ECO231 Micro Economic Theory One

ECO 231 MODULE 4
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: ECO 231
COURSE TITLE: MICRO-ECONOMIC THEORY I
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ECO 231 MICRO-ECONOMIC THEORY I
COURSE
GUIDE
ECO 231
MICRO-ECONOMIC THEORY I
Course Team Adedeji Abiodun Liadi (Course Developer) –

NOUN
Dr. ‘Diran Akinleye (Course Editor) – UNILAG
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

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ECO 231 MODULE 4
National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos
Abuja Office
5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
National Open University of Nigeria
Printed 2014
ISBN: 978-058-333-8
All Rights Reserved
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CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction………………………………………………… iv
Course Aim………………………………….……..…....…. iv
Course Objectives………………………………………..… iv
Working through this Course……………………………… v
Course Materials…………………………………………… v
Study Units………………………………………………… v
Textbooks and References………………………………… vii
Assessment…………………………………………………. vii
Tutor-Marked Assignment………………………………… viii
Final Examination and Grading ……………………….….. ix
Course Marking Scheme……………………………….….. ix
Course Overview/Presentation………………………….… ix
What you will Learn in this Course……………………..… x
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials…………………………... xi
Conclusion…………………………………………………. xi
Summary…………………………………………………… xi
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
INTRODUCTION
This course, ECO 231 Micro-Economics Theory is a three-credit unit,

one- semester core course designed for second year economics students
in the Faculty of Art and Social Sciences at the National Open
University of Nigeria. The course will help you to gain in-depth insight
of the underlining economic theory and how market economies operate.
Therefore, the course is structured to expose you to the skills required to

understand the functioning of individual industries and the behaviour of
individual economic decision-making units: business firms and
households. This course also teaches you how people are hired in a
particular industry and factors that determine their labour supply and
wages paid to them.
This course guide tells you what microeconomics entails, what course
materials you will be using and how you can work your way through
these materials. It suggests some general guidelines for time required of
you on each unit in order to complete the course. It also guides on your
tutor marked assignments (TMAs) as contained herein.
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE
This course builds on the foundation of ECO 102. Topics covered

include theory of consumer behaviour, utility approach and indifference
curve approach. Topics in consumer demand such as market structures,
output and pricing under various market structures-perfect competition,
monopoly, monopolistic competition and oligopoly are also treated. The
theory of distribution under perfect competition; input pricing and
employment under imperfect competition are also examined.
You will be taught introduction to discipline of economics and to

provide a basic understanding of how economies function, which
requires a blend of economic theory and real life application in solving
problems in business.
COURSE AIMS
The overall aims of this course include:
 to introduce you to the basic concepts in microeconomics theory

 to teach you the concept of consumer behaviour and their
peculiar characteristics and assumptions
 to expose you to the operations of the market spectrum starting from
perfectly competitive market to the imperfect market system
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 to give you the detailed concept of factor pricing and the practical
way of understanding the contemporary business world.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
There are 18 study units in this course and each unit has its objectives.
You should read the objectives of each unit and bear them in mind as
you go through the unit. Each unit of this course has its objectives unit.
In addition to these, the course has its overall objectives. At the
completion of this course, you should be able to:
 explain the concept of consumer behaviour

 state the reasons for consumer preferences
 define utility and explain the concept of law of diminishing
marginal utility (LDMU)
 calculate total utility and marginal utility and state reasons for the
differences differentiate between the income effect and
 substitution effect
  define indifference curve
 explain the meaning of marginal rate of substitution
 define budget constraint
 explain relative price
 describe the concept of revealed preferences
WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE
Each unit contains self-assessment exercises and tutor- marked

assignment. At some points in this course, you will be required to
submit assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of this course,
there is a final examination. This course should take about 15 weeks to
complete. Some components of the course are outlined under the course
material subsection.
To successfully complete this course, you are required to read the study
units, referenced books and other materials on the course.
COURSE MATERIALS
Major components of this course are:
1. Course guide
2. Study units
3. Text books
4. Assignment file
5. Presentation schedule
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
STUDY UNITS
The breakdown of the four modules and 15 units are as follows.
Module 1 Theory of Consumer Behaviour
Unit 1 Basic Concept of Consumer Behaviour

Unit 2 Utility Theory
Unit 3 Utility Theory: Indifference Curve
Unit 4 Budget Constraint
Module 2 Market Structures 1
Unit 1 Overview of Market Structure

Unit 2 Profit Maximisation and Losses Minimisation under
Perfect Competitive Market
Unit 3 Monopoly Markets
Module 3 Market Structures 2
Unit 1 Price Discrimination in the Monopoly Market

Unit 2 Monopolistic Competition
Unit 3 Oligopoly Market and Models
Module 4 Theory of Distribution
Unit 1 Concepts of Theory of Distribution

Unit 2 Basic Concept of Factor Pricing: Productivity of the
Factor
Unit 3 Basic Concept of Factor Pricing: Cost of the Factor
Unit 4 The Concept Marginal Productivity Theory of Distribution
(Factor Pricing)
Unit 5 The Factor Market under Perfect Competition
Unit 6 The Factor Market under Imperfect Competition
REFERENCES AND TEXTBOOKS
Every unit contains a list of references and further reading. Try to get as
many as possible of those textbooks and materials listed. The textbooks
and materials are meant to deepen your knowledge of the course.
ASSIGNMENT FILE
In this file, you will find all the details of the work you must submit to
your tutor for marking. The marks you obtain from these assignments
will count towards the final mark you obtain for this course. Further
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information on assignments will be found in the assignment file itself

and later in this Course Guide in the section on assessment.
PRESENTATION SCHEDULE
The presentation schedule included in your course materials gives you

the important dates for the completion of tutor-marked assignments and
attending tutorials. Remember, you are required to submit all your
assignments by the due date. You should guard against lagging behind
in your work.
ASSESSMENT
Your assessment will be based on tutor-marked assignments (TMAs)

and a final examination, which you will write at the end of the course.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
There are many tutor-marked assignments in this course. You will

submit all the assignments. You are encouraged to work all the
questions thoroughly. The TMAs constitute 30 per cent of the total
score.
Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the
Assignment File. You will be able to complete your assignments from
the information and materials contained in your set books, reading and
study units. However, it is desirable that you demonstrate that you have
read and researched more widely than the required minimum. You
should use other references to have a broad viewpoint of the subject and
also to give you a deeper understanding of the subject.
When you have completed each assignment, send it, together with a
TMA form, to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment reaches your
tutor on or before the deadline given in the Presentation File. If for any
reason, you cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor
before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension.
Extensions will not be granted after the due date unless there are
exceptional circumstances.
FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING
The final examination will be of three hours' duration and have a value
of 70% of the total course grade. The examination will consist of
questions which reflect the types of self-assessment practice exercises
and tutor-marked problems you have previously encountered. All areas
of the course will be assessed.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
You are advised to use the time between finishing the last unit and
sitting for the examination to revise the entire course material. You
might find it useful to review your self-assessment exercises, tutor-
marked assignments and comments on them before the examination.
The final examination covers information from all parts of the course.
COURSE MARKING SCHEME
The table presented below indicate the total marks (100%) allocation.
ASSESSMENT MARKS
Tutor-marked assignment (best three assignment out of the four marked)

30%
Final Examination 70%
Total 100%
COURSE OVERVIEW
The table presented below indicate the units, number of weeks and
assignments to be taken by you in this course.
HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE
In distance learning the study units replace the university lecturer. This
is one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and
work through specially designed study materials at your own pace and at
a time and place that suit you best.
Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the

same way that a lecturer might set you some reading to do, the study
units tell you when to read your books or other material, and when to
embark on discussion with your colleagues. Just as a lecturer might give
you an in-class exercise, your study units provides exercises for you to
do at appropriate points.
Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is
integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next is a set of
learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you should be
able to do by the time you have completed the unit.
You should use these objectives to guide your study. When you have
finished the unit you must go back and check whether you have
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achieved the objectives. If you make a habit of doing this you will
significantly improve your chances of passing the course and getting the
best grade.
The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from
other sources. This will usually be either from your set books or from a
readings section. Some units require you to undertake practical
overview of historical events. You will be directed when you need to
embark on discussion and guided through the tasks you must do.
The purpose of the practical overview of some certain historical

economic issues are in twofold. First, it will enhance your understanding
of the material in the unit. Second, it will give you practical experience
and skills to evaluate economic arguments, and understand the roles of
history in guiding current economic policies and debates outside your
studies. In any event, most of the critical thinking skills you will
develop during studying are applicable in normal working practice, so it
is important that you encounter them during your studies.
Self-assessments are interspersed throughout the units, and answers are

given at the ends of the units. Working through these tests will help you
to achieve the objectives of the unit and prepare you for the assignments
and the examination. You should do each self-assessment exercises as
you come to it in the study unit. Also, ensure to master some major
historical dates and events during the course of studying the material.
The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If

you run into any trouble, consult your tutor. Remember that your tutor's
job is to help you. When you need help, don't hesitate to call and ask
your tutor to provide it.
1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

2. Organise a study schedule. Refer to the `Course overview' for
more details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each
unit and how the assignments relate to the units. Important
information, e.g. details of your tutorials, and the date of the first
day of the semester is available from study centre. You need to
gather together all this information in one place, such as your
dairy or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose to use,
you should decide on and write in your own dates for working
breach unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything
you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that
they get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties
with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late
for help.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need
for a unit is given in the `Overview' at the beginning of each unit.
You will also need both the study unit you are working on and
one of your set books on your desk at the same time.
6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work
through the unit you will be instructed to read sections from your
set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your reading.
7. Up-to-date course information will be continuously delivered to
you at the study centre.
8. Work before the relevant due date (about 4 weeks before due
dates), get the Assignment File for the next required assignment.
Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing the assignments
carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the
objectives of the course and, therefore, will help you pass the
exam. Submit all assignments no later than the due date.
9. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you
have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the
objectives, review the study material or consult your tutor.
10. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit's
objectives, you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by
unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you
keep yourself on schedule.
11. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for
marking, do not wait for its return `before starting on the next
units. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned,
pay particular attention to your tutor's comments, both on the
tutor-marked assignment form and also written on the
assignment. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have
any questions or problems.
12. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved
the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the
course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).
FACILITATOR/TUTOR AND TUTORIALS
There are some hours of tutorials (2-hour session) provided in support of

this course. You will be notified of the dates, times and location of these
tutorials. Together with the name and phone number of your tutor, as
soon as you are allocated a tutorial group.
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close
watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter, and
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provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutor-
marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two
working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and
returned to you as soon as possible.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion

board if you need help. The following might be circumstances in which
you would find help necessary. Contact your tutor if:
• You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned
readings
• You have difficulty with the self-assessment exercises
• You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your
tutor's comments on an assignment or with the grading of an
assignment.
You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance
to have face to face contact with your tutor and to ask questions which
are answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the
course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course
tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a
lot from participating in discussions actively.
SUMMARY
On successful completion of the course, you would have developed

critical thinking skills with the material necessary for efficient and
effective discussion of economic issues and integration of past events
with the present. However, to gain a lot from the course please try to
apply anything you learn in the course to term papers writing in other
economic development courses. We wish you success with the course
and hope that you will find it both interesting and useful.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 Theory of Consumer Behaviour ............................. 1
Unit 1 Basic Concept of Consumer Behaviour .................. 1

Unit 2 Utility Theory ..................................................................... 6
Unit 3 Utility Theory: Indifference Curve ........................... 13
Unit 4 Budget Constraint…………………………… 25
Module 2 Market Structures 1 ....................................................... 33
Unit 1 Overview of Market Structure .................................... 33

Unit 2 Profit Maximisation and Losses Minimisation
under Perfect Competitive Market ............................ 39
Unit 3 Monopoly Markets ........................................................... 49
Module 3 Market Structures 2 ...................................................... 56
Unit 1 Price Discrimination in the Monopoly Market 56

Unit 2 Monopolistic Competition ............................................ 63
Unit 3 Oligopoly Market and Models .................................... 73
Module 4 Theory of Distribution ................................................. 87
Unit 1 Concepts of Theory of Distribution .......................... 87

Unit 2 Basic Concept of Factor Pricing: Productivity
of the Factor ........................................................................ 91
Unit 3 Basic Concept of Factor Pricing: Cost of the
Factor ..................................................................................... 98
Unit 4 The Concept Marginal Productivity Theory
of Distribution (Factor Pricing) .................................. 102
Unit 5 The Factor Market under Perfect Competition.. 112
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MODULE 1 THEORY OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR
Unit 1 Basic Concept of Consumer Behaviour

Unit 2 Utility Theory
Unit 3 Utility Theory: Indifference Curve
Unit 4 Budget Constraint
UNIT 1 BASIC CONCEPT OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Theory of Consumer Behaviour
3.2 Consumer Preferences
3.2.1 Decisiveness
3.2.2 Consistency
3.2.3 Non-satiation
3.2.4 Convexity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7. 0 References /Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The unit introduces you to the analysis of consumer behaviour. The

decisions that consumers make about what and how much to consume
are among the most important factors that shape the evolution of the
overall economy, and we can analyse these decisions in terms of their
underlying preferences. You will learn how to model consumer
preferences in a utility function, and use this utility function to make
predictions about what consumers’ want as well as indifference curve
approach to analyse the consumer utility. We shall also look at
substitution effect when the price change and income effect on the
choice a consumer makes.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 explain the concept of consumer behaviour

 state the reasons for consumer preferences.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Theory of Consumer Behaviour
A basic assumption of microeconomics is that because a consumer does

not have an unlimited budget, his or her available cash for spending
must be judiciously allocated for maximum benefit. Microeconomics
also supposes that consumer consumers make their buying decisions in
an effort to obtain the most happiness at the least cost - in other words,
maximising happiness or benefit.
The consumer is considered to be a rational person, who tries to spend

his or her money to derive the maximum amount of satisfaction, or
utility, from it. An individual consumer wants to get all to maximise
their total utility. Rational behaviour also expect that a consumer should
not spend too much money irrationally by buying tons of items and
stock piling them for the future, or starve themselves by buying no food
at all. Thus, consumers are believed to engage in rational behaviour.
Consumer behaviour is also the study of consumers, groups, or

organisations and the processes they use to select, secure, and dispose of
goods, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the effects
that these processes have on the consumer and society. It is how
consumers allocate their money incomes among goods and services. The
basis of consumer behaviour is underlined by the thinking referred to as
law of diminishing marginal utility (LDMU).
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Why do you consider a consumer rational being?
3.2 Consumer Preferences
The essential foundation of demand, therefore, is a pattern of how

consumers behave in the market. The individual consumer has a set of
preferences and values whose determinations are outside the realm of
economics. They are no doubt dependent upon culture, education, and
individual tastes, among a plethora of other factors. The measure of
these values in this model for a particular good (commodity) is in terms
of the real opportunity cost to the consumer who purchases and
consumes the good. If an individual consumer purchases a particular
good, then the opportunity cost of that purchase is the forgone goods the
consumer could have bought instead.
In this unit, we graphically derive consumer preferences. These are

measured in terms of the level of satisfaction the consumer derives from
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consuming various combinations or bundles of goods. The consumer’s

desire is to choose the bundle of goods, which provides the highest level
of satisfaction as they the consumer, define it. However, individual
consumers are very much constrained in their choices. These constraints
are defined by the consumer’s income, wealth and the prices the
consumer pays for the goods.
Concept of market basket (the collection of one or more goods) for

example, can contain various food items in a bag of jewelleries or the
combination of food, clothing and electronics that the consumer buys
each day, month etc.
3.2.1 Decisiveness
Here, given any two commodity bundles in commodity space, the

consumer must be able to rank them. In figure 1.1, we randomly chose
two commodity bundles A and B. This assumption means that the
consumer must be able to say that they prefer commodity bundle A to B,
or B to A, or that bundles A and B provide the same level of utility.
Fig. 1.1: Consumer Preferences
3.2.2 Consistency
The consumer must be consistent in preference and rankings. Again,

referring to the above diagram, suppose we now include bundle C; let
the consumer prefer commodity bundle A to B, and commodity bundle
B to C. Then by this assumption, the consumer must prefer A to C.
The following two assumptions are not required to develop the theory of
the consumer, but simplify matters significantly.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
3.2.3 Non-satiation
Non-satiation connotes the expression, “more is always better than less.”

