠 = 2 − 𝑝 ⇒ 21 − 12 = 2 − 𝑝 ∴ 𝑝 = −6
−1 1 𝑥 −1 1 9
From 𝒓𝟏 = 2 + 𝑡 −2 , 𝑡 = 10 ⇒ 𝑦 = 2 + 10 −2 = −18
1 3 𝑧 1 3 31
∴ 9 , −18 , 31 is the point of intersection.
𝑝 1 2 1
5. Given that the lines 𝒓𝟏 = 2 + 𝜇 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓𝟐 = 12 + 𝜆 0 intersect, find the
1 3 5 𝑝
value of p. hence find the point of intersection.
Solution
For point of intersection, 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒓𝟐
𝑝 1 2 1
⇒ 2 + 𝜇 5 = 12 + 𝜆 0
1 3 5 𝑝
⇒ 𝑝 + 𝜇 = 2 + 𝜆 ……………………………..……… (1)
⇒ 2 + 5𝜇 = 12 ⇒ 𝜇 = 2 ……………..…………. (2)
⇒ 1 + 3𝜇 = 5 + 𝜆𝑝 ……………………………….... (3)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛, (1)
1
⇒ 1 + 6 = 5 + 𝜆𝑝 , 𝜆𝑝 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 = 𝑝 ……….. (4)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 , 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (1)
⇒ 𝑝 + 2 = 2 + 𝜆 , 𝑝 = 𝜆 …………………………… (5)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 5 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛, (4)
1
⇒ 𝜆 = 𝜆 , 𝜆2 = 1 ∴ 𝜆 = ±1
∴ 𝑝 = ±1
3 1 1 2
6. Show that the lines 𝒓𝟏 = 5 + 𝑚 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓𝟐 = 2 + 𝑛 3 do not intersect
7 1 3 5
and not parallel. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤
Solution
For lines to intersect, 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒓𝟐
3 1 1 2
5 +𝑚 2 = 2 +𝑛 3
7 1 3 5
⇒ 3 + 𝑚 = 1 + 2𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 − 2𝑛 = −2 …………………………….…….. (1)
⇒ 5 + 2𝑚 = 2 + 3𝑛 𝑜𝑟 2𝑚 − 3𝑛 = −3 ……………………………….. (2)
⇒ 7 + 𝑚 = 3 + 5𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 − 5𝑛 = −4 ……..…………………………….. (3)
Solving eqn. (1) and eqn. (2) simultaneously
𝑚 = 0 , 𝑛 = 1 ………………………………………………………………………….. (4)

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𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 5
0 − 5 ≠ −4 . Hence lines do not intersect.
Considering a case of parallel lines
For parallel lines, the direction ratio values are similar.
3 1
For 𝒓𝟏 = 5 + 𝑚 2 , 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜: 1: 2: 1
7 1
1 2
For 𝒓𝟐 = 2 + 𝑛 3 , 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜: 2: 3: 5
3 5
Since the direction ratios are not the same, lines are not parallel. Thus are
skew.
7. Show that the lines are parallel
1 −2 3 2
a) 𝒓𝟏 = 2 + 𝜆 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓𝟐 = 5 + 𝜇 −1
3 5 1 −5
3 2 1 −2
b) 𝒓𝟏 = 5 + 𝜆 −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓𝟐 = 0 + 𝜇 3
3 −5 7 5
Solution
1 −2
a) For 𝒓𝟏 = 2 + 𝜆 1 , 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜: − 2: 1: 5
3 5
3 2
For 𝒓𝟐 = 5 + 𝜇 −1 , 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜: 2: −1: −5 , 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕 𝑏𝑦 − 1
1 −5
⇒ 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑠 − 2: 1: 5
Since the direction ratios are the same the lines are parallel.
3 2
b) For 𝒓𝟏 = 5 + 𝜆 −3 , 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜: 2: −3: −5
3 −5
1 −2
For 𝒓𝟐 = 0 + 𝜇 3 , 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜: − 2: 3: 5 , 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑕 𝑏𝑦 − 1
7 5
⇒ 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑠 2: −3: −5
The ratios are the same, hence lines are parallel.

NOTE:
Also for parallel lines 𝒅𝟏 × 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎 can be applied.
5. Given the equation of the lines in the form
𝑥−2 𝑦 −4 𝑧−7
= = , show that 8 , 14 , 11 lie on this line.
3 5 2
Solution
𝑥−2 𝑦 −4 𝑧−7 𝑥−2 𝑦 −4 𝑧−7
Let = = =𝜆; ⇒ =𝜆, =𝜆, =𝜆
3 5 2 3 5 2
For 8 , 14 , 11 , 𝜆 must be consistent
𝑥−2 8−2
= =2=𝜆
3 3
𝑦 −4 14−4
5
= 5
=2=𝜆
𝑧−7 11−7
== =2=𝜆
2 2
Since 𝜆 = 2, consistent for 8 , 14 , 11 , 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
6. Given the equation of line: 𝒓 = 2 + 3𝜆 𝒊 + 4 + 5𝜆 𝒋 + 7 + 2𝜆 𝒌. Show that
−4 , −6 , 3 lie on the line.

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Solution
𝒓 = 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 𝑧𝒌
⇒ 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 𝑧𝒌 = 2 + 3𝜆 𝒊 + 4 + 5𝜆 𝒋 + 7 + 2𝜆 𝒌
Equating unit vectors,
𝑥 = 2 + 3𝜆 , 𝑦 = 4 + 5𝜆 , 𝑧 = 7 + 2𝜆
Point −4 , −6 , 3 must give the same value of 𝜆 in the equations
formulated.
⇒ −4 = 2 + 3𝜆 ∴ 𝜆 = −2
⇒ −6 = 4 + 5𝜆 ∴ 𝜆 = −2
⇒ 3 = 7 + 2𝜆 ∴ 𝜆 = −2
Since 𝜆 = 2, consistent for −4 , −6 , 3 , 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

ANGLE BETWEEN A VECTOR AND A LINE

Consider the line 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝜆𝒅 and the vector 𝒓 = 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 𝑧𝒌

𝜃
𝒅
The angle between a line and a vector is the angle between vector and
direction vector of the line. 𝑖. 𝑒.
By dot product, 𝒅. 𝒓 = 𝒅 𝒓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑎1 𝑑1
Let 𝒂 = 𝑎2 and 𝒅 = 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑑3
𝑎1 𝑑1
𝒅. 𝒓 = 𝑎2 . 𝑑2 = 𝑎1 𝑑1 + 𝑎2 𝑑2 + 𝑎3 𝑑3
𝑎3 𝑑3

𝒅 = 𝑑1 2 + 𝑑2 2 + 𝑑3 2 , 𝒓 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2

𝒅.𝒓
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝒅 𝒓

Example
1. Find the angle between
1 1
a. Vector 𝒓 = 2𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 𝒌 and line 𝒓 = 3 + 𝜆 2
5 3
𝑥−1 4−𝑦 3−𝑧
b. Vector 𝒓 = 3𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 𝒌 and line = =
2 1 2
3 −2 −3
c. Vector 𝒓 = 0 and line 𝒓 = 1 + 𝜆 1
5 5 1
Solution
a. By dot product, 𝒅. 𝒓 = 𝒅 𝒓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2 1
Let 𝒓 = 3 and 𝒅 = 2
1 3
2 1
𝒓. 𝒅 = 3 . 2 = 2 + 6 + 3 = 11
1 3

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𝒅 = 12 + 22 + 32 = 14 , 𝒓 = 22 + 32 + 12 = 14
𝒅.𝒓 11 11
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝒅 𝒓
= 14× 14
= 14 ⇒ 𝜃 = 38.20

b. 𝒓 = 3𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 𝒌 , 𝒅 = ?
𝑥−1 4−𝑦 3−𝑧
Let 2
= 1
= 2
=𝜆
𝑥−1
= 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝜆
2
4−𝑦
=𝜆 ⇒𝑦 = 4−𝜆
1
3−𝑧
2
= 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑧 = 3 − 2𝜆
1 2 2
∴ 𝒓 = 4 + 𝜆 −1 ⇒ 𝒅 = −1
3 −2 −2
3 2
⇒ 𝒓. 𝒅 = −2 . −1 = 6 + 2 − 2 = 6
1 −2
⇒ 𝒅 = 22 + −1 2 + −2 2 = 9 = 3 , 𝒓 = 32 + −2 2 + 12 = 14
𝒅.𝒓 6 11
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = 3× = 14 ⇒ 𝜃 = 57.70
𝒅 𝒓 14
c. Left as an exercise
2. Find the value of 𝜆 if
3 1
a. Vector 𝒓 = 2𝒊 + 𝜆𝒋 + 3𝒌 and line 𝒓 = 1 + 𝑘 2 are perpendicular
5 3
1 1
b. Vector 𝒓 = 𝒊 + 𝜆𝒋 + 𝒌 and line 𝒓 = 2 + 𝜇 −2 make an angle of 600
3 1
Solution
2 3 1 1
a. 𝒓 = 2𝒊 + 𝜆𝒋 + 3𝒌 = 𝜆 , 𝒓 = 1 + 𝑘 2 ⇒ 𝒅 = 2
3 5 3 3
By dot product,
𝒅. 𝒓 = 𝒅 𝒓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝜃 = 900 ∵ 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
2 1
11
∴ 𝒓. 𝒅 = 0 ⇒ 𝜆 . 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2 + 2𝜆 + 9 = 0 ∴ 𝜆 = − 2
3 3
1 1 1 1
b. 𝒓 = 𝒊 + 𝜆𝒋 + 𝒌 = 𝜆 , 𝒓 = 2 + 𝜇 −2 ⇒ 𝒅 = −2
1 3 1 1
By dot product, 𝒅. 𝒓 = 𝒅 𝒓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝜃 = 600
1 1
⇒ 𝒅. 𝒓 = 𝒅 𝒓 𝑐𝑜𝑠600 = 𝒅 𝒓 × 2 ∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠600 = 2
1 1
1
∴ −2 . 𝜆 = 12 + −2 2 + 12 × 12 + 𝜆2 + 12 ×
2
1 1
6
⇒ 1 − 2𝜆 + 1 = × 2 + 𝜆2 𝑜𝑟 4 − 4𝜆 = 12 + 6𝜆2
2
𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
16 − 32𝜆 + 16𝜆2 = 12 + 6𝜆2 ⇒ 10𝜆2 − 32𝜆 + 4 = 0
Solving, 𝜆 = 3.07 , 0.13

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ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES 𝒓𝟏

Consider the lines;
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑑1 𝜃
𝒓1 = 𝑎2 + 𝜆 𝑏2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓2 = 𝑐2 + 𝜇 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑑3
𝒓𝟐
The angle between two lines is the angle between the direction vectors of the
lines.
𝑏1 𝑑1
For 𝒓1 , 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝒅1 = 𝑏2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝒓2 , 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝒅2 = 𝑑2
𝑏3 𝑑3
∴ 𝒅1 . 𝒅2 = 𝒅1 𝒅2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Examples
1. Find the angle between the pair of lines
4 −3
𝑥+1 𝑦 −2 𝑧+3
a) = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓 = 8 + 𝜆 −2
1 2 3
2 1
3 2
b) 𝒓 = 1 + 2𝜆 𝒊 + 3 + 𝜆 𝒋 + 5 + 2𝜆 𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓 = 1 +𝜇 0
16 5
7 −1
10−𝑥 4−𝑦 8−𝑧
c) = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓 = −4 + 𝜆 2
2 3 4
3 −3
Solution
−1 1 1
𝑥+1 𝑦 −2 𝑧+3
a) = = ⇒𝒓=
2 + 𝑘 2 ∴ 𝒅𝟏 = 2 = 𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 3𝒌
1 2 3
−3 3 3
4 −3 −3
𝒓 = 8 + 𝜆 −2 ⇒ 𝒅𝟐 = −2 = −3𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 𝒌
2 1 1
From dot product 𝒅1 . 𝒅2 = 𝒅1 𝒅2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒅1 . 𝒅2 = 𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 . −3𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 𝒌 = −3 − 4 + 3 = −4
𝒅1 = 12 + 22 + 32 = 14 , 𝒅2 = −3 2 + −2 2 + 12 = 14
−4
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = 106.60
14× 14
b) 𝒓 = 1 + 2𝜆 𝒊 + 3 + 𝜆 𝒋 + 5 + 2𝜆 𝒌
1 2 2
⇒ 𝒓 = 3 + 𝜆 1 ∴ 𝒅𝟏 = 1 = 2𝒊 + 𝒋 + 2𝒌
5 2 2
3 2 2
𝒓 = 1 + 𝜇 0 ⇒ 𝒅𝟐 = 0 = 2𝒊 + 0𝒋 + 5𝒌
16 5 5
𝒅1 . 𝒅2 = 2𝒊 + 𝒋 + 2𝒌 . 2𝒊 + 0𝒋 + 5𝒌 = 4 + 0 + 10 = 14
𝒅1 = 22 + 12 + 22 = 3 , 𝒅2 = 22 + 02 + 52 = 29
14
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 3× 29
⇒ 𝜃 = 29.90
c) Left as an exercise
Task
1. Find the angle between the lines:
𝑥−5 𝑦 +1 𝑧
a) 𝑥 − 1 = 𝑦 − 3 = 𝑧 − 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = =
2 3 5
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝜃 = 1200
b) 𝑥 = 2 − 4𝑡 , 𝑥 = 1 + 5𝑡

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𝑦 = 1 − 2𝑡 , 𝑦 = −2 − 𝑡
𝑧 = 1 + 2𝑡 , 𝑧 = 1 − 2𝑡
𝑥−3 𝑦 −3 𝑥+1 𝑦 +2
c) = ,𝑧 = 0 ; = , 𝑧=0 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝜃 = 350
2 5 3 1
𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻: 𝒅1 = 2𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 0𝒌 , 𝒅2 = 3𝒊 + 𝒋 + 0𝒌 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝜃 = 500
2. Prove that the vectors 𝒂 = 7𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 6𝒌 , 𝒃 = 3𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 2𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒄 = 6𝒊 − 16𝒋 − 15𝒌
are mutually perpendicular.
3. a) Find the equation of the line through 𝐴 2 , 2, 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 1 , 2 , 3
𝑥−1 𝑦 −2 𝑧−1
b) If the line in (a) above meets the line = = at P, find
1 0 3
i. coordinates of P
ii. angle between the lines (𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟒)
2 −1
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒓 = 2 + 𝜆 0 , 𝑃 3 , 2 , 7 , 𝜃 = 171.90
5 −2
4. Show that vector 2𝒊 − 5𝒋 + 3.5𝒌 is perpendicular to the line 𝒓 = 2𝒊 − 𝒋 +
𝜆 4𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 2𝒌
𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
5. Find the equation of a line through points 𝐴 2 , 2, 5 , 𝐵 1 , 2 , 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 0 , 2 , 1
𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻: 1𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑕𝑒𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑
6. Show that the lines 𝒓𝟏 = 1 + 4𝜆 𝒊 + 1 − 𝜆 𝒋 + 2𝜆𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝒓𝟏 = 5 + 3𝜇 𝒊 + 2𝜇𝒋 + 2 − 5𝜇 𝒌 cut at right angles. Find the position vector
of point of intersection. 𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 5𝒊 + 2𝒌
7. The points A, B, C and D have coordinates
3 , −2 , 0 , −1 , 2 , 4 , 0 , 1 , −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5 , −4 , 4 respectively. Find
a) The point of intersection of the lines AB and CD
b) The angle between the lines in (a) above
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 2 , −1 , 1 ; 70.50
8. The points A, B and C have 𝑝. 𝑣𝑠 𝒂 = 3𝒊 − 𝒋 + 4𝒌 , 𝒃 = 𝒋 − 4𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒄 = 6𝒊 + 𝟒𝒋 +
5𝒌 respectively. Find the 𝑝. 𝑣 of a point R on 𝐵𝐶 such tat 𝐴𝑅 is perpendicular
to 𝐵𝐶 . Hence find the perpendicular distance of A from BC. 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 4𝒊 + 3𝒋 +
2𝒌 ; 𝐴𝑅 = 21
9. The points A, B and C have 𝑝. 𝑣𝑠 3𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 𝒌 , 𝒊 + 2𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4𝒊 + 𝒋 − 3𝒌
respectively. Find the vector perpendicular to both vectors 𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐶.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 2𝒌
10. Show that the lines 𝒓𝟏 = 2𝜆𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝜆 − 2 𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓𝟏 = 1 + 𝜇 𝒊 + 2 − 𝜇 𝒋 +
2𝜇 − 5 𝒌 do not intersect.

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VECTOR EQUATION OF A PLANE

a) To find the vector equation of a plane through three non-collinear
points A, B and C
Let the 𝑝. 𝑣𝑠 of A,
𝐶 B, C and P be
𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓
𝐸 𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦 ,𝑧 respectively.
𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐷𝑃 . But
𝐷 𝐴𝐷//𝐴𝐵 , 𝐷𝑃 //𝐴𝐶
𝐴 𝐵
∴ 𝐴𝑃 = 𝜆𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇𝐴𝐶
𝒄 𝒓
But 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 −
𝒂 𝒃
𝑂𝐴 = 𝒓 − 𝒂

𝑂
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒃 − 𝒂
𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒄 − 𝒂
∴ 𝒓−𝒂 = 𝝀 𝒃−𝒂 +𝜇 𝒄−𝒂

∴ 𝒓−𝒂= 𝝀 𝒃−𝒂 +𝜇 𝒄−𝒂

NOTE:
If A is the origin, then the equation of a plane will be given by
𝐴𝑃 = 𝜆𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇𝐴𝐶 ⇒ 𝑂𝑃 = 𝜆𝑂𝐵 + 𝜇𝑂𝐶
∴ 𝒓 = 𝝀𝒃 + 𝜇𝒄
∴ 𝒓 = 𝝀𝒃 + 𝜇𝒄

This equation represents an equation of a plane passing through the origin

and parallel to two given vectors b and c.
If given two vectors, then the equation of plane containing the two vectors is
of the form above.
b) To find vector equation of a plane passing through a given point A and
parallel to two given vectors 𝑏 and 𝑐.
𝐶 Let 𝑝. 𝑣 of P be 𝒓
and A be 𝒂
𝐸 From 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴𝐸 +
𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦 ,𝑧
𝒄 𝐸𝑃 ; But 𝐴𝐸 = 𝜆𝒄 ,

𝐷 𝐸𝑃 = 𝜇𝒃
𝐴 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴𝑃 = 𝜆𝒄 + 𝜇𝒃
𝒃
𝒓
⇒ 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝜆𝒄 + 𝜇𝒃
𝒂
∴ 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝜇𝒃 + 𝜆𝒄

𝑂
If A is the Origin. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴 0 , 0 , 0 , then the equation of the plane containing two
vectors b and c is
∴ 𝒓 = 𝜇𝒃 + 𝜆𝒄

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c) To find the vector equation of a plane through two given points A and
B and parallel to a given vector 𝑐.
Let the 𝑝. 𝑣 of P, A
𝐶 and B be
𝒓 , 𝒂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃
𝐸 𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦 ,𝑧 respectively.
As above, the
𝐷 equation of the
𝐴 𝐵 plane is
𝒄 𝒓 𝐴𝑃 = 𝜆𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇𝒄
∴ 𝒓 − 𝒂 = 𝝀 𝒃 − 𝒂 + 𝜇𝒄
𝒂 𝒃 𝑜𝑟 ∴ 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝝀 𝒃 − 𝒂 + 𝜇𝒄

NOTE:
The above rectangular enclosed equations are called parametric equations of
a plane.
When parameters 𝜆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇 are eliminated from the equation of a plane, the
resulting equation of a plane is called Cartesian equation of a plane of the
form 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 + 𝐷 = 0.
Examples
1. Find the Cartesian equation of a plane
a) Passing through the points 𝐴 −1 , 1 , 2 , 𝐵 1 , −2 , 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 2 , 2 , 4
0 1
b) Containing vectors 3 𝑎 𝑛𝑑 0
0 2
c) Passing through point 1 , 2 , 3 and parallel to vectors 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝒌
Solution
a)
Let 𝑂𝑃 = 𝒓
𝐶 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴𝐸 + 𝐸𝑃
But 𝐴𝐸 // 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐸𝑃 // 𝐴𝐵
𝐸 𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦 ,𝑧
∴ 𝐴𝑃 = 𝜆𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇𝐴𝐶
−1
𝐷 ∴ 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒓 − 1
𝐴 𝐵
2
𝒄 𝒓 2 −1 3
𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴 = 2 − 1 = 1
𝒂 𝒃 4 2 2
1 −1 2
𝑂 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = −2 − 1 = −3
1 2 −1
−1 3 2
∴𝒓= 1 + 𝜆 1 + 𝜇 −3
2 2 −1
Expressing the equation in Cartesian form

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𝑥 −1 3 2
𝒓 = 𝑦 = 1 + 𝜆 1 + 𝜇 −3
𝑧 2 2 −1
⇒ 𝑥 = −1 + 3𝜆 + 2𝜇 ……………………………………….…………………… (1)
𝑦 = 1 + 𝜆 − 3𝜇 …………………………………………………..…………………. (2)
𝑧 = 2 + 2𝜆 − 𝜇 ………………………………………………………………………. (3)
Considering (1) and (2), eliminating λ and 𝜇
From (1) 𝑥 + 1 = 3𝜆 + 2𝜇 ……………………………………..………………. (4)
From (2) 𝑦 − 1 = 𝜆 − 3𝜇 ……………………………………………………….. (5)
𝐸𝑞𝑛. 4 × 3 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3)
3𝑦 − 3 = 3𝜆 − 9𝜇
𝑥 + 1 = 3𝜆 + 2𝜇
𝑥−3𝑦+4
3𝑦 − 𝑥 − 4 = −11𝜇 ⇒ 𝜇 = ………………………….…………… (6)
11
𝑒𝑞
𝑛. 6 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (4)
𝑥−3𝑦+4 11𝑦−11+3𝑥−9𝑦+12
⇒ 𝜆 = 𝑦 − 1 + 3𝜇 = 𝑦 − 1 + 3 =
11 11
3𝑥+2𝑦+1
∴𝜆= ……………………………………………………………………………. (7)
11
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 6 , 7 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3𝑥+2𝑦+1 𝑥−3𝑦 +4
⇒ 𝑧 =2+2 −
11 11
11𝑧 = 22 + 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2 − 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4
∴ 5𝑥 + 7𝑦 − 11𝑧 + 20 = 0

0 1
b) Let 𝑂𝑃 = 𝒓 , 𝒂 = 3 𝑎 𝑛𝑑 𝒃 = 0
𝐸 0 2
𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦 ,𝑧
𝒂 𝒓 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝐷 + 𝐷𝑃 , 𝑂𝐷 // 𝒃 and 𝐷𝑃 // 𝒂
⇒ 𝒓 = 𝜆𝒃 + 𝜇𝒂
𝐷
𝑂 𝐵
𝒃 1 0
⇒ 𝒓= 𝜆 0 +𝜇 3
2 0
Expressing this equation in Cartesian form
𝑥 1 0
𝒓 = 𝑦 = 𝜆 0 +𝜇 3
𝑧 2 0
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝜆 ………………………………………………….. (1)
⇒ 𝑦 = 3𝜇 ………………………………………………... (2)
⇒ 𝑧 = 2𝜆 …………………………………………………. (3)
𝑒𝑞𝑛 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3)
∴ 𝑧 = 2𝑥 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 − 𝑧 = 0 is the required equation of plane.
Note: The eqn. (2) cannot be used in any way to find the required equation
of plane.

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c)
𝐶 1 2
Let 𝒃 = −2 , 𝒄 = −3 ,
𝐸 3 1
𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦 ,𝑧
𝒄 𝒓 = 𝑂𝑃
1
𝐷 and 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒂 = 2
𝐴 𝐵 3
𝒃
𝒓
𝒂

𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐷𝑃 = 𝜆𝒃 + 𝜇𝒄
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒓 − 𝒂 = 𝜆𝒃 + 𝜇𝒄 ⇒ 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝜆𝒃 + 𝜇𝒄
𝑥 1 1 2
⇒ 𝒓 = 𝑦 = 2 + 𝜆 −2 + 𝜇 −3
𝑧 3 3 1
⇒ 𝑥 = 1 + 𝜆 + 2𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 1 = 𝜆 + 2𝜇 …………………………….. (1)
⇒ 𝑦 = 2 − 2𝜆 − 3𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 − 2 = −2𝜆 − 3𝜇 ………………………. (2)
⇒ 𝑧 = 3 + 3𝜆 + 𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 − 3 = 3𝜆 + 𝜇 …………………………….… (3)
Considering eqn. (1) and eqn. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 × 2 + 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
2𝑥 − 2 = 2𝜆 + 4𝜇
𝑦 − 2 = −2𝜆 − 3𝜇
2𝑥 − 2 + 𝑦 − 2 = 𝜇 ⇒ 𝜇 = 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4 …………………………………… (4)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1
𝑥 − 1 = 𝜆 + 2𝜇 ⇒ 𝜆 = 𝑥 − 1 − 2𝜇
∴ 𝜆 = 𝑥 − 1 − 2 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4 = −3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 7…………………….. (5)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4 , 5 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
⇒ 𝑧 − 3 = 3 −3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 7 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4
𝑧 − 3 = −9𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 21 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4 = −7𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 17
∴ 7𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 𝑧 − 20 = 0
2. Find the Cartesian equation of a plane passing through
𝐴 0 , 3 , −4 , 𝐵 2 , −1 , 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 7 , 4 , −1 . Show that 𝑄 10 , 13 , −10 lies on the
plane
𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟏
Solution
𝐶 Let the 𝑝. 𝑣𝑠 of A,
B, C and P be
𝐸 𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦 ,𝑧 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓
respectively.
𝐷 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐷𝑃 . But
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴𝐷//𝐴𝐵 , 𝐷𝑃 //𝐴𝐶
𝒄 𝒓 ∴ 𝐴𝑃 = 𝜆𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇𝐴𝐶
𝒂 𝒃 But 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴
=𝒓−𝒂
𝑂

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𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒃 − 𝒂 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒄 − 𝒂
∴ 𝒓−𝒂= 𝝀 𝒃−𝒂 +𝜇 𝒄−𝒂
𝑥 0 2 0 7 0
⇒ 𝑦 = 3 + 𝜆 −1 − 3 +𝜇 4 − 3
𝑧 −4 2 −4 −1 −4
𝑥 0 2 7
⇒ 𝑦 = 3 + 𝜆 −4 + 𝜇 1
𝑧 −4 6 3
⇒ 𝑥 = 2𝜆 + 7𝜇 ……………………………………..…………………………….. (1)
⇒ 𝑦 = 3 − 4𝜆 + 𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 − 3 = −4𝜆 + 𝜇 ……………………………. (2)
⇒ 𝑧 = −4 + 6𝜆 + 3𝜇 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 + 4 = 6𝜆 + 3𝜇 ………….………….… (3)
Considering eqn. (1) and (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 × 2 + 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
2𝑥 = 4𝜆 + 14𝜇
𝑦 − 3 = −4𝜆 + 𝜇
2𝑥+𝑦−3
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3 = 15𝜇 ⇒ 𝜇 = …………………………...……………… (4)
15
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1
𝑥−7𝜇
𝑥 = 2𝜆 + 7𝜇 ⇒ 𝜆 =
2
2𝑥+𝑦 −3
𝑥−7 15𝑥−14𝑥−7𝑦+21 𝑥 −7𝑦+21
∴𝜆 = 15
= = …………………….. (5)
2 30 30
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4 , 5 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑥−7𝑦+21 2𝑥+𝑦−3
⇒ 𝑧+4 =6 30
+3 15
𝑥−7𝑦+21 2𝑥+𝑦−3
⇒ 𝑧+4 = +
5 5
⇒ 5𝑧 + 20 = 𝑥 − 7𝑦 + 21 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3
∴ 3𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 2
For 𝑄 10 , 13 , −10 to lie on the plane, it must satisfy the equation
⇒ 3 10 − 6 13 − 5 −10 = 2 = 𝑹𝑯𝑺 , hence point lies on the plane.

VETOR EQUATION OF A PLANE IN NORMAL FORM 𝒊. 𝒆. Non-

parametric/Scalar/Dot-product form
Consider a plane which passes through a point A with 𝑝. 𝑣 𝒂 and which is
perpendicular to vector 𝒏. Let 𝑝. 𝑣 of point 𝑃 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 .
𝐴𝑃 ┴ 𝒏 , ∴ 𝐴𝑃. 𝒏 = 0
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒓 − 𝒂 ∴ 𝒓 − 𝒂 . 𝒏 = 0
⇒ 𝒓. 𝒏 − 𝒂. 𝒏 = 0
𝒏 ⇒ 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝒂. 𝒏 ,
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝒂. 𝒏 = 𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝐴 ∴ 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝑑
𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦 ,𝑧
which is the equation of a plane
𝒂 perpendicular to vector n.
𝒓
𝑂

NOTE:
From 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 × 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ⇒ 𝒏 = 𝒏 × 𝒏 , 𝒏 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.

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𝑑
∴ 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝒓. 𝒏. 𝒏 = 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝐷 ,where 𝐷 = 𝒏
= 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟.

∴ 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝐷 , also represents equation of a plane perpendicular to 𝒏.

