Denim Manufacturing and Processing (TP-4037)

Assignment 01

Student Name Farrukh Imran

Registration no. 19-NTU-TE-0037

Semester 8th

Department Textile Engineering

Section Processing

Date of Submission 25-April-2023

Submitted To Dr. Munir Ashraf

Title: You are developing a finished jeans with excellent lustre and following
washing effect.

1. Introduction:

Denim is a sturdy cotton warp-faced textile in which the weft passes under two or
more warp threads. This twill weaving produces a diagonal ribbing that distinguishes it
from cotton duck. Denim is available in a range of colors, but the most common denim
is indigo denim in which the warp thread is dyed while the weft thread is left white. As a result
of the warp-faced twill weaving, one side of the textile is dominated by the blue warp threads
and the other side is dominated by the white weft threads. Jeans fabricated from this cloth are
thus predominantly white on the inside. Denim is used to create a wide variety of garments,
accessories, and home textiles. [1]

Figure 1. An image of denim fabric inside out

It is typically made from 100% cotton, although blends with other fibers such as elastane are
also common. Denim is often dyed with indigo, which gives it its characteristic blue color,
although other colors are also used. Denim jeans were invented in the 1870s by Jacob
Davis and Levi Starauss, the same Levi who founded Levi’s Jeans. Jacob Davis, his
business partner, was the first to use copper rivets in men’s denim and cotton duck cloth
trousers in order to reinforce the weakest points of the piece of clothing. This technique
made the trousers stronger for a laborer’s daily wear. On May 20, 1873, a patent was
granted to Davis and Levi Strauss & Co. for the jeans we know and love today.
2. Elaborate The Process Flow in Production of This Garment:

3. Discuss The Dyeing Machine Type For Bulk Production with Higher
Number of Threads:
There are three types of dyeing machines which can be used for dyeing of yarns. These include
rope dyeing machine, slasher dyeing machine, and loop dyeing machine. However, if we want
to dye yarns in bulk quantity with higher number of threads then we will use rope dyeing
machine. The reason behind is phenomenon is that the slasher dyeing can only handle a dyeing
capacity of over 5000 m. There is a problem of centre to selvedge shade variation. The obtained
shade depth is not that good. During the change of lots, the machine stoppage is time
consuming. [2]

On the other hand, the productivity of loop dyeing with a common dye box is essentially equal
to the productivity of a slasher dyeing machine with multiple boxes. This dyeing method
produces warp breakage in the yarn. There is a loss of elasticity in the yarn. In loop dyeing,
there is a problem of centre to selvedge shade variation. Rope dyeing, however, is free from
such problems. That is why, rope dyeing machine is best suited for the production in bulk
quantity with higher number of threads. [2]

3.1 Rope Dyeing:

The indigo Rope dyeing technology for denim production is considered a superior dyeing
technology, where better uniformity of dyeing is achieved than other Indigo dyeing
technologies like slasher and loop dyeing. Indigo rope dyeing was started in USA. Today rope
dyeing accounts for a large percentage of warp yarn dyed for denim production. The system
offers highest production, due to continuous process, as there is no stoppages for set changes.
In this dyeing method, maximum continuity of shades and minimum danger of center to
selvedge shade variation can be achieved. Flow diagram of rope dyeing is shown in Fig.2.
During dyeing process, it forms a coating in the outer layers of the cotton yarn and fiber. This
produces a ring of color around the cotton yarn, with the core remains white core. This dyeing
effect is known as ring dyeing. [3]
 Figure 2. Rope Dyeing Process

3.2 Rope Dyeing Range:

In this type of denim range, warp threads are extended along the range in the form of a rope.
Yarn groups are composed of 300 or 400 ends forming ropes or cables. The total width of rope
ranges is taken up by a number of ropes ranging between 12 and 48, depending on the width
of the machine. The total number of ends, depending on the number of ropes, can range
between 3,600 and 19,200. [4]