More formally, any commodity bundle with at least as much of one
good and more of the other must be preferred. Commodity bundle A in
figure 1.1 has two straight lines running through it. This creates four
quadrants, to the northeast, southeast, southwest and northwest of
bundle A. All commodity bundles to the northeast of A contain more of
both X and Y then does A. Therefore, by the assumption of non-
satiation, any bundle in this quadrant is preferred to A. The opposite is
true for bundles to the southwest of A. They contain less X and Y than
does A, hence must be less preferred. The quadrants to the southeast and
northwest contain more of one good but less of the other; hence, we
cannot determine preference rankings with respect to A.
3.2.4 Convexity
This is the most difficult to explain. Convexity is based on the notion

that as a consumer consumes more and more of a particular good, the
additional utility obtained decreases. We define marginal utility as the
change in utility due to an increase in the consumption of a given good.
Convexity says that marginal utility declines as consumption increases.
Describe the concept of consumer preferences.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The consumer’s objective is to choose the bundle of goods, which

provides the greatest level of satisfaction as they the consumer, define it.
However, consumers are very much constrained in their choices. These
constraints are defined by the consumer’s income, and the prices the
consumer pays for the goods.
Consumer preferences are defined as the subjective (individual) tastes,

as measured by utility, of various bundles of goods. They permit the
consumer to rank these bundles of goods according to the levels of
utility they give the consumer. Note that preferences are independent of
income, wealth and prices.
The consumer preferences include decisiveness, consistency, non-

satiation and convexity.
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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you learnt about the concept of consumer behaviour and
basic assumptions underlining the theory of consumer behaviour. It also
introduced you to law of diminishing marginal utility (LDMU).
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. With the aid of diagram, explain any three of the assumptions of

consumer preference.
2. Why do you consider a consumer rational being?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Fashola, M.A. (2004). Microeconomic Theory: Highlights and Policy

Extensions for Less-Developed Economies. Lagos: Concept
Publications.
Karl, E.C. & Ray, C. F. (2007). Principles of Microeconomics. New

Jersey, USA: Pearson Education International.
Umo, J.U. (1986). Economics: African Perspective. Lagos: John West

Publications Limited.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
UNIT 2 UTILITY THEORY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of Utility
3.2 Difference between Total Utility and Marginal Utility
3.3 Marginal Utility: Consumer Equilibrium
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References /Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In making their choices, most people spread their income over many
different kinds of goods. One reason people prefer variety is that
consuming more of any one good reduces the marginal or extra
satisfaction they get from further consumption of the same good.
Formally, marginal utility (MU) is the additional satisfaction gained by
the consumption or use of one more unit of something.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define utility and explain the concept of law of diminishing

marginal utility (LDMU)
 calculate total utility and marginal utility and state reasons for the
differences
 differentiate between the income effect and substitution effect.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Utility
Utility is defined as the level of happiness or satisfaction connected with

alternative choices. Economists assume that when consumers are faced
with a choice of feasible alternatives, they will always select the
alternative that provides the highest level of utility. There are two
economic theories that exhibit how a person maximises utility namely;
the ordinal and cardinal utility theory.
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In cardinal utility theory, utile, as a unit of measure for utility, was used.
Thus, a rough numerical measure of consumer satisfaction is derived -
what microeconomics call cardinal utility, which refers to the cardinal
numbers, starting with 1, 2, 3 and so on. There is a problem, however,
with this concept, convenient though it may be, consumers do not as a
rule calculate the numerical utility value of their purchases; only micro-
economists do. Ordinal utility, another term widely used in
microeconomics, may be a more useful way of determining consumer
satisfaction because it simply denotes consumer preferences without
assigning them numerical values.
A consumer maximises utility if the utility received is greater than or

equal to the naira spent. While the ordinal utility theory does not use
utile as a unit of measure, but weighs which goods give the most
satisfaction by ordering it, given the indifference curve. A consumer,
given this theory, maximises utility when the budget line, that is a
person's capacity to pay, is tangent to the highest attainable indifference
curve. However, consumers will take into consideration:
 how much satisfaction they get from buying and then consuming
an extra unit of a good or service
 the price that they have to pay to make this purchase
 the satisfaction derived from consuming alternative
 products the prices of alternatives goods and services.
3.2 Difference between Total Utility and Marginal Utility
Consumers buy goods because they get satisfaction from them. This
satisfaction, which the consumer experiences when he consumes a good,
when measured as number of utile is called utility. It is necessary to
make a distinction between total utility and marginal utility.
Total utility (TU)
"Total utility is the total satisfaction obtained from all units of a

particular commodity consumed over a period of time". The total utility
associated with a good is the level of happiness derived from consuming
the good.
Formula:
TUx = ∑MUx
Marginal utility (MU)
"Marginal utility means an additional or incremental utility. Marginal

utility is the change in the total utility that results from unit one unit
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
change in consumption of the commodity within a given period of

time". Marginal utility is a measure of the additional utility that is
derived when an additional unit of the good is consumed.
Marginal utility, thus, can also be described as difference between total

utility derived from one level of consumption and total utility derived
from another level of consumption.
Formula:
MU = ∆TU
∆Q
The table below explains the relationship that exists between total and
marginal utility related with a consumer's consumption of bread (in a
given time period).
Table 1.2: Relationship between Total and Marginal Utility
No of slices Total utility Marginal utility

0 0 -
1 80 70
2 120 40
3 140 20
4 150 10
5 155 5
6 150 -5
As the table above shows, the marginal utility associated with an

additional slice of bread is just the change in the level of total utility that
occurs when one more slice of bread is consumed. For example, the
marginal utility of the third slice of bread is 20 since total utility
increases by 20 units (from 120 to 140) when the third slice of bread is
consumed. More generally, marginal utility can be defined as:
The table above also shows what is known as the law of diminishing
marginal utility. This law states that marginal utility declines as more of
a particular good is consumed in a given time period, all things being
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equal. From the example above, the marginal utility of additional slices
of bread declines as more bread is consumed (in this period). In this
example, the marginal utility of bread consumption becomes negative
when the sixth slice of bread is consumed. Note that even though the
marginal utility from bread consumption declines, total utility still
increases as long as marginal utility is positive. Total utility will decline
only if marginal utility is negative. This law of diminishing marginal
utility is believed to occur for virtually all commodities. A bit of
reflection should confirm the general applicability of this principle.
3.3 Marginal Utility: Consumer Equilibrium
How can the concept of marginal utility be used to explain consumer’s

choice? As noted above, economists assume that when a consumer is
faced with a choice among feasible alternatives, she/he will select the
alternative that provides the highest level of utility. Suppose a consumer
has a given income that can be spent on alternative combinations of
goods and services, a utility maximising consumer will select the bundle
of goods at which the following two conditions are satisfied:
1. MUA/PA = MUB/PB = ... = MUZ/PZ, for all commodities (A-Z),

and
2. all income earned is spent.
The first of these conditions requires that the marginal utility per naira
of spending be equated for all commodities. To see why this condition
must be satisfied, suppose that the condition is violated, let us assume
that the marginal utility resulting from the last naira spent on good X
equals 10, while the marginal utility received from the last naira spent
on good Y equals 5. Since an additional naira spent on good X provides
more additional utility than the last naira spent on good Y, a utility-
maximising consumer would spend more on good X and less on good Y.
Spending N1 less on good Y lowers utility by 5 units, but an additional
naira spent on good X raises utility by 10 units in this example. Thus,
the transfer of N1 in spending from good Y to good X provides this
person with a net gain of 10 units of utility. As more is spent on good Y
and less on good X, though, the marginal utility of good Y will fall
relative to the marginal utility of good X. This person will keep
spending more on good Y and less on good X, until the marginal utility
of the last naira spent on good Y is the same as the marginal utility of
the last naira spent on good X.
The first condition listed above is sometimes referred to as the

"equimarginal principle."
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
The reason for the assumption that all income is spent is because this
relatively simple model is a single-period model in which there is no
possibility of saving or borrowing. Of course, a more detailed model can
be constructed, which includes such possibilities, but that is a topic left
for more advanced microeconomics classes.
When the two conditions above are satisfied, a state of consumer

equilibrium is said to occur. This is equilibrium because the consumer
has no reason to change the mix of goods and services consumed once
this outcome is achieved (unless there is a change in tastes, income, or
relative prices).
3.5 Consumer Equilibrium and Demand
The concept of consumer equilibrium can be used to explain the

negative slope of a consumer's demand curve. Suppose that a consumer
is initially buying only two goods, X and Y at a point of consumer
equilibrium:
and all income is spent, what happens if the price of good X rises? An
examination of the equation above shows that the marginal utility per
naira spent on good X will fall when the price of good X rises. To have
consumer equilibrium back, the consumer will increase his or her
consumption of good Y and reduce his or her spending on good X. This
change in the mix of goods consumed is called the substitution effect.
When good X becomes relatively more expensive, the quantity of good
X demanded falls as a result of the substitution effect.
In addition to this substitution effect, there is also an income effect that

occurs when the price of a good changes. Since good X has become
more expensive in this example, the consumer can no longer buy the
original combination of goods X and Y. This income effect results in a
reduction in the quantity demanded for all normal goods. If good X is a
normal good, the substitution and income effects both work together to
reduce the quantity of good X demanded.
With this explanation, there is a possibility that an inferior good may

have an upward sloping demand curve if the income effect is larger in
magnitude than the substitution effect. A good that exhibits such a
demand curve is called a Giffen good. (This type of good is named after
an economist who believed that he had found evidence that indicated
that the quantity of potatoes demanded increased in Ireland when the
109
price rose during the Irish Potato Famine - more careful later analysis
indicated that Giffen's evidence was flawed.) In practice, though, no one
has found reliable evidence of a Giffen good. Thus, it is probably fairly
safe to assume that demand curves are downward sloping.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Utility is the satisfying power goods have. If a good causes problem for
a consumer we say it has disutility effect. Marginal utility is measured
as the ratio of total utility to a change in the number of items consumed
while the law of diminishing marginal utility states that consumption of
any item yields the consumer declining utility holding taste constant.
MU = ∆TU/∆X. Consumer utility is achieved when the ratio of marginal
utility of one commodity is equal to its price is equal to the ratio of
another to its price. That is MUx/Px= MUy/Py where x and y represent
different commodity.
5.0 SUMMARY
The theory of utility outlined in this unit is important in many ways. It

gives us at least half explanation for the law of demand and all the
processes and conditions for underlying consumer equilibrium and
enables us identify and assess the magnitude of consumer surplus. The
law of diminishing marginal utility assumes that goods are divisible into
small countable units, while it is true for many goods like cup of rice,
bar of soap and so on but not true for goods like cars, ships, aircrafts and
so on.
The total and marginal utility of two types of drink items are given
below:
Unit of drink Juice Juice Soft Drink Soft Drink

TU MU TU MU
0 0 0
1 170 600
2 360 1250
3 540 1680
4 690 2040
5 820 2350
6 930 2550
7 1030 2720
8 1110 2820
9 1170 2820
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
10 1170 2760
11 1120 2660
12 1020 2460
1. Complete the table above by computing the marginal utility of

each type of entertainment.
2. Compute the consumer equilibrium for bread and rice given the
price of bread and rice as N10 and N30 respectively.
Unit Bread Consumer Rice Consumer

MU equilibrium(Bread) MU Equilibrium(Rice)
0 0 0
1 180 600
2 180 600
3 170 480
4 140 360
5 140 360
6 140 360
7 100 360
8 100 0
9 100 0
10 0 0
Bradley, R. S. (2003). The Economy Today. New York: The McGraw-

Hill Companies.

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UNIT 3 INDIFFERENCE CURVE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Utility Theory- Indifference Curve Approach
3.2 Properties of Indifference Curves
3.3 Indifference Curve: Substitution and Income Effect
3.4 Consumer Equilibrium and Indifference Curves
3.5 Diamond-water Paradox
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn more about consumer behaviour in another
way using indifference curve analysis. Marginal rate of substitution
explains the rate at which a consumer gains more of one goods and loses
little of the other. The underlining assumptions of indifference curve and
consumer equilibrium are to be discussed in this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define indifference curve

 explain the meaning of marginal rate of substitution
 describe four features of indifference curve.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Indifference Curve
If a consumer equally prefers two product bundles, then the consumer is

indifferent between the two bundles. The consumer gets the same level
of satisfaction (utility) from either bundle. Graphically, this is referred
to as the indifference curve. It is a curve that shows that all bundles are
equally preferred, or have the same utility or same level of satisfaction.
Consumer behaviour can also be demonstrated using indifference
curves. An indifference curve is a graph of all combinations of goods
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
that provide a given level of utility. The graph below shows an

indifference curve for two goods, X and Y.
Any two points on an indifference curve generate the same level of

utility. Therefore, the figure above indicates that this consumer would be
indifferent if faced with a choice between the combinations of goods
represented by points A and B. Points that lie above and to the right of
an indifference curve provide a higher level of consumption of each
good than points on an indifference curve. Because of this, such points
provide a higher level of utility than points on the indifference curve.
Thus, point C would be preferred to either point A or B (or any other
point on the indifference curve Uo). Points that lie below and to the left
of the indifference curve (such as point D) provide a lower level of
utility. Therefore, this consumer would prefer the bundle of goods
represented by point A if faced with a choice between the bundles of
goods represented by points D and A.
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An indifference curve crosses through each point in this graph.

Therefore, an infinite number of indifference curves exist for these two
goods. Two additional indifference curves, corresponding to the levels
of utility derived at points C and D have been added to the graph below.
We assumed that consumers attempt to place themselves on the highest

level of utility that they can achieve, given the constraints that they face.
Let us examine the budget constraint facing consumers.
The slope of indifference curve is the rate at which a consumer is

willing to trade one good for another, which is also known as the
marginal rate of substitution (MRS). Marginal rate of substitution
(MRS) reflects the maximum amount of good Y the consumer would be
willing to give up obtaining an additional unit of X. The consumer
would be happy to give less Y since it would place the consumer above
U1 at a higher utility level. However, the consumer would not be willing
to give up more Y since it would place the consumer below U1 at a
lower level of utility.
The MRS can be portrayed as the slope of the indifference curve. This
would show the amount of good Y given up per unit of X. The slope
between points A and B is ∆Y0/∆X, between B and C is ∆Y1/∆X, and
between C and D is ∆Y2/∆X. Notice that since ∆Y is declining, the
slope is getting flatter and flatter. For very small increases in good X,
the slope of the indifference curve becomes the slope of the tangent to it.
We can define MRS as the absolute slope of the tangent to an
indifference curve. In the diagram above, the tangent gets flatter and
flatter as we move from A to B, B to C and C to D.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
3.2 Properties of Indifference Curves
1. Higher indifference curves are preferred to lower ones, since

more is preferred to less (non-satiation). A higher indifference
curve that lies above and to the right of another indifference
curve represents a higher level of satisfaction and combination on
a lower indifference curve yields a lower satisfaction.
In other words, we can say that the combination of goods, which lies on
a higher indifference curve, will be preferred by a consumer to the
combination of goods, which lies on a lower indifference curve.
1 2
In this diagram above, there are three indifference curves, IC , IC and
3
IC , which represents different levels of satisfaction. The indifference
3
curve IC shows greater amount of satisfaction and it contains more of
2 1 3 2 1
both goods than IC and IC (IC > IC > IC ).
2. Indifference curves are downward sloping. If the quantity of ones

goods is reduced, then you must have more of the other good to
make up for the loss. The indifference curves must slope down
from left to right. This means that an indifference curve is

negatively sloped. It slopes downward because as the
consumer increases the consumption of X cooking oil, he has to
give up certain units of Y wheat to maintain the same level of
satisfaction.
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In the above graph, two combinations of commodity cooking oil and

commodity wheat are shown by the points A and B on the same
indifference curve. The consumer is indifferent towards points A and B
as they represent equal level of satisfaction.
At point (a) on the indifference curve, the consumer is satisfied with OE

units of cooking oil and OD units of wheat. He is equally satisfied with
OF units of cooking oil and OK units of wheat shown by point B on the
indifference curve. It is only on the negatively sloped curve that
different points representing different combinations of goods X and Y
give the same level of satisfaction to make the consumer indifferent.
3. Indifference curves do not cross (intersect), since this would

