C15 Krugman 12e Accessible Ed

International Economics: Theory and
Policy
Twelfth Edition
Chapter 15
Money, Interest Rates, and
Exchange Rates
Copyright © 2022, 2018, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Learning Objectives
15.1 Describe and discuss the national money markets in which
interest rates are determined.
15.2 Show how monetary policy and interest rates feed into the foreign
exchange market.
15.3 Distinguish between the economy’s long-run position and the short
run, in which money prices and wages are sticky.
15.4 Explain how price levels and exchange rates respond to monetary
factors in the long run.
15.5 Outline the relationship between the short-run and the long-run
effects of monetary policy, and explain the concept of short-run
exchange rate overshooting.
Preview
• What is money?
• Control of the supply of money
• The willingness to hold monetary assets
• A model of real monetary assets and
interest rates
• A model of real monetary assets, interest rates, and
exchange rates
• Long-run effects of changes in money on prices, interest
rates, and exchange rates
What Is Money? (1 of 3)
• Money is an asset that is widely used as a means of
payment.
– Different groups of assets may be classified as
money.
▪ Money can be defined narrowly or broadly.
▪ Currency in circulation, checking deposits, and
debit card accounts form a narrow definition of
money.
▪ Deposits of currency are excluded from this narrow
definition, although they may act as a substitute for
money in a broader definition.
• Money is a liquid asset: it can be easily used to pay for
goods and services or to repay debt without substantial
transaction costs.
– But monetary or liquid assets earn little or no
interest.
• Illiquid assets require substantial transaction costs in
terms of time, effort, or fees to convert them to funds for
payment.
– But they generally earn a higher interest rate or rate
of return than monetary assets.
• Let’s group assets into monetary assets (or liquid assets)
and non-monetary assets (or illiquid assets).
• The demarcation between the two is arbitrary,
– but currency in circulation, checking deposits, debit
card accounts, savings deposits, and time deposits
are generally more liquid than bonds, loans, deposits
of currency in the foreign exchange markets, stocks,
real estate, and other assets.
Money Supply
• The central bank substantially controls the quantity of
money that circulates in an economy, the money supply.
– In the United States, the central banking system is the
Federal Reserve System.
▪ The Federal Reserve System directly regulates the
amount of currency in circulation.
▪ It indirectly influences the amount of checking
deposits, debit card accounts, and other monetary
assets.
Money Demand
• Money demand represents the amount of monetary
assets that people are willing to hold (instead of illiquid
assets).
– What influences willingness to hold monetary assets?
– We consider individual demand of money and
aggregate demand of money.
What Influences Demand of Money for
Individuals and Institutions?
1. Interest rates/expected rates of return on monetary assets
relative to the expected rates of returns on non-monetary assets.
2. Risk: the risk of holding monetary assets principally comes from
unexpected inflation, which reduces the purchasing power of
money.
– But many other assets have this risk too, so this risk is not very
important in defining the demand of monetary assets versus non-
monetary assets.
3. Liquidity: A need for greater liquidity occurs when the price of

transactions increases or the quantity of goods bought in
transactions increases.
What Influences Aggregate Demand of
Money? (1 of 2)
1. Interest rates/expected rates of return: monetary assets pay little
or no interest, so the interest rate on non-monetary assets such as
bonds, loans, and deposits is the opportunity cost of holding
monetary assets.
– A higher interest rate means a higher opportunity cost of holding
monetary assets  lower demand of money.
2. Prices: the prices of goods and services bought in transactions will
influence the willingness to hold money to conduct those
transactions.
– A higher level of average prices means a greater need for

liquidity to buy the same amount of goods and services
 higher demand of money.
What Influences Aggregate Demand of
Money? (2 of 2)
3. Income: greater income implies more goods and

services can be bought, so that more money is needed
to conduct transactions.
– A higher real national income (GNP) means more
goods and services are being produced and bought in
transactions, increasing the need for liquidity 
higher demand of money.
A Model of Aggregate Money Demand
The aggregate demand of money can be expressed as:
M d  P  L  R,Y  or
where:
P is the price level
Y is real national income
R is a measure of interest rates on non-monetary assets
L  R,Y  is the aggregate demand of real monetary assets
• Aggregate demand of real monetary assets is a function of national

income and interest rates.
Md
 L  R,Y 
P
Figure 15.1 Aggregate Real Money Demand and the
Interest Rate
The downward-sloping real money demand schedule shows that for a