CARTESIAN EQUATION OF A PLANE

𝑥 𝐴
From 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝑑 , 𝒓 = 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑦 , 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝒏 = 𝐵
𝑧 𝐶
𝑥 𝐴
∴ 𝑦 . 𝐵 =𝑑
𝑧 𝐶
The Cartesian equation of a plane is ∴ 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑

Examples:
1. Find the equation of a plane through the point 1 , 2 , 3 and perpendicular to
𝒓 = 4𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 𝒌.
𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟒
Solution
𝑥 4
𝒏 = 4𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 𝒌
Let 𝒓 = 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑦 , 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝒏 = 5
𝑧 1
𝐴𝑃 ┴ 𝒏 , ∴ 𝐴𝑃. 𝒏 = 0
𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦 ,𝑧 1
𝐴 1,2,3 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝒓 − 𝒂 = 𝒓 − 2
3
1 4
⇒ 𝒓− 2 . 5 =0
3 1
4 1 4
⇒ 𝒓. 5 − 2 . 5 = 0
1 3 1
4 4
⇒ 𝒓. 5 − 4 + 10 + 3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝒓. 5 = 17
1 1
𝑥 4
𝑜𝑟 𝑦 . 5 = 17 ∴ 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 𝑧 = 17
𝑧 1
2. Show that the equation of the plane through point A with 𝑝. 𝑣 − 2𝒊 + 4𝒌
perpendicular to vector 𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 2𝒌 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 + 10 = 0. (𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎)
Solution
Using 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝑑
1 𝑥
⇒ 𝒓. 3 = 𝑑 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝒓 = 𝑦
−2 𝑧
𝑥 1
⇒ 𝑦 . 3 = 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 𝑑
𝑧 −2
But 𝐴 −2 , 0 , 4 lie on plane
⇒ −2 + 3 0 − 2 4 = 𝑑 ∴ 𝑑 = −10
∴ 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 + 10 = 0
3. Find the equation of the plane through point A with 𝑝. 𝑣 5𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 3𝒌
perpendicular to vector 3𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 𝒌 . (𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟖)

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Solution
Using 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝑑
1 𝑥
⇒ 𝒓. 3 = 𝑑 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝒓 = 𝑦
−2 𝑧
𝑥 3
⇒ 𝑦 . 4 = 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 𝑧 = 𝑑
𝑧 −1
But 5 , −2 , 3 lie on plane
⇒ 3 5 + 4 −2 − 3 = 𝑑 ∴ 𝑑 = 4
∴ 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 𝑧 − 4 = 0
4. Given that 𝒂 = 𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 3𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 = −𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 2𝒌. Determine the equation
containing 𝒂 and 𝒃.
Solution
Since only two vectors are given
, and no other point is given, taking
𝐸 the point as the origin through which
𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦 ,𝑧
𝒏 𝒂 𝒓 the plane passes, then finding
the unit vector normal to the vectors,
𝐷
𝑂 𝐵 By cross product,
𝒃 𝒃×𝒂
using 𝒏 =
𝒃×𝒂
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒃 × 𝒂 = −1 −3 2 = −3𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 6𝒌
1 −3 3
𝒃 × 𝒂 = 9 + 25 + 36 = 70
1
∴𝒏= 3𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 6𝒌
70
1
Using 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝐷 ⇒ 𝒓. 3𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 6𝒌 = 𝐷
70
3
⇒ 𝒓. 5 = 70𝐷 = 𝑘 (𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟)
6
𝑥 3
∴ 𝑦 . 5 = 𝑘 , −3𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 𝑘
𝑧 6
𝐵𝑢𝑡 0 , 0 , 0 lies on the plane
⇒ −3 0 + 5 0 + 6 0 = 𝑘
∴ −3𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 0
5. Find the Cartesian equation of a plane through;
a) 𝐴 0 , 3 , −4 , 𝐵 2 , −1 , 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 7 , 4 , −1
b) 𝐶 −1 , 1 , 2 , 𝐷 1 , −2 , 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 2 , 2, 4
Solution
a)
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴𝐵 = 𝒂 , 𝐴𝐶 = 𝒃
𝒏 𝒂×𝒃
𝒃 𝐶 𝒏=
𝒂×𝒃
2 0
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = −1 − 3
𝐴 𝒂 𝐵
2 −4
2
= −4
6

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7 0 7
𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴 = 4 − 3 = 1
−1 −4 3
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒂 × 𝒃 = −1 −3 2 = −18𝒊 + 36𝒋 + 30𝒌
1 −3 3

𝒂×𝒃 = −18 2 + 362 + 302 = 2520

1
𝒏= −18𝒊 + 36𝒋 + 30𝒌
2520
1
Using 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝐷 ⇒ 𝒓. −18𝒊 + 36𝒋 + 30𝒌 = 𝐷
2520
−18
⇒ 𝒓. 36 = 2520𝐷 = 𝑘 (𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟)
30
𝑥 −18
∴ 𝑦 . 36 = 𝑘 , −18𝑥 + 36𝑦 + 30𝑧 = 𝑘
𝑧 30
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐴 , 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 lie on the plane. Using point 𝐴 0 , 3 , −4
⇒ −18 0 + 36 3 + 30 −4 = 𝑘 ∴ 𝑘 = −12
∴ −18𝑥 + 36𝑦 + 30𝑧 = −12 ……………… ÷ −6
∴ 3𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 5𝑧 − 2 = 0
b) 𝑳𝒆𝒕 𝑪𝑬 = 𝒂 , 𝑪𝑫 = 𝒃
𝒂×𝒃 𝒏
𝒏=
𝒂×𝒃 𝒃 𝐷
𝒂 = 𝑪𝑬 = 𝑶𝑬 − 𝑶𝑪
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑
= 𝟐 − 𝟏 = 𝟏 𝐶 𝒂 𝐸
𝟒 𝟐 𝟐
1 −1 2
𝒃 = 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑂𝐷 − 𝑂𝐶 = 2 − 1 = −3
1 2 −1
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒂×𝒃= 3 1 2 = 5𝒊 + 7𝒋 − 11𝒌
2 −3 −1
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 5 2 + 72 + −11 2 = 195
1
𝒏= 5𝒊 + 7𝒋 − 11𝒌
195
1
Using 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝐷 ⇒ 𝒓. 5𝒊 + 7𝒋 − 11𝒌 = 𝐷
195
5
⇒ 𝒓. 7 = 195𝐷 = 𝑘 (𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟)
−11
𝑥 5
∴ 𝑦 . 7 = 𝑘 , 5𝑥 + 7𝑦 − 11𝑧 = 𝑘
𝑧 −11
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐶 , 𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 lie on the plane. Using point 𝐶 −1 , 1 , 2
⇒ 5 −1 + 7 1 − 11 2 = 𝑘 ∴ 𝑘 = −20
∴ 5𝑥 + 7𝑦 − 11𝑧 = −20
6. Find the equation of a plane passing through point 1 .2 , 3 and parallel to
vectors
𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝒌.

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Solution
Let 𝒂 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 , 𝒃 = 2𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝒌 , 𝐶 1 .2 , 3
𝒂×𝒃
𝒏=
𝒂×𝒃
𝒏 𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒃 𝐷 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 1 −2 3 = 7𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 𝒌
2 −3 1
𝐶 𝒂 𝐸 𝒂×𝒃 = 7 2+ 5 2 + 1 2 = 75
1
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝐷 ⇒ 𝒓. 7𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 𝒌 = 𝐷
75
7
⇒ 𝒓. 5 = 75𝐷 = 𝑘 (𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟)
1
𝑥 7
∴ 𝑦 . 5 = 𝑘 , 7𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑘
𝑧 1
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐴 , 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 lie on the plane. Using point 𝐶 1 .2 , 3
⇒ 7 1 + 5 2 + 3 = 𝑘 ∴ 𝑘 = 20
∴ 7𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 𝑧 = 20
Deduction from Cartesian equation of a plane 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑪𝒛 = 𝒅
𝐴 𝑥
From 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝑑 , 𝒏 = 𝐵 , 𝒓 = 𝑦
𝐶 𝑧
𝑥 𝐴
⇒ 𝑦 . 𝐵 = 𝑑 , 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑
𝑧 𝐶
From the Cartesian equation of a plane, there exists a NORMAL VECTOR to
plane whose direction ratios are obtained from coefficients of 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 in the
𝐴
equation of plane. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝒏 = 𝐵
𝐶
Example
State the normal vector to the plane;
a) 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 7
1 4 7
b) 𝒓 = 2 + 𝜆 −5 + 𝜇 0
3 6 5
c) 𝒓 = 3 + 4𝜆 − 3𝜇 𝒊 + 2𝜆𝒋 + 3 − 3𝜇 𝒌
Solution
2
a) 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 7 , 𝒏 = 3
5
1 4 7 𝒏
b) 𝒓 = 2 + 𝜆 −5 + 𝜇 0 𝒃 𝐷
3 6 5
4 7
Let 𝒂 = −5 , 𝒃 = 0 𝐶 𝒂 𝐸
6 5
𝒂×𝒃
Using 𝒏 =
𝒂×𝒃
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 4 −5 6 = −25𝒊 + 29𝒋 + 35𝒌
7 0 5
𝒂 × 𝒃 = −25 2 + 29 2 + 35 2 = 𝛼 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟

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1
⇒ 𝒏 = 𝛼 −25𝒊 + 29𝒋 + 35𝒌
Direction ratio of normal vector is −25: 29: 35 in simplified form
−25
∴ 𝒏 = 29
35
c) 𝒓 = 3 + 4𝜆 − 3𝜇 𝒊 + 2𝜆𝒋 + 3 − 3𝜇 𝒌
3 4 −3
⇒ 𝒓 = 0 +𝜆 2 +𝜇 0
3 0 −3
4 −3
Let 𝒂 = 2 , 𝒃 = 0
0 −3
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒂×𝒃= 4 2 0 = −6𝒊 − 12𝒋 + 6𝒌
−3 0 −3
Normal vector ratio is −6: −12: 6 = 1: 2: −1
1
∴ 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝒏 = 𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 𝒌 = 2
−1
Alternative approach of obtaining normal vector to plane expressed in
the form 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝜆𝒃 + 𝜇𝒄
Find in scalar product form the equation of the plane
𝒓 = 1 + 3𝜆 + 2𝜇 𝒊 + 1 + 𝜆 + 4𝜇 𝒋 + 𝜇 − 𝜆 𝒌
Solution
1 3 2 3 2
⇒ 𝒓 = 1 + 𝜆 1 + 𝜇 4 , Let 𝒂 = 1 , 𝒃 = 4
0 −1 1 −1 1
𝐴
Let the normal vector 𝒏 = 𝐵
𝐶
Since n is perpendicular to a and b, then by Dot product
𝒏. 𝒂 = 0 ⇒ 𝐴𝒊 + 𝐵𝒋 + 𝐶𝒌 . 3𝒊 + 𝒋 − 𝒌 = 0
∴ 3𝐴 + 𝐵 − 𝐶 = 0 …………………………………………….. (1)
𝒏. 𝒃 = 0 ⇒ 𝐴𝒊 + 𝐵𝒋 + 𝐶𝒌 . 2𝒊 + 4𝒋 + 𝒌 = 0
∴ 2𝐴 + 4𝐵 + 𝐶 = 0 ………………………………………….. (2)
Expressing B and C in terms of A only
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 + 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2
⇒ 5𝐴 + 5𝐵 = 0 ∴ 𝐴 = −𝐵 ………………………………. (3)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1
⇒ 3𝐴 − 𝐴 − 𝐶 = 0 ∴ 𝐶 = 2𝐴
𝐴
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝒏 = 𝐵 , 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜: 𝐴: 𝐵: 𝐶
𝐶
𝐴: −𝐴: 2𝐴 = 1: −1: 2
1
∴ 𝒏 = −1 = 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 2𝒌
2
𝑥 1
From 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝑑 ⇒ 𝑦 . −1 = 𝑑. But 1 , 1 , 0 lies on the plane
𝑧 2
1 1
⇒ 1 . −1 = 𝑑 ∴ 𝑑 = 1 − 1 + 0 = 0
0 2

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Equation of plane in dot product form is 𝒓. 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 2𝒌 = 0

NOTE:
The above approach can also be used to determine the normal vector to two
given vectors.

INTERSECTION OF A LINE AND A PLANE

𝑎1 𝑑1
Consider the line 𝒓 = 𝑎2 + 𝜆 𝑑2 and plane in Cartesian form
𝑎3 𝑑3
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑
𝑥 𝑎1 𝑑1
From the line, 𝒓 = 𝑦 = 𝑎2 + 𝜆 𝑑2
𝑧 𝑎3 𝑑3
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑑1 , 𝑦 = 𝑎2 + 𝜆𝑑2 , 𝑧 = 𝑎3 + 𝜆𝑑3 ……………………….. (1)
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝐴 𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑑1 + 𝐵 𝑎2 + 𝜆𝑑2 + 𝐶 𝑎3 + 𝜆𝑑3 = 𝑑

⇒ 𝐴𝑎1 + 𝐵𝑎2 + 𝐶𝑎3 + 𝜆 𝐴𝑑1 + 𝐵𝑑2 + 𝐶𝑑3 = 0

From which the value of 𝜆 can be obtained. The point of intersection of the
line and plane can be obtained from 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1
. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑑1 , 𝑎2 + 𝜆𝑑2 . 𝑎3 + 𝜆𝑑3

Deduction from the rectangular enclosed result

The result above is true for every value of 𝜆 hence it is an identity. 𝑖. 𝑒.

𝐴𝑎1 + 𝐵𝑎2 + 𝐶𝑎3 = 0

𝐴𝑑1 + 𝐵𝑑2 + 𝐶𝑑3 = 0

, which are the conditions for a line to lie on a plane.
Remark:
1. The condition 𝑨𝒅𝟏 + 𝑩𝒅𝟐 + 𝑪𝒅𝟑 = 𝟎 shows that the line is perpendicular to
the normal of the plane, hence parallel to the plane.
2. The condition 𝑨𝒂𝟏 + 𝑩𝒂𝟐 + 𝑪𝒂𝟑 = 𝟎 shows that the point 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 lies on
the plane.
Conclusion
For a line to lie in a plane the line must be parallel to the plane and one
point on the line must also be on plane.
Examples
1. Find the point of intersection of the given line and plane.
a) 𝒓 = 2𝒊 − 𝒌 + 𝜆 𝑖 + 3𝒋 , 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒: 𝒓. 5𝒊 − 𝒋 + 7𝒌 = 9
2
b) 𝒓 = 𝜆𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 2𝜆 − 1 𝒌 , 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒: 𝒓. 1 = 5
−3
𝑥−3 𝑦 −4 𝑧−5
c) 2
= 3
= 4
, −4𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5𝑧 − 3 =0
Solution
2 1
a) 𝒓 = 2𝒊 − 𝒌 + 𝜆 𝑖 + 3𝒋 = 0 + 𝜆 3 ; 𝒓. 5𝒊 − 𝒋 + 7𝒌 = 9 ∴ 5𝑥 − 𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 9
−1 0
From the line, ⇒ 𝑥 = 2 + 𝜆 , 𝑦 = 3𝜆 , 𝑧 = −1 ……………………. (1)

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𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

5 2 + 𝜆 − 3𝜆 + 7 −1 = 9 ⇒ 10 + 5𝜆 − 3𝜆 − 7 = 9
∴𝜆=3
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 , 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠;
𝑥 = 2 + 3 = 5 , 𝑦 = 3 3 = 9 , 𝑧 = −1
5 , 9 , −1 is the point of intersection of the line and plane.
0 1 𝑥
b) 𝒓 = 𝜆𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 2𝜆 − 1 𝒌 ⇒ 𝒓 = −2 + 𝜆 0 = 𝑦
−1 2 𝑧
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝜆 , 𝑦 = −2 , 𝑧 = −1 + 2𝜆 ……………………………..…. (1)
2
𝒓. 1 = 5 ⇒ 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 5 …………………………………… (2)
−3
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
⇒ 2𝜆 + −2 − 3 −1 + 2𝜆 = 5 ∴ 2𝜆 − 2 + 3 − 6𝜆 = 5
∴ 𝜆 = −1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 , 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠;
𝑥 = −1 , 𝑦 = −2 , 𝑧 = −1 − 2 = −3
−1 , −2 , −3 is the point of intersection of the line and plane.
𝑥−3 𝑦 −4 𝑧−5
c) Let = = =𝜆
2 3 4
⇒ 𝑥 = 3 + 2𝜆 , 𝑦 = 4 + 3𝜆 , 𝑧 = 5 + 4𝜆 ……………………………..…. (1)
⇒ −4𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5𝑧 − 3 = 0 ………………………………………………………. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
⇒ −4 3 + 2𝜆 + 4 4 + 3𝜆 − 5 5 + 4𝜆 − 3 = 0
⇒ −12 − 8𝜆 + 16 + 12𝜆 − 25 − 20𝜆 − 3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 − 16𝜆 = 24
3
∴ 𝜆 = −2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 , 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠;
9 1
𝑥 = 3 − 3 = 0 , 𝑦 = 4 − 2 = − 2 , 𝑧 = −1
1
0 , − 2 , −1 is the point of intersection of the line and plane.
2. Prove that the line(s) lie on the given plane(s)
𝑥−3 𝑦 −4 𝑧−5
a) 2
=4
=
, 4𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5𝑧 − 3 = 0
3
2 −1
b) 𝒓 = 0 + 𝜆 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑥+ 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5
1 0
Solution
3 2 2
𝑥−3 𝑦 −4 𝑧−5
a) 2
= 3
= 4
, 𝒓 = 4 + 𝜆 3 ⇒ 𝒅 = 3
5 4 4
4
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒: 4𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5𝑧 − 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝒏 = 4
−5
For a line to lie in a plane,
 The line is perpendicular to the normal of the plane . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝒏. 𝒅 = 0
 One point on the line lies on the plane
⇒ 𝒏. 𝒅 = 4𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 𝟓𝒌 . 2𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 4𝒌 = 8 + 12 − 20 = 0
From the line 3 , 4 , 5 lies on the line
⇒ : 4 3 + 4 4 − 5 5 − 3 = 0 , which satisfies the plane. Hence point lies
on the plane.

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2 −1
b) 𝒓 = 0 + 𝜆 1 ⇒ 𝒅 = −𝒊 + 𝒋
1 0
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5 ⇒ 𝒏 = 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌
⇒ 𝒏. 𝒅 = = −𝒊 + 𝒋 + 0𝒌 . 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌 = −2 + 2 + 0 = 0. Hence line is parallel
to the plane .i.e. normal ┴ plane.
From the line 2 , 0 , 1 lies on the line
⇒ 2 2 + 2 0 + 1 = 5 , which satisfies the plane. Hence point lies on the
plane.

EQUATION OF A PLANE CONTAINING A GIVEN LINE 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝝀𝒅 AND

SATISFYING ANY OTHER GIVEN CONDITION
𝑥−𝑎 𝑦−𝑎 𝑧−𝑎
Let the line be expressed in the Cartesian form 𝑑 1 = 𝑑 2 = 𝑑 3 and let the
1 2 3
plane be 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑.
Since the plane is to pass through the point on the line . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , then
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑 ……………………………..…………………………………. (1)
𝐴𝑎1 + 𝐵𝑎2 + 𝐶𝑎3 = 𝑑 ……………………………………………………………. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2) give the equation of a plane without d
⇒ 𝐴 𝑥 − 𝑎1 + 𝐵 𝑦 − 𝑎2 + 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑎3 = 0 …………………………… (3)
NOTE:
Plane in equations (3) and (1) are the same.
Equation of plane contains the line if;
𝐴𝑑1 + 𝐵𝑑2 + 𝐶𝑑3 = 0 ……………………………………………………………. (4)
Case I:
From equations (1) and (3)
Let the other condition satisfying the plane be that it also passes through
point 𝛼 , 𝛼 , 𝛾
From eqn. (3),
𝐴 𝛼 − 𝑎1 + 𝐵 𝛽 − 𝑎2 + 𝐶 𝛾 − 𝑎3 = 0 …………………………….… (5)
Eliminating constants A, B and C from the zeroed equations
𝑥 − 𝑎1 𝑦 − 𝑎2 𝑧 − 𝑎3
𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 =0
𝛼 − 𝑎1 𝛽 − 𝑎2 𝛾 − 𝑎3
Case II
Let the given condition be that the required plane is perpendicular to plane
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑘
Planes 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑 and 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑘 are perpendicular if their
normal are perpendicular
⇒ 𝑎𝐴 + 𝐵𝑏 + 𝐶𝑐 = 0 …………………………………………………………… (6)
Now eliminating constants A, B and C from the zeroed equations (6) , (3)
and (4), the required equation of plane is;

𝑥 − 𝑎1 𝑦 − 𝑎2 𝑧 − 𝑎3
𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 = 0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

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Example
1. Find the equation of a plane containing the line 𝒓 = 2𝒊 + 𝒌 + 𝜆 −𝒊 + 𝒋 and
passing through the point with position vector 𝒊 + 3𝒌.
Solution
Let the equation of the plane be 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑…………………………….. (1)
2 −1
From the line: 𝒓 = 0 + 𝜆 1 , 2 , 0 , 1 lies on the plane.
1 0
⇒ 2𝐴 + 𝐵 0 + 𝐶 = 𝑑
…………………………………………………………………………. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2) to obtain a zeroed equation
⇒ 𝐴 𝑥 − 2 + 𝐵 𝑦 − 0 + 𝐶 𝑧 − 1 = 0 …………….…………………………….. (3)
Plane (3) passes through 1 , 0 , 3
⇒ 𝐴 1 − 2 + 𝐵 0 − 0 + 𝐶 3 − 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 − 𝐴 + 0𝐵 + 2𝐶 = 0 ………… (4)
Also eqn. (1) contains line if 𝒏. 𝒅 = 0
𝐴 −1
⇒ 𝐵 . 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 − 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 0𝐶 = 0 ……………………………………………… (5)
𝐶 0
Eliminating constants A, B and C from the zeroed equations (3), (4) and (5)
𝑥−2 𝑦 𝑧−1
⇒ −1 0 2 =0
−1 1 0
0 2 −1 2 −1 0
⇒ 𝑥−2 −𝑦 + 𝑧−1 =0
1 0 −1 0 −1 1
⇒ −2 𝑥 − 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 − 1 −1 = 0
∴ 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5
Alternatively
Let 𝐴 2 , 0 , 1 , 𝐵 1 , 0 , 3
𝐴𝐵 = 𝒂
1 2
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 0 − 0
𝒏 3 1
𝒂 𝐵 −1
= 0
−2
𝐴 𝒅 𝐸 Finding normal vector to
plane
𝒅×𝒂
𝒏=
𝒅×𝒂
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒅 × 𝒂 = −1 1 0 = 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌 ⇒ 𝒅 × 𝒂 = 22 + 22 + 12 = 3
−1 0 2
𝒅×𝒂 1
∴𝒏= = 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌
𝒅×𝒂 3
But normal vector direction ratio is 2: 2: 1
∴ 𝒏 = 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌
Using 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝑑
⇒ 𝒓. 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌 = 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑑
This equation is satisfied by either 𝐴 2 , 0 , 1 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 1 , 0 , 3
⇒ 4+1 =𝑑 ∴𝑑 =5
The equation of plane now is 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5

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𝑥+1 𝑦+2 𝑧+3

2. Find the equation of a plane through the line 2
= 3
= 4
and
perpendicular to the plane 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 4.
Solution
Let the plane be 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑………………………………………………….. (1)
⇒ 𝒏 = 𝐴𝒊 + 𝐵𝒋 + 𝐶𝒌
Plane contains the line if the point −1 , −2 , −3 on line lies on it
⇒ 𝐴 −1 + 𝐵 −2 + 𝐶 −3 = 𝑑………………………………………….…………….. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2) to obtain a zeroed equation
𝐴 𝑥 + 1 + 𝐵 𝑦 + 2 + 𝐶 𝑧 + 3 = 0 ………………………………………………….. (3)
Also eqn. (1) contains line if 𝒏. 𝒅 = 0
𝐴 2
⇒ 𝐵 . 3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝐴 + 3𝐵 + 4𝐶 = 0 ……………………………………………… (4)
𝐶 4
For planes to be perpendicular, their normals are at right angles.
From 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 , 𝒏1 = 𝐴𝒊 + 𝐵𝒋 + 𝐶𝒌
From 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 4 , 𝒏2 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 3𝒌
∴ 𝒏1 . 𝒏2 = 0 ⇒ 𝐴 − 2𝐵 + 3𝐵 = 0 …………………………………………………… (5)
Eliminating constants A, B and C from the zeroed equations (3), (4) and (5)
𝑥+1 𝑦+2 𝑧+3
⇒ 2 3 4 =0
1 −2 3
3 4 2 4 2 3
⇒ 𝑥+1 − 𝑦+2 + 𝑧+3 =0
−2 3 1 3 1 −2
⇒ 17 𝑥 + 1 − 2 𝑦 + 2 + −7 𝑧 + 3 = 0
∴ 17𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 7𝑧 = 8
𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 4
Alternatively
𝒏1 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 3𝒌
𝐴
𝒏2 𝒏2 = 𝐵
𝐶

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑

𝐴 −1 , −2 , −3 𝒅 = 2𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 4𝒌

From the figure, 𝒏1 //𝒅 and 𝒏2 is perpendicular to the line and 𝒏1

Finding 𝒏2 using cross product

𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
⇒ 𝒏2 = 2 3 4 = 17𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 7𝒌
1 −2 3
Using 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝑘 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑥 17
𝑦 . −2 = 𝑘 , 17𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 7𝑧 = 𝑘
𝑧 −7
But −1 , −2 , −3 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
⇒ −17 + 4 + 21 = 𝑘 ∴ 𝑘 = 8
∴ 17𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 7𝑧 = 8 as before.

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3. Find the equation of a plane which passes through the point 4 , 5 , −6 and
is;
a) Parallel to the plane 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 + 6 = 0
b) Parallel to the line joining points 5 , 2 , 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 , 6 , 4
c) Perpendicular to planes 3𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 6𝑧 = 0 and 7𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 8
Solution
a) Let the plane be 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑 …………………………………….. (1)
Eqn. (1) passes through 4 , 5 , −6
⇒ 4𝐴 + 5𝐵 − 6𝐶 = 𝑑 …………………………………………………………... (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
𝐴 𝑥 − 4 + 𝐵 𝑦 − 5 + 𝐶 𝑧 + 6 = 0 ………………………………….. (3)
Plane (1) is parallel to 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 + 6 = 0 if their normals are parallel
𝐴 2
⇒ 𝒏1 = 𝐵 , 𝒏2 = 3 ∴ 𝒏1 = 𝜆𝒏2
𝐶 5
2𝜆
𝒏1 = 3𝜆 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝒏2 𝑖𝑠 2𝜆: 3𝜆: 5𝜆 = 2: 3: 5
5𝜆
∴ 𝒏1 = 2𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 5𝒌 = 𝑨𝑖 + 𝐵𝒋 + 𝐶𝒌 ……………………………………. (4)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3
2 𝑥 − 4 + 3 𝑦 − 5 + 5 𝑧 + 6 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 + 7 = 0
b) Direction vector of line joining 5 , 2 , 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 , 6 , 4 𝑖𝑠
7 5 −4
6 − 2 = 4 =𝒅
4 3 1
Plane (1) or (3) above is parallel to the line . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝒅 if the
normal of plane and d are parallel
−4𝜆 −4𝜆
⇒ 𝒏 = 𝜆𝒅 = 4𝜆 ; 4𝜆 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝒏 𝑖𝑠 − 4𝜆: 4𝜆: 𝜆 = −4: 4: 1
𝜆 𝜆
∴ 𝒏 = −4𝒊 + 4𝒋 + 𝒌 = 𝑨𝑖 + 𝐵𝒋 + 𝐶𝒌 …………………………………………. (5)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 5 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3
−4 𝑥 − 4 + 4 𝑦 − 5 + 1 𝑧 + 6 = 0 𝑜𝑟 4𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 𝑧 + 2 = 0
c) 𝒏𝟏 ┴ 𝒏𝟐 , 𝒏𝟐 ┴ 𝒏𝟑
⇒ 3𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 6𝒌 . 𝑨𝑖 + 𝐵𝒋 + 𝐶𝒌 = 0
∴ 3𝐴 + 5𝐵 − 6𝐶 = 0 ……………………………… (6)
⇒ 7𝒊 + 𝒋 + 2𝒌 . 𝑨𝑖 + 𝐵𝒋 + 𝐶𝒌 = 0
∴ 3𝐴 + 5𝐵 − 6𝐶 = 0 ……………………………… (7)
Eliminating A, B and C from (3), (6) and (7)
By cross product,
𝑥−4 𝑦−5 𝑧+6
⇒ 3 5 −6 = 0
7 1 2
5 −6 3 −6 3 5
⇒ 𝑥−4 − 𝑦−5 + 𝑧+6 =0
1 2 7 2 7 1
⇒ 16 𝑥 − 4 − 48 𝑦 − 5 + −32 𝑧 + 6 = 0
∴ 𝑥 − 3𝑦− 2𝑧 = 1
4. Find the equation of a plane which passes through points
6 , 2 , −4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 , 4 , 1 and is;
a) Perpendicular to the plane 𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 6
b) Parallel to the line joining 1 , 0 , 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 −1 , 2 , 4

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Solution
a) Let plane be: 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑 …………………………………….. (1)
For 6 , 2 , −4 , 6𝐴 + 2𝐵 − 4𝐶 = 𝑑 ……………………………….. (2)
For 3 , 4 , 1 , 3𝐴 + 4𝐶 + 𝐶 = 𝑑 ……………………………………... (3)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
𝐴 𝑥 − 6 + 𝐵 𝑦 − 2 + 𝐶 𝑧 + 4 = 0 ………………….………….. (4)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (3)
3𝐴 + 6𝐵 − 5𝐶 = 0 …………………………………………………………… (5)
For planes to be perpendicular, their normals are also perpendicular
⇒ 𝑨𝑖 + 𝐵𝒋 + 𝐶𝒌 . 𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 2𝒌 = 0
⇒ 𝐴 + 5𝐵 − 2𝐶 = 0 ………………………………………………………… (6)
Eliminating A, B and C from (3), (6) and (7)
By cross product,
𝑥−6 𝑦−2 𝑧+4
⇒ 3 6 −5 = 0
1 5 −2
Simplifying, the plane is
∴ 13𝑥 + 𝑦 + 9𝑧 = 44
b) Direction vector of the line is;
−1 1 −2
2 − 0 = 2 =𝒅
4 3 1
For a line to be parallel to the plane, the normal vector to plane and
direction vector of the line must be perpendicular.
𝐴 −2
⇒ 𝒏. 𝒅 = 0 ∴ 𝐵 . 2 = 0 , −2𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 𝐶 = 0 ……..….. (7)
𝐶 1
From (4), (5) and (7), eliminating constants A, B and C
By cross product,
𝑥−6 𝑦−2 𝑧+4
⇒ 3 6 −5 = 0
−2 2 1
Simplifying, the plane is
∴ 16𝑥 + 7𝑦 + 18𝑧 = 38
NOTE:
The above question can be done using another alternative as in example (2)
above.
𝑥+1 𝑦 −3 𝑧+2
5. Find the equation of a plane containing the line −3
= −2
= 1
and the
𝑥 𝑦 −7 𝑧+7
point 0 , 7 , −7 . Prove that the line = = also lies on the plane.
1 −3 2
Solution
Let plane be: 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑 …………………………………….. (1)
0 , 7 , −7 lies on the plane
⇒ 𝐴 0 + 𝐵 7 + 𝐶 −7 = 𝑑 ……………………….……………….. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
𝐴 𝑥 − 0 + 𝐵 𝑦 − 7 + 𝐶 𝑧 + 7 = 0 ………………….………….. (3)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑓
−3𝐴 − 2𝐵 + 𝐶 = 0 ………………………………………………………….. (4)
The point on line also lies on the plane (3)
⇒ 𝐴 −1 − 0 + 𝐵 3 − 7 + 𝐶 −2 + 7 = 0

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∴ −𝐴 − 4𝐵 + 5𝐶 = 0 ………………….………………………………….. (3)
From (3), (4) and (5), eliminating constants A, B and C
By cross product,
𝑥 𝑦−2 𝑧+4
⇒ −3 −2 1 =0
−1 −4 5
Simplifying, the plane is
∴ 3𝑥 − 7𝑦 − 5𝑧 + 14 = 0
Alternatively
Let 𝐴𝐵 = 𝒂 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴
𝐴 −1 , 3 , −2 , 𝐵 0 , 7 , −7
𝒏 Let 𝒅 = −3𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 𝒌
𝒂 𝐵

𝐴 𝒅 𝐸
0 −1 1
⇒ 𝒂 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 7 − 3 = 4
−7 −2 −5
Finding normal vector to plane
𝒅×𝒂
𝒏=
𝒅×𝒂
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒅 × 𝒂 = −3 −2 1 = 6𝒊 − 14𝒋 − 10𝒌 ⇒ 𝒅 × 𝒂 = 62 + −14 2 + −10 2 =
1 4 −5
332
𝒅×𝒂 1
∴𝒏= = 6𝒊 − 14𝒋 − 10𝒌
𝒅×𝒂 332
6 14 10
But normal vector direction ratio is :− :− = 3: −7: −5
332 332 332
∴ 𝒏 = 3𝒊 − 7𝒋 − 5𝒌
Using 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝑘
⇒ 𝒓. 6𝒊 − 14𝒋 − 10𝒌 = 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 6𝑥 − 14𝑦 − 10𝑧 = 𝑘
This equation is satisfied by either 𝐴 −1 , 3 , −2 , 𝐵 0 , 7 , −7
⇒ −3 − 21 + 10 = −14 = 𝑘 = 𝑑 ∴ 𝑑 = 5
The equation of plane now is ∴ 3𝑥 − 7𝑦 − 5𝑧 + 14 = 0

COPLANAR LINES
Aare lines which lie on the same plane. They can meet/do not meet or
parallel.
𝑥−𝛼 𝑦−𝛽 𝑧−𝛾
Consider = = ………………………………….…………. (1)
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛
𝑥−𝛼 ′ 𝑦 −𝛽 ′ 𝑧−𝛾 ′
= = …………………………………………. (2)
𝑙′ 𝑚′ 𝑛′
Let the plane be 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑 ………………………………. (3)
Eqn. (3) contains (1) if 𝛼 , 𝛽 , 𝛾 lie on the plane
⇒ 𝐴𝛼 + 𝐵𝛽 + 𝐶𝛾 = 𝑑 ……………………………………………………… (4)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 4
𝐴 𝑥 − 𝛼 + 𝐵 𝑦 − 𝛽 + 𝐶 𝑧 − 𝛾 = 0 ……………………………. (5)
Also Eqn. (3) contains (1) if direction vector of line is perpendicular to plane.
⇒ 𝐴𝑙 + 𝐵𝑚 + 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑑 ……………………………………………………… (6)
Now eqn. (5) contains (2) if
𝐴 𝛼 ′ − 𝛼 + 𝐵 𝛽′ − 𝛽 + 𝐶 𝛾 ′ − 𝛾 = 0 ……………………….. (7)

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Also Eqn. (5) contains (2) if direction vector of line is perpendicular to plane
⇒ 𝐴𝑙′ + 𝐵𝑚 ′ + 𝐶𝑛 ′ = 𝑑 ……………………………………………………… (8)
From (6), (7) and (8), eliminating constants A, B and C
By cross product,
𝛼 ′ − 𝛼 𝛽′ − 𝛽 𝛾 ′ − 𝛾
∴ 𝑙 𝑚 𝑛 = 0 , which is the condition for two lines to
𝑙′ 𝑚′ 𝑛′
be coplanar.
From (5), (6) and (8), eliminating constants A, B and C

𝑥−𝛼 𝑦−𝛽 𝑧−𝛾 , which is the equation of plane

∴ 𝑙 𝑚 𝑛 =0 containing the two
𝑙′ 𝑚′ 𝑛′
lines.