imply a contradiction. Given the definition of indifference curve
and the assumptions behind it, the indifference curves cannot
intersect each other. It is because at the point of tangency, the
higher curve will give as much as of the two commodities as is
given by the lower indifference curve. This is absurd and
impossible.
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In the above graph, two indifference curves are shown cutting each
other at point B. The combinations represented by points B and F given
equal satisfaction to the consumer because both lie on the same
indifference curve IC2. Similarly, the combinations shown by points B
and E on indifference curve IC1 give equal satisfaction to the consumer.
If combination F is equal to combination B in terms of satisfaction and

combination E is equal to combination B in satisfaction, it follows that
the combination F will be equivalent to E in terms of satisfaction. This
conclusion looks quite funny because combination F on IC2 contains
more of good Y (wheat) than combination which gives more satisfaction
to the consumer. We, therefore, conclude that indifference curves cannot
cut each other.
4. Indifference curves are bowed inward (in most cases). The slopes
of indifference curves represent the MRS (rate at which
consumers are willing to substitute one good for the other). This
is an important property of indifference curves. They are convex
to the origin (bowed inward). This is equivalent to saying that as
the consumer substitutes commodity X for commodity Y, the
marginal rate of substitution diminishes of X for Y along an
indifference curve. People are usually willing to trade away more
of one good when they have a lot of it, and less willing to trade
away goods, which are in scarce supply. This implies that MRS
must increase as we get less of a good.
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In this diagram, as the consumer moves from A to B to C to D, the

willingness to substitute good X for good Y diminishes. This means that
as the amount of good X is increased by equal amounts, that of good Y
diminishes by smaller amounts. The marginal rate of substitution of X
for Y is the quantity of Y good that the consumer is willing to give up to
gain a marginal unit of good X. The slope of IC is negative. It is convex
to the origin.
5. One of the basic assumptions of indifference curves is that the

consumer buys combinations of different commodities. He is not
supposed to buy only one commodity. In that case, indifference
curve will touch one axis. This violates the basic assumption of
Indifference curve.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
In the above diagram, it is shown that the indifference IC touches Y-axis

at point C and X-axis at point E. At point C, the consumer purchase only
OC commodity of rice and no commodity of wheat. Similarly, at point
E, he buys OE quantity of wheat and no amount of rice. Such
indifference curves are against our basic assumption. Our basic
assumption is that the consumer buys two goods in combination.
6. Note that two extreme examples exist. Perfect substitutes have

straight-line indifference curves. As we get more of the good, we
trade off with the substitute at a constant rate because we are
indifferent between them (i.e. Coke and Pepsi). Perfect
complements have right-angled indifference curves. If goods can
only be used together, there is no satisfaction in having more of
A without additional amounts of B (i.e. left and right shoe). In
general, the better substitutes goods are, the straighter the
indifference.
SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Mention the salient features that must be considered when drawing

indifference curve.
3.3 Indifference Curve: Substitution and Income Effect
The substitution and income effect of price change on quantity

demanded. The indifference theory is used to explain the distinction
between substitution and income effects of a price change. The parallel
shifts in budget line indicate a real income change, the difference
between the points of tangency of DE and AC (which are parallel
budget lines) represent income effect which is indicated on the graph as
X3 – X2. Since substitution effect is due purely to the change in relative
price, the points of tangency between AB and DE (which have different
price ratio but the same real income) represent the substitution effect,
which is indicated in the graph as X2-X1.
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It is observed that the price fall in commodity X has led quantity

demand to rise from X1 to X3, for the ordinary demand curve, where we
keep only the nominal income constant, rather than the real income.
Note that the real income is affected by the change in price as indicated
in the graph above.
Assuming there is a change in the price of particular goods; explain its

effect on consumer level of satisfaction.
3.4 Consumer Equilibrium and Indifference Curves
Consumers maximising utility subject to their budget constraint attain

the highest possible level of utility at a point of tangency between their
budget constraint and an indifference curve. In the graph below, this
occurs when the consumer consumes X* units of good X and Y* units
of good Y. While other points on the budget constraint such as point A
are feasible, they provide a lower level of utility. Points such as point B
provide a higher level of utility, but are not feasible. It is not possible to
attain a higher level of utility than Uo without changing the budget
constraint (and there are laws that prevent people from acquiring more
goods than they can pay for.
With the aid of diagram, describe consumer equilibrium.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
3.5 Diamond-water Paradox
Adam Smith in his book, The Wealth of Nation attempted to make a

theory of value that explained why different goods had different market
values. In this attempt, however, he faced a problem that has come to be
referred as the "diamond-water" paradox. The paradox occurs because
water is essential for life and has a low market price (often a price of
zero) while diamonds are not as essential yet have a very high market
price. To resolve this problem, Adam Smith proposed two concepts of
value: value in use and value in exchange. Diamonds have a low value
in use but a high value in exchange while water has a high value in use
but a low value in exchange. He argued that economists could explain
the exchange value of a commodity by the amount of labour required to
produce the commodity. Smith did not propose a theory to explain the
use value of a commodity.
With the help of theory marginal analysis, however, enables us to

expound both value in use and value in exchange. The graph below
contains marginal utility curves for both diamonds and water. Since
consumers consume a large volume of water, the marginal utility of an
additional unit of water is relatively low. Since few diamonds are
consumed, the marginal utility of an additional diamond is relatively
high.
a b
Total utility can be derived by adding up the marginal utilities

associated with each unit of the good. A bit of reflection should
convince you that total utility can be measured by the area under the
marginal utility curve. The shaded areas in the graph below provide a
measure of the total utility associated with the consumption of water and
diamonds. Note that the total utility from water is very high (since a
121
large volume of water is consumed) while the total utility received from
diamonds is relatively low (because few diamonds are consumed).
a. b.
These concepts of total and marginal utility can be used to resolve

Adam Smith's diamond-water paradox. When Adam Smith was
referring to "value in use," he was actually referring to the concept of
total utility. Exchange value, on the other hand, is tied to how much
someone is willing to pay for an additional unit of the commodity.
Because diamonds are expensive, consumers consume few diamonds
and the marginal utility of an additional diamond is relatively high.
Since water is not very costly to acquire, people consume more water.
At this high level of consumption, the marginal utility of an additional
unit of water is relatively low. The price that someone is willing to pay
for an additional unit of a good is related to its marginal utility. Because
the marginal utility of an additional diamond is higher than the marginal
utility associated with an additional glass of water, diamonds have a
higher value in exchange.
Explain the following terms:
i. value in use
ii. value in exchange.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Indifference curves map or graphically represent consumer preferences.

The properties of these indifference curves reflect the four consumer
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
preference assumptions. The slope of an indifference curve, the MRS,

reflects the value placed on the additional unit of a good in terms of the
other goods the consumer would be willing to give up. The point at
which the lowest point of indifference curve touches the budget line is
referred to consumer equilibrium. A paradox stating that (1) the things
with the greatest value in use frequently have little or no exchange (2)
the things with the greatest value in exchange frequently have little or
no value in use.
5.0 SUMMARY
Here you have learnt more about utility theory using the concept of
indifference curve. You learnt basic properties of indifference curve. By
now should be able to use indifference curve to explain substitution
effect and income effect on utility. Lastly, you learnt about diamond-
water paradox using value in use and value in exchange as explained by
father of economics Adams Smith.
If Abiodun’s marginal rate of substitution of X for Y is 5; that is

MUX/MUY = 5 – the price of X is N9.00 and the price of Y is N2.00,
she is spending too much of her income on Y. do you agree or disagree?
Explain your using graph.

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UNIT 4 BUDGET CONSTRAINT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Budget Constraint
3.2 Revealed Preference Theory
3.3 Consumer Surplus
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor -Marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Having learnt about the concept of utility using indifference curve

approach as well as consumer equilibrium, it is now necessary to learn
about budget constraint, which tells us about how a consumer spends
his/her income on the available commodities. Here, you will learn about
the properties of budget constraint or budget line in relation to relative
price of commodity. Concept revealed preferences is also discussed in
this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end this unit, you should be able to:
 define budget constraint

 explain relative price
 describe the concept of revealed preferences.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Budget Constraint
Using indifference curves, we can model consumer preferences showing

how the consumer would rank commodity bundles according to the
utility each bundle provides. Having a map of consumer preferences,
however, is not enough to explain the choices consumers make. Choices
are also a function of other constraints, namely the consumer’s income
and the price of goods.
In order to simplify the presentation, we assume that income is

exhausted over the consumer purchases. This means we are excluding
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
savings. The budget constraint would then say that income is equal to
the sum of consumer expenditure. Expenditure on a particular good is
the product of the amount of the good purchased times its price. We can
then write the budget constraint as:
I = Px*X +Py*Y.
In this equation, the consumer has expended all income, I, across both
goods X and Y, where Px and Py are the prices of X and Y respectively.
To illustrate this budget constraint graphically into commodity space
requires rewriting the budget constraint in terms of good Y, the variable
on the vertical axis. Using simple algebra, we can rearrange terms to
produce the following budget line: Y = I/Py - Px/Py * X.
In the equation of a line (Y = mX + b), the slope is given by m, the

number multiplied with X, and the Y intercept is given as b. Referring to
the budget line, its slope is Px/Py and the Y intercept is I/Py. The
diagram below illustrates these characteristics of the budget line.
1/py
1/px
The budget line divides commodity space into two. The commodity
bundles, which are affordable, are shown as being on or below the line.
Income is completely spent for those bundles on the line. We exclude
the commodity bundles below the budget line since all income is not
being spent. The commodity bundles above and to the right of the
budget line are beyond the reach of the consumer, given their income
and the prices of goods X and Y. Note the intercepts-the Y intercept
represents a commodity bundle that contains only good Y. This is the
amount of good Y that the consumer could purchase if they spent their
entire income on good Y. The same is true for good X’s intercept. I/Px
is the maximum amount of good X that this consumer can purchase,
given their income and the two goods’ prices.
The budget line plays two important roles. The first is determined by the
level of income. The more income the consumer has to spend the greater
number of the commodity bundles that are affordable. An increase in
income would be portrayed as a parallel shift outwards of the budget
125
line. It is a parallel shift because we are holding the prices of goods X

and Y constant, therefore there would be no change in the line’s slope.
The second role for the budget line is to act as a price line. A price line
demonstrates the relative price of two goods. A relative price is the
price of one good in terms of another. For example, let Pb = N0.50/milk
be the price of milks, and Po = N1.00/bread the price of bread. The
relative price of a tin of milk in terms of bread is ½ a loaf of bread. If
the consumer buys a tin of milk, then, they necessarily forgo purchasing
one half a loaf of bread. If we take the ratio of the milk’s price to the
price of a loaf of bread, we get:
Pb/po = N.50/milk = 1bread

N1.00/bread 2milk
Thus the slope of the budget line shows the relative price of good X in
terms of good Y. If the price of good X increases, then the amount of
good Y that is foregone increases. There is an increase in the relative
price of good X. Since we are holding income and the price of good Y
constant, this increase in good X’s price results in a decrease of the
budget line’s X intercept. The line swivels inward.
Relative price is an important tool. It shows how much of one good that
the consumer must necessarily give up to obtain more of another. The
flatter the budget line, the less costly the good on the horizontal axis in
terms of the good on the vertical axis. The steeper the budget line, the
more costly the good. Note that relative price is shown solely as the
budget line’s slope. The distance from the origin does not reflect prices.
Define budget line and draw a sketchy sample.
3.2 Revealed Preference Theory
The revealed preference theory makes two assumptions: (a) that the
consumer has a budget constraint (b) that the consumer is consistent in
the sense that if he prefers situation A to B, and B is superior to C, then
he will prefer A to C. superiority of A to B means that B affords him
more quantities of some or all the commodities and less of none in
comparison to C. The theory used the budget constraint to draw its
logical implications. Given the budget constraint AB in the graph below,
and given that the revealed preference of consumer is point Q on AB,
which corresponds to X1 units of commodity X and Y1 units of
commodity Y: if we now consider a fall in the price of X, then the
budget line pivots to AC.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
The price change has introduced a change in real income. So, we can
eliminate the change in the real income by shifting the new budget line
AC backwards in parallel manner until it cuts point Q of the revealed
preference on AB. We will maintain a constant real income while
preserving the new price ratio. The reconstructed budget line DE
presents the consumer with a new situation, consisting of segment DQ
and QE. Clearly, DQ is inferior to AQ, so that the consumer can only
choose either to remain on point Q or move to another point QE. This
implies that the fall in the price of X will make the consumer not
demand more of X rather less. The possibilities are the points on QE
will correspond to a downward –sloping demand curve with various
elasticities.
If the consumer decides to remain on point Q, then we have a perfectly –

inelastic demand; if he decides to move down the segment QE, then he
demands more than X1 and demand becomes elastic the further down he
moves.
3.3 Consumer Surplus
A consumer buys a good only if the purchase is expected to makes the

person better off (or at least not worse off). In general, the total benefit
received from the purchase of a commodity is expected to exceed the
opportunity cost. This provides consumers with a net gain from trade,
referred to as consumer surplus. Let us examine this concept in more
detail. Suppose that a consumer buys 10 units of a good at a price ofN5.
The graph below illustrates this possibility.
127
As the graph below shows, the first unit of the good costs N5, but this
consumer would have been willing to pay a price of up to N9 for this
first unit of this good. In this case, the consumer receives a good that
s/he values at N9 by giving up onlyN5. Therefore, the first unit of the
good generates N4 in consumer surplus. In the graph below, the benefit
received from the first unit of the good is the sum of the shaded areas
(notice the height of this rectangle equals the price the person is willing
to pay -N9 - while the base equals 1, thus the area of the rectangle
equalsN9). The cost of this first unit of the good (N5) is given by the
shaded area. The lower shaded area at the top of the graph represents the
consumer surplus (N4) received from the first unit of this good.
More generally, the total benefit from consuming 10 units of this good is
the entire area under the demand curve (as illustrated by the shaded area
in the graph below).
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
The total cost of consuming 10 units of this good at a price of N5 isN

50. This is represented by the shaded rectangle in the graph below.
129
The consumer surplus received by this consumer is the difference

between the total benefit and total cost. This is represented by the
shaded area in the graph below. The consumer surplus represents the
consumer's net benefit from engaging in voluntary trade.
With the aid graph describe consumer surplus.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The budget constraint separates those combinations of goods and

services that are not. All the points below and to the left of a graph of an
individual budget constraint make up the choice set or opportunity cost.
The difference between the maximum amount a person is willing to pay
for a good and its current market price is referred to as consumer
surplus.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about budget constraint, which tells us about
how a consumer spends his/her income on the available commodities.
You also learnt about the properties of budget constraint or budget line
in relation to relative price of commodity. Concept revealed preferences
is also discussed in this unit.
1. Suppose that the price X is N5 and the price of Y is N10 and a

hypothetical household
2. has N500 to spend per month on goods X and Y, sketch the
individual budget constraint
3. Assuming that the individual splits his income equally between X
and Y, show where the household ends up the budget constraint.
4. Suppose that the individual income doubles to N1000, sketch the

new budget
5. constraint facing the individual.
6. Suppose after the change, the individual spends N200 on Y and
N800 on X, does this imply that X is a normal or an inferior
good?

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MODULE 2 MARKET STRUCTURES 1
Unit 1 Overview of Market Structure

Unit 2 Profit Maximisation and Losses Minimisation under
Perfect Competitive Market
Unit 3 Monopoly Markets
UNIT 1 MARKET STRUCTURE 1
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Market Structure
3.1.1 Types of Market Structures
3.2 Perfect Competitive Market
3.3 Assumptions of Perfectly Competitive Market
3.4 Concept of Total, Average, Marginal Revenues and
Demand
3.5 Demand Curve Facing a Single Firm
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will understand why microeconomics is concerned with

examining the economic behaviour of both buyers and sellers in
particular markets. In addition, you will learn what market is and what
kind of markets are there and how do the market participants transact in
the market. This unit introduces and examines the idea of market
structure such as perfect market competition, monopoly, monopolistic
competition, and oligopoly.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 enumerate different forms of market structure

 briefly identify various market structures with their features
 state the characteristics of perfectly competitive market
 calculate total, average, marginal revenues.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Market Structure
Market structure is best defined as the structural/organisational and

other characteristics of a market. Market structure is the number of firms
producing identical goods, which are homogeneous in nature. The major
yardstick by which one can distinguish between different market
structures are the number and size of producers and consumers in the
market, types of goods and services being traded, and the degree to
which information can flow freely. We focus on those characteristics,
which affect the nature of competition and pricing.
3. 1.1 Types of Market Structures
The types of market structures include the following.
1. Perfect competitive market

2. Imperfect competitive market: The imperfectly competitive
structure is quite identical to the realistic market conditions
where some monopolistic competitors, monopolists, oligopolists,
oligosopnists, and monopsonists operate.
Table 5.1 : Brief Reference to Basic Market Structures

Market Seller Entry Seller Buyer Entry Buyer
Structure Barriers Number Barriers Number
Perfect
No Many No Many
Competition
Monopolistic
No Many No Many
competition
Oligopoly Yes Few No Many
Oligopsony No Many Yes Few
Monopoly Yes One No Many
Monopsony No Many Yes One
However, there are four basic types of market structures by traditional

economic analysis, namely, perfect competition, monopolistic
competition, oligopoly and monopoly.
Mention three characteristics of each the following market structures:
a. perfect competitive market
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b. monopoly market
c. monopolistic competition market
d. oligopoly
3.2 Perfectly Competitive Market

Perfect competition exists in an industry where perfect competition is
characterised by many buyers and sellers, many products that are similar
in nature and, as a result, many substitutes. Perfect competition means
there are few, if any, barriers to entry for new companies, and prices are
determined by supply and demand. Thus, producers in a perfectly
competitive market are subject to the prices determined by the market
and do not have any leverage.
3.3 Assumptions of Perfectly Competitive Market
1. Many suppliers each with an insignificant share of the market.