given real income level Y, real money demand rises as the interest rate
falls.
Figure 15.2 Effect on the Aggregate Real Money
Demand Schedule of a Rise in Real Income
An increase in real income from Y 1 to Y 2 raises the demand for real

money balances at every level of the interest rate and causes the
whole demand schedule to shift upward.
A Model of the Money Market (1 of 4)
• The money market is where monetary or liquid assets,
which are loosely called “money,” are lent and borrowed.
– Monetary assets in the money market generally have
low interest rates compared to interest rates on
bonds, loans, and deposits of currency in the foreign
exchange markets.
– Domestic interest rates directly affect rates of return
on domestic currency deposits in the foreign
exchange markets.
• When no shortages (excess demand) or surpluses
(excess supply) of monetary assets exist, the model
achieves an equilibrium:
Ms  Md
• Alternatively, when the quantity of real monetary assets
supplied matches the quantity of real monetary assets
demanded, the model achieves an equilibrium:
Ms
 L  R,Y 
P
• When there is an excess supply of monetary assets,
there is an excess demand for interest-bearing assets
such as bonds, loans, and deposits.
– People with an excess supply of monetary assets are
willing to offer or accept interest-bearing assets (by
giving up their money) at lower interest rates.
– Others are more willing to hold additional monetary
assets as interest rates (the opportunity cost of
holding monetary assets) fall.
• When there is an excess demand of monetary assets,
there is an excess supply of interest-bearing assets such
as bonds, loans, and deposits.
– People who desire monetary assets but do not have
access to them are willing to sell non-monetary
assets in return for the monetary assets that they
desire.
– Those with monetary assets are more willing to give
them up in return for interest-bearing assets as
interest rates (the opportunity cost of holding money)
rise.
Figure 15.3
Determination of
the Equilibrium
Interest Rate
Ms
With P and Y given and a real money supply of , money market
P
equilibrium is at point 1. At this point, aggregate real money demand and
the real money supply are equal and the equilibrium interest rate is R1.
Figure 15.4
Effect of an
Increase in the
Money Supply
on the Interest
Rate
For a given price level, P, and real income level, Y, an increase in

the money supply from M1 to M 2 reduces the interest rate from
R1  point 1 to R 2  point 2  .
Figure 15.5
Effect on the
Interest Rate
of a Rise in
Real Income
MS
Given the real money supply,
P

 Q1 ,  a rise in real income from
Y 1 to Y 2 reduces the interest rate from R1  point 1 to R 2  point 2  .
Figure 15.6
Simultaneous
Equilibrium in
the U.S. Money
Market and the
Foreign
Exchange
Market
1
Both asset markets are in equilibrium at the interest rate R$
1
and exchange rate E $/€ ; at these values, money supply equals money
demand (point 1) and the interest parity condition holds (point 1’).
Figure 15.7 Money Market/Exchange Rate
Linkages
Monetary policy actions

by the Fed affect the
U.S. interest rate,
changing the dollar/euro
exchange rate that
clears the foreign
exchange market. The
ECB can affect the
exchange rate by
changing the European
money supply and
interest rate.
Figure 15.8 Effect on the
Dollar/Euro Exchange Rate
and Dollar Interest Rate of
an Increase in the U.S.
Money Supply
Given PUS and YUS when the money supply rises from M1 to M 2
the dollar interest rate declines (as money market equilibrium is reestablished
at point 2) and the dollar depreciates against the euro (as foreign exchange
market equilibrium is reestablished at point 2’).
Changes in the Domestic Money Supply
• An increase in a country’s money supply causes interest

rates to fall, rates of return on domestic currency deposits
to fall, and the domestic currency to depreciate.
• A decrease in a country’s money supply causes interest
rates to rise, rates of return on domestic currency
deposits to rise, and the domestic currency to appreciate.
Changes in the Foreign Money Supply (1 of 2)
• How would a change in the supply of euros affect the