Example
𝑥 𝑦 −2 𝑧+3 𝑥−2 𝑦−6 𝑧−3
1. Prove that the lines = = and = = are coplanar and lie in
1 2 3 2 3 4
the plane 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 + 7 = 0
Solution
Equation of a plane containing the first line and parallel to the second line
is
𝑥 𝑦−2 𝑧+3
1 2 3 = 0 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 + 7 = 0 , clearly this plane is satisfied by
2 3 4
the point 2 , 6 , 3 which lies on the second line.
𝑥+3 𝑦 +5 𝑧−7 𝑥+1 𝑦 +1 𝑧+1
2. Show that the lines = = and = = are coplanar and find
2 3 −3 4 5 −1
the equation of plane containing them.
Solution
Equation of a plane containing the first line and parallel to the second line
is
𝑥 𝑦−2 𝑧+3
2 3 −3 = 0 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 6𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0 . This plane passes through point
4 5 −1
−1 , −1 , −1 on the second line so that it contains the second line. Thus the
two lines are coplanar and the equation of plane containing them is 6𝑥 −
5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0.

CONDITION FOR 4-POINTS TO BE COPLANAR

Four points will be coplanar if the plane passing through any 3-points
passes through the fourth point.
Example
Show that the points below are coplanar
a) 0 , −1 , 0 , 2 , 1 , −1 , 1 , 1 , 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 , 3 , 0
b) 0 , 1 , 3 , 1 , 0 , −4 , 1 , 1 , −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 , 2 , 2
Solution
a) Let 𝐴 0 , −1 , 0 , 𝐵 2 , 1 , −1 , 𝐶 1 , 1 , 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 3 , 3 , 0
Finding the equation of plane through A, B and C
Using 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝑑

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2 0 2
Let 𝒂 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 1 − −1 = 2
−1 0 −1
1 0 1
𝒃 = 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴 = 1 − −1 = 2
1 0 1
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 2 2 −1 = 4𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 2𝒌
1 2 1
Ratio of normal direction vector = 4: −3: 2 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝒏 = 4𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 2𝒌
𝑥 4
∴ 𝑦 . −3 = 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 𝑑
𝑧 2
But 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 lie on this plane
For 𝐴 0 , −1 , 0 , 4 0 − 3 −1 + 2 0 = 𝑑 ∴ 𝑑 = 3
The equation of the plane is 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3
Now for 𝐷 3 , 3 , 0 , 4 3 − 3 3 + 2 0 = 3 = 𝑹𝑯𝑺 . Hence points are coplanar.
b) Let 𝐴 0 , 1 , 3 , 𝐵 1 , 0 , −4 , 𝐶 1 , 1 , −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 1 , 2 , 2
Finding the equation of plane through A, B and C
Using 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝑑
1 0 1
Let 𝒂 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 0 − 1 = −1
−4 3 −7
1 0 1
𝒃 = 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴 = 1 − 1 = 0
−1 3 −4
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 1 −1 −7 = 4𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝒌
1 0 −4
Ratio of normal direction vector = 4: −3: 1 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝒏 = 4𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝒌
𝑥 4
∴ 𝑦 . −3 = 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑑
𝑧 1
But 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 lie on this plane
For 𝐴 0 , 1 , 3 , 4 0 − 3 1 + 3 = 𝑑 ∴ 𝑑 = 0
The equation of the plane is 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
Now for 𝐷 1 , 2 , 2 , 4 1 − 3 2 + 2 = 3 = 𝑹𝑯𝑺 . Hence points are coplanar.

COPLANAR VECTORS
Vectors lying in the same plane are coplanar vectors.
Let vectors a, b and c lie on the same plane.
For coplanar vectors
𝒂. 𝒃 × 𝒄 = 0
Examples
Show that the vectors are coplanar
a) 𝒂 = 𝒊 − 4𝒌 , 𝒃 = 𝒊 − 𝒋 − 7𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒄 = 𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 2𝒌
b) 𝒂 = 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 𝒌 , 𝒃 = 𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒄 = 3𝒊 + 4𝒋
Solution
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
a) 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 1 0 −4 = −4𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 𝒌
1 −1 −7

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𝒄. 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 2𝒌 . −4𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 𝒌 = −4 + 6 − 2 = 0 . Thus vectors are

coplanar.
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
b) 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 2 2 −1 = 4𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 0𝒌
1 2 1
Now 𝒄. 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 3𝒊 + 4𝒋 + 0𝒌 . 4𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 0𝒌 = 12 − 12 + 0 = 0 . Thus vectors
are coplanar.
NOTE:
A correct combination of vectors can reduce on the unnecessary
calculations to satisfy the condition for coplanar vectors.

ANGLE BETWEEN A LINE AND A PLANE

Consider the line 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝝀𝒅 and the plane 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑

𝛽
𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝝀𝒅 𝒏 = 𝐴𝒊 + 𝐵𝒋 + 𝐶𝒌

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝑑
𝜃

Required angle = 𝜃 = 90 − 𝛽
Finding angle 𝛽 between the line and the normal vector to plane
𝒏. 𝒅 = 𝒏 . 𝒅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
But 𝛽 = 90 − 𝜃
⇒ 𝒏. 𝒅 = 𝒏 . 𝒅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90 − 𝜃
⇒ 𝒏. 𝒅 = 𝒏 . 𝒅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90 − 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝒏.𝒅
∴ 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1
𝒏.𝒅

In general the angle between a line and a plane is the complement of the
angle between the normal vector of plane and direction vector of the line.
Examples
Find the angle between the following line and plane
a) 𝒓 = 𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝜆 2𝒊 − 𝒋 − 𝒌 , 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒: 𝒓. 𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 7𝒌 = 10
4
b) 𝒓 = 2 + 𝜆 𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 1 − 𝜆 𝒌 , 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒: 𝒓. 1 = 6
−1
𝑥 𝑦−1 𝑧+3
c) 4
= −1
= −5
, 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 + 3 = 0
d) 𝒓 = 3𝜆𝒊 + 2𝜆𝒋 − 6𝜆𝒌 , 𝒓. 4𝒊 − 3𝒌 = 20

Solution
a) 𝒓 = 𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝜆 2𝒊 − 𝒋 − 𝒌 ⇒ 𝒅 = 2𝒊 − 𝒋 − 𝒌
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒: 𝒓. 𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 7𝒌 = 10 ⇒ 𝒏 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 7𝒌
Using 𝒏. 𝒅 = 𝒏 𝒅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝒏. 𝒅 = 2𝒊 − 𝒋 − 𝒌 . 𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 7𝒌 = 2 + 2 + 7 = 11
𝒏 = 1 + 4 + 49 = 54 , 𝒅 = 4 + 1 + 1 = 6
𝒏.𝒅 11 11
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = = ⇒ 𝜃 = 37.70
𝒏 𝒅 54× 6 18

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4
b) 𝒓 = 2 + 𝜆 𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 1 − 𝜆 𝒌 , 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒: 𝒓. 1 =6
−1
2 1 1 4 4
𝒓 = −3 + 𝜆 0 ⇒ 𝒅 = 0 , 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒: 𝒓. 1 = 6 ⇒ 𝒏 = 1
1 −1 −1 −1 −1
𝒏. 𝒅 = 4𝒊 + 𝒋 − 𝒌 . 𝒊 + 0𝒋 − 𝒌 = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5
𝒏 = 16 + 1 + 1 = 18 , 𝒅 = 1 + 0 + 1 = 2
𝒏.𝒅 5 5
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = = ⇒ 𝜃 = 54.40
𝒏 𝒅 18× 2 6
0 4 4 1
𝑥 𝑦−1 𝑧+3
c) = = 1⇒𝒓=+ 𝜆 −1 ∴ 𝒅 = −1 , 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 + 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝒏 = −2
4 −1 −5
−3 −5 −5 4
𝒏. 𝒅 = 4𝒊 − 𝒋 − 5𝒌 . 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 4𝒌 = 4 + 2 − 20 = −14
𝒏 = 16 + 1 + 25 = 42 , 𝒅 = 1 + 4 + 16 = 21
𝒏.𝒅 −14
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝒏 𝒅
= 21× 42
⇒ 𝜃 = −28.10 ∴ 𝜃 = 28.10 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
6
d) Left as an exercise 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 7 ∴ 𝜃 = 590

ANGLE BETWEEN PLANES

𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 = 𝑑1

𝑛1

𝜃
𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 = 𝑑2

The angle between planes is the angle between their normals.

Using dot-product 𝒏𝟏 .𝒏𝟐
𝒏𝟏 . 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∴ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
Example
Find the angle between the pair of planes
a) 𝒓. 𝒊 − 𝒋 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓. 𝒋 + 𝒌 = 1
b) 𝒓. 𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 2𝒌 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓. 𝒋 = 0
c) 𝒓. 𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒓. 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝒌 = 0
d) 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
Solution
a) 𝒓. 𝒊 − 𝒋 = 4 ⇒ 𝒏𝟏 = 𝒊 − 𝒋 = 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 0𝒌 ; 𝒓. 𝒋 + 𝒌 = 1 ⇒ 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒋 + 𝒌 = 0𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌
Using dot-product
𝒏𝟏 . 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒏𝟏 . 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 0𝒌 . 0𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌 = 0 − 1 + 0 = −1
𝒏𝟏 = 0 + 1 + 1 = 2 ; 𝒏𝟐 = 0 + 1 + 1 = 2
𝒏𝟏 .𝒏𝟐 −1
∴ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 = 1200
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 2× 2
In terms of acute angles, 𝜃 = 180 − 120 = 600
b) 𝒓. 𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 2𝒌 = 4 ⇒ 𝒏𝟏 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 2𝒌 ; 𝒓. 𝒋 = 0 ⇒ 𝒏𝟐 = 0𝒊 + 𝒋 + 0𝒌
Using dot-product
𝒏𝟏 . 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒏𝟏 . 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 2𝒌 . 0𝒊 + 𝒋 + 0𝒌 = 0 − 2 + 0 = −2
𝒏𝟏 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 3 ; 𝒏𝟐 = 0 + 1 + 0 = 1

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𝒏𝟏 .𝒏𝟐 −2
∴ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 = 131.80
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 3
In terms of acute angles, 𝜃 = 180 − 131.80 = 48.20
c) 𝒓. 𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌 = 1 ⇒ 𝒏𝟏 = 𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌 ; 𝒓. 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝒌 = 0 ⇒ 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝒌
Using dot-product
𝒏𝟏 . 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒏𝟏 . 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌 . 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝒌 = 1 − 1 + 1 = 1
𝒏𝟏 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 ; 𝒏𝟐 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
𝒏𝟏 .𝒏𝟐 1 1
∴ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 3× 3
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 3
= 70.50
d) 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 1 ⇒ 𝒏𝟏 = 2𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 5𝒌 ; 𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 𝒌
𝒏𝟏 . 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒏𝟏 . 𝒏𝟐 = 2𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 5𝒌 . 𝒊 − 2𝒋 − 𝒌 = 2 − 6 + 5 = 1
𝒏𝟏 = 4 + 9 + 25 = 38 ; 𝒏𝟐 = 1 + 4 + 1 = 6
𝒏𝟏 .𝒏𝟐 1
∴ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 = 86.20
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 38 × 6

CONDITION FOR PERPENDICULARITY OF 2-PLANES

If two planes are perpendicular, then their normals are also perpendicular.
Consider two planes 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 = 𝑑1 and 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 = 𝑑2
𝒏2
𝒏1

𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 = 𝑑1

𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 = 𝑑1
⇒ 𝒏1 . 𝒏2 = 0 ⇒ 𝐴1 𝐴2 + 𝐵1 𝐵2 + 𝐶1 𝐶2 = 0

CONDITION FOR PARALLELLISM OF 2-PLANES

If two planes are parallel, then their normals are also parallel.

𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 = 𝑑1

𝒏1 𝒏2
𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 = 𝑑2

⇒ 𝒏1 = 𝜆 𝒏2
⇒ 𝐴1 𝒊 + 𝐵1 𝒋 + 𝐶1 𝒌 = 𝜆 𝐴2 𝒊 + 𝐵2 𝒋 + 𝐶2 𝒌
𝐴1
⇒ 𝐴1 = 𝜆 𝐴2 ⇒ 𝜆 =
𝐴2
𝐵1
⇒ 𝐵1 = 𝜆 𝐵2 ⇒ 𝜆 =
𝐵2
𝐶1
⇒ 𝐶1 = 𝜆 𝐶2 ⇒ 𝜆 =
𝐶2

𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐶1
⇒ 𝐴2
= 𝐵2
= 𝐶2
=𝜆

EQUATION OF A PLANE PARALLEL TO A GIVEN PLANE 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑

The required plane is generally given as
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

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, where𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, that can be obtained from any other condition

satisfying the plane.

Example
1. Find the equation of a plane passing through point 1 , 2 , 3 and parallel to the
plane
4𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 7.
Solution
Required plane: 4𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 𝑘
But 1 , 2 , 3 lies on the plane
⇒ 4 − 10 + 18 = 𝑘 ∴ 𝑘 = 12
The plane is 4𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 12
2. Find the equation of a plane parallel to plane 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 1 and passing
through 1 , 2 , 3 . 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4𝑧 + 4 = 0

INTERSECTION OF PLANES
Intersection of two planes:
Consider two planes 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 = 𝑑1 and 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 = 𝑑2

𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 = 𝑑1

𝐺
𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 = 𝑑1
𝐹

Two planes intersect in a straight common line. FG is the common line of

intersection
Equation of a plane containing the common line of intersection of two
planes:

𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 − 𝑑1 + 𝜆 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 − 𝑑2 = 0

The equation is of the form 𝑈 + 𝜆𝑉 = 0 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑈 = 𝑉 = 0 and 𝜆 = constant to

be obtained from the other condition satisfying the plane.
Equation of the common line to 2-intersecting planes:
This is obtained as below.

𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑧 = 𝑑1
•𝑃 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧

𝒏1
𝒏2 𝒅𝟏 = d.v of common line
𝐺
𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑦 + 𝐶2 𝑧 = 𝑑2
Direction vector, 𝒅 is perpendicular to 𝒏1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒏2

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∴ 𝒅 = 𝒏1 × 𝒏2

Using vector equation of a line 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝜆𝒅

This line intersects at least one of the 𝑥𝑦 , 𝑥𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒. Thus one point
on this line has 𝑎 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑥 − 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 − 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒. 𝑖. 𝑒. Let x= 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = 0
Now solving for 𝑥 and 𝑦 if 𝑧 = 0 in the equations of planes, yields the
coordinate on the common line. Hence, equation of line FG is of the form;
𝑥
𝒓 = 𝑦 + 𝜆 𝒏1 × 𝒏2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = 0
0
Example
1. Find the equation of a plane passing through the line of intersection of planes
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −5, and is perpendicular to the plane
4𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 8. Find also the equation of line of intersection of the planes
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −5.
Solution
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6 ……………………………………………………… (1)
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −5 ……………………………………………. (2)
Required plane: 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 6 + 𝜆 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 + 5 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 1 + 2𝜆 + 𝑦 1 + 3𝜆 + 𝑧 1 + 4𝜆 + 5𝜆 − 6 = 0
This plane is perpendicular to 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 8 if:
4 1 + 2𝜆 + 5 1 + 3𝜆 − 5 1 + 4𝜆 = 0
4
⇒ 4 + 8𝜆 + 5 + 15𝜆 − 5 − 20 = 0 𝑜𝑟 3𝜆 + 4 = 0 ∴ 𝜆 = − 3
8 16 20
Equation of plane: ⇒ 𝑥 1 − 3 + 𝑦 1 − 4 + 𝑧 1 − + − −6 =0
3 3
−5𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 13𝑧 − 38 = 0 𝑜𝑟 5𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 13 + 38 = 0
Now finding the equation of the common line:
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6 , 𝒏1 = 𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌 , and 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −5 , 𝒏2 = 2𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 4𝒌
Direction vector of line: 𝒅 = 𝒏1 × 𝒏2
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒅 = 1 1 1 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 𝒌
2 3 4
Finding a point on the required line:
Fixing 𝑧 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6 ………………………….. (3)
⇒ 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −5 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = −5 …………. (4)
Solving eqns. (3) and (4) simultaneously,
𝑥 = 23 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = −17
⇒ 23 , −17 , 0 is the point on the required line.
23 1
∴ 𝒓 = −17 + 𝜆 −2
0 1
2. Find the parametric equations of the line which is the intersection of 𝑥 + 2𝑦 +
3𝑧 − 8 = 0 and 3𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 + 3 = 0. Find the equation of the plane containing
this line and perpendicular to the plane 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −2.
Solution
Fixing 𝑧 = 0 and solving the equations of planes simultaneously,
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 − 8 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 8 …………………………………….. (1)

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3𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 + 3 = 0 ⇒ 3𝑥 + 3𝑦 = −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑦 = −1 ……….. (2)
Solving eqns. (1) and (2) simultaneously,
𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 3
⇒ 2 , 3 , 0 is the point on the required line.
Direction vectors of the lines are respectively 𝒏1 = 𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 + 3𝒌 , 𝒏2 = 3𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 𝒌
Direction vector of line: 𝒅 = 𝒏1 × 𝒏2
𝒊 −𝒋 𝒌
𝒅 = 1 2 3 = 11𝒊 + 8𝒋 − 9𝒌
3 −3 1
The required line is;
2 11
∴ 𝒓= 3 +𝜆 8
0 −9
Required plane:
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 − 8 + 𝑘 3𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 + 3 = 0
𝑥 1 + 3𝑘 + 𝑦 2 − 3𝑘 + 𝑧 3 + 𝑘 + 3𝑘 − 8 = 0
This plane is perpendicular to plane 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −2 if:
2 1 + 3𝑘 + 3 2 − 3𝑘 − 4 3 + 𝑘 = 0 ∵ 𝒏1 . 𝒏2 = 0
4
⇒ 2 + 6𝑘 + 6 − 9𝑘 − 12 − 4𝑘 = 0 ∴ 𝑘 = −
7
∴ Equation of plane is:
17 12 4 12
𝑥 1− +𝑦 2+ +𝑧 3−7 − −8 = 0
7 7 7
∴ −5𝑥 + 26𝑦 + 17𝑧 + 68 = 0
Task
1. Find the equation of the plane which contains the line of intersection of the
planes
6𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0 and;
a) Perpendicular to the plane 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5
b) Parallel to the line with direction cosines proportional to 1 , 3 , 2 .
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 11𝑥 + 10𝑦 − 13𝑧 − 4 = 0, 2𝑥 − 20𝑦 + 29𝑧 + 2 = 0
1 1 1
2. Show that the lines 3 𝑥 + 4 = 5 𝑦 + 6 = − 2 𝑧 − 1 ; 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 + 5 = 0 = 2𝑥 +
3𝑦 + 4𝑧 − 4 are coplanar. Find also the coordinates of their point of
intersection and the equation of the plane that contains their line.
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 2 , 4 , −3 ; 45𝑥 − 17𝑦 + 25𝑧 + 53 = 0
𝑥+5 𝑦 +4 𝑧−7
3. Show that the lines = = , 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 − 2 = 0 = 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 3are
3 1 2
coplanar and find the equation of the plane in which they lie.
𝐻𝐼𝑁𝑇: 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑: 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 − 2 + 𝜆 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 3 = 0 . This plane is
parallel to the line if its normal is perpendicular to d.v. of the line. 𝑖. 𝑒. 3 3 +
9
𝜆 + 2 − 3𝜆 − 2 1 + 2𝜆 = 0 ∴ 𝜆 = ⇒ −5 , −4 , 7 , 21𝑥 − 19𝑦 + 22𝑧 − 125 = 0
4

DISTANCE OF A POINT FROM A PLANE

Consider a point 𝑃 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 and the plane 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0.
Let 𝑄𝑃 = 𝑑 𝑃 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 𝒏 = 𝐴𝒊 + 𝐵𝒋 + 𝐶𝒌

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0
𝑄 𝑥 ,𝑦 ,𝑧

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Vector 𝑄𝑃 𝑖𝑠 // to 𝒏
⇒ 𝑄𝑃 = 𝜆𝒏
𝑎−𝑥
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝑄 = 𝑏 − 𝑦
𝑐−𝑧
𝑎−𝑥 𝐴
⇒ 𝑏−𝑦 =𝜆 𝐵
𝑐−𝑧 𝐶
⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑥 = 𝜆𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑎 − 𝜆𝐴
⇒ 𝑏 − 𝑦 = 𝜆𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑏 − 𝜆𝐵
⇒ 𝑐 − 𝑧 = 𝜆𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = 𝑐 − 𝜆𝐶
∴ 𝑄 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 ≡ 𝑄 𝑎 − 𝜆𝐴 , 𝑏 − 𝜆𝐵 , 𝑐 − 𝜆𝐶 lies on the plane 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0
⇒ 𝐴 𝑎 − 𝜆𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑏 − 𝜆𝐵 + 𝐶 𝑐 − 𝜆𝐶 + 𝑑 = 0
𝐴𝑎 +𝐵𝑏+𝐶𝑐+𝑑
𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑎 + 𝐵𝑏 + 𝐶𝑐 + 𝑑 = 𝜆 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 ∴ 𝜆 = …….…….. (1)
𝐴2 +𝐵 2 +𝐶 2
But 𝑄𝑃 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑄𝑃 = 𝜆 𝒏
∴ 𝑄𝑃 = 𝜆 × 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 ………………………………………………………………….
(2)
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
𝐴𝑎 +𝐵𝑏+𝐶𝑐+𝑑
⇒ 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑑 = × 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2
𝐴2 +𝐵 2 +𝐶 2
𝐴𝑎 +𝐵𝑏+𝐶𝑐+𝑑
∴𝑑= =Pperpendicular distance of point 𝑃 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 from the plane
𝐴2 +𝐵 2 +𝐶 2
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0
This distance can sometimes be negative, thus the absolute value
(numerical value) is taken to ensure +𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒.

Let 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 be the plane and 𝑃 𝑎 , 𝑏 , 𝑐 be a

point. The distance 𝑑 from the point is given by;

𝐴𝑎 + 𝐵𝑏 + 𝐶𝑐 + 𝑑
𝑑=
𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2

Rule to find perpendicular distance of a point from a plane with

equation given in general form 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 𝑹. 𝑯. 𝑺 = 0
„‟Substitute the coordinates of the point in the equation of plane with
𝑹𝑯𝑺 = 0 and divide the result by
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 2 „‟
Examples
1. A plane passes through 3 −points 𝐴 0 , 1, 3 , 𝐵 1 , 0 , −4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 1 , 1 , −1 . Find
its equation and length of a perpendicular to it from 2 , 4 , −3 .
Solution
Equation of plane is left for the student as an exercise. Answer: 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑𝒚 +
𝒛=𝟎
Using the formula,
4 2 −3 4 −3 7 7
Perpendicular distance = =− = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
4 2 + −3 2 +12 26 26
2. Show that the distance between the parallel planes 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 + 3 = 0 and
1
4𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 + 5 = 0 𝑖𝑠 6.