This means that each firm is too small relative to the overall
market to affect price via a change in its own supply – each
individual firm is assumed to be a price taker.
2. An identical output produced by each firm. In other words, the
market supplies homogeneous or standardised products that are
perfect substitutes for each other. Consumers perceive the
products to be identical.
3. Consumers have perfect information about the prices all sellers in
the market charge – so if some firms decide to charge a price
higher than the ruling market price, there will be a large
substitution effect away from this firm.
4. All firms (industry participants and new entrants) are assumed to
have equal access to resources (technology, other factor inputs)
and improvements in production technologies achieved by one
firm can spill-over to all the other suppliers in the market.
5. There are assumed to be no barriers to entry and exit of firms in
the long run, which means that the market is open to competition
from new suppliers. This affects the long-run profits made by
each firm in the industry. The long-run equilibrium for a
perfectly competitive market occurs when the marginal firm
makes normal profit only in the long-term.
6. No externalities in production and consumption so that there is no
divergence between private and social costs and benefits.
Briefly explain the basic features of a perfect competitive market.
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3. 4 Concept of Total, Average, Marginal Revenues and

Demand Revenue in a Perfect Competitive Business
Industries in competitive markets take the market price (P) as given
(price takers). The amount the firm receives for a typical unit is known
as the "average revenue" (AR). This can be calculated as:
TR/Q = (P x Q)/Q = Price
Thus, average revenue is equal to price, and is constant. How much

additional revenue does the firm get if it sells one additional unit? To
solve this question, we take a look at "marginal revenue" (MR), which is
equal to the change in TR, divided by the change in quantity. Note that
this (MR) too is equal to price, so the marginal revenue is constant as
well, and is equal to average revenue.
3.4.1 Total Revenue

The total revenue of a firm is the total amount of money that the firm
receives by selling a certain quantity of output. This can be illustrated as
thus:
TR = P x Q
Where,
P = Price
Q = Quantity
TR = Total Revenue
Example:
Calculate the total revenue for a firm which is selling 10 television sets
at N21,000 each.
TR = P X Q
= 21,000 x 100
= N2, 10,000
3.4.2 Average Revenue

Revenue earned by a firm per unit of output is called average revenue.
Average revenue is equal to price in both competitive and non-
competitive markets. This can be illustrated as thus:
AR = TR/Q
Where
AR = Average revenue
TR = Total revenue
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Q = Units sold
What is the average revenue for firm JKB which is selling 35 units of
commodity X and getting the total revenue of N3000?
3.4.3 Marginal Revenue

Revenue earned by selling additional unit of output is called as marginal
revenue. In other words, change in the revenue resulting from a one unit
increase in output is marginal revenue. This can be illustrated as thus:
MR = TRn - TR n-1
Where
MR = Marginal revenue
TR = Total revenue
n = Unit sold
By selling 30 units, firm JKB make N300. After selling the 31st unit,
firm’s revenue increased to 318. What is the marginal revenue in this
situation?
3.5 Demand Curve Facing a Single Firm

The graph below illustrates the relationship between the market and an
individual firm. The equilibrium price is determined by the interaction
of market demand and market supply. Since the output of each firm is a
small share of this total output, no individual firm can affect the market
price. Thus, each firm faces a demand curve for its product that is
perfectly elastic at the market price.
a b
The demand curve facing perfectly competitive firm is characterised by

the following multiple equality: P=D=AR=MR
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
Where: P =price
D= demand function
AR=average revenue
MR=marginal revenue
4.0 CONCLUSION
Market structure implies a variety of ways consumers and firms interact
in the market. How firms actually act requires understanding the
competitive environment in which they operate. Perfect competition
exists in an industry where:
 many firms sell identical products to many buyers

 there are no restrictions to entry into the industry
 established firms have no advantages over new ones
 sellers and buyers are well informed about prices.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you learnt about the different market structures.
Specifically, you learnt about the types of market structure (perfect
market and imperfect market), which include monopoly, monopolistic
competition, oligopoly, some others. Furthermore, you learnt about the
concept of perfect competitive market and its basic features. Finally,
you learnt about demand curve and revenue structure facing perfect
competitive market.

Vividly describe the link among the following term:
a. demand
b. marginal revenue
c. price
d. average revenue
7.0 REFERENCES /FURTHER READING

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UNIT 2 PERFECT COMPETITIVE MARKET:

PROFIT MAXIMISATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Profit Maximisation
3.2 Loss Minimisation and Shutdown Rule
3.3 Break-even Price
3.4 Short-run Supply Curve
3.5 Long-run Equilibrium
3.6 Long-run Equilibrium and Economic Efficiency
3.7 Consumer and Producer Surplus
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn how to determine profit maximisation and
loss minimisation and shutdown rule under perfect competitive market.
Furthermore, the breakeven point, short run supply curve, long run
equilibrium and long-run and economic efficiency as it operates under
perfect competitive market will be discussed. Finally, you will learn
about consumer and producer surplus.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 calculate total revenue and marginal revenue of perfect

 competitive market
 determine profit maximisation and loss minimisation conditions
 under perfect competition
 explain the differences between consumer surplus and producer
surplus.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Profit Maximisation
To maximise profit, we need to get the concept of the revenue and the
costs of the business. Profit is maximised when marginal revenue equals
marginal cost (i.e. marginal revenue = marginal cost) and marginal cost
is rising. Marginal revenue is the additional revenue from one additional
unit. Marginal cost is the additional cost from one additional unit.
A firm maximises its profits by producing the level of output at which

marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Marginal revenue is defined as:
Marginal revenue equals the market price for a firm facing a perfectly
elastic demand curve. The graph below illustrates this relationship.
Marginal and average total cost curves have been added to the graph
below. As this graph indicates, a profit-maximising firm will produce at
the level of output (Qo) at which MR = MC. The price, Po is determined
by the firm's demand curve.
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At an output level of Qo, the firm faces average total costs equal to
ATC. Thus, its profit per unit of output equals Po - ATC (= revenue per
unit or output - total cost per unit of output). Economic profits are equal
to profit per unit x, number of units of output. A cursory look at the
graph below should confirm that economic profits equals the area of the
shaded rectangle (notice that the height of this rectangle equals profit
per unit of output and the base equals the number of units of
output).When MR > MC, revenue is increasing faster than costs and the
firm should increase production.
If a firm is receiving economic profits, the owners are receiving a return

on their investment that exceeds that which they could receive if their
resources had been used in an alternative occupation. In this case,
existing firms will stay in the market and new firms will enter the
market.
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Complete the following table and identify the profit-maximising output.
Quantity Price Total Marginal Marginal Total

revenue revenue cost profit
10 N15 N150 N15 N9
11 N15 N10
12 N15 N11
13 N15 N12
14 N15 N15
2. From the above table, what is correct about marginal revenue and
marginal costs when profit is maximised?
3. What would be the profit maximising level of output if price fell
to N13?
3.2 Loss Minimisation and Shutdown Rule
Suppose that P < ATC at the level of output at which MR = MC, will the
firm continue operations? To determine this, we have to compare the
firm's loss if it stays in business with its loss if it shuts down. If the firm
decides to shut down, its revenue will equal zero and its costs will equal
its fixed costs. (Remember, fixed costs must be paid even if the firm
shuts down.) Thus, the firm receives an economic loss equal to its fixed
costs if it shuts down. It will stay in business in the short run even if it
receives an economic loss as long as its loss is less than its fixed costs.
This will occur if the revenue received by the firm is large enough to
cover its variable costs and some of its fixed costs. In mathematical
terms, this means that the firm will stay in business as long as:
TR = P x Q > VC
Dividing both sides of the above expression by Q, we can write this

condition in an alternative form as:
P > AVC
What this means in practice is that the firm will stay in business if the price
is greater than average variable cost. The firm will shut down if the price is
less than average variable cost. Consider the situation illustrated by the
graph below. In this case, losses are minimised at the level of output at
which MR = MC. This occurs at an output level of Q'. Since the level of
average total cost (ATC') exceeds the market price (P'), this
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firm receives economic losses. Since the price is greater than AVC,
however, this firm will choose to stay in business in the short run.
If the firm shown above were to shut down, it would lose its fixed costs.
The shaded area in the graph below equals the firm's fixed costs (to see
this, note that the height of this rectangle equals the firm's AFC and the
base equals Q -- therefore, the shaded area equals AFC x Q = TFC). A
comparison of the firm's losses if it shuts down (the shaded area in the
graph below) with its losses if it continues to operate in the short run
(the shaded area in the graph above) shows that this firm will receive
lower losses if it decides to continue in business in the short run.
Thus, this discussion should suggest that the shut down rule for a firm is
shut down if P < AVC. In the long run, of course, firms will leave the
industry if economic losses are received (remember, there are no fixed
costs in the long run.)
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State the reason an entrepreneur is not affected by zero economic profit.
3.3 Break-even Price
If the market price is just equal to the minimum point on the ATC curve,
the firm will receive a level of economic profits equal to zero. In this
case, the owners of the firm are receiving a rate of return on all of their
resources that is just equal to that which they could receive in any
alternative employment. When this occurs, there is neither an incentive
to enter or leave this market. This possibility is illustrated in the graph
below.
If the price drops below AVC, the firm will shut down. This possibility
is illustrated in the graph below. The green shaded area equals the firm's
fixed costs (its losses if it shuts down). The loss if it continues
operations, however, equals the combined blue and green shaded areas.
As this graph suggests, a firm's economic losses are lower when it shuts
down if P < AVC.
3.4 Short-run Supply Curve
We have already observed that a perfectly competitive firm will produce

at the point at which P = MC, as long as P > AVC. The graph below
indicates that at prices of Po, P1, P2, and P3, this firm would produce
output levels of Qo, Q1, Q2, and Q3, respectively. A bit of reflection
should convince you that the MC curve can be used to determine the
quantity of output that this firm will supply whenever P > AVC. Since
the portion of the MC curve that lies above the AVC curve indicates the
quantity of output supplied at each price, it is the firm's short-run supply
curve. In general, a perfectly competitive firm's short-run supply curve
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is the portion of its marginal cost curve that lies above the AVC curve.
This is illustrated by the darker and thicker portion of the MC curve in
the graph below.
3.5 Long-run Equilibrium
In the long-run, firms will enter the market if positive economic profits
are received and will leave the market if economic losses are realised.
Let us think about the consequences of such entry and exit. Suppose that
the current equilibrium price in a market results in economic profits for a
typical firm. In this case, firms enter the market and the market supply
curve shifts to the right. As market supply increases, the equilibrium
price falls. This process will continue until firms no longer have an
incentive to enter the market. As the graph below indicates, a typical
firm will receive zero economic profits in this long-run equilibrium
situation.
a b
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
Assuming a typical firm is receiving an economic loss; such firm will

leave the industry in the long run. As they exit, the market supply curve
shifts to the left and the equilibrium price rises. Firms will continue to
leave until the market supply curve has shifted enough so that a typical
firm receives zero economic profits (as illustrated in the graph above).
Thus, as the above graph illustrates, a long-run equilibrium is
characterised by the receipt of zero economic profits by a typical firm.
This means, of course, that the owners of a typical firm receive
accounting profits just equal to normal profit.
Long-run equilibrium results in each firm producing at its ATC, the

point where price equals MC and ATC
3.6 Long-run Equilibrium and Economic Efficiency
This long-run equilibrium condition has two desirable efficiency

properties:
 P = MC, and
 P = minimum ATC.
The equality between P and MC important for society because the price
reflects society's marginal benefit from the consumption of the good
while the marginal cost reflects the social marginal cost of producing the
good (in the absence of externalities). At the competitive equilibrium,
society's marginal benefit just equals society's marginal costs. Society's
net benefit from the production of each good is maximised when social
marginal benefit equals social marginal cost.
Production at minimum average cost means that society is producing

each good at the lowest possible cost per unit. This, obviously, is also a
desirable property.
Economic efficiency occurs when both of the above conditions are

satisfied.
3.7 Consumer and Producer Surplus
As noted in the section on demand and utility, consumer surplus is equal

to the net benefit that consumers receive from the consumption of a
good. It occurs because the marginal benefit from each unit of the good
exceeds the marginal cost up to the point until the last unit is consumed.
Producer surplus is defined in a similar manner as the net benefit
received by producers from the sale of a good. It occurs because P = MC
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only for the last unit produced. Up to that point, the marginal cost of
producing the good is below the price received by the firm.
In the graph below, the shaded region equals the amount of consumer
surplus, while the lower shaded region represents producer surplus. The
net benefit to society, also known as the "gains from trade," equals the
sum of these two areas.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Economic profits encourage new firms to enter a competitive market.

The short run production decision leads perfectly competitive firms to
produce where price equal marginal cost. In effort to earn economic
profits, competitive firms are always searching for better and more
efficient production methods. As long as a firm can cover its average
variable cost, it minimises losses by continuing to operate in the short
run. The point where price equals minimum average variable cost is the
short-down point.
The long-run equilibrium output in perfectly competitive market occurs

at the lowest point on the average total cost curve, so the equilibrium
condition in the long run in perfect competition is for firms to produce at
that output that minimises per-unit total cost.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you learnt how firms under perfect competitive market
maximise their profit, minimise their losses and even the way firms can
withdraw from the market to avoid unlimited waste of resources. The
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
analysis of breakeven position, short run supply curve and long run
equilibrium were also explained to your good understanding of perfect
competitive market operations.
At a price of N5 the profit – maximising output for a perfectly

competitive firm is 1000 units per year. If the average total cost is N3
per unit, what will be the firm’s profit? If the average total cost is N6
per unit, what will be the firm’s profit? What are the relationships that
exist among profit, price, and average total cost?

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UNIT 3 MONOPOLY MARKETS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Monopoly Markets
3.1.1 Salient Features of Monopoly
3.2 Sources of Monopoly Power
3.3 Monopoly: Demand, Average Revenue, Marginal
Revenue, Total Revenue and Elasticity
3.4 Profit Maximisation under Monopoly
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn about ‘one in town seller’ as you have been
introduced to in the previous unit. More is to be learnt about monopoly
especially on its salient features, sources of its market power and also
monopolist profit maximisation strategy and its loss limits.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 describe the monopoly market

 state the features of monopoly
 enumerate sources of monopoly power
 explain total revenue, marginal revenue and demand curve
monopoly market
 explain profit maximisation and loss minimisation under
monopoly market.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Monopoly Markets
A monopoly is a single producer of a product, which does not have

close substitute. A monopoly has market power, which is the ability to
increase the product's price above marginal cost without losing all
customers, it provides firms the ability to increase the price by
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
restricting supply, such that MR > MC. In other words, the ability to
influence the market, and in particular the market price, by influencing
the total quantity offered for sale.
3.1.1 Salient Features of Monopoly
1. Monopolist maximises profits.