U.S. money market and foreign exchange markets?
• An increase in the supply of euros causes a depreciation
of the euro (an appreciation of the dollar).
• A decrease in the supply of euros causes an appreciation
of the euro (a depreciation of the dollar).
Figure 15.9 Effect of an
Increase in the European
Money Supply on the
Dollar/Euro Exchange
Rate
By lowering the dollar return on euro deposits (shown as a leftward shift in the
expected euro return curve), an increase in Europe’s money supply causes the
dollar to appreciate against the euro. Equilibrium in the foreign exchange
market shifts from point 1’ to point 2’ but equilibrium in the U.S. money market
remains at point 1.
Changes in the Foreign Money Supply (2 of 2)
• The increase in the supply of euros reduces interest rates

in the EU, reducing the expected rate of return on euro
deposits.
• This reduction in the expected rate of return on euro
deposits causes the euro to depreciate.
• We predict no change in the U.S. money market due to
the change in the supply of euros.
Long Run and Short Run (1 of 3)
• In the short run, prices do not have sufficient time to adjust to
market conditions.
– The analysis heretofore has been a short-run analysis.
• In the long run, prices of factors of production and of output
have sufficient time to adjust to market conditions.
– Wages adjust to the demand and supply of labor.
– Real output and income are determined by the amount of
workers and other factors of production—by the
economy’s productive capacity—not by the quantity of
money supplied.
– (Real) interest rates depend on the supply of saved funds
and the demand of saved funds.
• In the long run, the quantity of money supplied is predicted not
to influence the amount of output, (real) interest rates, and the
aggregate demand of real monetary assets L  R,Y  .
• However, the quantity of money supplied is predicted to make

the level of average prices adjust proportionally in the long run.
MS
– The equilibrium condition  L  R,Y  shows that
P
P is predicted to adjust proportionally when M S
adjusts, because L  R,Y  does not change.
• In the long run, there is a direct relationship between the
inflation rate and changes in the money supply.
M S  P  L  R,Y 
MS
P 
L  R,Y 
P M S L
 S

P M L
– The inflation rate is predicted to equal the growth rate

in money supply minus the growth rate in money
demand.
Empirical Evidence on Money Supplies
and Price Levels (1 of 2)
• Expect positive association between money supplies and

price levels in the data, although the relation will not be
exact.
• Figure 15-10 shows that, on average, years with higher
money growth also tended to be years with higher
inflation.
– Money supplies and price levels appear to increase in
proportion.
– Data confirm the strong long-run link between
national money supplies and national price levels
predicted by economic theory.
Figure 15.10 Average
Money Growth and Inflation
in Western Hemisphere
Developing Countries, by
Year, 1987–2014
Even year by year, there is a strong positive relation between average Latin American
money supply growth and inflation. (Both axes have logarithmic scales.)
Source: World Bank development indicators database and own calculations. Regional
aggregates are weighted by shares of dollar GDP in total regional dollar GDP.
Empirical Evidence on Money Supplies
and Price Levels (2 of 2)
• Venezuela experienced exceptionally high levels of

money supply growth and inflation in the later 2010s, as
depicted in Figure 15-11.
• Zimbabwe 2007–2009 is another case of recent
hyperinflation, explosive and seemingly uncontrollable
inflation in which money loses value rapidly and may
even go out of use.
Monthly Inflation in Zimbabwe 2007–2008
Source: Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe..

Money and Prices in the Long Run (1 of 2)
• How does a change in the money supply cause prices of output and
inputs to change?
1. Excess demand of goods and services: a higher quantity of
money supplied implies that people have more funds available to
pay for goods and services.
– To meet high demand, producers hire more workers, creating a
strong demand of labor services, or make existing employees
work harder.
– Wages rise to attract more workers or to compensate workers for
overtime.
– Prices of output will eventually rise to compensate for higher
costs.
Money and Prices in the Long Run (2 of 2)
– Alternatively, for a fixed amount of output and inputs, producers
can charge higher prices and still sell all of their output due to
the high demand.
2. Inflationary expectations:
– If workers expect future prices to rise due to an expected money
supply increase, they will want to be compensated.
– And if producers expect the same, they are more willing to raise
wages.
– Producers will be able to match higher costs if they expect to
raise prices.
– Result: expectations about inflation caused by an expected
increase in the money supply causes actual inflation.
Figure 15.12 Month-
to-Month Variability
of the Dollar/Yen
Exchange Rate and
of the U.S./Japan
Price Level Ratio,
1980–2019
The much greater month-to-month variability of the exchange rate suggests that
price levels are relatively sticky in the short run.
Source: Price levels from International Monetary Fund, International Financial
Statistics. Exchange rate from Global Financial Data.
Money, Prices, Exchange Rates, and
Expectations
• When we consider price changes in the long run,