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Solution
Find any point on any plane.
Let 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 0 , now finding 𝑧
For 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 + 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = −3
∴ 0 , 0 , −3 lies on this plane.
Now perpendicular distance of 0 , 0 , −3 from 4𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 + 5 = 0 is;
4 0 −4 0 +2 −3 +5 1 1
𝑑= =− = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
4 2 +4 2 +4 6 6
3. Find the equations of the planes parallel to the plane 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 3 = 0
whose perpendicular distance from 1 , 2 , 3 𝑖𝑠 1 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡.
Solution
Given plane: 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 3 = 0
Any plane parallel to it is: 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 + 𝑘 = 0 ……………………………. (1)
Since perpendicular distance of eqn. (1) from 1 , 2 , 3 𝑖𝑠 = 1 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
1 1 −2 2 +2 3 +𝑘
⇒± =1
1+4+4
𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏
3+𝑘
⇒± = 1 𝑜𝑟 ± 3 + 𝑘 = 3 ∴ 𝑘 = 0 , −6
3
From eqn. (1), the required planes are;
∴ 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0 , 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 6 = 0
4. A plane contains the points 𝐴 −4 , 9 , −9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 5 , −9 , 6 and is perpendicular
to the line which joins 𝐶 4 , −6 , 𝑘 and B. Evaluates k and find the equation of
the plane.
Solution 𝐴 𝐵
𝐵𝐶 //𝒏 ⇒ 𝒏 = 𝜆𝐵𝐶
4−5 −1
𝐵𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐵 = −6 + 9 = 3 𝒏
𝑘−6 𝑘−6
Also 𝐴𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝐵𝐶
5+4 9 𝐶
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = −9 − 9 = −18
6+9 15
⇒ 𝐴𝐵. 𝐵𝐶 = 0 ∴ −1 9 + 3 −18 + 𝑘 − 6 15 = 0 ………… ÷ 3
51
⇒ −51 + 5𝑘 = 0 ∴ 𝑘 =
5
51
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 − 1 ∶ 3 ∶ 𝑘 − 6 , 𝑘 =
5
51
⇒ 𝒏 𝑕𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 − 1 ∶ 3 ∶ − 6 = −5 ∶ 15 ∶ 21
5
Using 𝒓. 𝒏 = 𝑑
−5
𝒓. 15 = 𝑑 , this plane contains A and B.
21
−4 −5
For 𝐴 −4 , 9 , −9 , 𝑑 = 9 . 15 = 34
−9 21
−5
∴ −5𝑥 + 15𝑦 + 21𝑧 − 34 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝒓. 15 = 34
21

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COMPLEX NUMBERS
Introduction:
A complex number is that can be expressed in the form:
𝑧 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 + 𝑖 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 . 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 ; 𝑎 , 𝑏 ∈ ℝ
Examples
𝑧 = 3 + 4𝑖 , 𝑧 = 4𝑖 = 0 + 4𝑖 , 𝑧 = 4 = 4 + 0𝑖 where 𝑖 = −1
Origin of symbol 𝑖 = −1
This originates from finding square root of negative numbers.
Consider
a) 4
b) −4
Solution
a) 4 = ±2
b) −4 = −1 × 4 = −1 × 4 𝐵𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑠: 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎 × 𝑏
= 𝑖 × ±2 = ±2𝑖 𝐿𝑒𝑡 −1 = 𝑖 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Note:
There is no exact square root of a negative number that yields real numbers
that are negative or positive.
Algebra of 𝑖 = −1
1) Simplify
a) 𝑖 2 b) 𝑖 3 c) 𝑖 5 d) 𝑖 4
Solution
2 1 2
a) 𝑖2 = 𝑖 2
= −1 = −1 2 = −1
2
∴ 𝑖 = −1
b) 𝑖 3 = 𝑖 2 × 𝑖 = −1 × 𝑖 = −𝑖
∴ 𝑖 3 = −𝑖
c) 𝑖 5 = 𝑖 2 × 𝑖 3 = −1 × −𝑖 = 𝑖
∴ 𝑖5 = 𝑖
d) 𝑖 4 = 𝑖 2 2 = −1 2 = 1
∴ 𝑖4 = 1

Note:
a. 𝑖 2 = 𝑖 × 𝑖 = −1 × −1 ≠ −1 × −1 = 1
b. The result 𝑖 2 = −1 , 𝑖 3 = −𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 4 = 1 are important in the algebra of 𝑖 =
−1.
2) Simplify
a) 𝑖 20 b) 𝑖 39 c) 𝑖 40 d) 𝑖15
Solution
a) 𝑖 20 = 𝑖 2 10 = −1 10 = 1
∴ 𝑖 20 = 1
b) 𝑖 39 = 𝑖 3 13 = −𝑖 13 = −1 × 𝑖 13 = − 𝑖 13
= − 𝑖 4 3 × 𝑖 = − 1 3 × 𝑖 = −𝑖
39
∴ 𝑖 = −𝑖
c) 𝑖 40 = 𝑖 4 10 = 1 10 = 1
∴ 𝑖 40 = 1

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d) 𝑖15 = 𝑖 4 3 × 𝑖 3 = 1 × −𝑖 = −𝑖
∴ 𝑖15 = −𝑖

Trial questions
Simplify
a) 𝑖 6 b) 𝑖 8 c) 𝑖 7 d) 𝑖17
Answer:
a) 𝑖 6 = 𝑖 4 𝑖2 = 1 × −1 = −1
b) 𝑖8 = 𝑖4 2 = 1
c) 𝑖 7 = 𝑖 4 𝑖3 = −𝑖
d) 𝑖17 = 𝑖 4 4 . 𝑖 = 𝑖

OPERATION IN COMPLEX NUMBERS

The following shall be considered:
i) Addition
ii) Subtraction
iii) Multiplication
iv) Division
Methods used
 Analytical method
 Graphical method

ADDITION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

A. Analytical method

Given that 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 𝑥3 + 𝑖𝑦3

Find: i) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ii) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3
Solution
i. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2
= 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑖 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
ii. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑖𝑦3
= 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑖 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3
Deduction
When adding complex umbers, add the real parts and imaginary parts
separately, and write the result in complex number form.
Examples
1) Given that 𝑧1 = 4 + 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −3 − 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 3 + 2𝑖
Find i) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ii) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3
Solution
i. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 4 + 𝑖 + −3 − 𝑖
= 4 − 3 + 𝑖 1 − 1 = 1 + 0𝑖 = 1
ii. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 = 4 + 𝑖 + −3 − 𝑖 + 3 + 2𝑖
= 4 − 3 + 3 + 𝑖 1 − 1 + 2 = 3 + 2𝑖
2) Given that 𝑧1 = 4 , 𝑧2 = 3𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 3 + 2𝑖
Find i) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ii) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3

Solution
i. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 4 + 3𝑖

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ii. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 = 4 + 3𝑖 + 3 + 2𝑖 = 7 + 5𝑖

B. Graphical method
Before we look at this method, let us first look at Argand diagram.
Argand diagram
This is a graph having two axes.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

Cartesian graph Argand diagram

𝐼𝑚 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑅𝑒 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑂
𝑂

Representation of a complex number on Argand diagram

Given that 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 , 𝑧 has a point 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 in general form. Plotting
𝑥1 , 𝑦1
From the figure, a complex number is represented using an arrow from
the origin to the point representing complex number.
𝐼𝑚 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑦1 𝑧

𝑅𝑒 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑂
𝑥1
Example
1) Given that 𝑧1 = 4 + 3𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −3 − 2𝑖 , 𝑧3 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 = 2𝑖
Represent the complex numbers on different Argand diagram.
Solution
𝑧1 = 4 + 3𝑖 has a point 4 , 3 𝑧3 = 5 + 0𝑖 has a point 5 , 0
𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚

3 𝑧1 3

2 2

1 1
𝑧3
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒
−1 1 𝑧2 5 has
2 = 3−34− 2𝑖 6 7a point
8 −3 , −2 −1 𝑧14 =20 +32𝑖 4has5 a point
6 7 8 0, 2
−1 −1

−2 −2

−3 −3

−4 −4

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𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
3
3
2
2 𝑧4
1
1
𝑅𝑒
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 𝑅𝑒
−1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−1
𝑧2 −2
−2
−3 −3
−4 −4

2) Represent the complex numbers on the same set of axes on Argand diagram
𝑧1 = 3 + 2𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −2 + 3𝑖, 𝑧3 = 1 − 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 = −2 − 𝑖 𝐼𝑚
𝑧2
3
𝑧1
2

𝑅𝑒
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
𝑧4 −1 𝑧3
−2

Trial questions −3

Represent the complex numbers on the Argand diagram −4

1 3 1
𝑧1 = 3 − 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = + 𝑖, 𝑧3 = 4 − 3𝑖
2 2 2
Now adding complex numbers by Graphical method
Two complex numbers are added using a parallelogram. Each complex
number is represented on the Argand diagram, and the two complex
numbers form the adjacent sides of a parallelogram. The addition result is
given by the diagonal of a parallelogram.
Consider 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2
𝐼𝑚 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑖 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
∴ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 =
𝑧1 + 𝑧2
𝑧1

𝑧2
𝑅𝑒

Addition of complex numbers by graphical method

𝐼𝑚 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3

𝑧3
𝑧1 + 𝑧2
𝑧1

𝑧2
𝑅𝑒

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Three complex numbers are added as a continuous chain . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 =

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 . First add any two . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 to get the result and this result
with 𝑧3 give a diagonal of a parallelogram which is the required result.
Example
Given that 𝑧1 = 4 + 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −2 + 𝑖, 𝑧3 = −3 − 2𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 = 5 + 𝑖
Find:
a) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3
b) 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 + 𝑧4
Solution
a) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 = 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 𝐼𝑚
Adding 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 3
𝑧1 + 𝑧2
2
𝑧2 𝑧1
1

𝑅𝑒
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1
𝑧3 −2
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 = −1 + 0𝑖
b) 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 + 𝑧4 = 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 + 𝑧4 −3
Adding 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 −4

NOTICE:
The diagonal for a parallelogram from 𝑧4 and 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 is just a straight line
whose midpoint is 0 , 0 . 𝑖. 𝑒. Parallelogram cannot be drawn.

𝐼𝑚
3

2
𝑧2 𝑧4
1

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1
𝑅𝑒
1 2 3 4 5 6
𝑧2 + 𝑧3 −1

−2
𝑧3 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 + 𝑧4 = 0 + 0𝑖
−3
−4
Trial questions:
1) Given that 𝑧1 = 3 + 4𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −1 + 2𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = −3𝑖 + 2. Represent the complex
numbers clearly on the Argand diagram.
a) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
b) 𝑧2 + 𝑧3
c) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3
2) Given that 𝑧1 = 4 + 3𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −4 − 3𝑖 , 𝑧3 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 = 2𝑖 . using Argand
diagram find;
a) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
b) 𝑧2 + 𝑧3
c) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3
Note: 𝑧3 = 5 = 5 + 0𝑖 , 𝑧4 = 2𝑖 − 0 + 2𝑖

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SUBTRACTION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

A. Analytical method
Given that 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 𝑥3 + 𝑖𝑦3
Find: i) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ii) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
Solution
i. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2
= 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑖 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 (𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠)

ii. 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 − 𝑥3 + 𝑖𝑦3

= 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + 𝑖 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 − 𝑦3 (𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠)

Deduction
When subtracting complex umbers, subtract the real parts and imaginary
parts separately, and write the result in complex number form.
Examples
1) Given that 𝑧1 = 3 + 2𝑖, 𝑧2 = 4 − 3𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 4 + 3𝑖
Find i) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ii) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3
Solution
i. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 4 + 𝑖 + −3 − 𝑖
= 4 − 3 + 𝑖 1 − 1 = 1 + 0𝑖 = 1
ii. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 = 4 + 𝑖 + −3 − 𝑖 + 3 + 2𝑖
= 4 − 3 + 3 + 𝑖 1 − 1 + 2 = 3 + 2𝑖
2) Given that 𝑧1 = 3 + 2𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 4 − 3𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 4 + 3𝑖
Find i) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ii) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
Solution
i. 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 3 + 2𝑖 − 4 − 3𝑖
= 3 − 4 + 𝑖 2— 3 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = −1 + 5𝑖
ii. 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 = 3 + 2𝑖 − 4 − 3𝑖 − 4 + 3𝑖
= 3 − 4 − 4 + 𝑖 2— 3 − 3 = −5 + 2𝑖
Task
Given that 𝑧1 = 4 + 3𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 3 − 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = −4 − 3𝑖. Find:
a) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟏 + 𝟒𝒊
b) 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟕 + 𝟐𝒊
c) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟓 + 𝟕𝒊

Graphical method
This is done using the Argand diagram just like in addition.
Consider two complex numbers 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 . To find 𝑧1 − 𝑧2
, proceed as follows.
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 + −𝑧2 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔
Adding using Argand diagram the complex numbers 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑧2
𝐼𝑚
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 𝑧1
𝑧2
𝑅𝑒
−𝑧2

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If 𝑧3 = 𝑥3 + 𝑖𝑦3 , find 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 if 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2

Solution
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 𝑜𝑟 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
Considering 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 + 𝑧3
𝑧3 𝐼𝑚
𝑧1 𝑧1 − 𝑧2

𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧2
𝑧3 𝑅𝑒

− 𝑧1 − 𝑧2

Considering second alternative 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3

Dealing with 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 + −𝑧2 and then dealing with 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 =
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 + −𝑧3 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 𝐼𝑚

𝑧3 𝑧1
𝑧1 − 𝑧2
𝑧2
𝑅𝑒
−𝑧2
Note:
Two complex numbers are subtracted by addition of the negative of the
second complex number being subtracted from the first.𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 +
−𝑧2 . A parallelogram diagonal gives the result, and the answer must be
expressed in complex number form.
Example
Using the Argand diagram simplify given that 𝑧1 = 3 + 4𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 2 + 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 =
6 − 2𝑖
i) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ii) 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 iii) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
Solution 𝐼𝑚
i. 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 + −𝑧2 ∴ 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 1 + 3𝑖
5
4
𝑧1

𝑧1 − 𝑧2 3

1 𝑧2
𝐼𝑚
𝑅𝑒
−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 5
−𝑧2 −1 4
−2 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
3
−3
2
−𝑧3
ii. 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 = 𝑧2 + −𝑧3 1
∴ 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 = −4 − 3𝑖
𝑅𝑒
iii. 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
∴ 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 = −5 + 5𝑖 −1
−2
𝑧3
−3

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𝑧2 − 𝑧3 − 𝑧3 𝐼𝑚
5
4 𝑧1
3
2
− 𝑧2 + 1 𝑧2
𝑧3
𝑅𝑒
−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
−1
−2 𝑧3
−3
Trial questions:
Given that 𝑧1 = 3 − 2𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 2𝑖. Using the Argand diagram find;
i) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ii) 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 iii) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 − 𝑧3 iv) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒔: 𝒊) − 𝟏 − 𝟐𝒊 𝒊𝒊 𝟒 − 𝟐𝒊 𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝟕 − 𝟒𝒊 𝒊𝒗 − 𝟏 − 𝟒𝒊

MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

A. Analytical method
Given that 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2
To find 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 proceed as follows:
𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 . 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2
= 𝑥1 . 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑥1 . 𝑦2 + 𝑖𝑦1 . 𝑥2 + 𝑖 2 𝑦1 . 𝑦2
= 𝑥1 . 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 . 𝑦2 + 𝑖 𝑥1 . 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 . 𝑥2 ∵ 𝑖 2 = −1
Deduction
When multiplying complex numbers, open the brackets just like in
expansion of binomials, simplify the expressions and write the result in
complex number form.
Examples
Given that 𝑧1 = 3 + 2𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −1 + 2𝑖 𝑧3 = 4 − 3𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 = −3 − 4𝑖. Find:
i) 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 ii) 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 iii) 𝑧3 . 𝑧4 iv) 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 iv) 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 . 𝑧4
Solution
i. 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 3 + 2𝑖 . −1 + 2𝑖
= 3 −1 + 2𝑖 + 2𝑖 −1 + 2𝑖
= −3 + 6𝑖 − 2𝑖 + 4𝑖 2 = −3 − 4 + 4𝑖 ∵ 𝑖 2 = −1
= −7 + 4𝑖
ii. 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 = −1 + 2𝑖 . 4 − 3𝑖
= −1 4 − 3𝑖 + 2𝑖 4 − 3𝑖
= −4 + 3𝑖 + 8𝑖 − 6𝑖 2 = −4 + 6 + 11𝑖 ∵ 𝑖 2 = −1
= 2 + 11𝑖
iii. 𝑧3 . 𝑧4 = 4 − 3𝑖 . −3 − 4𝑖
= 4 −3 − 4𝑖 − 3𝑖 −3 − 4𝑖
= −12 − 16𝑖 + 9𝑖 + 12𝑖 2 = −12 − 12 − 7𝑖 ∵ 𝑖 2 = −1
= −24 − 7𝑖
iv. 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 = 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 . But from (i) above, 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = −7 + 14𝑖
= −7 + 14𝑖 . 4 − 3𝑖
= −7 4 − 3𝑖 + 4𝑖 4 − 3𝑖
= −28 + 21𝑖 + 16𝑖 − 12𝑖 2
= −28 + 12 + 37𝑖
= −16 + 37𝑖

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v. 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 . 𝑧4 = 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 . 𝑧4 . But 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 = 2 + 11𝑖
= 2 + 11𝑖 . −3 − 4𝑖
= 2 −3 − 4𝑖 + 11𝑖 −3 − 4𝑖
= −6 − 8𝑖 − 33𝑖 − 44𝑖 2
= −6 + 44 − 41𝑖
= 38 − 41𝑖
Note:
Graphical multiplication of complex numbers requires Demoivre‟s theorem
which has not been tackled. Graphical multiplication of complex numbers
shall be handled later.
Trial questions
1. Given that 𝑧1 = 2 + 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −2 + 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 3 − 2𝑖. Find:
i) 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 ii) 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 iii) 𝑧3 . 𝑧4 iv) 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . 𝑧3
2. Given that 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 3 , 𝑧2 = 3 + 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 1 + 2𝑖. Find:
i) 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 ii) 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 iii) 𝑧3 . 𝑧4 iv) 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . 𝑧3
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒔:

DIVISION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Before we look at this, let us first look at a conjugate of a complex number.
Conjugate of a complex number
If 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 , then conjugate of z is 𝑧 = 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏
If 𝑧 = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 , then conjugate of z is 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏
Example
Find 𝑧 if i) 𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑖
ii) 𝑧 = −3 − 2𝑖
Solution
i) 𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑖; 𝑧 = 2 − 3𝑖
ii) 𝑧 = −3 − 2𝑖; 𝑧 = −3 + 2𝑖
Thus when two complex numbers are to be divided, multiply the numerator
and denominator of the quotient being divided by the conjugate of the
denominator. In simple terms rationalize the denominator.
Consider 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2
𝑧1 𝑥 1 +𝑖𝑦 1 𝑥 2 −𝑖𝑦 2
= ……………………..…. ×
𝑧2 𝑥 2 +𝑖𝑦 2 𝑥 2 −𝑖𝑦 2
𝑥 1 +𝑖𝑦 1 . 𝑥 2 −𝑖𝑦 2
= 𝑥 2 +𝑖𝑦 2 . 𝑥 2 −𝑖𝑦 2
𝑥 1 .𝑥 2 +𝑖𝑥 1 .𝑦 2 +𝑖𝑦 1 .𝑥 2 +𝑖 2 𝑦 1 .𝑦 2
=
𝑥 1 .𝑥 2 −𝑖𝑥 1 .𝑦 2 +𝑖𝑦 1 .𝑥 2 −𝑖 2 𝑦 1 .𝑦 2
𝑥 1 .𝑥 2 −𝑦 1 .𝑦 2 +𝑖 𝑥 1 .𝑦 2 +𝑦 1 .𝑥 2
= 𝑥 2 2 +𝑦 2 2
Note:
𝑧1
, has now a real denominator
𝑧2
Example
1. Given that 𝑧1 = 2 + 3𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 4 − 3𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 1 + 𝑖
𝑧 𝑧
Find i) 𝑧1 ii) 𝑧2
2 3
Solution
𝑧1 2+3𝑖 4+3𝑖
i. 𝑧2
= 4−3𝑖
……………………………… × 4+3𝑖

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2+3𝑖 . 4+3𝑖 8+6𝑖+12𝑖+9𝑖 2

= 4−3𝑖 . 4+3𝑖 16+12𝑖−12𝑖−9𝑖 2
=
8−9+18𝑖 −1+18𝑖
= 16+9
= 25
𝑧1 1 18
∴ =− + 𝑖
𝑧2 25 25
𝑧2 4−3𝑖 1−𝑖
ii. 𝑧3
= 1+𝑖
……………………………… × 1−𝑖
4−3𝑖 . 1−𝑖 4−4𝑖−3𝑖+3𝑖 2
= 1+𝑖 . 1−𝑖 1+𝑖−𝑖−𝑖 2
=
4−3−7𝑖 1−7𝑖
= 1+1
= 2
𝑧2 1 7
∴ = − 𝑖
𝑧3 2 2
2. Given that 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 3 , 𝑧2 = 1 − 2 3𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = −1 + 3𝑖. Find:
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
i) 𝑧1 ii) 𝑧2 iii) 𝑧 3𝑧 iv) 2𝑧 3
2 3 1 2 1
Solution
𝑧1 1+𝑖 3 1+2 3𝑖
i. = ……………………………… ×
𝑧2 1−2 3𝑖 1+2 3𝑖
1+𝑖 3 . 1+2 3𝑖 1+2 3𝑖+ 3𝑖+2 9𝑖 2
= = 1+2
1−2 3𝑖 . 1+2 3𝑖 3𝑖−2 3𝑖−4 9𝑖 2
1+3 3𝑖−2 3 1−6+3 3𝑖
= =
1+4 3 1+12
𝑧1 5 3 3
∴ 𝑧 = − 13 + 𝑖
2 13
𝑧2 1−2 3𝑖 −1− 3𝑖
ii. = ……………………………… ×
𝑧3 −1+ 3𝑖 −1− 3𝑖
1−2 3𝑖 . −1− 3𝑖 −1− 3𝑖+2 3𝑖+2 9𝑖 2
= =
−1+ 3𝑖 . −1− 3𝑖 1+ 3𝑖− 3𝑖− 9𝑖 2
−1−2 3 𝑖+ 3𝑖 −7+ 3𝑖
= =
1+3 4
𝑧2 7 3
∴ =− + 𝑖
𝑧3 4 4
𝑧3 −1+ 3𝑖 −1+ 3𝑖
iii. = = 1+𝑖
𝑧1 𝑧2 1+𝑖 3 . 1−2 3𝑖 3−2 3𝑖−2 9𝑖 2
−1+ 3𝑖
= .Now rationalizing the denominator
7− 3𝑖
−1+ 3𝑖 7+ 3𝑖
= ……………………………… ×
7− 3𝑖 7+ 3𝑖
−1+ 3𝑖 . 7+ 3𝑖 −7− 3𝑖+7 3𝑖+ 9𝑖 2
= 7− 3𝑖 . 7+ 3𝑖
= 49+7 3𝑖−7 3𝑖− 9𝑖 2
−7−3+6 3𝑖 −10+6 3𝑖
= 49+3
= 52
10 6 3 5 3 3
= − 52 + 52
𝑖 = − 26 + 26
𝑖
𝑧3 5 3 3
∴𝑧 = − 26 + 𝑖
1 𝑧2 26
𝑧2 𝑧3 1−2 3𝑖 . −1+ 3𝑖 −1+ 3𝑖+2 3𝑖−2 9𝑖 2
vi. 𝑧1
= 1+𝑖 3
= 1+𝑖 3
−1+2 3 +3 3𝑖 5+3 3𝑖
= 1+𝑖 3
= 1+𝑖 3
Now rationalizing the denominator
𝑧2 𝑧3 5+3 3𝑖 . 1−𝑖 3 5−5 3𝑖+3 3𝑖−3 9𝑖 2
𝑧1
= 1+𝑖 3 . 1−𝑖 3
= 1−𝑖 3+𝑖 3− 9𝑖 2
5+3 3 −𝑖2 3 14−𝑖2 3
= =
1+3 4

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14 2 3 7 3 𝑧2 𝑧3 7 3
= − 𝑖= − 𝑖 ∴ = − 𝑖
4 4 2 2 𝑧1 2 2
3. Given that 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 2 − 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 3 + 2𝑖. Find:
𝑧1 +𝑧2 𝑧1 2 𝑧2 +𝑧3 𝑧1 +𝑧2 +𝑧3 𝑧1 3 .𝑧2
i) ii) iii) iv) v)
𝑧3 𝑧2 2 .𝑧3 𝑧1 +𝑧2 𝑧2 −𝑧3 𝑧1 +𝑧3
Solution
𝑧1 +𝑧2
i. ; 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 1 + 𝑖 + 2 − 𝑖 = 3
𝑧3
𝑧1 +𝑧2 3
∴ 𝑧3
= 3+2𝑖 ; rationalizing the denominator
𝑧1 +𝑧2 3 3 3−2𝑖
= =
𝑧3 3+2𝑖 3+2𝑖 . 3−2𝑖
9−6𝑖 9−6𝑖 𝑧1 +𝑧2 9 6
= = ∴ = − 𝑖
9−6𝑖+6𝑖−4𝑖 2 9+4 𝑧3 13 13
𝑧1 2
ii. ;
𝑧2 2 .𝑧3
𝑧1 2 = 𝑧1 . 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 . 1 + 𝑖 = 1 + 𝑖 + 𝑖 + 𝑖 2 = 2𝑖
𝑧2 2 = 𝑧2 . 𝑧2 = 2 − 𝑖 . 2 − 𝑖 = 4 − 2𝑖 − 2𝑖 + 𝑖 2 = 5 − 4𝑖
∴ 𝑧2 2 . 𝑧3 = 5 − 4𝑖 . 3 + 2𝑖 = 15 + 10𝑖 − 12𝑖 − 8𝑖 2 = 23 − 2𝑖
𝑧1 2 2𝑖 2𝑖 23+2𝑖
∴𝑧 2 .𝑧
= =
2 3 23−2𝑖 23−2𝑖 . 23+2𝑖
46𝑖+4𝑖 2 −4+46𝑖 −4+46𝑖
= 529+46𝑖−46𝑖−4𝑖 2 = =
529+4 533
𝑧1 2 4 46
∴𝑧 2 .𝑧
= − 533 + 533 𝑖
2 3
𝑧2 +𝑧3 2−𝑖+3+2𝑖 5+𝑖 𝑧 +𝑧 5 1
iii. = = ∴ 𝑧2 +𝑧3 = 3 + 3 𝑖
𝑧1 +𝑧2 1+𝑖+2−𝑖 3 1 2
𝑧1 +𝑧2 +𝑧3 1+𝑖+2−𝑖+3+2𝑖 6+2𝑖
iv. 𝑧2 −𝑧3
= 2−𝑖− 3+2𝑖 −1−3𝑖
= ; rationalizing denominator
6+2𝑖 . −1+3𝑖 −6+18𝑖−2𝑖+6𝑖 2 −12+16𝑖 12 16
= = = = − 10 + 10 𝑖
−1−3𝑖 . −1+3𝑖 1−3𝑖+3𝑖−9𝑖 2 1+9
𝑧1 +𝑧2 +𝑧3 6 8
∴ = −5 + 5𝑖
𝑧2 −𝑧3
𝑧1 3 .𝑧2
v. ; 𝑧1 3 = 𝑧1 2 . 𝑧1 = 2𝑖. 1 + 𝑖 = −2 + 2𝑖
𝑧1 +𝑧3
∴ 𝑧1 3 . 𝑧2 = −2 − 2𝑖 . 2 − 𝑖 = −4 + 2𝑖 − 4𝑖 + 2𝑖 2 = −2 − 2𝑖
𝑧1 + 𝑧3 = 1 + 𝑖 + 3 + 2𝑖 = 4 + 3𝑖
𝑧 3 .𝑧 −2−2𝑖 −2−2𝑖 . 4−3𝑖
∴ 𝑧1 +𝑧2 = =
1 3 4+3𝑖 4+3𝑖 . 4−3𝑖
−8+6𝑖−8𝑖+6𝑖 2 −14−2𝑖 14 2
= = =− − 𝑖
16−12𝑖−12𝑖−9𝑖 2 16+9 25 9
𝑧 3 .𝑧 14 2
∴ 𝑧1 +𝑧2 = − 25 − 9 𝑖
1 3

Trial questions
1
1) Given that 𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖; find i) 𝑧 2 ii) 𝑧
25
2) Given that 𝑧 = 3 + 4𝑖, find the value of the expression 𝑧 + 𝑧
25
𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 1𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑧
𝑧
3) The total impedance z in an electric circuit with branches 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 is given
1 1 1
by; = + . Given that 𝑧1 = 3 + 𝑖4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 5 + 𝑖5, where 𝑖 = −1, calculate
𝑧 𝑧1 𝑧2
the total impedance in z in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏.
1 1 1 𝑧1 +𝑧2
𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕: 𝑧
=𝑧 +𝑧 = 𝑧1 .𝑧2
. 𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑧.
1 2
1 1
𝑂𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑧1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑧
2

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4) Given that 𝑧1 = 3 − 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 3 + 𝑖. find

𝑧1 2 .𝑧2 3 𝑧2 𝑧2 .𝑧1
a) 𝑧1 +𝑧2
b) 𝑧1
c) 𝑧2 −𝑧1
Note:
Graphical division of complex numbers requires Demoivre‟s theorem. This
shall be tackled later.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

A complex number can mainly be expressed in three forms:
 Standard form . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
 Polar form . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
 Exponential form . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 ±𝑖𝜃
However the most commonly examined at A level are: standard and polar
form. Before we look at these in detail, let us first look at modulus and
argument of a complex number.