2. Monopolist decides the price of the good or product to be sold,
but does so by determining the quantity in order to demand the
price desired by the firm.
3. Monopolist creates high barriers to entry, i.e. other sellers are
unable to enter the market of the monopoly.
4. In a monopoly, there is one seller of the good that produces all
the output. Thus, the whole market is being served by a single
company; in other words, the company is similar to the industry.
5. A monopolist can change the price and quality of the product. He
sells more quantities charging fewer prices for the product in a
very elastic market and sells less quantities charging high price in
a less elastic market.
3. 2 Sources of Monopoly Power
Monopolies derive their market power from barriers to entry –

circumstances that prevent or greatly impede a potential competitor's
ability to compete in a market. There are three major types of barriers to
entry; economic, legal and deliberate.
1. Economic barrier: Economic barriers include economies of

scale, capital requirements, cost advantages and technological
superiority.
2. Economies of scale: Monopolies are characterised by decreasing

costs for a relatively large range of production i.e. falling average
total cost - making one company more efficient than others (this
is also known as a natural monopoly), arising from economies of
scale over the relevant range of output. Decreasing costs coupled
with large capital to start give monopolies some benefits over
would-be competitors. Monopolies are often in a position to
reduce prices below a new producer’s operating costs and thereby
prevent them from venturing into competition. Furthermore, the
size of the industry relative to the minimum efficient scale (MES)
may limit the number of companies that can effectively compete
within the industry.
3. Scale of capital: Production processes that require large

investments of capital, or large research development and
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innovation costs or substantial sunk costs, limit the number of

companies in an industry. A large fixed cost also makes it tough
for a small company to enter an industry and expand.
4. Technological superiority: A monopoly may be better able to

acquire, integrate and use the best possible technology in
producing its goods while entrants do not have the size or
finances to use the best available technology. One large company
can sometimes produce goods cheaper than several small
companies.
5. No substitute goods: A monopoly sells a good for which there is

no close substitute. The absence of substitutes makes the demand
for the good relatively inelastic enabling monopolies to extract
positive profits.
6. Ownership/control of a key resource: A prime source of

monopoly power is the control of resources that are critical to the
production of final goods. A monopoly can hardly be established
within a country without overt and covert government assistance
in the form of a tariff or some other device. It is close to
impossible to do so.
7. Network effects: The use of a product by a person can affect the

value of that product to other people. This is the network effect.
There is a direct relationship between the proportion of people
using a product and the demand for that product. Thus, the more
the people using a particular good, the greater the chances of any
individual starting to use that good. This effect can be seen in
fads and fashion trends. It also can play a crucial role in the
development or acquisition of market power. The most famous
current example is the market dominance of the Microsoft
operating system in personal computers.
8. Special right given by government: Legal rights can provide

opportunity to monopolise the market of a good. Intellectual
property rights, including patents and copyrights, give a
monopolist special control of the production and selling of
certain goods. Property rights may give a firm special control of
the materials necessary to produce a good.
9. Elimination strategies/ actions: A company wanting to

monopolise a market may engage in various types of deliberate
action to exclude competitors or eliminate competition. Such
actions include collusion, lobbying governmental authorities, and
force.
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10. Difficulty to exit may be a source of market power: Barriers to

exit include market conditions that make it difficult or expensive
for a company to end its involvement with a market. Great
liquidation costs are a primary barrier to exit. Market exit and
shutdown are separate events. The decision whether to shut down
or operate is not affected by exit barriers. A company will
shutdown if price falls below minimum average variable costs.
3.4 Monopoly: Profit Maximisation
Demand, average revenue, marginal revenue, total revenue and

elasticity
The demand curve facing a monopoly firm is the market demand curve
(since the firm is the only firm in the market). Since the market demand
curve is a downward sloping curve, marginal revenue will be less than
the price of the good. As noted earlier, marginal revenue is:
 positive when demand is elastic,

 equal to zero when demand is unit elastic,
 and negative when demand is inelastic.
These relationships are shown in the graph below. As this graph

illustrates, total revenue is maximised at the level of output at which
demand is unit elastic (and MR = 0). It might be tempting to assume that
this is the best output level for the firm to produce. This would be the
case, though, only if the firm's goal is to maximise its revenue. A profit-
maximising monopolist must take its costs as well as its revenue into
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account in determining how much output to produce.
As in all other market structures, average revenue (AR) is equal to the

price of the good. (To see this note that AR = TR/Q = (PxQ)/Q = P.)
Thus, the price given by the demand curve is the average revenue that
the firm receives at each level of output.
Any firm maximises its profits by producing at the level of output at

which marginal revenue equals marginal cost (as long as P > AVC). For
the monopoly firm described by the graph below, MR = MC at an
output level of Qo. The price that this firm will charge is Po (the price
that the firm can charge for this level of output given by the demand
curve). Since the price (Po) exceeds average total cost (ATC) at this
level of output, the firm receives economic profit. These monopoly
profits, though, differ from those received by a perfectly competitive
firm in that these profits will persist in the long run (due to the barriers
to entry that characterise a monopoly industry).
Of course, it is possible that a monopoly firm will experience losses.

The graph below illustrates this possibility. In this graph, the firm
receives economic losses equal to the shaded area. Since price is above
AVC, though, it will continue operations in the short run, but will leave
the industry in the long run. Note that the ownership of a monopoly does
not guarantee the existence of economic profits.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
A monopoly firm will shutdown in the short run if the price falls below
AVC. This possibility is illustrated in the graph below.
Those who have not studied economics often believe that a monopolist
is able to choose any price that it wishes and that it can always receive
higher profits by raising its price. As in all other market structures, the
monopolist is constrained by the demand for its product. If a monopoly
firm wishes to maximises its profit, it must select the level of output at
which MR = MC. This determines a unique price that will be charged in
this industry. An increase in the price above this level would reduce the
profits received by the firm.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The true monopoly exists where there is only one seller of a product for
which no close substitute is available. Monopoly firm faces the industry
demand curve; it can pick the most profitable point on the demand
curve. Monopolist is a price maker rather than price taker. Legal barrier
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to entry include patent right, licensing and the control of natural

resources, and large entry cost, give monopolist power control the
market.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you learnt about the concept and features of monopoly
market, and its characteristics. The sources of monopoly power and the
nature of its demand curve, marginal cost, marginal revenue, average
total cost and average revenue. You also learnt how monopolist
maximises profit and minimises losses in case it fails to manage its
fortune and market power it has.
Complete the table below. The table shows the demand for electricity
and cost condition for the PHCN.
Quanti Price Total Marginal Margin Average Tot

ty/Unit revenue revenue al cost cost al
prof
it
1000 N4.00 N2.00 N4.5
1001 N3.95 N2.20 N4.40
1002 N3.90 N2.40 N4.30
1003 N3.85 N2.50 N4.20
1004 N3.80 N2.70 N4.15
2. What is the relationship between MC and marginal revenue when

the profit is the greatest?

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MODULE 3 MARKET STRUCTURES 2
Unit 1 Price Discrimination in the Monopoly Market

Unit 2 Monopolistic Competition
Unit 3 Oligopoly Market and Models
UNIT 1 PRICE DISCRIMINATION IN THE

MONOPOLY MARKET
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Price Discrimination
3.1.1 Types of Price Discrimination
3.2 Price Discrimination and Dumping
3.3 Comparison of Perfect Competition and Monopoly
3.4 Control of Monopoly
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you learnt about monopoly market- the price maker
and its sources of market power. In this unit, you will learn about price
discrimination as a strategy adopted by the monopolist to increase its
profit. Here, we shall discuss all the three degrees of price
discriminations and their implications. In addition, you will learn about
the differences that exist between perfectly competitive market and
monopoly market as well as government ways of curtailing the
monopolist power.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain price discrimination

 state the different degrees of price discriminations
 compare and contrast perfectly competitive market and monopoly
 market
 indicate how government can control excesses of monopolist.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Price Discrimination
Price discrimination is a pricing strategy that enables monopolist to

charge customers different prices for the same or service. In pure price
discrimination, the seller will charge each customer the maximum price
that he or she is willing to pay. In another kind of price discrimination,
the seller places customers in groups based on certain characteristics and
charges each group a different price. Examples of price discrimination
include:
a. quantity/bulk purchase discounts

b. coupons for sporting activities, games, cinema
c. airline/bus tickets
d. school/college tuition
To practice price discrimination, three conditions must be present:
1. resale between groups must be prevented

2. the firm must have monopoly power
3. demand curve for different groups must be different.
3.1.1 Types of Price Discrimination
There are three types of price discrimination in the monopoly market.

They are:
 first-degree price discrimination

 second-degree price discrimination
 third-degree price discrimination
First-degree price discrimination: This monopolist charges the

maximum price each client is willing to pay. The maximum price a
client is willing to pay for a unit of the good is the reservation price.
Therefore, for each unit, the seller tries to set the price equal to the
consumer’s reservation price. Direct information about a consumer’s
willingness to pay is rarely available. Monopolists tend to rely on
secondary information such as where a person lives (postal codes). For
example, catalog retailers can use mail high-priced catalogs/internet
website and online marts e.g. Konga to high-income postal codes. First-
degree price discrimination mostly occurs in regard to professional
services or in transactions involving direct buyer/seller negotiations.
Second-degree price discrimination: This monopolist uses quantity to

discriminate clients as s/he charged different prices based on how much
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they purchased. A single price schedule for all clients but the prices vary
depending on the quantity of the good purchased. The theory of second-
degree price discrimination is a client is willing to buy only a specific
quantity of a good at a given price. Monopolists know that client’s
willingness to buy decreases as more units are purchased. The job of the
seller is to identify these price points and to reduce the price once one is
reached in the aim that a reduced price will spur additional purchases
from the consumer. For example, sell in bulk rather than units.
Third-degree price discrimination: This is multi-market price

discrimination. The monopolist divides the clients into different groups
according to their willingness to pay as measured by their price
elasticity of demand. Each group of consumers effectively becomes a
separate market with its own demand curve and marginal revenue curve.
The firm then attempts to maximise profits in each segment by equating
marginal revenue (MR) and marginal cost (MC). Largely, the company
charges a higher price to the group with a more price inelastic demand
and a relatively lesser price to the group with a more elastic demand.
Examples of third-degree price discrimination abound. Airlines charge
higher prices to business managers who travel than to holidaymakers
who travel for vacation. The reasoning is that the demand curve for
holidaymakers is relatively elastic while the demand curve for business
managers is relatively inelastic. Any determinant of price elasticity of
demand can be used to segment markets. For example, adults have a
more elastic demand for free calls than do young adults because they
love to have more free time for calling.
i. What do you understand by the term ‘price discrimination’?

ii. Describe the three forms of price discrimination as used by the
monopolist.
3.2 Price Discrimination and Dumping
Firms operating in markets other than those of perfect competition are

able to increase their profits by engaging in price discrimination, a
practice in which higher prices are charged to those customers who have
the most inelastic demand for the product. Necessary conditions for
price discrimination include:
 the firm cannot be a price taker,

 the firm must be able to sort customers according the their
elasticity of demand, and
 re-sale of the product must not be feasible.
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The graph below illustrates how price discrimination may be used in the
market for airline travel. Those flying for holiday purposes are likely to
have a more elastic demand than those who fly for business purposes.
As the graph below indicates, the optimal price is higher in for business
managers than for holidaymakers. Airlines engage in price
discrimination by offering low price "super subsidy" fares that require a
weekend stay and that tickets/permits be bought two-to-four weeks in
advance. These conditions are much more likely to be satisfied by
individuals travelling for holiday purposes. This helps to ensure that the
customers with the most elastic demand pay the lowest price for this
commodity.
a b
Other examples of price discrimination include daytime and evening

telephone rates, child and senior citizen discounts at restaurants and
movie theaters. (Be sure to understand why each of these is an example
of price discrimination.)
3.3 Comparison of Perfect Competition and Monopoly
The left-hand side portion of the graph below illustrates the consumer
and producer surplus that is received in a perfectly competitive market.
The right-hand side portion of the graph illustrates the loss in consumer
and producer surplus that results when a perfectly competitive industry
is replaced by a monopoly. As this graph indicates, the introduction of a
monopoly firm causes the price to rise from P(pc) to P(m) while the
quantity of output falls from Q(pc) to Q(m). The higher price and
reduced quantity in the monopoly industry causes consumer surplus to
fall by the trapezoidal area ACBP (pc). This does not all represent a cost
to society, since the rectangle P(m)CEP(pc) is transferred to the
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monopolist as additional producer surplus. The net cost to society is

equal to the outer shaded triangle CBF. This net cost of a monopoly is
called deadweight loss. It is a measure of the loss of consumer and
producer surplus that results from the lower level of production that
occurs in a monopoly industry.
a b
Some economists argue that the threat of potential competition may

encourage monopoly firms to produce more output at a lower price than
the model presented above suggests. This argument suggests that the
deadweight loss from a monopoly is smaller when barriers to entry are
less effective. Fear of government intervention (in the form of price
regulation or antitrust action) may also keep prices lower in a monopoly
firm than would otherwise be expected.
It is unreasonable to compare outcomes in a perfectly competitive

market with outcomes in monopoly firm that results from economies of
scale. While competitive firms may produce more output than a
monopoly firm with the same cost curves, a large monopoly firm
produces output at a lower cost than could smaller firms when
economies of scale are present. This reduces the amount of deadweight
loss that might be expected to occur as a result of the existence of a
monopoly.
On the other hand, deadweight loss may understate the cost of monopoly as
a result of either X-inefficiency or rent-seeking behaviour on the part of
monopolies. X-inefficiency occurs if monopolies have less incentive to
produce output in a least-cost manner since they are not threatened with
competitive pressures. Rent-seeking behaviour occurs when firms expend
resources to acquire monopoly power by hiring
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lawyers, lobbyists, etc. in an attempt to receive governmentally granted

monopoly power. These rent-seeking activities do not benefit society as
a whole and divert resources away from productive activity.
Differentiate between X-inefficiency and rent-seeking behaviour of

monopoly.
3.4 Control of Monopoly
As noted above, a monopoly firm can produce at a lower cost per unit of
output than could any smaller firms in a natural monopoly industry. In
this case, the government generally regulates the price that a monopoly
firm can charge. The graph below illustrates alternative regulatory
strategies in such an industry. If the government leaves the monopolist
alone, it will maximise its profits by producing Q(m) units of output and
charging a price of P(m). Assuming that the government attempts to
emulate a perfectly competitive market by setting the price equal to
marginal cost, this would occur at a price of P(monopolistic competitive
firm) and a quantity of output of Q(monopolistic competitive firm).
Since this is a natural monopoly, the average cost curve declines over
the relevant range of output. If average costs are declining, marginal
costs must be less than average costs. Thus, if the price equals marginal
costs, the price will be less than average total costs and the monopoly
firm will experience economic losses. This pricing strategy could only
exist in the long run if the government subsidised the production of this
good.
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An alternative pricing strategy is to ensure that the owners of the

monopoly receive only a "fair rate of return" on their investment rather
than monopoly profits. This would occur if the price were set at P(f). At
this price, it would be optimal for the firm to produce Q(f) units of
output. As long as the owners receive a fair rate of return, there would
be no incentive for this firm to leave the industry. This is the pricing
strategy that regulators use in establishing prices for utilities, cable
services, and the prices of other services produced in regulated
monopoly markets.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Price discrimination is a situation in which sellers charge different

customers different prices for the same product and services. Conditions
for effective price discrimination are:
 resale between groups must be prevented

 the firm must have monopoly power
 demand curve for different groups must be different.
Price discrimination can be based on quantity purchased, price elasticity

of demand and the willingness of consumer to pay for a good or service.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt how a monopolist manipulates its prices to
maximise his profit. The strategy adopted by government to control the
activities of monopoly and the comparison of perfect market structure
with monopoly were also discussed in the unit.
1. Why does a firm charge different customer different prices?