Figure 3. View of a dye box in a rope dyeing range

3.3 Rope Dyeing Process:

• The yarn coming out from the ring frames is wound into cheeses or cones and then placed
on the ball warper on which 350–400 warp threads are bound on the ball warper machine
to very thick cables of 10,000–15,000 m in length (sometimes the length of cables may
exceed 25,000 m). Generally 12–36 cables are first fed into one or more scouring baths
containing wetting agents, detergents and sodium hydroxide. The scouring baths are used
to remove naturally occurring impurities found in cotton fibers such as dirt, minerals, ash,
pectin and naturally occurring waxes. It is very important to remove these substances in
 order to achieve uniform wetting and uniform dyeing. Then, the cables are fed into one or
more water rinsing baths. [4]
• After that, the cables are dipped into a bath of leuco indigo with an immersion time of 12–
20 seconds, and then are squeezed to give 70%–80% wet pick-up after each dip, followed
by exposure to air for oxidation, multiple times. The oxidation time takes at least 80
seconds. Generally, four to eight dyeing vats are used for dipping. This results in the fine
layer of indigo on the surface of yarn. The cables of yarn are washed in various water baths
to eliminate the non-fixed dye. Next they pass through a softener box, which assists in
obtaining a better opening of the cables in the long chain beamer. Finally, they are dried on
Teflon covered cylinders and coiled into large cans. [4]
• In rope dyeing, ball warps are continuously fed into the rope or chain-dyeing range for
application of the indigo dyeing. Typically, 12–36 individual ropes of yarn are fed side-by-
side simultaneously into the range. The ropes are kept separate from each other throughout
the various parts of the dye range. [4]

4. How will you ensure the quality of yarns to that the dyeing is
reproducible:

5. Methods to Reduce Indigo Dye:

Indigo dye can be reduced by the four possible methods which are discussed below.

• Chemical reduction
• Fermentation
• Electrochemical reduction
• Photochemical reduction

5.1 Chemical Reduction:

Indigo can also be reduced to its leuco form by chemical reduction using a reducing agent such
as sodium dithionite or zinc dust. Here is a step-by-step explanation of the process:
• Prepare the reducing solution: A solution of the reducing agent is prepared in a separate
container. The concentration of the reducing agent should be sufficient to reduce the indigo
dye.
• Dissolve the indigo: Indigo powder is mixed into a separate container with an alkaline
solution such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. The pH of the solution should
be around 10-11.
• Mix the solutions: The reducing solution is slowly added to the indigo solution while
stirring. The mixture is stirred continuously for several minutes to ensure thorough mixing.
• Monitor the reduction process: As the reducing agent reacts with the indigo dye, the color
of the solution changes from blue to yellow. The progress of the reduction process can be
monitored by periodically checking the color of the solution.
• Stop the reduction process: The reduction process is stopped once the desired depth of color
and intensity has been achieved. This is typically done by adding an acid such as acetic
acid to the solution, which neutralizes the alkaline solution and stops the reduction process.
• Filter the solution: The solution is filtered to remove any impurities or undissolved solids.
• Use the leuco form for dyeing: Once the indigo has been reduced to its leuco form, it can
be used for dyeing textiles. The leuco form is water-soluble and can be easily absorbed by
fabrics. When exposed to air, the leuco form oxidizes and turns back into the blue insoluble
indigo dye, which is trapped in the fibers of the fabric, resulting in a durable and long-
lasting color. [5]

5.2 Fermentation:
Indigo can be reduced to its leuco form by fermentation using a process called vat fermentation.
The process involves creating an alkaline solution containing the indigo dye and a source of
nutrients for bacteria. Here is a step-by-step explanation of the process:

• Create an alkaline solution: A solution of an alkaline material such as sodium hydroxide or

slaked lime is prepared. The pH of the solution should be around 10-11.
• Dissolve the indigo: Indigo powder is mixed into the alkaline solution and stirred until it
dissolves completely.
• Add a source of nutrients: A source of nutrients such as glucose, fructose, or molasses is
added to the solution. The nutrients provide food for bacteria that will be used to reduce
the indigo.
• Inoculate with bacteria: A small amount of an inoculum containing bacteria that are known
to reduce indigo is added to the solution. The bacteria will feed on the nutrients and begin
to reduce the indigo to its leuco form.
• Ferment the solution: The solution is allowed to ferment for several hours or days,
depending on the desired depth of color and intensity. During fermentation, the bacteria
break down the nutrients, producing hydrogen gas, which acts as a reducing agent that
converts the indigo dye to its leuco form.
• Check for reduction: The reduction process can be monitored by checking the color of the
solution. As the indigo is reduced, the solution changes from blue to yellow.
• Use the leuco form for dyeing: Once the indigo has been reduced to its leuco form, it can
be used for dyeing textiles. The leuco form is water-soluble and can be easily absorbed by
fabrics. When exposed to air, the leuco form oxidizes and turns back into the blue insoluble
indigo dye, which is trapped in the fibers of the fabric, resulting in a durable and long-
lasting color. [6]

5.3 Electrochemical Reduction:

Indigo can be reduced to its leuco form by electrochemical reduction. This method involves
the use of an electrical current to transfer electrons to the indigo molecule, which reduces it to
its leuco form. Here is a step-by-step explanation of the process:

• Prepare the electrochemical cell: An electrochemical cell is set up with a cathode and an
anode. The cathode is typically made of a conductive material such as platinum, while the
anode is usually made of graphite or another conductive material.
• Create the electrolyte solution: A solution of an electrolyte such as sodium hydroxide or
potassium hydroxide is prepared. The solution should have a pH of around 10-11.
• Dissolve the indigo: Indigo powder is mixed into the electrolyte solution and stirred until
it dissolves completely.
• Apply an electrical current: An electrical current is applied to the electrochemical cell by
connecting the cathode and anode to a power source. The current is typically in the range
of 1-10 amps.
• Monitor the reduction process: As the electrical current is applied, the indigo dye is reduced
to its leuco form. The progress of the reduction process can be monitored by checking the
color of the solution. As the indigo is reduced, the solution changes from blue to yellow.
• Stop the reduction process: The reduction process is stopped once the desired depth of color
and intensity has been achieved. This is typically done by removing the power source and
disconnecting the electrodes from the electrochemical cell.
• Use the leuco form for dyeing: Once the indigo has been reduced to its leuco form, it can
be used for dyeing textiles. The leuco form is water-soluble and can be easily absorbed by
fabrics. When exposed to air, the leuco form oxidizes and turns back into the blue insoluble
indigo dye, which is trapped in the fibers of the fabric, resulting in a durable and long-
lasting color. [5]

5.4 Photochemical Reduction:

Indigo can be reduced to its leuco form by photochemical reduction, which involves using light
to transfer electrons to the indigo molecule. Here is a step-by-step explanation of the process:

• Prepare the solution: Indigo powder is mixed into an alkaline solution such as sodium
hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. The pH of the solution should be around 10-11.
• Add the photosensitizer: A photosensitizer such as triethanolamine or benzophenone is
added to the solution. The photosensitizer absorbs light and transfers the energy to the
indigo molecule, which promotes the reduction process.
• Expose to light: The solution is exposed to light of a specific wavelength, typically in the
range of 350-450 nm, which activates the photosensitizer and transfers the energy to the
indigo molecule. The exposure time depends on the intensity of the light and the
concentration of the photosensitizer.
• Monitor the reduction process: As the indigo is reduced, the color of the solution changes
from blue to yellow. The progress of the reduction process can be monitored by periodically
checking the color of the solution.
• Stop the reduction process: The reduction process is stopped once the desired depth of color
and intensity has been achieved. This is typically done by adding an acid such as acetic
acid to the solution, which neutralizes the alkaline solution and stops the reduction process.
• Filter the solution: The solution is filtered to remove any impurities or undissolved solids.
• Use the leuco form for dyeing: Once the indigo has been reduced to its leuco form, it can
be used for dyeing textiles. The leuco form is water-soluble and can be easily absorbed by
fabrics. When exposed to air, the leuco form oxidizes and turns back into the blue insoluble
indigo dye, which is trapped in the fibers of the fabric, resulting in a durable and long-
lasting color. [7]