MODULUS AND ARGUMENT OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

Consider the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 in standard form. Representing z
on the Argand diagram

𝐼𝑚

𝑟
𝑦

𝜃
𝑅𝑒
𝑥

Argument , 𝜽
Argument of a complex number is the angle the complex number makes
with positive Real axis
Denotion
Argument of z is denoted as 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧
From the triangle above,
𝑦 𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = ∴ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
𝑥 𝑥

𝑦
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥

Note:
𝑦
i. When finding 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 , there is no 𝑖 𝑜𝑛 𝑦 from 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 which is the
𝑥
𝑖𝑦
commonest mistake students make . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 , this is not correct.
𝑥
ii. The range of 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 − 180 < 𝜃 ≤ 180 𝑜𝑟 − 𝜋 < 𝜋 ≤ 𝜋 in
0 0

radians . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

iii. When 𝜃 is being measured, it is done with respect to the+𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and
𝜃 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 if measurement is in anticlockwise direction where as – 𝑣𝑒 if
measured in a clockwise direction

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iv. Measurement of 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 requires the knowledge of trigonometry about

tangents of angles in the four quadrants.
If 𝜃 is not in the interval – 𝜋 < 𝜋 ≤ 𝜋 then expressing the angle in terms of
acute angles must be done to bring the angle in the required interval.
𝑒. 𝑔. If 𝜃 = 2100 then 𝑡𝑎𝑛2100 = +𝑡𝑎𝑛300
5
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝜃 = −1500 = − 𝜋
6

2100

300

Required argument

Modulus /Magnitude /length of a complex number

From the right angled triangle above, applying Pythagoras Theorem,
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2 ∴ 𝑟 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
Denotion
Modulus of z is denoted as 𝑧 = 𝑟

∴ 𝑧 =𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
Note:
In the formula, there is no use of 𝑖 𝑜𝑛 𝑦 . 𝑖. 𝑒. ∴ 𝑧 = 𝑟 ≠ 𝑥 2 + 𝑖𝑦 2

Examples
1. Given that 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = − 3 + 𝑖 , 𝑧3 = −5 − 12𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 = 3 − 𝑖
Find i) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 ii) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 iii) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 iv) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧4
v) 𝑧1 vi) 𝑧2 vii) 𝑧3 viii) 𝑧4
Solution
i. 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 From 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
∴ 𝑧1 = 1 2 + 1 2 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝐼𝑚
1 From 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑦
𝑥
−1 1 𝜋
1 ∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 450 =
1 4
𝜋
𝜃1
𝑅𝑒 ∴ 𝑧1 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 , 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 = 450 =
4
1

ii. 𝑧2 = − 3 + 𝑖 From 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
2
𝐼𝑚 ∴ 𝑧2 = 3 + 1 2 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑦
1 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 = 1800 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
𝑥
1
From 𝛥, 𝛽 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 = 300
1 𝜃2 3
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 = 𝜃2 = 1800 − 300 = 1500
𝛽 =
5𝜋
𝑅𝑒 6
− 3 3 𝜋
∴ 𝑧2 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 , 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 = 1500 = 6

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iii. 𝑧3 = −5 − 12𝑖 𝐼𝑚 From 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

5 ∴ 𝑧2 = 5 2 + 12 2 = 13 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
−5 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 = 𝜃3 = − 1800 − 𝛼
𝑅𝑒 12
𝛼 From 𝛥, 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 = 67.40
𝜃3 5
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 = 𝜃3 = − 1800 − 67.40 =
12
−112.60
−12 ∴ 𝑧3 = 13 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 , 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 = −112.60

iv. 𝑧4 = 3 − 𝑖 , From 𝑧 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝐼𝑚

2 3
∴ 𝑧4 = 3 + 1 2 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑅𝑒
𝜃4
−1 1 0 𝜋
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧4 = 𝜃4 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 30 = − 1
3 6
𝜋
∴ 𝑧2 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 , 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 = 300 = − 6
−1
2. Given that 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −1 − 𝑖, 𝑧3 = 2 + 3𝑖. Find the modulus and argument
of:
𝑧2 .𝑧3 𝑧1 2 𝑧2 3
i) 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 ii) iii) iv) v) 𝑧1 2
𝑧1 𝑧2 .𝑧3 𝑧1 .𝑧3
Solution
i. 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 1 + 𝑖 . 1 + 𝑖 = 1 − 𝑖 + 𝑖 − 𝑖 2
= 2 + 0𝑖
∴ 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 2 2 + 02 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
0
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 2 = 00
∴ 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 ; 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 00 2
𝑧2 .𝑧3 1−𝑖 . 2+3𝑖 2+3𝑖−2𝑖−𝑖 2 .3
ii. = =
𝑧1 1+𝑖 1+𝑖
2+3+𝑖 5+𝑖
= = , rationalizing denominator
1+𝑖 1+𝑖
5+𝑖 . 1−𝑖 5−5𝑖+𝑖−𝑖 2 5+1−4𝑖 6−4𝑖
= = = = 3 − 2𝑖
1+𝑖 . 1−𝑖 1+𝑖−𝑖−𝑖 2 1+1 2
𝑧1 .𝑧3
∴ = 3 − 2𝑖
𝑧1
𝑧1 .𝑧3
⇒ = 32 + 22 − 13 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑧1
2
From the figure, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = ∴ 𝜃 = 33.70
3
𝑧1 .𝑧3
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = −33.70 −𝑣𝑒 ∵ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑧1

𝜃
2
−2
𝑧1 2 1+𝑖 2 1+𝑖+𝑖−𝑖 2 2𝑖
iii. 𝑧2 .𝑧3
= 1−𝑖 . 2+3𝑖
= 2+3𝑖−2𝑖−𝑖 2 .3 = 5+𝑖
2𝑖 2𝑖 . 5−𝑖 10𝑖−2𝑖 2 2+10𝑖 2+10𝑖
5+𝑖
= 5+𝑖 . 5−𝑖
= 25−5𝑖+5𝑖−𝑖 2 = 25+1
= 26

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𝑧 2 1 5
∴ 𝑧 1.𝑧 = 13 + 13 𝑖
2 3

𝑧1 2 1 2 5 2 1 2 26
⇒ = + = 1 + 25 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑧2 .𝑧3 13 13 13 13
𝑧1 2 5/13
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 .𝑧3
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 1/13
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 5 = 78.70
𝑧1 2 26 𝑧1 2
∴ = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 ; 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 78.70
𝑧2 .𝑧3 13 𝑧2 .𝑧3

5
𝐼𝑚
13
5
13
𝜃
𝑅𝑒
1
13

𝑧2 3 1−𝑖 3 1−𝑖 2 . 1−𝑖 1−2𝑖+𝑖 2 . 1−𝑖

iv. = = 2+3𝑖+2𝑖+3𝑖 2 =
𝑧1 .𝑧3 1+𝑖 . 2+3𝑖 2−3+5𝑖
−2𝑖 . 1−𝑖 −2𝑖+2𝑖 2 −2−2𝑖
= = = ; rationalizing denominator
−1+5𝑖 −1+5𝑖 −1+5𝑖 𝐼𝑚
−2−2𝑖 −2−2𝑖 . −1−5𝑖 2+10𝑖+2𝑖+10𝑖 2
= =
−1+5𝑖 −1+5𝑖 . −1−5𝑖 1+5𝑖−5𝑖−25𝑖 2 6
𝑧2 3 2−10+12𝑖 −8+12𝑖 4 6
∴𝑧 = = = − 13 + 13 𝑖 13
1 .𝑧3 1+25 26
6
𝑧2 3 4 2 6 2 1 2
∴ = + = 16 + 36 13
𝑧1 .𝑧3 13 13 13
𝜃
52 4×13 2 𝑅𝑒
= = = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 4
13 13 13 4
𝑧2 3
6 − 13
𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 1800 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 13 13
4
𝑧1 .𝑧3
13
6
= 1800 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 1800 − 56.30 = 123.70
4
𝑧2 3 2 𝑧2 3
∴ = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 ; 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 123.70
𝑧1 .𝑧3 13 𝑧1 .𝑧3

STANDARD FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

A complex number of the form 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥, 𝑦𝜖ℝ is said to be in
standard form.
. 𝑒. 𝑔. 𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑖 , 𝑧 = 4 − 3𝑖

POLAR/MODULUS-ARGUMENT FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

This originates from the standard form. A complex number in the form 𝑧 =
𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is in polar form.
Derivation
Consider 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑧 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
𝑦
𝑥
𝑥
Now 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑟
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟 𝑦
𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ∴ 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟
From 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝜃 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑅𝑒
𝑥 ∴ 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

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Note:
Expressing a complex number in polar form requires the knowledge of
finding modulus and argument of a complex number.
Examples
1) Given that 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −3𝑖 , 𝑧3 = − 3 − 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 = 3 − 𝑖 . Express the
complex numbers in polar form.
Solution
𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 ; 𝑧1 = 12 + 12 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 ; 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 1 = 450
∴ 𝑧1 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 450 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 450

𝐼𝑚
1

1
𝜃1
𝑅𝑒
1

𝑧2 = −3𝑖 = 0 + 3𝑖 ; 𝑧2 = 02 + 32 = 3 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 ; 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 = 900

∴ 𝑧2 = 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 900 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 900

2
𝑧3 = − 3 − 𝑖 ; 𝑧1 = 3 + 12 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 ;
1
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 = − 1800 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 = −1500 𝐼𝑚
3
∴ 𝑧3 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1500 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1500 3
− 3 𝑅𝑒
𝛼
𝜃3
1

−1

2
𝑧4 = 3 − 𝑖 ; 𝑧3 = 3 + 12 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 ;
3
1
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 3
= −300
𝜃4
∴ 𝑧4 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −300 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −300
1
−1

2) Given that 𝑧1 = 2 + 3𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 1 + 𝑖 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 1 − 𝑖 . Express the complex

numbers in modulus-argument form
𝑧1 .𝑧2 𝑧2 .𝑧3 𝑧1 .𝑧2 𝑧1 +𝑧2 𝑧1 +𝑧2
i) ii) iii) 𝑧2 + iv) v)
𝑧3 𝑧1 𝑧3 𝑧2 .𝑧3 𝑧2 −𝑧3
Solution
𝑧1 .𝑧2 2+3𝑖 . 1+𝑖 2+2𝑖+3𝑖+3𝑖 2 2−3+5𝑖
i. = = =
𝑧3 1−𝑖 1−𝑖 1−𝑖

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𝑧1 .𝑧2 −1+5𝑖
𝑧3
= 1−𝑖
; rationalizing denominator
𝑧1 .𝑧2
=
−1+5𝑖 1+𝑖
=
−1−𝑖+5𝑖+5𝑖 2 ∵ 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎 2 − 𝑏2
𝑧3 1−𝑖 1+𝑖 1 2− 𝑖 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
−1−5+6𝑖 −6+4𝑖
= 1+1
= 2
= −3 + 2𝑖
𝑧1 .𝑧2
∴ = 32 + 22 = 13
𝑧3
𝑧1 .𝑧2 2 𝐼𝑚
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3
= 1800 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3
= 146.30
∴
𝑧1 .𝑧2
= 13 𝑐𝑜𝑠 146.30 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 146.30 2
𝑧3

2 𝜃

𝛽
𝑅𝑒
−3 3

𝑧2 .𝑧3 1+𝑖 . 1−𝑖 12 −𝑖 2 1+1 2

ii. = = = =
𝑧1 2+3𝑖 2+3𝑖 2+3𝑖 2+3𝑖
𝑧2 .𝑧3 2
= ; rationalizing denominator
𝑧1 2+3𝑖
𝑧2 .𝑧3
=
2 2−3𝑖
=
4−6𝑖 ∵ 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎 2 − 𝑏2
𝑧1 2+3𝑖 2−3𝑖 2 2 − 3𝑖 2
𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
4−6𝑖 4 6
= = 13 − 13 𝑖 4
4+9
𝑧2 .𝑧3 4 2 6 2 2 13
∴ = + = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑧1 13 13 13
𝑧2 .𝑧3 6/13
𝑎𝑟𝑔 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 = −56.30 𝜃
𝑧1 4/13 6
𝑧2 .𝑧3 2
∴ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −56.30 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −56.30 13
𝑧1 13 6
2 −
= 13
𝑐𝑜𝑠 56.30 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 56.30 13

𝑧1 .𝑧2 2+3𝑖 . 1+𝑖 2+2𝑖+3𝑖+3𝑖 2

iii. 𝑧2 + 𝑧3
= 1+𝑖 + 1−𝑖
= 1+𝑖 + 1−𝑖
2−3+5𝑖 −1+5𝑖
=1+𝑖+ =1+𝑖+
1−𝑖 1−𝑖 𝐼𝑚
−1+5𝑖 1+𝑖 −1−𝑖+5𝑖+5𝑖 2
=1+𝑖+ 1−𝑖 1+𝑖
=1+𝑖+ 1 2− 𝑖 2

−1−5+6𝑖 −6+4𝑖
3
=1+𝑖+ = 1+𝑖+
1+1 2
= 1 + 𝑖 + −3 + 2𝑖 3 𝜃
𝑧1 .𝑧2
∴ 𝑧2 + = −2 + 3𝑖
𝑧3 𝛽
𝑧1 .𝑧2 𝑅𝑒
𝑧2 + 𝑧3
= 22 + 32 = 13 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 −2 2
𝑧1 .𝑧2 3
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 + 𝑧3
= 1800 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 2
= 123.70
𝑧1 .𝑧2
∴ 𝑧2 + 𝑧3
= 13 𝑐𝑜𝑠 123.70 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 123.70

𝐼𝑚
𝑧1 +𝑧2 2+3𝑖+1+𝑖 3+4𝑖 3+4𝑖 3 2
iv. 𝑧2 .𝑧3
= 1+𝑖 . 1−𝑖
= 1 2− 𝑖 2
= 2
= 2 + 2𝑖

𝑧1 +𝑧2 3 2 5
= + 22 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 2
𝑧2 .𝑧3 2 2

𝑎𝑟𝑔
𝑧1 +𝑧2
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
2
= 53.10 𝜃
𝑧2 .𝑧3 1.5
𝑅𝑒
1.5

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𝑧1 +𝑧2 5
∴ 𝑧2 .𝑧3
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 53.10 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 53.10

𝑧1 +𝑧2 2+3𝑖+1+𝑖 3+4𝑖 3+4𝑖 3+4𝑖 −2𝑖

v. = = = =
𝑧2 −𝑧3 1+𝑖 − 1−𝑖 2𝑖 0+2𝑖 2𝑖 −2𝑖
−6𝑖−8𝑖 2 8−6𝑖 3 2
= −4𝑖 2
= 4
= 2−2𝑖
𝑧1 +𝑧2 3 2 5 𝜃
∴ = 22 + = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 3
𝑧2 −𝑧3 2 2
𝑧1 +𝑧2 1.5
𝑎𝑟𝑔 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
= −36.9 0 2
𝑧2 −𝑧3 2 3
𝑧1 +𝑧2 5 −
∴ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −36.9 0
+ 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −36.9 0 2
𝑧2 −𝑧3 2
5 0
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 36.9 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 36.90
2

Trial questions
Given that 𝑧1 = 4 + 3𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −4 − 3𝑖 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 1 − 𝑖 . Express the complex
numbers in polar form.
𝑧1 .𝑧2 𝑧1 .𝑧2 3
i) 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 ii) 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 iii) 𝑧3 + iv) v)
𝑧3 𝑧3 2
𝑧1 .𝑧3 𝑧2
+𝑧
𝑧2 2 .𝑧3
𝑨𝑵𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑹: 𝒊) 𝒓 = 𝟐𝟓 , 𝜽 = −𝟏𝟎𝟔. 𝟑𝟎 𝒊𝒊) 𝒓 = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟒 , 𝜽 = −𝟏𝟓𝟏. 𝟑𝟎 𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝒓 = 𝟏𝟗 , 𝜽 = −𝟔𝟎. 𝟏𝟎
𝒊𝒗) 𝒓 = 𝟑𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 , 𝜽 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟓𝟎 𝒗) 𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖𝟏 , 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟒 𝟎

MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS IN POLAR FORM

Consider two complex numbers 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 which can be
expressed in the polar form.𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 respectively.
To find 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 , proceed as follows;
𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 . 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
= 𝑟1 . 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
= 𝑟1 . 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
= 𝑟1 . 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2
= 𝑟1 . 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2
= 𝑟1 . 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 + 𝜃2
In general when multiplying complex numbers in polar form, first multiply
their moduli, add their arguments and write the result in polar form. 𝑖. 𝑒.

If 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1

𝑧𝑛 = 𝑟𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑛 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑛
⇒ 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 ..... 𝑧𝑛 = 𝑟1 . 𝑟2 .….. 𝑟𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + ⋯ + 𝜃𝑛 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + ⋯ + 𝜃𝑛
Deduction
When multiplying complex numbers in polar form,
i. 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . . . . . 𝑧𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 +. . . . . +𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧𝑛
ii. 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . . . . . 𝑧𝑛 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 … … … … … 𝑧𝑛
Note

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The sense of measurement of the argument must be the same. 𝑖. 𝑒.

clockwise/anticlockwise or just consider the principal argument of complex
numbers.
Example
1. Given that 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 3 , 𝑧2 = 3 − 𝑖 , 𝑧3 = −1 − 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 = −1 + 𝑖 . Express the
complex numbers in polar form. 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 . 𝑧4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . 𝑧3
Solution
2
𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 3 ; 𝑧1 = 12 + 3 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 3 = 600
∴ 𝑧1 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠600 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛600
2
𝑧2 = 3 − 𝑖 ; 𝑧2 = 3 + 12 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
1
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 3
= −300 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
∴ 𝑧2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −300 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −300
𝑧3 = −1 − 𝑖 ; 𝑧3 = 12 + 12 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
1
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 = − 1800 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 = −1350 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
3
∴ 𝑧3 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1350 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1350
𝑧4 = −1 + 𝑖 ; 𝑧3 = 12 + 12 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 = 1800 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 1 = 1350 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
∴ 𝑧4 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1350 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 1350

𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠600 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛600 . 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −300 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −300

= 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 600 + −300 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 600 + −300
= 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 300 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 300
𝑧3 . 𝑧4 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1350 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1350 . 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1350 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 1350
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1350 + 1350 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1350 + 1350
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠00 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛00
𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠600 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛600 . 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −300 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −300 . 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1350 +
𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1350
= 4 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 600 + −300 + −1350 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 600 + −300 + −1350
= 4 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1050 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1050
2. Given that 𝑧1 = 2 + 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −2 + 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 2 − 3𝑖 . Express the complex
numbers in polar form. 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 . 𝑧4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . 𝑧3
Solution
𝑧1 = 22 + 12 = 5 ; 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 = 26.60
𝑧2 = 22 + 12 = 5 ; 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 = 153.40
𝑧3 = 22 + 32 = 13 ; 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 = −56.30
∴ 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 26.60 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 26.60 . 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 153.40 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 153.40
= 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 26.60 +153.40 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 26.60 +153.40
= 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1800 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 1800
𝑧3 . 𝑧4 = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 153.40 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 153.40 . 13 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −56.30 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −56.30
= 65 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −56.30 +153.40 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −56.30 +153.40

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= 65 𝑐𝑜𝑠 97.10 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 97.10

𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 =
5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 26.60 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 26.60 . 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 153.40 +
𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 153.40 . 13 𝑐𝑜𝑠 153.40 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 153.40
= 5 13 𝑐𝑜𝑠 26.60 +153.40 − 56.30 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 26.60 +153.40 − 56.30
= 5 13 𝑐𝑜𝑠 123.70 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 123.70
Trial questions
Given that 𝑧1 = 2 , 𝑧2 = −1 + 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧3 = 2𝑖.
Express 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 , 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 in polar form.
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒓 = 𝟐 , 𝜽 = 𝟎 ; 𝒓 = 𝟐 , 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎 ; 𝒓 = 𝟐 , 𝜽 = −𝟗𝟎𝟎 ; 𝒓 = 𝟐 𝟐 , 𝜽 =
𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎 ; 𝒓 = 𝟒 𝟐 , 𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎

DIVIDING COMPLEX NUMBERS IN POLAR FORM

Consider two complex numbers 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 which can be
expressed in the polar form.𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 respectively.
𝑧
To find𝑧1 , proceed as follows;
2
𝑧1 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1
= 𝑟1 = . ; rationalizing the denominator
𝑧2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
2 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
𝑧1 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 −𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
=𝑟 .
𝑧2 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 −𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2

=𝑟 .
𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 −𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 −𝑖 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 ∵ 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎 2 − 𝑏2
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 2 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
= 𝑟1 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃2
2
𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 −𝜃2 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 1 −𝜃2
=𝑟 .
2 1
𝑧1 𝑟
∴ 𝑧 = 𝑟1 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 − 𝜃2
2 2

In general when dividing complex numbers in polar form, first divide their
moduli, subtract their arguments and write the result in polar form.
Deduction
When dividing complex numbers in polar form
𝑧1
i. 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2
𝑧2
𝑧1 𝑧1
ii. =
𝑧2 𝑧2
Note
The sense of measurement of the argument must be the same. 𝑖. 𝑒.
clockwise/anticlockwise or just consider the principal argument of complex
numbers.
Example
1. Given that 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −1 + 𝑖 , 𝑧3 = −𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 = 2. Express in polar form;
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
i) 𝑧1 ii) 𝑧2 iii) 𝑧4
2 3 2
Solution
𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 450 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 450
𝑧2 = −1 + 𝑖 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1350 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 1350
𝑧3 = −𝑖 = 0 − 𝑖 = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −900 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −900

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𝑧4 = 2 = 2 + 0𝑖 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 00 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 00
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑧1 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45 0 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 45 0
i. = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 450 − 1350 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 450 − 1350
𝑧2 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 135 0 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 135 0
𝑧1
∴ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −900 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −900
𝑧2
𝑧2 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 135 0 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 135 0
ii. 𝑧3
= 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −90 0 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −90 0
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1350 − −900 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 1350 − −900
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2250 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 2250
Expressing angles trigonometric ratios in terms principal arguments
Angle 2250 lies in the 3𝑟𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡. Thus the angle nearest to +𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
is 1350 . Hence principal argument is−1350
𝑧
∴ 𝑧2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1350 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1350
3
𝑧4 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 0 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 0 2
iii. 𝑧2
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 135 0 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 135 0
= 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 00 − 135 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 00 − 135
𝑧4 2
∴ 𝑧2
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1350 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1350
Summary of rules in complex numbers

Complex number Modulus rules Argument rules

𝑧1 . 𝑧2 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2
𝑧1 𝑧1 𝑧1 𝑧1
𝑧2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2
𝑧2 𝑧2 𝑧2

Note:
i. 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 × 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 ≠ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ≠ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1
ii. ≠ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2
2. Given that 𝑧1 = 2 + 3𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 1 − 𝑖 , 𝑧3 = − 3 + 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 = −1 − 𝑖 3. Express the
complex numbers in polar form. Hence express the following in polar form:
𝑧 .𝑧
a) 1𝑧 2
3
𝑧1 𝑧1 .𝑧2
b) c)
𝑧2 .𝑧3 𝑧3 .𝑧4
Solution
𝑧1 = 2 + 3𝑖 = 13 𝑐𝑜𝑠 56.30 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 56.30
𝑧2 = 1 − 𝑖 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −450 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −450
𝑧3 = − 3 + 𝑖 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1500 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 1500
𝑧4 = −1 − 𝑖 3 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1200 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1200
𝑇𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑧1 .𝑧2
a) = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑧3
𝑧1 .𝑧2 𝑧1 .𝑧2 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 13× 2 26
𝑟= = = = =
𝑧3 𝑧3 𝑧3 2 2
𝑧1 .𝑧2
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3
= 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3
= 56.30 + −450 − 1500 = −138.70
𝑧1 .𝑧2 26
∴ 𝑧3
= 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 −138.70 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −138.70
𝑧1
b) 𝑧2 .𝑧3
= 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

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𝑧1 𝑧1 13 1 13
𝑟= 𝑧2 .𝑧3
= 𝑧2 . 𝑧3
= 2×2
=2 2
𝑧1
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3
𝑧2 .𝑧3
= 56.3 − −450 + 1500 = −48.70
0

𝑧1 1 13
∴ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −48.70 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −48.70
𝑧2 .𝑧3 2 2
𝑧1 .𝑧2
c) = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑧3 .𝑧4
𝑧1 .𝑧2 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 13× 2 26
𝑟= = = =
𝑧3 .𝑧4 𝑧3 . 𝑧4 2×2 4
𝑧1 .𝑧2
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 .𝑧4
= 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧4
= 56.3 + −450 − 1500 + −1200 = −18.70
0

𝑧 .𝑧 26
∴ 𝑧1 .𝑧2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −18.70 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −18.70
3 4 4
3. Given that 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 1 − 𝑖 , 𝑧3 = 2 + 3𝑖. Express the complex numbers in
polar form. Hence express the following in polar form:
𝑧2 .𝑧3 𝑧1 .𝑧2 1 𝑧1 𝑧2 .𝑧3
i) ii) iii) 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 + 𝑧 iv) +
𝑧1 𝑧3 3 𝑧2 𝑧1
Solution
𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 450 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 450
𝑧2 = 1 − 𝑖 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −450 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −450
𝑧3 = 2 + 3𝑖 = 13 𝑐𝑜𝑠 56.30 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 56.30

𝑧2 .𝑧3
i. = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑧1
𝑧2 .𝑧3 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 2× 13
𝑟= = = = 13
𝑧1 𝑧1 2
𝑧2 .𝑧3
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1
𝑧1
= −45 + 56.30 − 450 = −33.70
0
𝑧1 .𝑧2
∴ 𝑧 .𝑧 = 13 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −33.70 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −33.70
3 4
𝑧1 .𝑧2
ii. = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑧3
𝑧1 .𝑧2 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 2× 2 2
𝑟= = = =
𝑧3 𝑧3 13 13
𝑧1 .𝑧2
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3
𝑧3
= 450 + −450 − 56.30 = −56.30
𝑧1 .𝑧2 2
∴ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −56.30 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −56.30
𝑧3 13
1
iii. 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 + = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑧3
Dealing with 𝑧1 . 𝑧2
⇒ 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 1 + 𝑖 1 − 𝑖 = 12 − 𝑖 2 = 2
1 1 1. 2−3𝑖 2−3𝑖 2 3
⇒ 𝑧 = 2+3𝑖 = 2+3𝑖 . 2−3𝑖
= 2 2 − 3𝑖 2
= 13 − 13 𝑖
3
1 2 3 28 3
∴ 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 + 𝑧 = 2 + 13 − 13 𝑖 = 13 − 13 𝑖
3

1 28 2 3 2 793
𝑟 = 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 + 𝑧 = 13
+ 13
= 13
3
1 3/13
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 + 𝑧 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 2/13
= −6.10
3

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1 793
∴ 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −6.10 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −6.10
𝑧3 13
𝑧1 𝑧2 .𝑧3
iv. + = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑧2 𝑧1
𝑧1 1+𝑖 1+𝑖 . 1+𝑖 1+2𝑖+𝑖 2 2𝑖
= = = = =𝑖
𝑧2 1−𝑖 1−𝑖 . 1+𝑖 12 −𝑖 2 2
𝑧2 .𝑧3 1−𝑖 . 2+3𝑖 2+3𝑖−2𝑖−3𝑖 2 2+𝑖+3 5+𝑖
𝑧1
= 1+𝑖
= 1+𝑖
= 1+𝑖
= 1+𝑖
5+𝑖 5+𝑖 . 1−𝑖 5−5𝑖+𝑖−𝑖 2 5−4𝑖+1 6−4𝑖
1+𝑖
= 1+𝑖 . 1−𝑖
= 12 −𝑖 2
= 2
= 2
𝑧2 .𝑧3
∴ 𝑧1
= 3 − 2𝑖
𝑧 𝑧2 .𝑧3
∴ 𝑧1 + 𝑧1
= 𝑖 + 3 − 2𝑖 = 3 − 𝑖
2
𝑧1 𝑧2 .𝑧3
⇒𝑟= 𝑧2
+ 𝑧1
= 32 + 12 = 10
𝑧1 𝑧2 .𝑧3 1
⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 + = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 = −18.40
𝑧2 𝑧1 3
𝑧1 𝑧2 .𝑧3
∴𝑧 + 𝑧1
= 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −18.40 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −18.40
2

Task
Given that 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 2𝑖 , 𝑧3 = −1 + 𝑖. Express the complex numbers in
polar form. Hence express the following in polar form:
1 1 1 𝑧1 𝑧1 .𝑧2 𝑧1 .𝑧2 𝑧
i) ii) iii) iv) + 𝑧3 iv) + 𝑧3 v) + 𝑧3
𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧3 𝑧2 𝑧3 𝑧3 1
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝒊) 𝒓 = , 𝜽 = −𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝒊𝒊) 𝒓 = 𝟐 , 𝜽 = −𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝒓 = , 𝜽 = −𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝒊𝒗) 𝒓 = 𝟐
, 𝜽 = −𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝒗) 𝒓 = 𝟐 , 𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝒗𝒊) 𝒓 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟑𝟔 , 𝜽 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟎

DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM
This is derived from multiplication of complex numbers in polar form.
Consider 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1
𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
𝑧3 = 𝑟3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃3
⇒ 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 . 𝑧3 = 𝑟1 . 𝑟2 . 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃3 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃3
If 𝑧 = 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 = 𝑧3 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
⇒ 𝑧. 𝑧. 𝑧 = 𝑟. 𝑟. 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝜃 + 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜃 + 𝜃
∴ 𝑧 3 = 𝑟 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃

∴ 𝑧 3 = 𝑟 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃

∴ 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃
𝑛
⇒ 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃
⇒ 𝑟 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛
= 𝑟 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃

𝐧
∴ 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉 + 𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐧 𝛉 + 𝐢 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐧 𝛉

This is Demoivre‟s theorem.

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Proof
The proof is based on induction.
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜃
For 𝑛 = 1
𝑳. 𝑯. 𝑺 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑹. 𝑯. 𝑺 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Since 𝑳. 𝑯. 𝑺 = 𝑹. 𝑯. 𝑺, the proof holds for 𝑛 = 1
For 𝑛 = 𝑘
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝜃 …………………… (1)
Let the proof hold for 𝑛 = 𝑘
Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
𝑳. 𝑯. 𝑺 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑘+1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑘 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 ……. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
𝑳. 𝑯. 𝑺 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑘+1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝜃 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝜃 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝜃 + 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝜃 + 𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 + 1 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 + 1 𝜃
𝑹. 𝑯. 𝑺 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 + 1 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 + 1 𝜃
Since 𝑳. 𝑯. 𝑺 = 𝑹. 𝑯. 𝑺, the proof holds for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
Since the proof holds for 𝑛 = 1 , 2 , 3 … … … . . 𝑘 , 𝑘 + 1, then the proof holds for
all values of n.
Deduction from Demoivre’s theorem
If 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , then 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃
i. 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑛𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧
ii. 𝑧𝑛 = 𝑧 𝑛
Properties of Argument
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝜆𝑧 = 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 , where 𝜆 ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆𝜖ℝ
Application of Demoivre’s Theorem
 Simplifying powers of complex numbers in polar form
 Proof of trigonometric identities
 Simplifying complex number expressions
 Expansions

SIMPLIFYING EXPRESSIONS
1) Simplify
𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝜃+𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝜃
a)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
3 3
cos 𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
b) 2
1
2
1
cos 𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃+𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
c)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝜃−𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝜃
d) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃
Solution
𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝜃+𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 3
a) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

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3 3 3
cos 𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 3 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 −
b) 2
1
2
1 = 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
cos 𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
2 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃+𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃+𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
c) = = −1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 3
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝜃+𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝜃−𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −3 𝜃+𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −3 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −3
d) = = 𝑛
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −3−𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 + 𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 + 𝑛 𝜃
2) Express in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
a)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃−𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
𝜋 𝜋 2
cos +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛
b) 𝜋
4
𝜋 3
4
1
cos +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 cos 𝜋 −𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 3
6 6
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2
cos +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 cos −𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛
c) 3 3 3 3
cos 4𝜋 −𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋
Solution
1 1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
a)
2
= = 1 = −1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃−𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃−𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −2 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1
− −1 3 3
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2 2
1 2
𝜋 𝜋 2
cos +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 4
b) 𝜋
4
𝜋 3
4
1 = 1 3 1
cos +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 cos 𝜋 −𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 −1 3
6 6
1
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 2 𝜋 𝜋
= 1
−
1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 3 = cos 3 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 3
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 3
2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 2
cos +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 cos −𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 cos +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 cos − +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 − cos 𝜋 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 3 cos 𝜋 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋
−
3
3 3 3 3
c) 3 3 3 3
= = −4
cos 4𝜋 −𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋 cos −4 𝜋 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 −4 𝜋 cos 𝜋 +𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋
1 2 11
− − −4 11 11
cos 𝜋 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 3 3 = cos 𝜋 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 3 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
3 3

Task
Prove that
𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝜃+𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝜃 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝜃 −𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜃 5
a) 3 −4
=1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝜃 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝜃 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝜃 −𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝜃 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 7𝜃 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 7𝜃 −3
b) 9 5
=1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝜃 −𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 2
c) 5
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝛼 + 5𝛽 − 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝛼 + 5𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 +𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 4
d) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠8𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛8𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 +𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

EXPANSION OF 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝜽

From Demoivre‟s theorem 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃, to
expand 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝜽 the L.H.S 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛 is expanded.