2. Mention five examples of forms of price discrimination.

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UNIT 2 MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Monopolistic Competition
3.2 Features of Monopolistic Competition Market
3.3 Profit Maximisation and Loss Minimisation in
Monopolistically Competitive Market
3.4 Comparison of Monopolistic Competition with Monopoly
3.5 Comparison of Monopolistic Competition and Perfectly
Competitive Market
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This is one of the markets in-between perfectly competitive market and

monopoly market. This market can be found in many African countries
because of its distinguishing features. We shall look into the model of
monopolistic competition with interest in the price and output decisions
for both the firm and industry in the short and long run.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 describe monopolistic market structure

  enumerate the features of monopolistic competition
 determine profit maximisation in monopolistically competitive
 market
 compare monopolistic competition with monopoly, perfectly
competitive market.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Monopolistic Competition
A monopolistic competitive market has characteristics of both perfect

competitive and monopoly. Similar to perfect competition, monopolistic
competitive has many buyers and sellers, and free exit and entry.
Related to monopoly, the products are differentiated and each company
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faces a downward sloping demand curve. Since the company has a

differentiated product, it is like a monopolist and faces a negatively
sloped demand curve. In the short run:
 marginal revenue is always less than demand

 profit is maximised where MR = MC
 profit = (price - average total cost) x quantity.
3.2 Features of Monopolistic Competitive Market
These are few but very important features of monopolistic competition;

they include the following:
1. Product differentiation using branding and advertisement

2. Many firms in the industry
3. Free entry and exit to buyers and sellers in the long run
4. Independent decision making
5. Market power
6. Imperfect Information available to buyer and seller
1. Product differentiation
It is a fact that monopolistic competitive firms sell products that have

real or perceived non-price differences. Those differences are not so
extraordinary as to disregard other goods as substitutes. Technically, the
cross price elasticity of demand between goods in such a market is
positive. Monopolistic competitive firm goods are best described as
close but imperfect substitutes. The goods perform the same basic
functions but have differences in qualities such as type, style, quality,
reputation, appearance, and location that tend to differentiate them from
each other. For example, the basic function of mobile phone is basically
the same - to make call to people and text messages in reasonable
clarity. In spite of that, there are many different types of phones such as
blackberry, android, iphone, and many variations even within these
categories.
2. Many buyers and sellers in the industry
Many firms in each monopolistic competitive product group and many

firms are also waiting to make entry into the industry. A product group
is a "collection of goods with the features”. With this reason i.e.
existence of many firms, it gives each monopolistic competitive firm the
freedom to set prices without participating in the act of strategic
decision making regarding the prices of other firms and each firm's
actions have an insignificant impact on the market. For example, a firm
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could cut prices and increase sales without anxiety that its actions will
prompt retaliatory responses from competitors.
How many firms will a monopolistic competitive market structure

support at market equilibrium? This depends on factors such as fixed
costs, economies of scale and the degree of product differentiation. For
example, the higher the fixed costs, the fewer firms the market will
support. Also, the greater the degree of product differentiation - the
more the firm can separate itself from the pack - the fewer firms there
will be at market equilibrium.
3. Free entry and exit
There are numerous firms waiting to enter the market each with its own
"unique" product or in pursuit of positive profits and any firm unable to
cover its costs can leave the market without incurring liquidation costs
in the long run. This implies that there are low capital to start up, no
sunk costs and no exit costs. The cost of entering and exit is very low.
4. Independent decision making
The monopolistic competitive firm gives no concern to what impact its

decision may have on competitors/ rivals in the market. The theory is
that any action will have such an insignificant effect on the market
demand as whole that a monopolistic competitive firm can act without
fear of prompting intensify competition. In other words, each firm feels
free to set prices as if it were a monopoly rather than an oligopoly.
5. Some degree of market power
Monopolistic competitive firms have some degree of market power.

Market power means that the firm has control over the terms and
conditions of exchange. A monopolistic competition firm can increase it
prices without dropping all its customers. The firm can also reduce
prices without causing a potentially ruinous price war with competitors.
The source of a monopolistic competitive firm’s market power is not
barriers to entry since they are low. Reasonably, a monopolistic
competitive firm has market power because it has relatively few
competitors, those competitors do not engage in strategic decision-
making and the firm sells differentiated product. Market power also
means a monopolistic competitive firm faces a downward sloping
demand curve. The demand curve is extremely elastic although not
"perfect".
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6. Imperfect information available to buyers and sellers
No sellers or buyers have all the market information, especially market

demand or market supply.
State five peculiar features of monopolistic competition you considered

very important.
3.3 Profit Maximisation and Loss Minimisation in

Monopolistically Competitive Market
Let us examine the determination of short run equilibrium in a

monopolistically competitive output market.
The graph below illustrates a possible short-run equilibrium for a typical

firm in a monopolistically competitive market. As with any profit-
maximising firm, a monopolistically competitive firm maximises its
profits by producing at a level of output at which MR = MC. In the
graph below, this occurs at an output level of Qo. The price is
determined by the amount that customers are willing to pay to buy Qo
units of output. In the example below, the demand curve indicates that a
price of Po will be charged when Qo units of output are sold.
In a monopoly industry, economic profits could persist indefinitely due

to the existence of barriers to entry. In a monopolistically competitive
industry, however, the existence of economic profits results in the entry
of additional firms into the industry. As additional firms enter, the
demand for each firm's product will fall and become more elastic. This
reduction in demand, though, results in a reduction in the level of
economic profit received by a typical firm. Entry into the market
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continues until a typical firm receives zero economic profits. This

possibility is illustrated in the graph below.
The graph above shows a monopolistically competitive market in a state

of long run equilibrium. This firm maximises its profit by producing an
output level of Q'. The equilibrium price is P'. Since the price equals
average total cost at this level of output, a typical firm receives a level of
economic profit equal to zero. This long-run equilibrium situation is
often referred to as a "tangency equilibrium" since the demand curve is
tangent to the ATC curve at the profit-maximising level of output.
In the short run, a monopolistically competitive firm may receive

economic losses in the short run. This possibility is shown in the graph
below. While each firm will continue operations in the short run, firms
will leave the industry in the long run. As firms leave, the demand
curves facing the remaining firms will shift to the right and become less
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elastic. (To see this, note that when firms leave the industry, the
remaining firms will receive some of the customers that used to
purchase the commodity at the firms that have left the industry.) Exit
from the industry will continue until economic profits again equal zero
(as illustrated in the graph below).
Explain the reason why monopolistic competition would not be able to

earn long run economic profits.
3.4 Comparison of Monopolistic Competition and Monopoly
The short run equilibrium in monopolistic competition is the same as for

a monopolist, and businesses may make positive, zero, or negative
profits in the short run.
The monopolistically competitive market is similar to perfect

competition in that there are many buyers and sellers who can enter or
leave the market easily in response to economic profits or losses. A
monopolistically competitive firm is similar to a monopoly in that it
produces a product that is different from that produced by all other firms
in the market. The restaurant market (Mr. Biggs, Sweet Sensation,
Tantalizer) in Nigerian cities provides a good example of a
monopolistically competitive market. Each restaurant has its own
recipes, decor, ambiance, etc but also must compete with many other
similar restaurants.
Each firm produces a differentiated product; hence, it will not lose all of
its customers if it raises its prices. Therefore, a monopolistically
competitive firm faces a downward sloping demand curve for its
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product. Whenever a firm faces a downward sloping demand curve, its

marginal revenue curve lies under its demand curve. The graph below
illustrates the relationship that exists between a monopolistically
competitive firm's demand and marginal revenue curves.
Although the graph above seems similar to the demand and marginal
revenue curves facing a monopolist, there is a critical difference. In a
monopolistically competitive market, the number of firm changes as
firm enters or leaves the industry. As new firms enter the market, the
customers are spread over a larger number of firms and the demand for
each firm's product reduces. An increase in the number of firms also
tends to result in an increase in the elasticity of demand for each firm's
products (because demand is more elastic when more substitutes are
available). The graph below illustrates the shift in a typical firm's
demand curve that occurs when additional firms enter a
monopolistically competitive market.
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3.5 Monopolistic Competitive Market and Perfectly

Competitive Market
From the graph below, perfectly competitive markets result in economic

efficiency; therefore, P = monopolistic competitive firm and firms produce
at the minimum level of ATC. The graph below compares price and output
levels for perfectly competitive and monopolistically competitive firms. As
this graph depicts, a perfectly competitive firm produces output at a price
(Ppc) that is less than the price that would be charged by a monopolistically
competitive firm (Pmonopolistic competitive firm).
A perfectly competitive firm will also produce a larger quantity of

output (Qpc) than would be produced by a monopolistically competitive
firm (Qmonopolistic competitive firm).
Since monopolistically competitive firms produce at a level of cost that

exceeds the minimum level of ATC, they are less efficient than perfectly
competitive firms. This efficiency loss, however, is a cost that society
must bear if it wishes to have differentiated products. One of the costs of
having variety in restaurants, clothing, most types of prepared foods,
etc., is that average production costs will be higher than they would be if
a homogenous product were produced.
It should be noted that the larger the number of firms in the market, the
more elastic will be the demand for each firm's product. As the number
of firms increase, the demand curve facing a monopolistically
competitive firm will approach the perfectly elastic demand curve that is
faced by a perfectly competitive firm. In such a situation, the efficiency
cost of product differentiation will be relatively small.
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In the short run, monopolistically competitive firms may receive

economic profits by successfully differentiating their product.
Successful product differentiation, however, will soon be copied by
other firms. It is expected that such profits will disappear in the long
run. Advertising campaigns may raise the profits of a firm in this
industry in the short run. Monopolistically competitive firms in the same
industry often locate near each other in communities as a result of their
attempts to appeal to the median customer in a geographic region. This
is why we often see car dealers and fast-food restaurants locating near
each other on a particular street.
Monopolistic competition is considered to be a mixture of both perfectly

competitive market and monopoly market. Do you agree?
4.0 CONCLUSION
A monopolistic market is a market where we have: (i) differentiated

products (ii) large number of firms and (iii) free entry and free exit.
The market does not have unique supply curve and its demand curve is
downward sloping because it s partially price maker and relatively
elastic as its goods has substitutes.
The short run profit maximisation in monopolistically competitive firm

is the same as that of monopoly i.e. MC=MR this condition should hold.
The entry of more firms into the industry in order to claim from excess
profit in the short run, will later adjust to normal profit in the long run
because of losses incurred.
a. P = AVC (break-even point)

b. price is greater than marginal cost (excess profit).
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt more about another market structure
participant- monopolistic competition. The salient features of the
market, the profit maximisation strategy both in the short and long run,
relationship between demand curve, marginal cost and marginal revenue
in the determination of it profit. You also learnt about the comparison of
monopolistic competition with perfect competitive market and
monopoly market.
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A monopolistically competitive firm can only make normal profit in the

long run. Explain the statement critically.

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UNIT 3 OLIGOPOLY MARKET
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1Oligopoly Market Structure
3.2 Oligopoly Behaviour
3.2.1 Interdependence
3.2.2 Non-price Competition
3.2.3 Mergers
3.2.4 Collusion
3.3Oligopoly Game Theories
3.3.1 Dominant firm/ Price Leadership model
3.3.2 The Cartel Game
3.3.3 Cournot-Nash Model
3.3.4 The Cournot Game
3.3.5 Bertrand Equilibrium Model
3.3.6 Kinked Demand Curve Model/ Rigid Prices Model
3.3.7 Stackelberg Model
3.4 Evaluating Oligopoly
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn about one of the intermediate markets in our
market structure that is, oligopoly or competition. This kind of market is
found in many African countries including Nigeria- where the domestic
market size can only permit few firms to operate effectively in a
particular industry. This unit highlights the salient characteristics of
oligopoly and different models of oligopoly. It also explains price and
output decisions in the short and long run.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 describe the concept of oligopoly market

 explain the different behaviours of oligopoly
 differentiate between games/model under oligopoly market
 justify the need for oligopolists.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Oligopoly Market Structure
An oligopoly is where there are a few sellers with similar or identical

products. Monopolistic competition has many companies with similar
but not identical products as earlier explained. Each firm has monopoly
power over what it produces, however products are close substitutes.
Examples include cigarettes, CDs, and computer games. Examples of
oligopolies include crude oil businesses, phone makers and auto
manufacturers.
In an oligopoly industry, there are few firms; thus, each firm's output
represents a large share of the market. Because of this, each firm's
pricing and output decisions have a substantial effect on the profitability
of other firms. Furthermore, when making decisions concerning price or
output, each firm has to take into account the expected reaction of rival
firms. If Nokia lowers the price of their smart phones, for example, the
effect on their profits would be very different if Blackberry company
responded by lowering the price on their phone say Curve 3 by a larger
amount. Because of this mutual interdependence, oligopoly firms engage
in strategic behaviour. Strategic behaviour occurs when the best
outcome for one party is determined by the actions of other parties.
3.2 Oligopoly Behaviour
Oligopolistic industries share several behavioural tendencies, including:
(1) interdependence, (2) rigid prices, (3) non-price competition, (4)

mergers, and (5) collusion. In other words, each oligopolistic firm keeps
a close eye on the decisions made by other firms in the industry
(interdependence). They are reluctant to change prices (rigid prices);
instead, they try to attract customers from the competition using
incentives other than prices (non-price competition), and when they get
tired of competing with their competitors, they are inclined to cooperate
formally and legally (mergers) or informally and illegally (collusion).
Oligopolistic industries are nothing if not diverse. Some sell identical

products, others differentiated products. Some have three or four firms
of nearly equal size, others have one large dominate firm (a clear
industry leader) and a handful of smaller firms (that follow the leader).
Some sell intermediate goods to other producers others sell consumer
goods directly to the public.
However, through this diversity, all oligopolistic industries engage in

similar types of behaviour. The most noted behavior tendencies are: (1)
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interdependent decision making, (2) relatively constant prices, (3)

competition in ways that do not involve prices, (4) the legal merger of
two or more firms, and (5) the illegal collusion among firms to control
price and production.
3.2.1 Interdependence
Each firm in an oligopolistic industry keeps a close eye on the activities

of other firms in the industry. Because oligopolistic firms engage in
competition among the few, decisions made by one firm invariably
affect others. Competition among interdependent oligopoly firms is
comparable to a game or an athletic contest. One team's success depends
not only on its own actions but the actions of its competitors.
Oligopolistic industries tend to keep prices relatively constant,

preferring to compete in ways that do not involve changing the price.
The prime reason for rigid prices rests with the interdependence among
oligopolistic firms.
 Because competing firms ARE NOT likely to match the price

increases of an oligopolistic firm, the firm is likely to lose
customers and market share to the competition should it charge a
higher price. As such, it has little motive to increase its price.
 Because competing firms ARE likely to match the price
decreases of an oligopolistic firm, the firm is unlikely to gain
customers and market share from the competition should it
charge a lower price. As such, it has little motive to decrease its
price.
3.2.2 Non-price Competition
Oligopolistic firms generally rely on non-price methods of competition

because they realise that price competition is ineffective. Three of the more
common methods of non-price competition are: (1) advertising, (2) product
differentiation, and (3) barriers to entry. The key for a firm is to attract
buyers and increase market share, while holding the line on price:
 Advertising: A large share of commercial advertising, especially

at the national level, is designed as non-price competition among
oligopolistic firms. Each firm engages in advertising is an attempt
either: (a) to attract customers from its competition or (b) to
prevent the competition from attracting its customers.
 Production differentiation: Another common method of non-
price competition among oligopolistic firms is product
differentiation. Such firms often compete by offering a bigger,
better, faster, cleaner, and newer product--and especially one that
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is different from the competition. Each firm seeks to differentiate

its product and to give customers a reason (other than price
differences) to select its product over the competition.
 Barriers to entry: Oligopolistic firms also frequently "compete"
by preventing the competition from entering the industry. While
assorted entry barriers exist, a popular form is government
restrictions, especially if the competition happens to reside in
another country.
3.2.3 Mergers
Interdependence means that oligopolistic firms perpetually balance the

need for competition against the benefits of cooperation. Such
competition is inherent in an industry with a small number of large
firms.
However, oligopolistic firms also realise that cooperation is often more

beneficial than competition. One common method of cooperation is
through a merger, that is, the legal combination of two firms into a
single firm. In general, as the number of competitors in an industry
declines, the market control of the remaining firms is enhanced.
Because oligopoly has a small number of firms, the incentive to

cooperate through mergers is quite high. The large number of firms in
monopolistic competition, by contrast, provides very few merger
benefits. The merger of two monopolistically competitive firms, each
with one-third of the overall market, does not enhance market control
much at all. However, the merger of two oligopolistic firms, each with
one-third of the market, greatly enhances the market control of the new
firm.
3.2.4 Collusion
The incentive among oligopolistic firms to cooperate also takes the form
of collusion. With collusion, oligopolistic firms remain legally
independent and autonomous; however, they enjoy the benefits of
cooperation. Collusion occurs when two or more firms secretly agree to
control prices, production, or other aspects of the market.
By acting like a monopoly, the colluding firms can set a monopoly

price, produce a monopoly quantity, generate monopoly profit; and
allocate resources as inefficiently as a monopoly.
Collusion can take one of two forms. Explicit collusion results when two or
more firms reach a formal agreement. Implicit collusion results when
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two or more firms informally control the market with necessarily