inflationary expectations will have an effect in foreign
exchange markets.
• Suppose that expectations about inflation change as
people change their minds, but actual adjustment of
prices occurs afterward.
Figure 15.13
Short-Run and
Long-Run Effects
of an Increase in
the U.S. Money
Supply (Given
Real Output, Y)
(a) Short-run adjustment of the asset markets. (b) How the interest rate,
price level, and exchange rate move over time as the economy
approaches its long-run equilibrium.
Money, Prices, and Exchange Rates in
the Long Run
• A permanent increase in a country’s money supply causes

a proportional long-run depreciation of its currency.
– However, the dynamics of the model predict a large
depreciation first and a smaller subsequent
appreciation.
• A permanent decrease in a country’s money supply
causes a proportional long-run appreciation of its currency.
– However, the dynamics of the model predict a large
appreciation first and a smaller subsequent
depreciation.
Figure 15.14
Time Paths of
U.S. Economic
Variables After
a Permanent
Increase in the
U.S. Money
Supply
After the money supply increases at t0 in panel (a), the interest rate [in panel
(b)], price level [in panel (c)], and exchange rate [in panel (d)] move as shown
toward their long-run levels. As indicated in panel (d) by the initial jump from
1 2
E$/€ to E$/€ , the exchange rate overshoots in the short run before
3
settling down to its long-run level, E$/€ .
Exchange Rate Overshooting
• The exchange rate is said to overshoot when its
immediate response to a change is greater than its long-
run response.
• Overshooting is predicted to occur when monetary policy
has an immediate effect on interest rates, but not on
prices and (expected) inflation.
• Overshooting helps explain why exchange rates are so
volatile.
Summary (1 of 4)
1. Money demand for individuals and institutions is
primarily determined by interest rates and the need for
liquidity, the latter of which is influenced by prices and
income.
2. Aggregate money demand is primarily determined by
interest rates, the level of average prices, and national
income.
– Aggregate demand of real monetary assets depends
negatively on the interest rate and positively on real
national income.
Summary (2 of 4)
3. When the money market is in equilibrium, there are no
surpluses or shortages of monetary assets: the quantity
of real monetary assets supplied matches the quantity
of real monetary assets demanded.
4. Short-run scenario: changes in the money supply affect
domestic interest rates, as well as the exchange rate.
An increase in the domestic money supply
1. lowers domestic interest rates,
2. thus lowering the rate of return on deposits of
domestic currency,
3. thus causing the domestic currency to depreciate.
Summary (3 of 4)
5. Long-run scenario: changes in the quantity of money
supplied are matched by a proportional change in prices, and
do not affect real income and real interest rates. An increase
in the money supply
1. causes expectations about inflation to adjust,
2. thus causing the domestic currency to depreciate further,
3. and causes prices to adjust proportionally in the long run,
4. thus causing interest rates to return to their long-run
values,
5. and causes a proportional long-run depreciation in the
domestic currency.
Summary (4 of 4)
6. Interest rates adjust immediately to changes in
monetary policy, but prices and (expected) inflation may
adjust only in the long run, which results in overshooting
of the exchange rate.
– Overshooting occurs when the immediate response of
the exchange rate due to a change is greater than its
long-run response.
– Overshooting helps explain why exchange rates are
so volatile.
Copyright
This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is

provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their
courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of
any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will
destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work
and materials from it should never be made available to students
except by instructors using the accompanying text in their
classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these
restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and
the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

C15 Krugman 12e Accessible Ed

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

C15 Krugman 12e Accessible Ed

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

C15 Krugman 12e Accessible Ed

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Economics: Theory and

3. Liquidity: A need for greater liquidity occurs when the price of

– A higher level of average prices means a greater need for

3. Income: greater income implies more goods and

• Aggregate demand of real monetary assets is a function of national

The downward-sloping real money demand schedule shows that for a

An increase in real income from Y 1 to Y 2 raises the demand for real

For a given price level, P, and real income level, Y, an increase in

Monetary policy actions

• An increase in a country’s money supply causes interest

• How would a change in the supply of euros affect the

• The increase in the supply of euros reduces interest rates

• However, the quantity of money supplied is predicted to make

– The inflation rate is predicted to equal the growth rate

• Expect positive association between money supplies and

• Venezuela experienced exceptionally high levels of

Source: Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe..

• When we consider price changes in the long run,

• A permanent increase in a country’s money supply causes

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is

You might also like