Examples
1. Express 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 in terms of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 respectively. Hence find 𝑡𝑎𝑛3𝜃
Solution
For 𝑛 = 3 in the Demoivre‟s theorem
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃

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3 3 0 2 1 1 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝟏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝟑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝟑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 +
𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 3
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 + 𝑖3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑖 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
3

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 = 3 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
= 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝜃 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝜃
∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛3𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 −3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 , dividing Numerator and Denominator
by 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃
3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝜃
3𝜃 − 3 3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛3𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠
3𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃
= 1−3𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃
3 −
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃
3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −4𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃
∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛3𝜃 =
1−3𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃

2. Show that;
4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −4𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃
a) 𝑡𝑎𝑛4𝜃 = 1−6𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 +𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃
5𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −10𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃+𝑡𝑎𝑛 5 𝜃
b) 𝑡𝑎𝑛5𝜃 =
1−6𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 +5𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃
Solution
4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −4𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃
a) 𝑡𝑎𝑛4𝜃 = 1−6𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 +𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜃
𝑳. 𝑯. 𝑺: 𝑡𝑎𝑛4𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝜃
For 𝑛 = 4 in the Demoivre‟s theorem
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 4 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 3 = 𝟏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 + 𝟒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 3 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 + 𝟔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 +
𝟒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 3 + 𝟏 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 4
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 + 𝑖4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 6𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 𝑖4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 − 6𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 + 𝑖 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 − 6𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜃 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝜃
∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛4𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 −6𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 +𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 𝜃 , dividing Numerator and Denominator
by 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃
4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝜃
− 4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −4𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛4𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 𝜃
= 1−6𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 +𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃
4 −6 4 + 4
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −4𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃
∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛4𝜃 =
1−6𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 +𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃
b) 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
3. Prove that;
𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃 −6𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃+1
a) 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃 +2𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃+1
4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −4𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃
b) 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃 +2𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 +1
Solution
From example (2) above,
𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 − 6𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃

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𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

a) 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 − 6𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃−6𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 +𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 𝜃
=
1
Dividing Numerator and Denominator by 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 6𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 𝜃
− + 4 1−6𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃+𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 = 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃
1−6𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 +𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃 1−6𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 +𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃
= =
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 2 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 2

𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃 −6𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 +1
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃 +2𝑡𝑎 𝑛 2 𝜃 +1
b) 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜃 =4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝜃
=
1
Dividing Numerator and Denominator by 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃
4𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝜃
− 4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −4𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃 = 1 =
𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃
4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −4𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃 4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −4𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 2
= 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 2

4𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −4𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃 +2𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 +1
Task
Use Demoivre’s theorem to show that;
1−𝑡 2
i. 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 1+𝑡 2 ; 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
2𝑡
ii. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = ; 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
1+𝑡 2

EXPANSION OF 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏 𝜽

1 1
This is based on 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 𝑛 − 𝑧 𝑛 results.
Consider 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
⇒ 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜃 …………………………….. (1)
1
𝑧 −𝑛 = 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜃
1
⇒ 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜃 ……………………………… (2)
𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛𝑠. 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2)
1
𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 𝑛 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 …………………………………………. (3)
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛𝑠. 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2)
1
𝑧 𝑛 − 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑖2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃 …………………………………………. (4)
From eqns. (3) and (4), when 𝑛 = 1
1
⇒ 𝑧 + = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ……………………………………………. (5)
𝑧
1
⇒ 𝑧 − 𝑧 = 𝑖2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 …………………………………………… (6)
The above equations are important in this kind of expansions.
Example
1. Express
a) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 in terms of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃
b) 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 in terms of 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃
c) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 in terms of 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
d) 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 in terms of 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

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Solution
1
a) To expand 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃, 𝑧 + 𝑧 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is used.
Cubing the equation to create 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃
1 3 3
⇒ 𝑧+𝑧 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃
1 1 1
𝑧 3 + 3. 𝑧 2 . + 3𝑧. + = 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃
𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3
1 1
𝑧3 + +3 𝑧+ = 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃
𝑧3 𝑧
1
But from 𝑧 𝑛 + = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3,
𝑧𝑛
3 1
𝑧 + = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃
𝑧3
3
∴ 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 + 3 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 + 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1 3
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 + 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1
b) To expand 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃, 𝑧 − = 𝑖2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is used.
𝑧
Cubing the equation to create 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃
1 3 3
⇒ 𝑧−𝑧 = 𝑖2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −𝑖8𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
1 1 2 1 3
𝑧 3 + 3. 𝑧 2 . − 𝑧 + 3𝑧. − 𝑧 + −𝑧 = −𝑖8𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
1 1
𝑧3 − − 3 𝑧 − 𝑧 = −𝑖8𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
𝑧3
1
But from 𝑧 𝑛 − 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑖2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3,
1
𝑧3 − = 𝑖2𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃
𝑧3
∴ −𝑖8𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 = 𝑖2𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 − 3 𝑖2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑖2𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 − 𝑖6𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , dividing through by −𝑖8
1 3
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
4 4
1
c) To expand 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃, 𝑧 + 𝑧 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is used.
Quarting both sides
1 4 4
⇒ 𝑧+𝑧 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 16𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃
1 1 1 1
𝑧 4 + 4. 𝑧 3 . 𝑧 + 6𝑧 2 . 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧. 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 4 = 16𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃
1 1
𝑧4 + + 4 𝑧2 + + 6 = 16𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃
𝑧4 𝑧2
1
But from 𝑧 𝑛 + = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2,
𝑧𝑛
4 1 1
𝑧 + 𝑧4
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 ; 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 2 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
∴ 16𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 + 4 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 6
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃 + 8𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 6 , dividing through by16
1 1 3
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 +
8 2 8
d) 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

Task
1
a) Prove that 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝜃 − 5𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 + 10𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
16
1
b) Prove that 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 32 𝑐𝑜𝑠6𝜃 + 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 15𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 10
6

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FINDING THE 𝑵𝑻𝑯 ROOT OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

1
Consider 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 . To find 𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑛 , proceed as follows.
𝑛

1 1 1 1
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛
Since the result must also be in polar form, then let
1 1
𝑟 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛 = 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
Recall: From trigonometry,
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 3600 𝑘
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 3600 𝑘 , where 𝑘 = 0,1,2,3 … ….
1 1
∴ 𝑟 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛 = 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 , becomes;
1 1
𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 3600 𝑘 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 3600 𝑘
𝑛 𝑛
= 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
1
𝜃 +360 0 𝑘 𝜃+360 0 𝑘
⇒ 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑛 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
𝑛 𝑛
Comparing
1
⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑟 𝑛 ………………………………. (1)
𝜃 +360 0 𝑘
⇒𝜑= ……………….……… (2)
𝑛
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 0,1,2,3 … … … … … 𝑛 − 1
Taking values of k in to equation (2) yields the argument of different roots to
𝑧.
𝑛

Example
1. Given that 𝑧1 = 1 + 3𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 2 + 𝑖 , 𝑧3 = 1 − 𝑖, find;
a) 𝑧1 d) 3 𝑧1
b) 𝑧2 e) 3 𝑧3
c) 𝑧3 f) 4 𝑧1
Solution
Expressing complex numbers in polar form first,
a) 𝑧1 = 1 + 3𝑖 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 600 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 600
1
𝑧1 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 600 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 600 2

1
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 600 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 600 2

60 0 +360 0 𝑘 60 0 +360 0 𝑘
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
Now 𝑘 = 0,1 ∵ 𝑛 = 2 ∴ 𝑘 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1
For 𝑘 = 0
60 0 +360 0 ×0 60 0 +360 0 ×0
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 1 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
= 1.225 + 0.707𝑖
For 𝑘 = 1
60 0 +360 0 ×1 60 0 +360 0 ×1
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
= −1.225 − 0.707𝑖
∴ 𝑧1 = ± 1.225 + 0.707𝑖
b) 𝑧2 = 2 + 𝑖 = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 26.60 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 26.60
1

𝑧2 = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 26.60 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 26.60 2

4 26.60 +360 0 𝑘 26.60 +360 0 𝑘

= 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
Now 𝑘 = 0,1 ∵ 𝑛 = 2 ∴ 𝑘 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1

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For 𝑘 = 0
4 26.60 +360 0 ×0 26.6 0 +360 0 ×0
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 1 = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
= 1.455 + 0.344𝑖
For 𝑘 = 1
4 26.60 +360 0 ×1 26.6 0 +360 0 ×1
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 2 = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
= −1.455 − 0.344𝑖
∴ 𝑧1 = ± 1.455 + 0.344𝑖
c) 𝑧3 = 1 − 𝑖 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −450 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −450
1 1

𝑧3 = 𝑧3 2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −450 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −450 2

4 −45 0 +360 0 𝑘 −45 0 +360 0 𝑘

= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
Now 𝑘 = 0,1 ∵ 𝑛 = 2 ∴ 𝑘 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1
For 𝑘 = 0
4 −45 0 +360 0 ×0 −45 0 +360 0 ×0
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 1 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
= 1.099 − 0.455𝑖
For 𝑘 = 1
4 −45 0 +360 0 ×1 −45 0 +360 0 ×1
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
= −1.099 + 0.455𝑖
∴ 𝑧3 = ± 1.099 − 0.455𝑖
1 1
d) 3
𝑧1 = 𝑧1 3 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 600 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 600 3

3 60 0 +360 0 𝑘 60 0 +360 0 𝑘
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
Now 𝑘 = 0,1, 2 ∵ 𝑛 = 3 ∴ 𝑘 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 0 , 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2
For 𝑘 = 0
3 60 0 +360 0 ×0 60 0 +360 0 ×0
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 1 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3
= 1.184 + 0.431𝑖
For 𝑘 = 1
3 60 0 +360 0 ×1 60 0 +360 0 ×1
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
= −0.965 + 0.810𝑖
For 𝑘 = 2
3 60 0 +360 0 ×2 60 0 +360 0 ×2
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 3 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3
= −0.219 − 1.241𝑖
3
∴ 𝑧1 = 1.184 + 0.431𝑖 ; −0.965 + 0.810𝑖 ; −0.219 − 1.241𝑖
1 1

e) 3
𝑧3 = 𝑧3 3 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −450 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −450 3

6 −45 0 +360 0 𝑘 −45 0 +360 0 𝑘

= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
Now 𝑘 = 0,1, 2 ∵ 𝑛 = 3 ∴ 𝑘 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 0 , 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2
For 𝑘 = 0
6 −45 0 +360 0 ×0 −45 0 +360 0 ×0
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 1 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3
= 1.084 − 0.291𝑖
For 𝑘 = 1
3 −45 0 +360 0 ×1 −45 0 +360 0 ×1
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3

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= −0.291 + 1.084𝑖
For 𝑘 = 2
3 −45 0 +360 0 ×2 −45 0 +360 0 ×2
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 3 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
= −0.794 − 0.794𝑖
3
∴ 𝑧1 = 1.084 − 0.291𝑖 ; −0.291 + 1.084𝑖 ; −0.794 − 0.794𝑖
1 1
f) 4
𝑧1 = 4
𝑧1 = 𝑧1 4 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 600 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 600 4

4 60 0 +360 0 𝑘 60 0 +360 0 𝑘
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
4 4
Now 𝑘 = 0,1, 2 , 3 ∵ 𝑛 = 4 ∴ 𝑘 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 0 , 1 , 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3
For 𝑘 = 0
4 60 0 +360 0 ×0 60 0 +360 0 ×0
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 1 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4
= 1.149 + 0.308𝑖
For 𝑘 = 1
4 60 0 +360 0 ×1 60 0 +360 0 ×1
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 2 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
= −0.308 + 1.149𝑖
For 𝑘 = 2
3 60 0 +360 0 ×2 60 0 +360 0 ×2
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 3 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
= −1.149 − 0.308𝑖
3 60 0 +360 0 ×2 60 0 +360 0 ×2
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 3 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3
= 0.308 − 1.149𝑖
3
∴ 𝑧1 = 1.149 + 0.308𝑖 ; −0.308 + 1.149𝑖 ; −1.149 − 0.308𝑖; 0.308 − 1.149𝑖

Task
Find the fourth root of:
a. 5 + 12𝑖
b. −4 + 3𝑖
c. 4 − 3𝑖
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑:

EXPRESSING POWERED COMPLEX NMBER IN POLAR FORM

The rules of modulus and argument of complex numbers are employed.
Example
1) Express the following in polar form:
1+𝑖 2 1+𝑖 3 1+2𝑖
a. 3 c. 2
1−𝑖 3 1− 1−𝑖
12
1−𝑖 2 3+4𝑖 3 1+𝑖 3
b. 2
d. 11
−5+12𝑖 3−𝑖
Solution
1+𝑖 2 1+𝑖 3
a. let 𝑧 = 3 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1−𝑖 3
1+𝑖 2 1+𝑖 3 1+𝑖 2 1+𝑖 3
𝑟= 𝑧 = 3 = 3
1−𝑖 3 1−𝑖 3
2 2
1+𝑖 1+𝑖 3 1+1 1+3 2×2 1
= 3 = 3 = 23
=2
1−𝑖 3 1+3
1+𝑖 2 1+𝑖 3
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 3
1−𝑖 3

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3
= 𝑎𝑟𝑔 1 + 𝑖 2 . 1 + 𝑖 3 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 1 − 𝑖 3
𝑧1
∵ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2
= 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2
= 2𝑎𝑟𝑔 1 + 𝑖 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 1 + 𝑖 3 − 3𝑎𝑟𝑔 1 − 𝑖 3
∵ 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑛𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧
= 2 × 450 + 600 − 3 × −600 = 3300 𝑜𝑟 − 300 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
1
∴ 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −300 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −300
1−𝑖 2 3+4𝑖 3
b. let 𝑧 = −5+12𝑖 2
= 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1−𝑖 2 3+4𝑖 3 1−𝑖 2 3+4𝑖 3
𝑟= 𝑧 = 2
= 2
−5+12𝑖 −5+12𝑖
2 3
1−𝑖 2 3+4𝑖 3 1+1 9+16 2×5 3 250
= 2
= 2 = = 169
−5+12𝑖 25+144 13 2
1−𝑖 2 3+4𝑖 3
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 2
−5+12𝑖
= 𝑎𝑟𝑔 1 − 𝑖 2 . 3 + 4𝑖 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 −5 + 12𝑖 2 3

= 2𝑎𝑟𝑔 1 − 𝑖 + 3𝑎𝑟𝑔 3 + 4𝑖 − 2𝑎𝑟𝑔 −5 + 12𝑖

= 2 × −450 + 3 × 53.10 − 2 × 112.60 = −155.90 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
250
∴ 𝑧 = 169 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −155.90 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −155.90
1+2𝑖 1+2𝑖 1+2𝑖
c. let 𝑧 = 1− 1−𝑖 2 = 1− 1−2𝑖+𝑖 2 = 1+2𝑖 = 1 + 0𝑖 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟 = 𝑧 = 1 + 0𝑖 = 1 + 0 = 1
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 0
∴ 𝑧 = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛0
12
1+𝑖 3
d. let 𝑧 = 11 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
3−𝑖
12 12 12
1+𝑖 3 1+𝑖 3 1+𝑖 3
𝑟= 𝑧 = 11 = 11 = 11
3−𝑖 3−𝑖 3−𝑖
12
1+3 2 12
= 11 = 211 = 2
3+1
12
1+𝑖 3
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 11
3−𝑖
12 11
= 𝑎𝑟𝑔 1 + 𝑖 3 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 3−𝑖
= 12𝑎𝑟𝑔 1 + 𝑖 3 − 11𝑎𝑟𝑔 3 − 𝑖
= 12 × 600 − 11 × −300 = 10500 𝑜𝑟 − 300 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
∴ 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −300 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −300

STATING THE PRINCIPAL ANGLE OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

The interval of a principal angle is – 𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 𝑜𝑟 − 1800 < 𝜃 ≤ 1800
The knowledge of trigonometry of angles in quadrants is required.
Definition
The principal angle is the angle whose complex number (number) is nearest
to the positive Real axis.
Example
1) Given that 𝑧1 = 3 − 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −1 + 𝑖 and 𝑧3 = 1 − 𝑖 3. Find the principal
argument of;
a) 𝑧1 5

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b) 𝑧2 7 c) 𝑧3 8
Solution
a) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 5 = 5𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1
= 5 × −300 = −1500 −1500

b) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 7 = 7𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑍2
9450
= 7 × 1350 = 9450
But 𝑡𝑎𝑛945 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛1350
0

∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 7 = −1350 450

c) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 8 = 8𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑍3
But 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 = −600
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 8 = −600 × 8 = −4800
600
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 8 = −1200

2) Given that 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −1 + 𝑖 and 𝑧3 = −1 − 𝑖. Find the principal argument

of;
c) 𝑧1 5
d) 𝑧2 8 c) 𝑧3 6
Solution
2250
a) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 5 = 5𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1
= 5 × 450 = 2250
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 = −1350
5 1350

b) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 8 = 8𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑍3
10800
But 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 = 1350
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 8 = 1350 × 8 = 10800
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 8 = 00

−8100
c) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 6 = 6𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑍3
But 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 = −1350
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 8 = −1350 × 6 = −8100
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧3 8 = −900

Task
Given that 𝑧1 = 5 + 12𝑖 , 𝑧2 = −2 + 𝑖 and 𝑧3 = 8 − 𝑖4. Find the principal
argument of;
a) 𝑧1 3
b) 𝑧2 5 c) 𝑧3 8
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝒂 − 𝟏𝟓𝟕. 𝟗𝟎 𝒃 − 𝟒𝟕. 𝟐𝟎 𝒄 − 𝟔𝟓𝟎

FURTHER EXAMPLES ON PROOFS BY DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM

The knowledge of trigonometry is applicable.
Example
1 𝑧1 𝑧
1. If 𝑧1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 , 𝑧2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽, show that 2𝑖 𝑧2
− 𝑧2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝛽
1

Solution

353
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𝑧1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
𝑧2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝛽 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝛽
𝑧2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝑧1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝛼 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 − 𝛼
𝑧1 𝑧
∴ 𝑧 − 𝑧2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝛽 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝛼 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 − 𝛼
2 1

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝛽 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝛼 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 − 𝛼

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝛽 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝛼 − 𝛽 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 𝛼 − 𝛽
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝛽 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝛽 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝛽
𝑧1 𝑧2
∴ − = 2𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝛽
𝑧2 𝑧1
1 𝑧1 𝑧2 1
∴ − = × 2𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝛽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝛽
2𝑖 𝑧2 𝑧1 2𝑖
2 𝜃 1+𝑧 𝜃
2. If 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , prove that 1+𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 and 1−𝑧 = 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2
Solution
2 2 2
= 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
1+𝑧 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 +𝑖 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2 2
1 1 𝜃 𝜃 −1
= 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 = 𝜃 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2 2 2
1 𝜃 𝜃 1 𝜃 𝜃
= 𝜃 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 2 = 𝜃 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2
𝜃
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2
∴ 1+𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
1+𝑧 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= =
1−𝑧 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 +𝑖 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2 2 2 2 2
= 2𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 = 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
2𝑠𝑖𝑛 −𝑖 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2 2 2 2 2
𝜃 𝜃
Writing 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 − 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 in the form 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
Recall: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 900 − 2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 900 − 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
𝜃 𝜃
𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 . 𝜃 𝜃
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90 0 − −𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 0 −
2 2
𝜃 𝜃
𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 . 𝜃 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 90 0 − −𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 90 0 −
2 2
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 −1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 900 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 900
2 2
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − − 900 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − − 900
2 2 2 2 2
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 900 − 2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 900 − 2
2 2
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
+ 900 − 2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
+ 900 − 2
𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 900 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 900
1+𝑧 𝜃
∴ 1−𝑧 = 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
3. Prove that 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑛
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 𝑛𝜃
2 2
Solution
𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =?
𝜋 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −𝜃
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
− 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
−𝜃

354
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𝜋 𝜋 𝑛
𝑛
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −𝜃
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 2
−𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 2
−𝜃
𝑛 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 𝑛𝜃
2 2
4. (a) Find the modulus and argument of 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 2
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real
2𝑎𝑏 𝑏
numbers. Hence show that 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
𝑎 2 −𝑏 2
= 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑎
(b) Two complex numbers 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 are such that 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 .
𝜋
Show that 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = , where 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 are arguments of 𝑧1 and 𝑧2
2
respectively.
Solution
a) let 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 2
2
𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
∴ 𝑧 = 𝑎 2 + 𝑏2
2 𝑏
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 = 2𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑎 + 𝑖 𝑏 = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑎
Also 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑖2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑖 2 𝑏2
= 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 + 𝑖2𝑎𝑏
2𝑎𝑏 𝑏
⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
𝑎 2 −𝑏 2 𝑎
𝜋
b) 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = ; 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
2
Let 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
= 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖 𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑟2 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
= 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
= 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑖 𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑟2 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
= 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑖 𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 2 + 𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 − 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 2

𝑟1 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1 − 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑟2 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃2

=
+𝑟1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃1 − 𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑟2 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃2

𝑟1 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃1 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

=
+𝑟2 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃2

∴ 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 2 + 𝑟2 2 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝜃2
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 2 + 𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 + 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 2

𝑟1 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1 + 2𝑟1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑟2 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃2

=
+𝑟1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃1 + 2𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑟2 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃2

𝑟1 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃1 + 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

=
+𝑟2 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃2

∴ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 2 + 𝑟2 2 + 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝜃2

Now 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ; squaring both sides;

𝑟1 2 + 𝑟2 2 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = 𝑟1 2 + 𝑟2 2 + 2𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝜃2
Simplifying

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−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 𝑜𝑟 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = 0

𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0 =
2
𝜋 𝜋
∴ 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 =
2 2

Task
𝜋 𝜋
1. If 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 , where− 2 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2 . Prove that 𝑧 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝜃
2. If 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 , 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 , 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0, prove
1 1 1
that + + = 0
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝜋
3. If 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑧2
= 2 , show that 𝑧1 = 𝑧2

SOLVING EQUATIONS IN COMPLEX NUMBERS

a) Equations involving equality of complex numbers
Equality of complex numbers occurs if:
i. If 𝑎 + 𝑖 𝑏 = 0, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑎 = 0 , 𝑏 = 0
ii. If 𝑎 + 𝑖 𝑏 = 𝑐 + 𝑖 𝑑, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑎 = 𝑐 , 𝑏 = 𝑑
Example
1) Solve the simultaneous equations;
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 8 , 4𝑧1 − 𝑖3 𝑧2 = 26 + 8 𝑖
Solution
Let 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2
⇒ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑖 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 8 + 0𝑖
∴ 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 8 ……………………………… (1)
𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 0 ……………………………… (2)
4𝑧1 − 𝑖3 𝑧2 = 26 + 8 𝑖
⇒ 4 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 − 𝑖3 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 = 26 + 𝑖 8
4𝑥1 + 𝑖4𝑦1 − 𝑖3𝑥2 − 𝑖 2 3𝑦2 = 26 + 𝑖 8
4𝑥1 + 3𝑦2 + 𝑖 4𝑦1 − 3𝑥2 = 26 + 𝑖 8
4𝑥1 + 3𝑦2 = 26 ……………………………… (3)
4𝑦1 − 3𝑥2 = 8 ………………………..……… (4)
From eqn. (1)
𝑥2 = 8 − 𝑥1 …………………………..……… (5)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 5 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 (4)
4𝑦1 − 3 8 − 𝑥1 = 8 ⇒ 4𝑦1 + 3𝑥1 − 24 = 8
4𝑦1 + 3𝑥1 = 32 ……………………………… (6)
From eqn. (2)
𝑦2 = −𝑦1 ………………………………………… (7)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 7 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 (3)
4𝑥1 − 3𝑦1 = 26 ……………………………… (8)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑛. 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (8)
𝑥1 = 8 , 𝑦1 = 2
From eqn. (2) and eqn. (5)
𝑦2 = −2 , 𝑥2 = 0
∴ 𝑧1 = 8 + 2 𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 0 − 2 𝑖

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Alternatively
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 8 ………………………………………… (1)
4𝑧1 − 𝑖3 𝑧2 = 26 + 8 𝑖 ………………………. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 × 4 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
4𝑧 + 4 𝑧 = 32 + 0 𝑖
− 4𝑧1 − 𝑖3 𝑧2 = 26 + 8 𝑖
1 2
4 + 3 𝑖 𝑧2 = 6 − 8 𝑖
6−8 𝑖 6−8 𝑖 4−3 𝑖
∴ 𝑧2 = =
4+3 𝑖 4+3 𝑖 4−3 𝑖
24−18𝑖−32𝑖+𝑖 2 24 0−50 𝑖
= 2
=
16− 3𝑖 16+9
∴ 𝑧2 = 0 − 2 𝑖
From eqn. (1)
𝑧1 = 8 − 𝑧2 = 8 − −2𝑖 = 8 + 2𝑖
∴ 𝑧1 = 8 + 2 𝑖
2) Given that 3 + 2𝑧 ∗ 𝑧 = 5 + 2𝑧, where 𝑧 ∗ is the conjugate of z. find z.
Solution
3𝑧 + 2𝑧𝑧 ∗ = 5 + 2𝑧
⇒ 2𝑧𝑧 ∗ = 5 − 𝑧
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑧 ∗ = 𝑥 − 𝑖 𝑦
∴ 2 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 𝑥−𝑖𝑦 =5− 𝑥+𝑖𝑦
⇒ 2 𝑥2 − 𝑖 𝑦 2 = 5 − 𝑥 − 𝑖 𝑦
⇒ 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 = 5 − 𝑥 − 𝑖 𝑦
Equating Real parts and imaginary parts
∴ 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 = 5 − 𝑥 ……………………. (1)
∴ 0 = −𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦 = 0
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑜, 𝑥 = ?
⇒ 2𝑥 2 = 5 − 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5 = 0
∴ 𝑥 = 1.351 , −1.851
∴ 𝑧 = 1.351 + 0 𝑖 ; −1.851 + 0 𝑖
𝑝 𝑞
3) Given that z is a complex number such that 𝑧 = 2−𝑖 + 1+3𝑖 , where p and q are
real.
𝜋
Given that 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 2 and 𝑧 = 7, find p and q.
Solution
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 2+𝑖 𝑞 1−3𝑖
𝑧 = 2−𝑖 + 1+3𝑖 = 𝑧 = +
2−𝑖 2+𝑖 1+3𝑖 1−3𝑖
2𝑝+2𝑖 𝑞−3𝑞𝑖 2𝑝 2 𝑞 3𝑞
= + = + 𝑖+ − 𝑖
4−𝑖 2 1−𝑖 2 3 2 5 5 10 10
2𝑝 𝑞 2 3𝑞
∴𝑧= 5
+ 10 + 𝑖 5
− 10
2 3𝑞
− 2𝑝−3𝑞 𝜋
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 5 10
2𝑝 𝑞 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 4𝑝+𝑞
= 2
+
5 10
2𝑝−3𝑞 𝜋
∴ = tan = ∞
4𝑝 +𝑞 2
⇒ 4𝑝 + 𝑞 = 0 ………………………………. (1)
2𝑝 𝑞 2 2 3𝑞 2
𝑧 =7= + + −
5 10 5 10
Squaring both sides
4𝑝 +𝑞 2 + 2𝑝−3𝑞 2
⇒ 49 =
100

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∴ 4900 = 4𝑝 + 𝑞 2 + 2𝑝 − 3𝑞 2 …………………… (2)

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (1)
𝑞 = −4𝑝 …………………………………………. (3)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 3 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 (2)
2
⇒ 4900 = 4𝑝 − 4𝑝 2 + 2𝑝 − 3 −4𝑝
⇒ 4900 = 14𝑝 2
Finding square root on both sides
±70 = 14𝑝 ∴ 𝑝 = ±5
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = ±5 , 𝑞 =?
From eqn. (1)
𝑞 = −4𝑝 = ±5 × −4 = ±20
∴ 𝑝 = 5. 𝑞 = −20; 𝑝 = −5 , 𝑞 = 20
4) Given that 𝑢 = −10 + 𝑖 9 as a complex number,
Find the complex number v which satisfies the equation 𝑢𝑣 = −11 + 𝑖 28.
Hence verify that 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 8 2.
Solution
−11+𝑖 28 −11+𝑖 28
𝑢𝑣 = −11 + 𝑖 28 ⇒ 𝑣 = =
𝑢 −10+𝑖 9
−11+𝑖 28 −10−𝑖 9
=
−10+𝑖 9 −10−𝑖 9
110 +𝑖 99−𝑖 280 −𝑖 2 252 110 −𝑖 181 +252
= =
−10 2 − 𝑖9 2 100 +81
362 181
= 181 − 𝑖 181 = 2 − 𝑖 ∴ 𝑣 = 2 − 𝑖
𝑢 + 𝑣 = −1 + 𝑖 9 + 2 − 𝑖 = 8 2
= −8 + 8𝑖 = 82 + 82 = 8 2
𝜋 2𝜋
5) Find z if 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 1 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 = 3
Solution
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦 , 𝑧 + 1 = 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑖 𝑦
𝑦 𝜋
⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 =
𝑥+1 4
𝜋 𝑦
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 = 𝑥+1 = 1
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 ……………………………… (1)
𝑧−1 =𝑥−1+𝑖 𝑦
𝑦 2𝜋
⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑥−1
= 3
2𝜋 𝑦
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥−1 = − 3
3
∴ − 3𝑥 + 3 = 𝑦 …………………….. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 1 = 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (2)
𝑥 + 1 = − 3𝑥 + 3
3−1
𝑥 1+ 3 +1− 3 =0 ∴ 𝑥 = 3+1
3−1 3−1 3−1
𝑥= =
3+1 3+1 3−1
3−2 3+1
= =1− 3 ∴𝑥 = 1− 3
3−1
From eqn. (1)
𝑦 =𝑥+1= 1− 3+1 =2− 3
∴ 𝑧 = 1− 3 +𝑖 2− 3

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6) If 1 + 𝑖3 𝑧1 = 5 1 + 𝑖 , find 𝑧1
Solution
5 1+𝑖
1 + 𝑖3 𝑧1 = 5 1 + 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑧1 =
1+𝑖3
5+5𝑖 5+5𝑖 1−𝑖3 5−𝑖 15+𝑖 5−𝑖 2 15
𝑧1 = 1+𝑖3
=
1+𝑖3 1−𝑖3
= 12 − 𝑖3 2