reaching a formal agreement.
Given that collusion is usually illegal, especially in some developing
countries and within the United States, it is invariably kept secret. Some
collusive agreements however are nothing but secret. The most well-
known example is the organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC). OPEC is an open, formal collusive agreement among
petroleum producing countries to control prices and production.
3.3 Modelling/Game Theory
The variety and complexity of the models is because you can have two
to 10 firms competing on the basis of price, quantity, technological
innovations, marketing, advertising and reputation. Fortunately, there
are a series of simplified models that attempt to describe market
behaviour under certain circumstances. Some of the better-known
models are the dominant firm model, the Cournot-Nash model, the
Bertrand model and the kinked demand model.
1. Stackelberg's duopoly: In this model, the firms move

sequentially
2. Cournot's duopoly: In this model, the firms simultaneously
choose quantities.
3. Bertrand's oligopoly: In this model, the firms simultaneously
choose prices.
3.3.1 Dominant Firm/ Price Leadership Model
In some markets, there is a single model that controls a dominant share

of the market and a group of smaller firms. The dominant firm sets
prices, which are simply taken by the smaller firms in determining their
profit maximising levels of production. This type of market is
practically a monopoly and an attached perfectly competitive market in
which price is set by the dominant firm rather than the market. The
demand curve for the dominant firm is determined by subtracting the
supply curves of all the small firms from the industry demand curve.
After estimating its net demand curve (market demand less the supply
curve of the small firms) the dominant firm maximises profits by
following the normal price-max rule of producing where marginal
revenue equals marginal costs. The small firms maximise profits by
acting as perfect competitive firms–equating price to marginal costs.
Tacit collusion
Perhaps you can see that price leadership is almost as good as a cartel. If
the dominant firm knows that the other firms will definitely follow its
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price lead, then they can feel free to set a high profitable price. The other
firms will be happy to follow the lead and also set a high profitable price.
This is why price leadership is sometimes called tacit collusion.
Problems with price leadership
It does not work with too many firms: If there are too many firms,
then at least one is surely not going to be satisfied with its market share,
and will hence compete with the dominant firm on price.
It may be illegal: Depending on who is enforcing antitrust laws (law to

prevent them from using monopolistic business practices to make unfair
profits) a price leadership strategy may be judged to be illegal price
setting.
The cartel game
Suppose we allow the firms to collude, jointly setting prices and

production. (It will not, however, allow price discrimination; each unit
of output sells for the same price per unit.) Then the firms act as though
they are a monopoly with two plants, and they will maximise profits by
following the same profit-maximising rule that a multi-plant monopoly
follows:
MR = MC1=MC2
In our particular case, both MCs are constant at 100, and MR = 300 –
2Q. So:
300 – 2Q = 100
Q = 100
Combined production of the two firms totals 100. Price per unit is found
using the demand curve:
P = 300 – Q = 300 – 100 = N200
3.3.2 Cournot-Nash Model
The Cournot-Nash model is the simplest oligopoly model. The model

assumes that there are two “equally positioned firms”; the firms
compete on the basis of quantity rather than price and each firm makes
an “output decision assuming that the other firm’s behaviour is fixed.”
The market demand curve is assumed to be linear and marginal costs are
constant. To find the Cournot-Nash equilibrium, one determines how
each firm reacts to a change in the output of the other firm. The path to
equilibrium is a series of actions and reactions. The pattern continues
until a point is reached where neither firm desires “to change what it is
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doing, given how it believes the other firm will react to any change.”
The equilibrium is the intersection of the two firm’s reaction functions.
The reaction function shows how one firm reacts to the quantity choice
of the other firm. For example, assume that the firm 1’s demand
function is P = (M - Q2) - Q1 where Q2 is the quantity produced by the
other firm and Q1 is the amount produced by firm 1, and M=60 is the
market.
3.3.3 The Cournot Game
Suppose now we have alternate assumptions. First, we outlaw collusion.

Then, we stipulate that both firms must decide their levels of production
simultaneously. Finally, we require each firm to compete based on
quantity; that is, each choose the quantity that maximises its profits. (In
this simple model, price is only of secondary concern).
(Note: Let us use “Q1” to represent the units of output supplied by Firm
1, and “Q2” to represent the units of output supplied by Firm 2. Note
that Q1 + Q2 = Q; in other words, the sum of the output produced by the
two firms equals the quantity supplied to the market. Let us further
assume that the firms produce an identical product, so that each must
charge the same price per unit, P).
Clearly, the profit maximising quantity of one firm depends on the

quantity produced by the other firm. Let us demonstrate this
mathematically for Firm 1:
Firm 1 maximises profits by setting its marginal revenue equal to its

marginal cost:
MR1 = MC1
We know that MC1 is constant at 100 because we have assumed this

from the beginning. But what is MR1? Let us get an equation to
represent MR1. We will do this by:
(1) Getting a total revenue equation for Firm 1, then

(2) Differentiating the total revenue equation
(1) The total revenue equation: (Let “R1” represent total revenue of
Firm 1).
R1 = PQ1
From the demand equation we know that P = 300 –

Q R1 = (300 – Q)Q1 = R1 = 300Q1 – QQ1 q1
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We know that Q = Q1 + Q2
2
R1 = 300Q1 - (Q1 + Q2)Q1 →R1 = 300Q1 - Q1 - Q2Q1
(2) MR1 is the derivative of R1 with respect to
Q1 MR1 = 300 – 2Q1 - Q2
Now Let us get back to our profit-maximising equation and try to figure
out the profit-maximising level of Q1:
MR1 = MC1
300 – 2Q1 - Q2 = 100
2Q1 = 200 - Q2
Q1 = 100 - .5Q2 →firm 1’s reaction curve
See how the profit maximising level of Q1 depends on the level of

production by firm 2?
So how does Firm 1 figure out how much to produce, since it does not
know Q2? Well, it does know that Firm 2 is identical to it, and that Firm
2 will be doing the same types of calculations. We could do all of the
calculations for Firm 2, but by symmetry you can hopefully see that we
had got Firm 2’s reaction curve similar to Firm 1’s:
Q2 = 100 - .5Q1 → Firm 2’s reaction curve
So Firm 1 can substitute information from Firm 2’s reaction curve, to

calculate its own profit maximising level of production:
Q1 = 100 - .5Q2 now substitute info from firm 2’s reaction

curve Q1 = 100 - .5(100 - .5Q1) → Q1 = 100 - 50 + .25Q1
Q1 = 50 + .25Q1 →Q1 = 66.667 (rounded)
Firm 2 is identical to Firm 1. We could do all of the calculations for

Firm 2, but hopefully you can see that by symmetry we would get:
Q2 = 66.667 (rounded)
The market quantity, Q, is the sum of Q1 and Q2:

Q = 66.667 + 66.667 = 133.333
We can now get the price from the market demand curve:
P = 300 – Q = 300 – 133.333 = 166.667
Compare our results to the cartel results. Same two firms, same demand
curve, but different results, because we imposed different rules on the
game and the players.
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3.3.4 Bertrand Equilibrium Model
The Bertrand model is essentially the Cournot-Nash model except the

strategic variable is price rather than quantity. The model assumptions
are:
  there are two firms in the market

 they produce a homogeneous product
  they produce at a constant marginal cost
 firms choose prices PA and PB simultaneously
 firms outputs are perfect substitutes
 sales are split evenly if PA = PB
The only Nash equilibrium is PA = PB = MC.

The Bertrand equilibrium is the same as the competitive result. Each
firm will produce where P = marginal costs and there will be zero
profits. A generalisation of the Bertrand model is the Bertrand-
Edgeworth model that allows for capacity constraints and more general
cost functions.
Suppose we keep the same two firms, but assume that they compete
viciously based on price—to heck with profits and quantity!
In this case, there is only 1 equilibrium—where P = MC, that is P=90.

Why? Suppose you are Firm 1 and think that P = 130 is a good price.
Firm 2 can charge N129 and take away all of your business, since Firm
2 produces an identical product. Indeed, this is true if either firm sets a
price above MC; the other firm can undercut it and take away all of its
business.
Since P = 100, then using the demand curve, Q = 130.

In this case, the outcome is socially efficient, since P = MC.
Do you see the importance of modelling a real world market correctly?
Get the model wrong, and the results will be way off. Real game
theoretic models of oligopoly are much more complicated than the ones
shown here.
3.3.5 Kinked Demand Curve Model/ Rigid Prices Model
In this theory, each firm faces a demand curve kinked at the existing
price. The assumptions of the model are; if the firm raises its price
above the current existing price, competitors will not follow and the
acting firm will lose market share; and second, if a firm lowers prices
below the existing price, then their competitors will follow to retain
their market share and the firm's output will increase only marginally.
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If the assumptions hold, then:
 the firm's marginal revenue curve is discontinuous (or rather, not

differentiable), and has a gap at the kink
 for prices above the prevailing price, the curve is relatively
 elastic for prices below the point the curve is relatively inelastic.
--If one firm in an oligopoly increases its prices, then none of the other
firms in the oligopoly will raise theirs.
--If one firm in an oligopoly reduces its prices, then all of the other firms
in the oligopoly will reduce theirs.
In this model, there is fairly intense competition among firms. A single

firm, which dares to raise price will be “left out to dry” by the other
firms and will lose market share, suffering a huge loss in demand
because its competitors’ prices remain low. Conversely, a single firm
that cuts prices will only see a small increase in demand and no increase
in market share, as its entire competitors match the price reduction.
Demand curve
Above the kink, demand is relatively elastic because all other firms'
prices remain unchanged. Below the kink, demand is relatively inelastic
because all other firms will introduce a similar price cut, eventually
leading to a price war. Therefore, the best option for the oligopolist is to
produce at point E, which is the equilibrium point and the kink point.
This is a theoretical model proposed in 1947, which has failed to receive
conclusive evidence for support.
Demand curve: A firm in a market such as this will have a kinked

demand curve. The curve will be pretty flat above the current price,
since a price hike results in a loss of market share. The curve will be
pretty steep below the current price, since a price reduction results in no
increase in market share.
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Marginal revenue curve: You might think that since the demand curve
is kinked, the marginal revenue curve will also be kinked; contrarily, the
laws of maths dictate that there is a gap in the kink in the demand curve.
The gap in the marginal revenue curve means that marginal costs can
fluctuate without changing equilibrium price and quantity. Thus prices
tend to be rigid.
3.3.6 Stackelberg Model
In Stackelberg's model of duopoly, the players of this game are a leader

and a follower and they compete on quantity. The Stackelberg leader is
sometimes referred to as the market leader. The leader should be aware
that the follower observes his action. The follower must have no means
of committing to a future i.e. non-Stackelberg follower action and the
leader must know this. Indeed, if the 'follower' could commit to a
Stackelberg leader action and the 'leader' knows this, the leader's best
response would be to play a Stackelberg follower action.
Firms may engage in Stackelberg competition if one has some sort of

advantage enabling it to move first. More generally, the leader must
have commitment power. Moving observably first is the most obvious
means of commitment: once the leader has made its move, it cannot
undo it - it is committed to that action. Moving first may be possible if
the leader was the incumbent monopoly of the industry and the follower
is a new entrant. Holding excess capacity is another means of
commitment.
Assumptions
1. Two competing firms, selling a homogeneous good

2. The marginal cost of producing each unit of the good: C1and C2
Firm 1 moves first and decides on the quantity to sell: q1
Firm 2 moves next and after seeing q1, decides on the quantity to
sell: q2
Q= q1+q2 total market demand
The market price, P is determined by (inverse) market
demand: P=a-bQ if a>bQ, P=0 otherwise.
3. Both firms seek to maximise profits
Stackelberg model: Strategy of Firm 2
Suppose firm 1 produces q1
Firm 2’s profits, if it produces q2 are:
π2 = (P-c)q2 = [a-b(q1+ q2)]q2 – c2q2
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= (Residual) revenue – Cost

First order conditions:
d π2/dq2= a - 2bq2 – bq1 – c2

= = RMR - MC = 0 →
2
q2=(a-c2)/2b – q1/2= R (q1)
2 2
s = R (q1) Strategy of firm 2
Stackelberg model: Firm 1’s decision
Firm 1’s profits, if it produces q1 are:
π1 = (P-c)q1 = [a-b(q1+ q2)]q1 – c1q1
(Now, what is different from the Cournot game?)
We know that from the best response of Firm 2:
q2=(a-c2)/2b – q1/2
Substitute q2 into π1:
π1 = [a-b(q1+ (a-c2)/2b- q1/2)]q1 – c1q1

= [(a+ c2)/2-(b/2) q1-c1]q1
From FOC:
dπ1/dq1= (a+ c2)/2-b q1- c1 =0 →

q1= (a-2c1+c2)/2b
Stackelberg equilibrium
We have Firm 1’s profits, if it produces q1:
Example: Stackelberg competition
P = 130-(q1+q2), so a=130, b=1

c1 = c2 = c = 10
Firm 2: q2=(a-c2)/2b – q1/2 = 60 - q1/2
Firm 1: Profit Function
Π1 = [a-b(q1+q2)]q1 – c1q1
Π1 = [(a+c2)/2-(b/2)q1]q1 –c1q1
Π1 = [70-q1/2]q1 – c1q1
→ q_1 = 60
Market price and demand
Q=90, P=40
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3.7 Evaluating Oligopoly
How do oligopolies compare with more competitive industries? Firms in

oligopolistic industries exercise considerable market power, yielding
economic inefficiency similar to that described earlier for monopoly. In
equilibrium, the marginal social benefit (price) of their products exceeds
the marginal social cost. Compared with purely or even
monopolistically competitive industries, output will tend to be lower,
and at higher prices to consumers.
If oligopoly arises from economies of scale, however, it is possible that

consumers pay lower prices than they would were the market more
competitive. Furthermore, if research and development (R&D) leading
to technological advances requires massive outlays, small competitive
firms may be unable to finance adequate innovation. Some economists
suggest that society gains over the long run when short run profits
reaped by oligopolistic firms are ploughed back into the development
and innovation of newer and better products.
Evidence on the effects of oligopolies is mixed. Economies of scale are

clearly responsible for the oligopolistic nature of some industries. In
other instances, however, satisfactory economies of scale can be realised
by smaller firms, and oligopoly is sustained by legal or strategic entry
barriers. Finally, the evidence does not support the idea that large firms
are especially responsible for new inventions and technological
advances in our economy. If anything, it appears that the desire for
increased market power has been the driving force behind the creation
of most oligopolies.
Successful collusion requires a stable environment, but unless cartels

have the legal support of government, stability is unlikely. When
products are significantly differentiated, or resource costs are volatile, or
demands are fickle, or entry is easy, or competitors are numerous, or
technology advances rapidly, or policing a cartel agreement is
excessively costly, then the quiet cooperation that oligopolists would
like may be replaced by strategic behaviour as intense as championship
chess and as hostile as war.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Oligopolies exist where relatively few firms control all or most of the
production and sale of a product. The products may be homogeneous or
barrier to entry are often very high, which makes it difficult for firms to
enter into the industry.
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Oligopoly is characterised by mutual interdependence among firm; each

firm make its policy with an eye to the policies of competing firms.
Some of the game theories under this market include dominant theory,
Cournot model, Cournot – Nash model, Bertrand equilibrium model,
Stackelberg model, kinked demand curve model.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the oligopoly market and its
characteristics. By now, you should able to explain the various game
theories under oligopoly structure. Some these include dominant theory,
Cournot model, Cournot – Nash model, Bertrand equilibrium model,
Stackelberg model, kinked demand curve model. Lastly, you learnt
about appraisal of oligopoly market structure.
Critically appraise the leadership model and Bertrand equilibrium model

of oligopoly.

Publications.