5+15−10𝑖 20−𝑖 10
= 1+9
= 10
=2−𝑖
∴ 𝑧1 = 2 − 𝑖
7) Given that x and y are real, find the values of x and y which satisfy the
equation
2𝑦 +4𝑖 𝑦
2𝑥+𝑦
− 𝑥−𝑖 = 0
Solution
2𝑦+4𝑖 𝑦
− 𝑥−𝑖 = 0
2𝑥+𝑦
2𝑦 4 𝑦 𝑥+𝑖
2𝑥+𝑦
+ 2𝑥+𝑦 𝑖 − 𝑥−𝑖 𝑥 +𝑖
=0
2𝑦 4 𝑥𝑦 𝑦
+ 2𝑥+𝑦 𝑖 − 𝑥 2 +1 − 𝑥 2 +1 𝑖 = 0
2𝑥+𝑦
For equality of complex numbers
2𝑦 𝑥𝑦
For real part: − = 0 ……………………….. (1)
2𝑥+𝑦 𝑥 2 +1
4 𝑦
For imaginary part: − = 0 ………………………… (2)
2𝑥+𝑦 𝑥 2 +1
From eqn. (2)
4 𝑦
= , substituting in eqn. (1)
2𝑥+𝑦 𝑥 2 +1
2𝑦 4
⇒ 2𝑥+𝑦 − 2𝑥+𝑦 . 𝑥 = 0
2𝑦−4𝑥
∴ = 0 ⇒ 2𝑦 − 4𝑥 = 0
2𝑥+𝑦
∴ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 ………………………………………….. (3)
Eqn. (3) in to eqn. (1)
2 2𝑥 𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥 2
⇒ 2𝑥+2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 +1 = 0 ∴ 1 − 𝑥 2 +1 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 2 + 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 = 1
∴ 𝑥 = ±1
From eqn. (3)
𝑦 = 2 ±1 = ±2
∴ 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑦 = 2 ; 𝑥 = −1 , 𝑦 = −2
8) Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the equation
𝑥 𝑦 6+2 𝑖
2+𝑖 3
− 3−𝑖 2 = 1+𝑖 8 (𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟔)
Solution
Expressing complex numbers in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏
𝑥 𝑦 6+2 𝑖
2+𝑖 3
−
3−𝑖 2
= 1+𝑖 8
𝑥 2−𝑖 3 𝑦 3+𝑖 2 6+2 𝑖 1−𝑖 8
2+𝑖 3 2−𝑖 3
−
3−𝑖 2 3+𝑖 2 1+𝑖 8 1−𝑖 8
=
2𝑥−𝑖 3𝑥 3𝑦+𝑖 2𝑦 6−𝑖 48+𝑖 2−𝑖 2 16
4+9
− 9+4
= 1+64
2𝑥−𝑖 3𝑥 3𝑦+𝑖 2𝑦 6+16−𝑖 46
13
− 13
= 65
2𝑥 3𝑥 3𝑦 2𝑦 22 46
⇒ 13 − 𝑖 13 − 13 − 𝑖 13 = 65 − 𝑖 65
Equating real parts and imaginary parts

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2𝑥 3𝑦 22
For real part: ⇒ 13 − 13 = 65 … … … … … … . … .× 65
∴ 10𝑥 − 15𝑦 = 22 …………………….………………….……….. (1)
3𝑥 2𝑦 46
For imaginary part: − 13 − 13 = − 65 … … … … . .× 65
∴ 15𝑥 + 10𝑦 = 46 …………………………………………………... (2)
Solving eqn. (1) and eqn. (2) simultaneously
𝑥 = 2.8 , 𝑦 = 0.4

Alternatively
Making the equation linear
𝑥 𝑦 6+2 𝑖
− =
2+𝑖 3 3−𝑖 2 1+𝑖 8
𝑥 3−𝑖 2 −𝑦 2+𝑖 3 6+2 𝑖
⇒ 2+𝑖 3 3−𝑖 2
= 1+𝑖 8
3𝑥−𝑖 2𝑥−2𝑦−𝑖 3𝑦 6+2 𝑖
⇒ 6−𝑖 4+𝑖 9−𝑖 2 6 1+𝑖 8
=
3𝑥−2𝑦 +𝑖 −2𝑥−3𝑦 6+2 𝑖
⇒ = … … … … × 12 + 𝑖 5
12+𝑖 5 1+𝑖 8
6+2 𝑖 12+𝑖 5
⇒ 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑖 −2𝑥 − 3𝑦 =
1+𝑖 8
72+𝑖 30+𝑖 24+𝑖 2 10
=
1+𝑖8
72+𝑖 30+𝑖 24+𝑖 2 10 62+𝑖 54 62+𝑖 54 1−𝑖 8
= =
1+𝑖8 1+8 𝑖 1+8 𝑖 1−𝑖 8
62+𝑖 54−𝑖 496−𝑖 2 432
=
1+64
494 442 38 34
= −𝑖 = −𝑖
65 65 5 5
38
∴ 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 5
𝑜𝑟 15𝑥 − 10𝑦 = 38 …………………… (1)
38
−2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = − 𝑜𝑟 10𝑥 + 15𝑦 = 34 ……………….. (2)
5
Solving eqn. (1) and eqn. (2) simultaneously
∴ 𝑥 = 2.8 , 𝑦 = 0.4

Task
Given that x and y are real, find the values of x and y which satisfy the
equation
𝑥+4 𝑖 𝑥+𝑖
a) − =0
2𝑥+𝑦 𝑦
3𝑧 3𝑧 4
b) + = 3−𝑖
1−𝑖 𝑖
𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝒃 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕 , 𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑

ROOTS OF A GIVEN EQUATION

It can be proved that if 𝐴 + 𝑖𝐵 = 𝑥 is a root of a quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 +
𝑐 = 0, then its conjugate is also a root.
Formulation of a quadratic equation with two given roots
The general formula used is:
𝑥 2 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 0
Example
1) Find the equation whose one root is;
(i) 2 − 3𝑖 (ii) 1 + 𝑖 (iii) 3 + 4𝑖
Solution
i) Since 𝑥 = 2 − 3𝑖 is a root, then the other root 𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑖 is also a root.

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Sum of the roots: 2 − 3𝑖 + 2 + 3𝑖 = 4

Product of roots: 2 − 3𝑖 2 + 3𝑖 = 2 2 − 𝑖3 2 = 4 + 9 = 13
∴ 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 13 = 0
ii) 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑖 is also a root.
Sum of the roots: 1 + 𝑖 + 1 − 𝑖 = 2
Product of roots: 1 + 𝑖 1 − 𝑖 = 1 2 − 𝑖 2 = 1 + 1 = 2
∴ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2 = 0
iii) 𝑥 = 3 + 4𝑖 ⇒ 𝑥 = 3 − 4𝑖 is also a root.
Sum of the roots: 3 + 4𝑖 + 3 − 4𝑖 = 6
Product of roots: 3 + 4𝑖 3 − 4𝑖 = 3 2 − 𝑖4 2 = 9 + 16 = 25
∴ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 25 = 0
2) Show that 𝑧 = 1 is the root of the equation 𝑧 3 − 5𝑧 2 + 7𝑧 − 5 = 0. Hence solve
the equation. 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟑
Solution
Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 3 − 5𝑧 2 + 7𝑧 − 5 = 0
For 𝑧 = 1
⇒ 𝑓 1 = 1 3 − 5 1 2 + 7 1 − 5 = 0. Hence 𝑧 = 1 is a root. Thus 𝑧 − 1 is a
root of 𝑓 𝑧 . Factorizing 𝑓 𝑧

𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 5
𝑧−1 𝑧 3 − 5𝑧 2 + 7𝑧 − 5
𝑧3 − 𝑧2
−4𝑧 2 + 9𝑧 − 5
−4𝑧 2 + 4𝑧
5𝑧 − 5
5𝑧 − 5
2
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 − 1 𝑧 − 4𝑧 + 5 = 0
𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 5 = 0
4± 16−4 5 4± −4 4±2𝑖
𝑧= = = =2±𝑖
2 2 2
∴ 𝑧 = 2±𝑖
3) Show that 𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑖 is a root of the equation 𝑧 4 − 5𝑧 3 + 18𝑧 2 − 17𝑧 + 13 = 0
Solution
𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑖
𝑧 2 = 2 + 3𝑖 2 = 4 + 12𝑖 + 𝑖 2 9 = −5 + 12𝑖
𝑧 3 = −5 + 12𝑖 2 + 3𝑖 = −10 − 15𝑖 + 24𝑖 + 𝑖 2 36
= −10 + 9𝑖 − 36 = −46 + 9𝑖
𝑧 4 = −5 + 12𝑖 2 = 25 − 120𝑖 + 𝑖 2 144 = −119 − 120𝑖
Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 4 − 5𝑧 3 + 18𝑧 2 − 17𝑧 + 13 = 0
𝑓 𝑧 = −119 − 120𝑖 − 5 −46 + 9𝑖 + 18 −5 + 12𝑖 − 17 2 + 3𝑖 + 13
= −119 + 230 − 90 − 34 + 13 + 𝑖 −120 − 45 + 216 − 51 = 0
Hence 𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑖 is a root of the equation.
Since 2 + 3𝑖 is a root of the equation, also 2 − 3𝑖 is a root.
Quadratic factor in 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 4 − 5𝑧 3 + 18𝑧 2 − 17𝑧 + 13:
Sum of roots: 2 + 3𝑖 + 2 − 3𝑖 = 4

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Product of roots: 2 + 3𝑖 2 − 3𝑖 = 2 2 − 3𝑖 2
= 4 + 9 = 13
∴ 𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 13 is a quadratic factor of 𝑓 𝑧
Factorizing 𝑓 𝑧 𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 1
𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 − 13 𝑧 4 − 5𝑧 3 + 18𝑧 2 − 17𝑧 + 13
𝑧 4 − 4𝑧 3 + 13𝑧 2
−𝑧 3 + 5𝑧 2 − 17𝑧 + 13
−𝑧 3 + 4𝑧 2 − 3𝑧
𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 13
𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 13
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 13 𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 1 = 0
𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 1 = 0
1± 1−4 1± −3 1±𝑖 3 1±𝑖 3
𝑧= 2
= 2
= 2
∴𝑧= 2
4) Show that 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖 is a factor of the expression 𝑧 4 − 6𝑧 3 + 23𝑧 2 − 34𝑧 + 26.
Hence solve the equation 𝑧 4 − 6𝑧 3 + 23𝑧 2 − 34𝑧 + 26 = 0
Solution
If 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖 is a factor then the root of the equation 𝑓 𝑧 = 0 must be 𝑧 − 1 −
𝑖 = 0 𝑜𝑟
𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 . Thus showing that 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 is a root of 𝑓 𝑧 = 0.
Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 4 − 6𝑧 3 + 23𝑧 2 − 34𝑧 + 26 = 0
𝑧 = 1+𝑖
𝑧 2 = 1 + 𝑖 2 = 1 + 2𝑖 + 𝑖 2 = 2𝑖
𝑧 3 = 2𝑖 1 + 𝑖 = 2𝑖 + 𝑖 2 2 = −2 + 2𝑖
𝑧 4 = 2𝑖 2 = −4
From 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 4 − 6𝑧 3 + 23𝑧 2 − 34𝑧 + 26
𝑓 𝑧 = −4 − 6 −2 + 2𝑖 + 23 2𝑖 − 34 1 + 𝑖 + 26
= −4 + 12 − 34 + 26 + 𝑖 −12 + 46 − 34 = 0
Hence 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 is a root of the equation hence 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖 is a factor of the
expression
𝑧 4 − 6𝑧 3 + 23𝑧 2 − 34𝑧 + 26
Since 1 + 𝑖 is a root of the equation, also 1 − 𝑖 is a root.
Quadratic factor in 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 4 − 6𝑧 3 + 23𝑧 2 − 34𝑧 + 26:
Sum of roots: 1+𝑖 +1−𝑖 =2
Product of roots: 1 + 𝑖 1 − 𝑖 = 1 2 − 𝑖 2 = 1 + 1 = 2
∴ 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 is a quadratic factor of 𝑓 𝑧
Factorizing 𝑓 𝑧 𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 13
𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 𝑧 4 − 6𝑧 3 + 23𝑧 2 − 34𝑧 + 26
𝑧 4 − 2𝑧 3 + 2𝑧 2
−4𝑧 3 + 21𝑧 2 − 34𝑧 + 26
−4𝑧 3 + 8𝑧 2 − 8𝑧
13𝑧 2 − 26𝑧 + 26
13𝑧 2 − 26𝑧 + 26

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∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 13 = 0
𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 13 = 0
4± 16−52 4± −36 4±𝑖6
𝑧= = = = 2 ± 3𝑖
2 2 2
∴ 𝑧 = 2 ± 3𝑖
5) Solve the equation 𝑧 4 − 6𝑧 2 + 25 = 0
Solution
𝑧 4 − 6𝑧 2 + 25 = 0 is an equation reducable to quadratic of the form 𝒂𝒖𝟐 +
𝒃𝒖 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
Let 𝑧 2 = 𝑢
⇒ 𝑢 𝟐 − 6𝑢 + 25 = 0
6± 36−100 6±8𝑖
∴𝑢= = = 3 ± 4𝑖
2 2
But 𝑧 = 𝑢 ∴ 𝑧 = 𝑢
2

For 𝑢 = 3 ± 4𝑖 ; let 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 2 = 3 + 4𝑖
⇒ 𝑎2 + 𝑖2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏2 = 3 ± 4𝑖
∴ 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 3 ……………………………… (1)
⇒ 2𝑎𝑏 = ±4 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑏 = ±2
2
∴ 𝑎 = ± 𝑏 ………………………………………… (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛. 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑛. (1)
2 2 4
⇒ − 𝑏2 = 3 ⇒ 𝑏 2 − 𝑏2 = 3
𝑏
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑚 = 𝑏2
4
⇒ − 𝑚 = 3 ∴ 𝑚 2 + 3𝑚 − 4 = 0
𝑚
Solving the equation yields 𝑚 = −4 , 1
⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑚 . Now for 𝑚 = −4 , 𝑏 = −4 = ±2𝑖
For 𝑚 = 1 , 𝑏 = 1 = ±1
From eqn. (3)
2 2 2
𝑎 = ± 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏 . For 𝑏 = ±2𝑖 ⇒ 𝑎 = ± ±2𝑖 = ±𝑖
2
Also for 𝑏 = ±1 ⇒ 𝑎 = ± = ±2
±1
∴ 𝑏 = ±1, 𝑎 = ±2 ; 𝑏 = ±2𝑖, 𝑎 = ±𝑖
⇒ 𝑧 = ± 2+𝑖

Task
1. Show that 𝑧 = 1 is a root of the equation 𝑧 4 − 3𝑧 3 + 4𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 + 1 = 0. Hence find
𝟏
the other roots. 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟏 , 𝟏 , 𝟏±𝒊 𝟑
𝟐
2. Given that that the complex number z and its conjugate 𝑧 satisfy the equation:
𝑧𝑧 + 3𝑧 = 34 − 12𝑖 . Find the values of z. 𝑼𝒏𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟎
𝑝 𝑞
3. Given the complex number such that 𝑧 = + where p and q are real.
2−𝑖 1+3𝑖
𝜋
If 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 2 and 𝑧 = 7, find the values of p and q
4. Find the real values of a and b such that 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 2
= 𝑖, hence or otherwise
solve the equation
𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 1 − 𝑖 = 0 , where 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏.
2𝑧−3 3
5. Solve for z in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 if =
1−4𝑖 1+𝑖

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Equations involving 𝒏𝒕𝒉 root of a complex number

Example
Solve the following equations
i) 𝑧 3 + 1 = 0
ii) 𝑧 3 − 8 = 0
iii) 𝑧 4 − 8 − 𝑖 8 3 = 0
iv) 𝑧 3 − 5 + 𝑖 12 = 0
2−𝑖
v) 𝑧3 − 2+𝑖
=0
Solution
i)
3
𝑧 3 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 3 = −1 + 0 𝑖 ∴ 𝑧 = −1 + 0 𝑖
Expressing z in polar form
⇒ 𝑧 = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1800 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1800
1
3
𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1800 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1800 3

−180 0 +360 0 𝑘 −180 0 +360 0 𝑘

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 , where 𝑘 = 0, 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2
3 3
−180 0 +360 0 ×0 −180 0 +360 0 ×0
For 𝑘 = 0 , 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠
3
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
1 𝑖 3
=2−
2
−180 0 +360 0 ×1 −180 0 +360 0 ×1
For 𝑘 = 1 , 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠
3
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
1 𝑖 3
=2+
2
−180 0 +360 0 ×2 −180 0 +360 0 ×2
For 𝑘 = 2 , 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠
3
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
= −1 + 0 𝑖
1 3
∴ 3 𝑧 =2±𝑖 , −1
2
ii) 3 3 3
𝑧 −8 =0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 8+0𝑖 ∴ 𝑧 = 8+0𝑖
Expressing z in polar form
⇒ 𝑧 = 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠 00 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 00
1
3
𝑧 = 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠 00 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 00 3

0 0 +360 0 𝑘 0 0 +360 0 𝑘
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 , where 𝑘 = 0, 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2
3 3
0 0 +360 0 ×0 0 0 +360 0 ×0
For 𝑘 = 0 , 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠
3
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
=2+0𝑖
0 0 +360 0 ×1 0 0 +360 0 ×1
For 𝑘 = 1 , 3 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3
= −1 + 𝑖 3
0 0 +360 0 ×2 0 0 +360 0 ×2
For 𝑘 = 2 , 3 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3 3
= −1 − 𝑖 3
∴ 3 𝑧 = 2 + 0 𝑖, , −1 ± 𝑖 3
iii) 𝑧 4 − 8 − 𝑖 8 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 4 = −8 + 𝑖 8 3 = 𝑧1 𝑠𝑎𝑦
∴ 𝑧 = 4 𝑧1
Expressing 𝑧1 in polar form
2
𝑧1 = 8 2 + 8 3 = 8 1 + 3 = 16
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 8 −1 + 𝑖 3

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= 𝑎𝑟𝑔 −1 + 𝑖 3 ∵ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝜆𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆 > 0

∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 = 1200
⇒ 𝑧1 = 16 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1200 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1200
4
⇒ 𝑧 = 4 𝑧1 = 16 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1200 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1200
1
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1200 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1200 4

120 0 +360 0 𝑘 120 0 +360 0 𝑘

= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4
, where 𝑘 = 0, 1 , 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3
120 0 +360 0 ×0 120 0 +360 0 ×0
For 𝑘 = 0 , 4 𝑧1 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
4 4
= 3+𝑖
120 0 +360 0 ×1 1200 +360 0 ×1
For 𝑘 = 1 , 3 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
4 4
= −1 + 𝑖 3
120 0 +360 0 ×2 120 0 +360 0 ×2
For 𝑘 = 2 , 3 𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
4 4
= − 3−𝑖
120 0 +360 0 ×3 120 0 +360 0 ×3
For 𝑘 = 3, 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛
4 4
=1−𝑖 3
∴𝑧=± 3+ 𝑖 ,± 1−𝑖 3
iv) Left as an exercise 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖′ , 𝟏 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖′ , 𝟏 𝟑𝟒𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟖′ , 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟑 − 𝒊 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟒

LOCUS PROBLEMS IN COMPLEX NUMBERS

Consider a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦. If z varies when subjected to some
given condition, the corresponding set of points in the Argand diagram is
called the locus of a point 𝑃 𝑥 , 𝑦 representing z.
Loci are defined by:
 Distances
 Arguments/ angles
In general, equations of loci in Argand diagram involve moduli and
arguments of complex variables.
Locus from Distances:
Consider the figure below.
𝐼𝑚 𝑧 = 𝑥 +𝑖 𝑦 ,𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦
𝑎 = 𝑎1 + 𝑖 𝑎2
𝑧−𝑎
𝑧 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝐴𝑃
Finding magnitude of 𝐴𝑃
𝑎 ⇒ 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑘 +𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑂 𝑅𝑒
Thus Distance of P from A is a constant. Hence

𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑘 is the equation of a circle with centre a at the point A and

radius k

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𝑦
𝑃

𝑧 𝑘

𝑎
𝑂 𝑥

NOTE
If a point 𝑃 𝑥 , 𝑦 move so that the ratio of its distance from two fixed points
A and B is constant, then the locus is a circle. This locus is referred to as
Apollonius circle and is represented in the Argand diagram by the equation
of the form 𝑧−𝑎
𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑘 𝑧 − 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑧−𝑏 = 𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 ≠ 1
Example
1) Sketch the loci defined by the equations:
i) 𝑧 =2
ii) 𝑧 − 3 + 2𝑖 = 5
iii) 𝑧 − 4 + 3𝑖 = 4
iv) 𝑧 + 𝑖 = 3
Solution
These are straight forward equations. Re-writing in the form 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑘
i) 𝑧 = 2 ⇒ 𝑧 − 0 + 0𝑖 = 2 𝑦
∴ 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒: 0 , 0 ; 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠: 2
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 2 ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 22
2
𝑥
𝑂

ii) 𝑧 − 3 + 2𝑖 = 5 ⇒ 𝑧 − 3 − 2𝑖 = 5 𝑦
Centre 3 , −2 : 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 ∶ 5
𝑥−3 +𝑖 𝑦+2 =5 ⇒ 𝑥−3 2+ 𝑦+2 2
= 52 3 𝑥
−2
5 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑦
iii) 𝑧 − 4 + 3𝑖 = 4 ⇒ 𝑧 − 4 − 3𝑖 = 4
Centre 4 , −3 : 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 ∶ 4
𝑥−4 +𝑖 𝑦+3 =5 ⇒ 𝑥−4 2+ 𝑦+3 2
= 42 𝑥
4
−3
4 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

iv) 𝑧+𝑖 =3 ⇒ 𝑧− 0−𝑖 = 3 𝑥

Centre 0 , −1 : 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 ∶ 3 −1
𝑥 − 0 + 𝑖 𝑦 + 1 = 3 ⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦 + 2 2
= 32 3 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

2) A point P represents a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 on an Argand diagram.

Describe the locus of P if;
a) 2 𝑧 + 1 = 𝑧 − 2

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b) 𝑧 + 4𝑖 = 3 𝑧 − 4
𝑧+𝑖
c) =2
𝑧−5−2𝑖
𝑧−1 2
d) 𝑧+1−𝑖
=3
𝑧
e) =5
𝑧+6
Solution
𝑧−2
a) 2 𝑧+1 = 𝑧−2 ⇒ =2
𝑧+1
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖
𝑧−2 𝑥−2 +𝑖𝑦
𝑧+1
= 𝑥+1 +𝑖𝑦
=2
𝑥−2 2 + 𝑦 2
⇒ = 2 , squaring both sides
𝑥+1 2 + 𝑦 2

𝑥−2 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 2 −4𝑥+4+𝑦 2
⇒ = 4 ∴ 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1+𝑦 2 = 4
𝑥+1 2 + 𝑦 2

⇒ 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 = 4 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2
2

⇒ 3𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 3𝑦 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 = 0
Circle with centre −2 , 0 , Radius= 4 + 0 − 0 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑧+4𝑖
b) 𝑧 + 4𝑖 = 3 𝑧 − 4 ⇒ =3
𝑧−4
𝑧+4𝑖 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 +4
= =3
𝑧−4 𝑥−4 +𝑖𝑦
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 +4 2
⇒ = 3 , squaring both sides
𝑥−4 2 +𝑦 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦+4 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +8𝑦+16
⇒ = 9 ∴ 𝑥 2 −8𝑥+16+𝑦 2 = 9
𝑥−4 2 +𝑦 2
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 8𝑦 + 16 = 9 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 + 𝑦 2
2 2

⇒ 8𝑥 2 − 72𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 128 + 8𝑦 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 9𝑥 − 𝑦 + 16 = 0
9 1 81 1 21
Circle with centre , 2 , Radius= + 4 − 16 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
2 4 2
𝑧+𝑖 𝑧+𝑖
c) =2⇒ =2
𝑧−5−2𝑖 𝑧−5−2𝑖
𝑧+𝑖 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 +1
= =2
𝑧−5−2𝑖 𝑥−5 +𝑖 𝑦 −2
𝑥 2+ 𝑦+1 2
⇒ = 2 , squaring both sides
𝑥−5 2 + 𝑦 −2 2

𝑥 2+ 𝑦+1 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +2𝑦 +1
⇒ 𝑥−5 2+ 𝑦 −2 2
= 4 ∴ 𝑥 2 −10𝑥+25+𝑦 2 −4𝑦+4 = 4
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 = 4 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 29
40 115
⇒ 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 40𝑥 − 18𝑦 + 115 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 3
𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 3
=0
20 400 115 136 2
Circle with centre 3
,3 , Radius= 9
+9− 3
= 3
= 3 34 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑧−1 2 𝑧−1 2
d) = ⇒ =
𝑧+1−𝑖 3 𝑧+1−𝑖 3
𝑧−1 𝑥−1 +𝑖𝑦 2
= =
𝑧+1−𝑖 𝑥+1 +𝑖 𝑦 −1 3
𝑥 −1 2 +𝑦 2 2
⇒ = 3 , squaring both sides
𝑥+1 2 + 𝑦 −1 2

𝑥−1 2 +𝑦 2 4 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −2𝑥+1 4
⇒ = ∴ =
𝑥+1 2 + 𝑦 −1 2 9 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1+𝑦 2 −2𝑦+1 9
⇒ 9 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 4 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1
2 2 2

⇒ 9𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 − 18𝑥 + 9 = 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 8 + 4𝑦 2 − 8𝑦
∴ 5𝑥 2 + 5𝑦 2 − 26𝑥 + 8𝑦 + 1 = 0

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13 4 169 16 184 2
Circle with centre ,− , Radius= + −1= = 46 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
5 5 25 25 5 5

Task
If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 , determine the Cartesian equation of loci of the point z which
moves in the Argand diagram so that;
i) 𝑧 + 2𝑖 2 + 𝑧 − 2𝑖 2 = 40
ii) 𝑧 + 2𝑖 2 − 𝑧 − 2𝑖 2 = 24
iii) 𝑧 + 𝑘𝑖 2 + 𝑧 − 𝑘𝑖 2 = 30𝑘 2
𝐀𝐍𝐒𝐖𝐄𝐑: 𝒊 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒊𝒊 𝒚 = 𝟑 𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒌𝟐

NOTE:
𝑧−𝑎
For = 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = 1, this is a case where locus is a straight line
𝑧−𝑏
Example
Sketch the locus of the point 𝑃 𝑥 , 𝑦 representing the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 +
𝑖𝑦 given that
i) 𝑧−1 = 𝑧+𝑖
𝑧 +𝑖
ii) =1
𝑧−5−2𝑖
Write also the Cartesian equation of the locus.
Solution
i) 𝑧 − 1 = 𝑧 + 𝑖 ; 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦 + 1
⇒ 𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦 + 1 2 ; 1 ,0
squaring both sides
⇒ 𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦 + 1 2 −1 , 0
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1
⇒ −2𝑥 = 2𝑦 ∴ 𝑦 = −𝑥 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −1

𝑧+𝑖
ii) 𝑧−5−2𝑖
= 1 ⇒ 𝑧 + 𝑖 = 𝑧 − 5 − 2𝑖
𝑥+𝑖 𝑦+1 = 𝑥−5 +𝑖 𝑦−2
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 + 1 2 = 𝑥 − 5 2 + 𝑦 − 2 2 ; squaring both sides
⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦 + 1 2 = 𝑥 − 5 2 + 𝑦 − 2 2
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 25 + 4
5 14 5
⇒ 6𝑦 = −10𝑥 + 28 ∴ 𝑦 = − 3 𝑥 + 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = − 3
3

2 5 ,2

−1 , 0
5

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LOCUS PROBLEMS FROM EQUALITY OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

𝑧−2𝑖
1. Given that 𝑅𝑒 = 0, prove that in the Argand diagram, the locus of z is a
𝑧+4
circle. Find the centre and write as a complex number. Show that the radius
is 5
Solution
𝑧−2𝑖 𝑥+𝑖𝑦−2𝑖 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 −2
= = ; rationalizing the denominator,
𝑧+4 𝑥 +𝑖𝑦+4 𝑥+4 +𝑖𝑦
𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 −2 𝑥+4 −𝑖𝑦 𝑥 2 +4𝑥−𝑖𝑥𝑦 +𝑖 𝑥 +4 𝑦−2 −𝑖 2 𝑦 2 −2𝑦
⇒ 𝑥+4 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥+4 −𝑖𝑦
=
𝑥+4 2 −𝑖 2 𝑦 2
𝑧−2𝑖 𝑥 2 +4𝑥−𝑖𝑥𝑦 +𝑖 𝑥 +4 𝑦 −2 + 𝑦 2 −2𝑦
⇒ =
𝑧+4 𝑥+4 2 +𝑦 2
𝑧−2𝑖 𝑥 2 +4𝑥+𝑦 2 −2𝑦 𝑥+4 𝑦−2 −𝑥𝑦
∴ = +𝑖
𝑧+4 𝑥+4 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥+4 2 +𝑦 2
For 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = 0
𝑥 2 +4𝑥+𝑦 2 −2𝑦
⇒ =0
𝑥+4 2 +𝑦 2
∴ 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑦 = 0 , which is the required locus of a circle.
2 2

4 −2
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒: , = −2 , 1
−2 −2
∴ 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒: − 2 + 𝑖
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠: 22 + 12 − 0 = 5
2. If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 where x and y are real, show that
𝑧+𝑖
i) when is purely imaginary the locus of the point 𝑃(𝑥 , 𝑦) is a circle
𝑧+2
1
of radius2 5
𝑧−2𝑖
ii) When 2𝑧−𝑖 is purely imaginary the locus of a point 𝑃(𝑥 , 𝑦) in the
Argand diagram is a circle. Write its centre as a complex number.
𝑧 −𝑖
iii) When is purely real the locus of the point 𝑃(𝑥 , 𝑦) is a straight
𝑧+2
line.
Solution
i) For purely imaginary complex number, 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = 0
𝑧+𝑖 𝑥 +𝑖𝑦+𝑖 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 +1
= = ; rationalizing the denominator,
𝑧+2 𝑥+𝑖𝑦+2 𝑥+2 +𝑖𝑦
𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 +1 𝑥+2 −𝑖𝑦 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−𝑖𝑥𝑦 +𝑖 𝑥 +2 𝑦+1 −𝑖 2 𝑦 2 +𝑦
⇒ =
𝑥+2 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥+2 −𝑖𝑦 𝑥+2 2 −𝑖 2 𝑦 2
𝑧 +𝑖 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−𝑖𝑥𝑦 +𝑖 𝑥 +2 𝑦 +1 + 𝑦 2 +𝑦
⇒ =
𝑧+2 𝑥+2 2 +𝑦 2
𝑧+𝑖 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+𝑦 2 +𝑦 𝑥+2 𝑦+1 −𝑥𝑦
∴ 𝑧+2 = 𝑥+2 2 +𝑦 2
+𝑖 𝑥+2 2 +𝑦 2
For 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = 0
𝑥 2 +2𝑥+𝑦 2 +𝑦
⇒ =0
𝑥+2 2 +𝑦 2
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0 , which is the required locus of a circle.
2 2
1
∴ 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒: −1 , −
2
1
∴ 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒: 1 − 𝑖
2
1 2 1
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠: 12 + 2
−0 =2 5
𝑧−2𝑖 𝑥 +𝑖𝑦−2𝑖 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 −2
ii) 2𝑧−𝑖
=
2𝑥+𝑖2𝑦 −𝑖 2𝑥+𝑖 2𝑦 −1
= ; rationalizing the denominator,
𝑧−2𝑖 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 −2 2𝑥−𝑖 2𝑦−1 2𝑥 2 −𝑖 2𝑥𝑦 −𝑥 +𝑖 2𝑥𝑦 −4𝑥 −𝑖 2 𝑦−2 2𝑦 −1
⇒ = = 2 −𝑖 2 2
2𝑧−𝑖 2𝑥+𝑖 2𝑦 −1 2𝑥−𝑖 2𝑦 −1 2𝑥 2𝑦 −1

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𝑧−2𝑖 2𝑥 2 −𝑖 2𝑥𝑦 −𝑥 +𝑖 2𝑥𝑦 −4𝑥 +2𝑦 2 −5𝑦+2

⇒ =
2𝑧−𝑖 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑦−1 2

𝑧−2𝑖 2𝑥 2 +2𝑦 2 −5𝑦+2 −3𝑥

∴ 2𝑧−𝑖 = 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑦−1 2
+𝑖 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑦−1 2

For 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = 0

2𝑥 2 +2𝑦 2 −5𝑦+2
⇒ =0
4𝑥 2 + 2𝑦−1 2

5
∴ 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 + 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 + 1 = 0 , which is the required locus
2
of a circle.
5
∴ 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒: 0 ,
4
5
∴ 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒: 0 + 𝑖
4
𝑧 −𝑖
iii) is purely Real if 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = 0
𝑧+2
𝑧 −𝑖 𝑥 +𝑖𝑦−𝑖 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 −1
= 𝑥+𝑖𝑦+2 = ; rationalizing the denominator,
𝑧+2 𝑥+2 +𝑖𝑦
𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 −1 𝑥+2 −𝑖𝑦 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−𝑖𝑥𝑦 +𝑖 𝑥 +2 𝑦−1 −𝑖 2 𝑦 2 −𝑦
⇒ =
𝑥+2 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥+2 −𝑖𝑦 𝑥+2 2 −𝑖 2 𝑦 2
𝑧 +𝑖 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−𝑖𝑥𝑦 +𝑖 𝑥 +2 𝑦 −1 + 𝑦 2 −𝑦
⇒ 𝑧+2
= 𝑥+2 2 +𝑦 2
𝑧+𝑖 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+𝑦 2 −𝑦 𝑥+2 𝑦−1 −𝑥𝑦
∴ 𝑧+2 = 𝑥+2 2 +𝑦 2
+𝑖 𝑥+2 2 +𝑦 2
For 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = 0
𝑥+2 𝑦 −1 −𝑥𝑦
⇒ =0
𝑥+2 2 +𝑦 2
∴ 𝑥 + 2 𝑦 − 1 − 𝑥𝑦 = 0
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2 − 𝑥𝑦 = 0
∴ 2𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2 , which is a straight line.

Task
3
1) If 𝑧 = 3+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , Prove that the locus of z is a circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 − 3
2) If n is a variable and 𝑧 = 4𝑛 + 𝑖3 1 − 𝑛 , show that the locus of z is a straight
line.

LOCUS PROBLEMS FROM ARGUMENT OF COMPLEX NUMBER

Two major cases shall be considered.
Case I: 𝒂𝒓𝒈 𝒛 − 𝒂 = 𝜶

P is a point representing complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦. A is a complex

number 𝑎 = 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 . 𝐴𝑃 is a straight line
𝐼𝑚
𝑧−𝑎
𝑧 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎

𝐴
𝑎
𝑂 𝑅𝑒
Deduction

𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝛼, is the equation of a half line with end point A

inclined at an angle 𝛼 to the+𝑣𝑒 Real axis.

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Example
1. Sketch the loci defined by the equations
𝜋
i) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 − 2𝑖 =
4
2𝜋
ii) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 2 = −
3
𝜋
iii) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 1 − 3𝑖 =
6
𝜋
iv) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 1 − 𝑖 = − 4
Solution
𝜋 𝜋
i) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 − 2𝑖 = 4 , can be written as 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 + 2𝑖 = 4 ≡ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝛼
𝜋
This is a locus of half line with end point 1 , 2 inclined at an angle
4
Note:
𝑃
Direction arrow of angle measurement is in
𝜋
anticlockwise since
2 4 𝜋
𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 − 2𝑖 = = +𝑣𝑒
4

1 2

Finding Cartesian equation of line AP

Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝜋
⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 − 2𝑖 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑥 − 1 + 𝑦 − 2 𝑖 = 4
𝑦−2 𝜋
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 =
𝑥−1 4
𝑦 −2 𝜋
⇒ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 1
𝑥−1 4
∴ 𝑦 − 2 = 𝑥 − 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1
2𝜋
ii) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 2 = − , re-writing the equation
3
2𝜋
⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧— −2 + 0𝑖 =− ≡ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝛼
3
Finding Cartesian equation of locus
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
2𝜋
⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑥 + 2 + 𝑦𝑖 = −
3
𝐴 𝑦 2𝜋
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 =−
−2 0 𝑥+2 3
2𝜋 𝑦 2𝜋
⇒ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 − = 3
3 𝑥+2 3
𝑃 ∴ 𝑦 =𝑥 3+2 3
𝜋
iii) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 1 − 3𝑖 = 6 , re-writing the equation
𝜋
⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 1 − 3𝑖 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧— −1 + 3𝑖 = 6 ≡ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝛼
Half line with end point 𝐴 −1 , 3
𝑃 Finding Cartesian equation of locus
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝜋
𝜋 ⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 1 − 3𝑖 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 − 3 𝑖 =
6
6 −1 𝑦−3 𝜋
𝐴 3 ⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 =6
𝑥+1
𝑦 −3 𝜋 1
⇒ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 =
𝑥 +1 6 3
−1 0 ⇒ 𝑦−3= 𝑥
1
+
1
3 3
1 1
∴𝑦=𝑥 3
+ 3
+3

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iv) Left as an exercise for the student

𝒛−𝒂
Case II: 𝒂𝒓𝒈 =𝜸
𝒛−𝒃
𝑧−𝑎
Let 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝛼 , 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑏 = 𝛽 and 𝑎𝑟𝑔 =𝛾
𝑧−𝑏
where 𝛾 = 𝛼 − 𝛽 ±2𝜋 𝑖𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦
NOTE:
𝛾 can either be positive or negative depending on the turn of the half lines
from the end points at 𝑎 and 𝑏. Anti clockwise turn is 𝐵𝑃 to 𝐴𝑃 and 𝛾 is +𝑣𝑒
and for clockwise turn . 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐴𝑃 to 𝐵𝑃. Two cases arise here

𝐼𝑚 𝐴
𝐼𝑚 𝑃
𝛼
𝑧−𝑎
𝑧−𝑎
𝑧−𝑏
𝛼 𝑧−𝑏 𝑃
𝛽
𝐴
𝐵 𝛽
𝐵
𝑂 𝑅𝑒 𝑂 𝑅𝑒
𝒛−𝒂
Fig 𝒂𝒓𝒈
𝒛−𝒂
> 0 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛼 > 𝑏 Fig 𝒂𝒓𝒈 < 0 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛼 < 𝑏
𝒛−𝒃 𝒛−𝒃

𝒛−𝒂
In general, the equation 𝒂𝒓𝒈 = 𝝀 , where 𝜆 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 represents a
𝒛−𝒃
circular arc with end points A and B.
Example
1. The point 𝑃 𝑥 , 𝑦 represents 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦 as the complex number on the Argand
diagram. Describe and sketch the locus of P if;
𝑧+𝑖 𝜋
a) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 =4
𝑧−𝑖
𝑧−3 𝜋
b) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 =4
𝑧−1
𝑧+2 𝜋
c) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 =3
𝑧−𝑖
𝑧−1 𝜋
d) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 =4
𝑧+1
𝑧−3−𝑖 𝜋
e) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 =
𝑧+5−3𝑖 3
Solution
𝑧+𝑖 𝜋 𝑧−𝑎
a) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = ; re-writing the equation in the form 𝑎𝑟𝑔 =𝜆
𝑧−𝑖 4 𝑧−𝑏
𝑧+𝑖 𝜋 𝑧− 0−𝑖 𝜋
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧−𝑖
= 4 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧− 0−𝑖
= 4 , circular arc with end points 𝐴 0 , −1
and 𝐵 0 , 1
𝑦 Cartesian equation of locus:
𝑧+𝑖 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 +1 𝑥 +𝑖 𝑦 +1 𝑥−𝑖 𝑦 −1
𝐵 0, 1 = =
𝑧−𝑖 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 −1 𝑥 +𝑖 𝑦 −1 𝑥−𝑖 𝑦 −1
𝑥 2 −𝑖 𝑥𝑦 −𝑥 +𝑖 𝑥𝑦 +𝑥 −𝑖 2 𝑦 +1 𝑦 −1
𝜋 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 −𝑖 2 𝑦 −1 2
4 𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −1 +𝑖 2𝑥
=
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 −1 2

𝐴 0, −1
2𝑥
𝑧+𝑖 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 −1 2 𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −1
=
𝑧−𝑖 4
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 −1 2

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2𝑥 𝜋
⇒ 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 = 1
∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 , centre 1 , 0

𝑧−3 𝑧− 3+0𝑖 𝜋
b) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧−1
= 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧− 1+0𝑖
= 4
, circular arc with end points 𝐴 3 , 0 and 𝐵 0 , 1

𝑦 𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦
𝜋
4
𝑥
𝐵 0, 1 𝐴 3, 0
Cartesian equation of locus:

𝑧−3 𝑥 −3 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥−3 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥−1 −𝑖𝑦

= =
𝑧−1 𝑥 −1 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥−1 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥−1 −𝑖𝑦

𝑥−3 𝑥−1 −𝑖 𝑥𝑦 −3𝑦 +𝑖 𝑥𝑦 −𝑦 −𝑖 2 𝑦 2

=
𝑥−1 2 + 𝑖𝑦 2

𝑥 2 −4𝑥+3+𝑖 3𝑦 −𝑦 +𝑦 2
=
𝑥 2 −𝑖 2 𝑦 −1 2
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −4𝑥+3 +𝑖 2𝑦
=
𝑥 2 + 𝑦−1 2

𝑧−3 2𝑦/ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦−1 2 𝜋

∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =4
𝑧−1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −4𝑥+3 / 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 −1 2

∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3 = 0 , centre 2 , 1
2

z+2 z− −2+0i π
c) arg = arg = , circular arc with end points 𝐴 −2 , 0 and 𝐵 0 , 1
z−i z− 0+i 3

𝑦 Cartesian equation of locus:

𝑧+2 𝑥+2 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥+2 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥 −𝑖 𝑦 −1
= =
𝐵 0, 1 𝑧 −𝑖 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 −1 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 −1 𝑥 −𝑖 𝑦 −1
𝜋 𝑧+2 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−𝑖 𝑦 −1 𝑥+2 +𝑖𝑥𝑦 −𝑖 2 𝑦 2 −𝑦
⇒ =
3 𝑥 𝑧−𝑖 𝑥 2 −𝑖 2 𝑦 −1 2
𝐴 −2, 0 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +2𝑥−𝑦 +𝑖 𝑥𝑦 +2𝑦−𝑥 −2+𝑥𝑦
𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦−1 2
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +2𝑥−𝑦 +𝑖 −𝑥+2𝑦−2
= 𝑥 2 + 𝑦−1 2

𝑧+2 −1 −𝑥+2𝑦−2 / 𝑥 2+ 𝑦 −1 2 𝜋
∴ arg = tan =3
𝑧−𝑖 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +2𝑥−𝑦 / 𝑥 2 + 𝑦−1 2

−𝑥+2𝑦−2 𝜋
⇒ 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +2𝑥−𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 = 3
⇒ −𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2 = 3 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 𝑦
1 2 2
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = − 𝑥+ 𝑦−
3 3 3
1 2 2
∴ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 2 + 𝑥+ − −1 𝑦+ = 0 , centre −0.7 , −0.1
3 3 3

𝑧−1 𝜋 𝑧 − 1+0𝑖 𝜋
d) arg = ⇒ arg = , circular arc with end points 𝐴 1 , 0
𝑧+1 4 𝑧— −1+0𝑖 4
and 𝐵 −1 , 0
Note:
𝜋
Since 𝐵𝑃 is rotating through 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 to 𝐴𝑃 , arrow direction is as
4
shown.
Cartesian equation of locus:

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𝑦
𝑧−1 𝑥−1 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥−1 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥+1 −𝑖𝑦
𝜋 𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦 = =
𝑧+1 𝑥+1 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥+1 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥+1 −𝑖𝑦
3 𝑧−1 𝑥 2 −1−𝑖 𝑥𝑦 −𝑥 +𝑖 𝑥𝑦 +𝑦 −𝑖 2 𝑦 2
⇒ =
𝑧+1 𝑥−1 2 −𝑖 2 𝑦 2
𝑧−1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −1+𝑖 𝑥𝑦 +𝑦−𝑥𝑦 +𝑦
⇒ =
𝑥 𝑧+1 𝑥−1 2 +𝑦 2
𝐵 −1, 0 𝐴 1, 0 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −1 +𝑖 2𝑦
=
𝑥−1 2 +𝑦 2
𝑧−1 2𝑦 𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 1
𝑧+1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −1 4
∴ 𝑥 2 +𝑦 − 2𝑦 − 1 = 0 , centre 0 , 1
2

𝑧−3−𝑖 𝜋 𝑧− 3+𝑖 𝜋
e) arg = ⇒ arg = , circular arc with end points 𝐴 3 , 1
𝑧+5−3𝑖 3 𝑧— −5+3𝑖 3
and 𝐵 −5 , 3
Cartesian equation of locus:

𝑧−3−𝑖 𝑥−3 +𝑖 𝑦 −1 𝑥−3 +𝑖 𝑦 −1 𝑥+5 −𝑖 𝑦 −3

= =
𝑧+5−3𝑖 𝑥+5 +𝑖 𝑦 −3 𝑥+5 +𝑖 𝑦 −3 𝑥+5 −𝑖 𝑦 −3

𝑥−3 𝑥+5 −𝑖 𝑥−3 𝑦−3 +𝑖 𝑦 −1 𝑥+5 −𝑖 2 𝑦 −3 𝑦−1

= 𝑥+5 2 + 𝑦 −3 2

𝑥 2 +2𝑥−15+𝑖 𝑥𝑦 +5𝑦−𝑥−5−𝑥𝑦 +3𝑦+3𝑥−9 +𝑦 2 −4𝑦+3 𝑦

= 𝑥+5 2 + 𝑦 −3 2 𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦
𝜋
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +2𝑥−4𝑦−12 +𝑖 2𝑥+8𝑦−14
= 3
𝑥+5 2 + 𝑦 −3 2

𝐵 −5, 3
𝑧−3−𝑖 2𝑥+8𝑦−14 𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 =3 𝐴 3, 1
𝑧+5−3𝑖 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +2𝑥−4𝑦 −12
𝑥
2𝑥 +8𝑦−14 𝜋
∴ 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +2𝑥−4𝑦−12 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 = 3
2 8 14
∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 12 = 𝑥+ 𝑦−
3 3 3
2 8 14
∴ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 2 − 𝑥 + −4 − + − 12 = 0 , centre −0.4 , 4.1
3 3 3

Task
Sketch the locus of the following
𝑧+1 2𝜋
a) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 =−
𝑧−1 3
𝑧−4 𝜋
b) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = −2
𝑧−2𝑖
𝑧−2𝑖 𝜋
c) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 =
𝑧−1 3
2. Represent each of the following loci on the Argand diagram
a) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 1
b) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖
c) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 2 = 𝜋 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧
d) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 = 𝜋 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑖
𝜋
e) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 4 + 2𝑖 + 2
𝜋
f) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑤 − 5 + 3𝑖 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑤 + 2 + 3𝑖 + 2

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Solution
This example can be transformed in to forms as in example (1) above
a) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 1 ⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 1 = 0
𝑧−1 𝑧1
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 0 ∵ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔
𝑧+1 𝑧2
𝑧−1 𝑥 −1 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥−1 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥+1 −𝑖𝑦
𝑧+1
= 𝑥 +1 +𝑖𝑦
=
𝑥+1 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥+1 −𝑖𝑦
𝑥 2 −1+𝑖 −𝑥𝑦 +𝑦 +𝑥𝑦 +𝑦 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −1−𝑖2𝑦
= 𝑥+1 2 +𝑦 2
= 𝑥+1 2 +𝑦 2
2𝑦
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −1
= 0 ∴ 𝑦 = 0 , is the locus of half straight line with end
points 𝐵 −1 , 0 and 𝐴 1 , 0

𝐵 −1 , 0 𝑃 𝐴 1,0

b) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖 = 0

𝑧 𝑧− 0+0𝑖
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 =0
𝑧−1−𝑖 𝑧− 1+𝑖
Since the angle 𝐵𝑃 is to turn to 𝐴𝑃 is zero,
𝐵
this is a straight line joining A and B
𝑃 (circular arc in form of a straight line).
Cartesian equation of locus:
𝐴 𝑧 𝑥 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥−1 −𝑖 𝑦 −1
= =
𝑧−1−𝑖 𝑥−1 +𝑖 𝑦 −1 𝑥−1 +𝑖 𝑦 −1 𝑥−1 −𝑖 𝑦 −1
𝑧 𝑥 2 −𝑥+𝑖 −𝑥𝑦 +𝑥 +𝑥𝑦 −𝑦 +𝑦 2 −𝑦 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −𝑥−𝑦 +𝑖 𝑥 −𝑦
∴ 𝑧−1−𝑖 = =
𝑥−1 2 + 𝑦−1 2 𝑥−1 2 + 𝑦 −1 2

𝑧 −1 𝑥−𝑦
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧−1−𝑖
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −𝑥−𝑦
=0
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑦 , is the locus of half straight line with end points 𝐵 1 , 1 and 𝐴 0 , 0

c) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 2 = 𝜋 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 2 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝜋

𝑧−2 𝑧− 2+0𝑖
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝜋 , circular arc in form of a straight line with end
𝑧 𝑧− 0+0𝑖
points 𝐵 0 , 0 and 𝐴 2 , 0
Cartesian equation of locus:
𝑧−2 𝑥−2 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥−2 +𝑖𝑦 𝑥−𝑖𝑦
= =
𝑧 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 𝑥−𝑖𝑦
𝑥 2 −2𝑥+𝑖 −𝑥𝑦 −2𝑦+𝑥𝑦 +𝑦 2
=
𝐵 −1 , 0 𝑃 𝐴 1,0 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝜋 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −2𝑥+𝑖2𝑦
= 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝑧−2 −1 2𝑦
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −2𝑥
=𝜋
2𝑦
⇒ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜋 = 0 ∴ 𝑦 = 0
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −2𝑥
d) Left as an exercise for the students.
𝜋 𝜋
e) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 4 + 2𝑖 + 2 ⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 4 + 2𝑖 = 2
𝑧 𝑧− 0+0𝑖 𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧−4+2𝑖
= 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧− 4−2𝑖
= 2
, circular arc with end points 𝐵 4 , −2 and
𝐴 0,0

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𝑦
Cartesian equation of locus:
𝑧 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −4𝑥+2𝑦 +𝑖 −2𝑥−4𝑦 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝐴 0, 0
= 𝑥
𝑧−4+2𝑖 𝑥−4 2 + 𝑦 +2 2
𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑧 −1 −2𝑥−4𝑦 𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 =
𝑧−4+2𝑖 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −4𝑥+2𝑦 2
𝜋 𝐵 4, −2
𝜋
∴ 𝑥 +𝑦 − 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0, since no value for 𝑡𝑎𝑛
2 2 2
2 𝑃 𝑥 ,𝑦
Further examples on locus involving arguments
𝜋
1) Given that 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, find and sketch the locus 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝜆𝑧 = if;
2
a) 𝜆 > 0
b) 𝜆 < 0 , where 𝜆 is a real number.
Solution
It can be shown that 𝜆 = 𝜆 + 0𝑖
a) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝜆𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝜆 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝜆𝑧 = 0 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧
⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝜆𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧
𝜋 𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 2 ⇒ 2 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 2
𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 4
𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 0 + 0𝑖 = , which is half line with one end point
4
as 0 , 0
𝑃

𝜋
4
𝐴

b) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝜆𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝜆 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 , for 𝜆 < 0. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜆 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒 𝜋

𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝜆 = 𝜋 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝜆𝑧 = 𝜋 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 𝜆
𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝜆𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝜋 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 =
2
𝜋 𝜋 𝐴 𝜋
⇒ 2 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = − 𝜋 = −
2 2 4
𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = − 4
𝑃
𝜋
2) If 𝑎𝑟𝑔 2𝑧 + = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑖 , show that the locus of z is a circle.
4
Solution
𝜋 𝜋
𝑎𝑟𝑔 2𝑧 + = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑖 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 2𝑧 =
4 4
𝜋
⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑖 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 4
𝑧+𝑖 𝜋
⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 =
𝑧 4
𝑧+𝑖 𝑧− 0−𝑖 𝜋
= 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = , circular arc with end points 𝐵 0 , 0 and 𝐴 0 , −1
𝑧 𝑧− 0+0𝑖 4
Cartesian equation of locus:
𝑧+𝑖 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 +1 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦 +1 𝑥−𝑖𝑦
𝑧
= 𝑥+𝑖𝑦
=
𝑥+𝑖𝑦 𝑥 −𝑖𝑦
𝑧+𝑖 𝑥 2 −𝑖𝑥𝑦 +𝑖 𝑥𝑦 +𝑥 +𝑦 2 +𝑦 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑦 +𝑖𝑥
∴ 𝑧
= 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
= 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

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𝑧+𝑖 𝑥 𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑦
= 4
1 1 2
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0 , which is a circle of centre
2 2
2
, − 2 and radius 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Locus problems involving inequalities

This involves finding the equation of the locus, representing it on the
Argand diagram and shading the unwanted region.
The knowledge portrayed in the previous examples shall be applied here.
Locus problems may involve arguments, modulus of inequality complex
number.
Example
1. Shade on separate Argand diagrams the regions in which;
i) 𝑧 − 4 + 4𝑖 < 4
ii) 𝑧 − 3 > 𝑧 − 5
𝑧+𝑖
iii) ≥2
𝑧−5−2𝑖
𝑧+2
iv) >3
𝑧 −𝑖
v) 3 < 𝑧 < 5
vi) 4 < 𝑧 + 𝑎 ≤ 5, where 𝑎 = 1 + 𝑖

Solution
i) Recall: 𝑧 − 4 + 4𝑖 = 4 represents a circle of centre 4 , −4 and radius 4 units.
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑧 − 4 + 4𝑖 ⇒ 𝑥 − 4 + 𝑖 𝑦 + 4 < 4 𝐼𝑚
2 2 2
∴ 𝑥−4 + 𝑦+4 < 4
Using the centre coordinate to find the wanted 4
region to be shaded, 𝑅𝑒
∴ 4 − 4 2 + −4 + 4 2 < 42 , which is true.
Hence shading the outside region of a circle, 4

ii) 𝑧−3 > 𝑧−5

Finding the Cartesian inequality of locus
𝐼𝑚
𝑥 − 3 + 𝑖𝑦 > 𝑥 − 5 + 𝑖𝑦 , squaring both sides
⇒ 𝑥 − 3 2 + 𝑦2 > 𝑥 − 5 2 + 𝑦2
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 > 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 25
𝑅𝑒
⇒ 4𝑥 > 16 ∴ 𝑥 > 4

𝑧+𝑖
iii) 𝑧−5−2𝑖
≥2
Finding the Cartesian inequality of locus
𝑥=4
⇒ 𝑧 + 𝑖 ≥ 2 𝑧 − 5 − 2𝑖
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦 + 1 ≥ 2 𝑥 − 5 + 𝑖 𝑦 − 2 , squaring both sides
⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦 + 1 2 ≥ 4 𝑥 − 5 2 + 𝑦 − 2 2
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 ≥ 4𝑥 2 − 40𝑥 + 100 + 4𝑦 2 − 16𝑦 + 16
⇒ 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 40𝑥 − 18𝑦 + 115 ≤ 0
40 115 20
∴ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 − 3
𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 3
≤ 0 , which is a circle of centre 3
, 3 and
20 2 115 2
radius + 32 − = 34
3 3 3

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Using the centre coordinate to find the wanted region to be shaded,

20 2 40 20 115 274
∴ + 3 2
− −6 3 + =− ≤ 0 , which satisfies the inequality.
3 3 3 3 9
Shading the inside of the circle, 𝐼𝑚

3
•

𝑅𝑒
20
𝑧+2
iv) >3 3
𝑧 −𝑖
Finding the Cartesian inequality of locus
⇒ 𝑧+2 > 3 𝑧−𝑖
∴ 𝑥 + 2 + 𝑖𝑦 > 3 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦 − 1 , squaring both sides
⇒ 𝑥 + 2 2 + 𝑦2 > 9 𝑥2 + 𝑦 − 1 2
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 > 9𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 − 18𝑦 + 9
⇒ 8𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 18𝑦 + 5 > 0
1 9 5 1 9
∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2 𝑥 − 4 𝑦 + 8 > 0 , which is a circle of centre , 8 and
4
1 2 9 2 5 3
radius −4 + −8 −8 = 8 5
Using the centre coordinate to find the wanted region
to be shaded, 𝐼𝑚
1 2 9 2 1 81 5 45
∴ + − − + =− ≤0,
4 8 8 32 8 64
, which does not satisfy the inequality.
Shading the outside of the circle,
9 •
8

𝑅𝑒
1
v) 3 < 𝑧 < 5 , for 3 < 𝑧 , 3 < 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 2 2
4
For 𝑧 < 5 , 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 52
Using the centre coordinate to find the wanted
region to be shaded,
For 9 < 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ⇒ 32 < 02 + 02 , this is not true.
Shading the outside of circle,
Now for 𝑧 < 5 , 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 52
⇒ 02 + 02 < 52 , this is true. Shading the inside of circle,

vi) 4 < 𝑧 + 𝑎 ≤ 5 , 𝑎 = 1 + 𝑖
⇒ 42 < 𝑥 + 1 2 + 𝑦 + 1 2 ≤ 52
Using the centre −1 , −1 to find the wanted
region to be shaded,
For42 < 𝑥 + 1 2 + 𝑦 + 1 2 ⇒ 42 < 02 + 02
, this is not true shading the outside of circle,
Now for 𝑥 + 1 2 + 𝑦 + 1 2 ≤ 52
⇒ 02 + 02 ≥ 52 , this is true. Shading the inside of circle,

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

NOTE:
When testing region that is to be shaded, always use the centre to represent
the inner region of the locus.

2. Shade the region represented by;

𝜋
a) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑎 ≤ , 𝑎 = 1 + 𝑖
4
𝜋
b) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 + 𝑖 >
6
2𝜋
c) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 2 − 𝑖 < − 3
𝜋
d) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑖 ≥ −
3
𝜋 2𝜋
e) – ≤ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑖 ≤
2 3
𝜋
f) 0 < 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎 ≤ , where 𝑎 = 1 + 𝑖
2
𝜋 𝜋
g) − < 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑎 < ;𝑎 = 2 +𝑖
6 4

Solution
𝜋
a) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑎 ≤ 4 , 𝑎 = 1 + 𝑖
Recall: 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝛼, represents a half a line with one end as a and making
an angle of 𝛼 with +𝑣𝑒 real axis.
Cartesian inequality:
𝜋
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖 ≤ 4
𝜋
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑖 𝑦 + 1 ≤4
𝑦+1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ≤ ⇒ 𝑦 + 1 ≤ 𝑥 + 1 𝑡𝑎𝑛 4
𝑥+1 4
4
∴ 𝑦 + 1 ≤ 𝑥 + 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 , shading below the line,

𝜋 𝜋
b) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 + 𝑖 > 6 ⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖 > 6
Cartesian inequality:
𝜋
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖 𝑦 + 1 >
6
𝑦+1 𝜋 𝜋
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 > ⇒ 𝑦 + 1 > 𝑥 − 1 𝑡𝑎𝑛 6
𝑥−1 6
1 1 1
∴ 𝑦+1 > 𝑥−1 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 > 𝑥 + −1 −
3 3 3
𝜋
, shading the above region of the line,
6
−1
2𝜋 2𝜋
c) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 2 − 𝑖 < − 3
⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧— −2 + 𝑖 <− 3
Cartesian inequality:
2𝜋 1
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑥 + 2 + 𝑖 𝑦 − 1 <− 2𝜋
3
𝑦−1 2𝜋 3
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑥+2
<− 3
2𝜋
⇒ 𝑦 − 1 < 𝑥 + 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 − 3
∴ 𝑦 − 1 < 𝑥 + 2 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 < 3𝑥 + 1 + 2 3
, shading the below region of the line,

d) left as an exercise

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 Mathematics for an A-level student

𝜋 2𝜋
e) – 2 ≤ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑖 ≤ 3
𝜋 2𝜋
⇒ – ≤ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑖 ; 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑖 ≤
2 3
Representing these on the Argand diagram,
𝜋 𝜋
For – 2 ≤ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑖 ⇒– 2 ≤ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 0 − 𝑖
Cartesian inequality:
𝜋
– ≤ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦 + 1
2
𝜋 𝑦+1 𝜋 𝑦 +1
⇒– ≤ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛 – ≤
2 𝑥 2 𝑥
∴ 0 ≤ 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0 , shading the R.H.S of the line,
2𝜋 2𝜋
For 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 + 𝑖 ≤ 3
⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 0 − 𝑖 ≤ 3
Cartesian inequality:
2𝜋
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑦 + 1 ≤ 3
−1 𝑦+1 2𝜋 𝑦 +1 2𝜋
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
≤ 3
𝑜𝑟 𝑥
≤ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3
𝑦 +1
∴ ≤ − 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 + 1 ≤ − 3𝑥
𝑥
∴ 𝑦 ≤ − 3𝑥 − 1 , shading the below region of the line,

2𝜋
3

𝜋
2

f) Left as an exercise
g) Left as an exercise

380