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MODULE 4 THEORY OF DISTRIBUTION
Unit 1 Concepts of Theory of Distribution

Unit 2 Basic Concept of Factor Pricing: Productivity of the
Factor
Unit 3 Basic Concept of Factor Pricing: Cost of the Factor
Unit 4 The Concept Marginal Productivity Theory of Distribution
(Factor Pricing)
Unit 5 The Factor Market under Perfect Competition
Unit 6 The Factor Market under Imperfect Competition
UNIT 1 CONCEPT OF THEORY DISTRIBUTION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Theory Distribution
3.2 Reason for the Study of Factor Pricing
3.3 The Differences between Factor Market and Product
Market
3.3.1 Nature of Demand
3.3.2 Nature of Supply in Relation to Price
3.3.3 Nature of Supply in Relation to Cost
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Having understood the operations of the participants of the market

structure under the theory of value (product market), the understanding
of theory of distribution (factor market) will not be difficult for you.
You will learn differences that exist between product market and factor
market. Here, you will learn basic concepts of factor pricing, which
would be useful as foundation for the understanding of theory of
distribution.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 differentiate revenue factor from the cost of a factor
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
 distinguish between factor market and product market

 determine the various uses of marginal productivity.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Concept of Theory Distribution
The theory of distribution is an attempt to explain how income is

distributed among the factors of production. To produce goods and
services, firms need the services of factors of production, such as land,
labour, capital, and entrepreneur. The prices paid for these factors of
production are called rent, wage, interest, and profit. The factor pricing
is therefore concerned with the determination of prices of services of
these factors of production. According to Anatol Murad, the theory of
factor pricing deals with the prices paid for factor services and earned
by the sellers of factor of production that is the households. The theory
of factor pricing is the same as theory of distribution. The factors needed
in the production process are also known as production services,
resources or inputs.
The explanation of factor pricing helps us in two ways:
a. It completes the analysis of function of prices and the mechanism

of resource allocation.
b. It allows the understanding of the forces underlining the
distribution of total income among various groups of factors
owners.
List factors of production and their corresponding rewards.
3.2 Reason for the Study of Factor Pricing
We study factor pricing for the following reasons.
1. To understand how the forces of demand and supply determine

prices of factor of production in factor market.
2. To understand the different roles participants play in the market
as firms are sellers in products market but buyers in factor
market. In addition, the nature of factor market is different from
product market in the sense of objects of interaction.
187
3.3 The Differences between Factor Market and Product

Market
3.3.1 Nature of Demand
Factors of production are never demanded for their own sake thus the
demand here is a derived demand. When workers are engaged or capital
is borrowed, it does not offer any direct satisfaction to the producer. The
employer of factors of production only uses these factors in the
production of goods and services to be finally sold in the product
market. The demand for goods and services is direct demand, as goods
demanded directly satisfy the need of consumer, for example the
demand for apple by a consumer.
The demand of factor of product can also be joint demand because for
producer to produce orange s/he has to demand for all the factors of
production; however, the demand for orange by a consumer is not a joint
demand once he can pay for it.
3.3.2 Nature of Supply in Relation to Price
There is definite relationship between the price of goods and supply of

goods in the product market. There is linear relationship between supply
of goods increase in response to the rise in the price and decreases in
response to the fall in the price. However, there is no definite
relationship between the supply of factors and the price of factors. For
instance, the supply of labour may increase due to increase in wage, but
only when the wages are low and the workers are striving for good
living condition substitution effect. Once a particular level of wage is
reached (good living condition is attained by workers) more labour may
not be supplied due to increase in higher wage rate. Workers may start
to prefer leisure to enjoy their high wage rate, to work which is
explained by supply curve of labour called backward sloping income
effect. It is worth to note that land supply is related to its price.
3.3.3 Nature of Supply in Relation to Cost
Supply of goods is dependent on the cost of producing such goods and

services. However, it is not that the same in the factor market. It is
almost impossible to estimate the cost of supplying factors of
production. For instance, there is a difference in the cost –estimate of
labour in a software computer factory and the amount of labour supplied
in the chemical factory (individual differences, level of academic and
training, physical qualities). However, savings involves abstinence from
consumption and this can be calculated as opportunity cost to the
consumption.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
The similarities that exist in both market is that in both markets are
fundamentally based on the interaction of the forces of demand and
supply. That is, buyers and sellers play important role in the
determination of price in both markets.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The production of goods and services in the output/ product market

cannot take place without the presence of factor of production (land,
labour, capital and entrepreneur).Their rewards are the prices paid to
have their services in the production. The basic differences between
these markets are explained under the following heading: nature of
demand, nature of supply, and cost and supply of factor of production.
The theory of distribution is studied differently from the theory of value
because of these differences.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt, the basic concept of factor market and why
is it different from product market. You also learnt that the interplay of
demand and supply in the determination of price play important role in
both market. Thereafter, the major differences were clearly stated for
your understanding.
Elucidate major differences that exist between the factor market and the
product market.
Bradley, R.S. (2003). The Micro Economic Today. New York, USA:
McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Robert, H.F. & Ben, S.B. (2011). Principles of Microeconomics. New

York, USA: McGrahill Irwin.
Jain T.R. & Khanna (2011). Managerial Economics. New Delhi, India:
V.K Publications.
Jain T.R. & Khanna (2011). Business Economics. New Delhi, India:
V.K Publications.
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UNIT 2 BASIC CONCEPT OF FACTOR PRICING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Basic Concept of Factor Pricing: Productivity of the
Factor
3.2 Productivity of the Factor
3.2.1 Marginal Productivity
3.3 Marginal Revenue Productivity (MRP)
3.4 Average Physical Productivity
3.4.1 Average Physical Productivity
3.4.2 Average Revenue Productivity
3.4.3 Relationship between ARP and MRP Curves
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn about productivity of factors and its divisions.
You will also be introduced to the concept and the calculation of
marginal productivity and average productivity and different divisions
each of them has. All the relationships that exist among these concepts
will be explained in detail.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At end of this unit, you should be able to:
  define productivity of factor and its uses

 differentiate between marginal revenue (MR) and marginal
revenue productivity (MRP)
  differentiate between MRP and value of marginal physical
 calculate total revenue, marginal revenue product, and marginal
physical product.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Basic Concept of Factor Pricing: Productivity of the

Factor
The clear understanding of basic concepts in factor pricing will help you
appreciate the operations of the market participants both in perfectly
competitive market and imperfect market. These concepts relate to the
following:
1. Productivity of the factor

2. Cost of the factor
3.2 Productivity of the Factor
Productivity of factor is the amount of a commodity produced per unit

of resources used. While production refers to the total amount of a
commodity produced. Therefore, the contribution of a factor of
production to the total output has two types:
a. Marginal productivity
b. Average productivity
3.2.1 Marginal Productivity
This refers to extra unit of output or product as a result of the

employment of an extra unit of labour while keeping the application of
other factors fixed. Extra product may be measured either in term of
extra units of the goods produced or in terms of revenue gotten by the
producer on the account of sale of extra units produced. Marginal
productivity can be used in these three ways:
(1.) Marginal physical productivity (MPP)

(2.) Marginal revenue productivity (MRP)
(3) Value of marginal physical productivity (VMPP)
Marginal physical productivity (MPP): If marginal productivity is

measured by the extra unit of product produced then, it is called
marginal physical productivity (MPP). Where, MPP= TPPn – TPPn-1 or
∆TRP/∆L
MPP = Marginal physical productivity
TPPN = Total physical productivity of a factor and n is the units of the

factor employed
191
TPPn-1 = Total physical productivity of a factor and n-1 are the units of
the factor employed
∆TP = change in total product

∆L = change in factor (labour)
SELF -ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Assuming 1000 shirts were produced in a month when 100 labourers are
engaged with 15 units of capital. When 101 labourers are employed with
the same amount capital, 1100 shirts were produced. Calculate the
marginal physical productivity (MPP).
Marginal revenue productivity: If marginal productivity is measured

by the extra amount of revenue earned then, it is called marginal
physical productivity (MRP). It is the addition made to total revenue
productivity by employing one more unit of a variable factor i.e.
MRP = TRPn – TRPn-1 or ∆TRP/∆L
Where,
MRP = marginal revenue productivity of the factor

TRPn = Total revenue productivity of a factor and n are the units of the
factor employed
TRPn-1 = Total revenue productivity of a factor and n-1 are the units of
the factor employed
∆TRP = change in total revenue productivity
∆L = change in factor (labour)
Or:
MRP = MPP × MR
Where
MRP = Marginal revenue productivity of the factor

MPP = Marginal physical productivity of the factor
MR = Marginal revenue which is the additional revenue gotten by the
producer as a result of the sale of one extra unit of the goods
Difference between MR and MRP
MRP is the additional revenue gotten to the producer on the account of

the sale of all additional units of the goods, as a result of the
employment of one additional unit of the factor, while MP is referred to
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
as additional revenue gotten to the producer on the account of the sale of

one extra unit of the goods produced.
From the above self-assessment exercise, if 1000 shirts produced by 100

labourers (with 10 units of capital) earned a revenue of N100000 (each
was sold at the rate of N100), and if 1100 shirts were produced by 101
labourer earned the producer a revenue of N11000, calculate the MRP.
Value of marginal physical productivity: According to Ferguson and

Maurice, ‘The value of the marginal productivity (VMPP) of a variable
factor is equal to its marginal physical productivity multiplied by the
price of the commodity in question’.
VMPP is obtained by multiplying MPP with the price/ AR of the

product.
VMPP or VMP = MPP x Price (AR)
From the above solution of MPP, assuming the price of the shirt is N100
each and MPP of 101st labourer is 100 shirts, calculate VMPP.
Difference between marginal revenue productivity and value of

marginal physical productivity
Value of marginal physical productivity (VMPP) is calculated by

multiplying marginal physical productivity (MPP) of a factor by the
price of the product. Price of the product is the same as average revenue
(AR). Thus:
Value of MPP = MPP x (AR)
Marginal revenue productivity (MRP) is, on the other hand, the multiple
of MPP and MR
MRP = MPP × MR
When AR is fixed under perfectly competitive market, AR =MR for a

firm as there are no differences between value of Marginal Physical
Productivity and Marginal Revenue Productivity.
Value of MPP = MRP or MPP × AR = MPP × MR
193
Under imperfect market structure when AR is constant. In such

circumstances AR is not equal to MR (AR ≠ MR). Therefore, VMPP ≠
MRP
(MPP × AR) ≠ (MPP × MR)
Table 9.1
Equality between MRP and value of MPP under perfectly

competitive market
Unit of Total MPP P =MR= MRP = VMPP =

labour product AR MPP × MPP ×
MR AR
1 8 8 6 48 48
2 15 7 6 42 42
3 21 6 6 36 36
4 26 5 6 30 30
5 27 4 6 24 24
3.4 Average Productivity
Average productivity refers to per unit productivity of a variable factor.

The concept of average productivity may be used in the following two
aspects:
Average physical productivity (APP): This is the physical units

produced per unit of the variable factor. It is obtained by dividing total
physical product TPP by number of units of the variable factor
employed N, i.e.
APP = Total physical product ÷ Number of unit of the variable factor
If 100 units of labour (along with some fixed factors of production)

produce 1000 unit of shirts, calculate APP.
Average revenue productivity: This refers to revenue generated per

unit of the variable factor. Average Revenue Productivity (ARP) – ARP
is the revenue obtained per unit of the factor employed. It is obtained by
dividing total revenue product TRP by the total number of units of the
factor employed N, i.e.
ARP = TRP/N
194
ECO 231 MODULE 4
It is also obtained by multiplying APP with the price of the product.

ARP = APP x Price (AR)
Supposing 10 units of labour (along with some fixed factors of

production) produce shirts worth N100, 000, calculate ARP.
Relationship between ARP and MRP Curves
There is a definite relation between ARP and MRP curves, which is

based on the law of variable proportions. Both ARP and MRP curves are
inverted U-shaped or bell-shaped. First they rise upward, reach
maximum and then decline, as it is represented in the below diagram.
1. When the ARP curve rises, the MRP curve is above it.
2. When the ARP curve is` at its maximum, a point M, the MRP
curve cuts it from above.
3. When the ARP curve falls, the MRP curve is below it and falls
steep.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Productivity of factor is the amount of a commodity produced per unit

of resources used. The factor productivity is divided into two: marginal
productivity and average productivity. There are different formulas for
calculating different divisions of marginal productivity such as:
Marginal physical productivity ∆TPP ÷ ∆N

Marginal revenue productivity MRP = MPP × MR
195
Value marginal physical productivity MRP or MPP × AR = MPP × MR

The average productivity divisions were also learned by you such as:
Average physical productivity TPP ÷ N
Average revenue productivity ARP = APP x Price (AR)
Finally you learned about relationship between ARP and MRP curves.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you learnt about productivity of factors. The average and
marginal productivity of factors were fully discussed and calculated for
you. You learnt about average revenue product and marginal revenue
product and their relationships. The equality between MRP and value of
MPP under perfectly competitive market was also explained to you.
Finally you learnt about relationship between ARP and MRP curves.
1. Calculate total revenue, marginal revenue product, and marginal

physical product from the table below:
Unit of Unit Price per Total Marginal Marginal

factor of unit(output) Revenue Revenue Physical
(Labour) output Product Product
0 0 N 1
1 15 N 1
2 27 N 1
3 36 N 1
4 42 N 1
5 45 N 1
6 46 N 1
2. With the use of graph vividly describe the relationship between

average revenue product and marginal revenue product.
Jain, T.R. & Khana, O.P. (2009). Business Economics. New Delhi-2,
India:V.K. Publications.
Jain, T.R. & Khana, O.P. (2009). Managerial Economics. New Delhi-2,
196
ECO 231 MODULE 4
UNIT 3 COST OF THE FACTOR
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Cost of the Factor
3.1.1 Average Factor Cost (AFC)
3.1.2 Marginal Factor Cost (MFC)
3.1.3 AFC and MFC under Perfect Market Competition
3.1.4 AFC and MFC Curves under Imperfect Market
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you studied the concept of productivity and all its
divisions. In this unit however, you are going to study the concept of
cost and its divisions. Attempt is made to distinguish between marginal
cost of factor and average cost of labour. The comparison is made
between average factor cost and marginal factor cost under perfectly
competitive and imperfectly competitive market. Before we continue, let
us see what you should be able to achieve after going through this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the concept of cost of the factor and its divisions

 differentiate between marginal cost of factor and average cost of
factor
 compare AFC and MFC under perfectly competitive market
 compare AFC and MFC under imperfectly competitive market.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Cost of the Factor
Cost of the factor refers to the expenditure incurred on employing of the

factor of production. In other words, total factor cost is the cost of a
factor in terms of money, which is called factor cost. It is further divided
into average and marginal factor cost.
197
Note: Average factor cost (AFC) and Marginal factor cost (MFC) are
considered the cost of variable factors, as it is the employment of
variable factors which the firm is concerned with.
3.1.1 Average Factor Cost (AFC)
This is obtained by dividing total factor cost TFC by the total number of
units of the factor employed N (labour)
AFC = TFC/N
3.1.2 Marginal Factor Cost (MFC)
This is defined as the additional cost of employing/purchasing one unit

of a factor. In other words, it is the additional cost associated with a one-
unit increase in resource use.
MFC = ∆TFC = TFCn – TFCn-1

MFC = Marginal factor cost
TFCn = Total factor cost of N units
TFCn-1= Total factor cost N-1 unit
Y
P AFC =MFCP
Under perfect competition, demand for a factor by an individual firm in

the market is a fraction of the total demand, so that by varying its
demand by any extent, it cannot affect the prevailing factor price in the
market. If every unit of the factor is available at the same price, average
cost of the factor and marginal cost of the factor is the same. Therefore,
under perfect market competition, AFC = MFC (as shown in the above
graph).
Vividly explain the concept of cost of factor.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
3.1.3 AFC and MFC under Perfect Market Competition
Since the price of factor is determined by the forces of its market

demand and market supply and at the prevailing market price, a firm can
employ/purchase any number of units desired of the factor.
3a b
3.1.4 AFC and MFC Curves under Imperfect Market
Since the supply of factor is not perfectly elastic as we have it under

perfect market competition, a firm can employ additional units of a
factor only by paying higher factor cost. An extra unit of factor will be
available only at the higher cost. So, marginal cost of the factor tends to
rise. Rising MFC tends to to pull AFC upward.
Y MFC
AFC
0 Units of factor X
199
Briefly explain the following:
i. Average factor cost

ii. Marginal factor cost
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have been able to understand that the cost to the
producer is the income to the households that possess factors of
production used to produce goods and services. The expenditure
incurred on the factors of production in the process of producing goods
and services is considered as cost of factor. You further learned that
marginal factor cost is the extra amount expended on the factor to have
extra unit of output. In this unit you are able to get the relationship
between Average Factor Cost and marginal factor cost, and how prices
of factors are determined under perfectly competitive market and
imperfectly competitive market.
5.0 SUMMARY
By now you should have learnt the difference between the productivity
of factor and cost of factor. In this unit, you learnt about the concept of
cost factor and its various divisions such as average factor cost and
marginal factor cost. You learnt the concept of these factors under
perfectly competitive market and imperfect market. Finally, you were
taught how to calculate each of them.
Critically examine the difference between the concept AFC and MFC
under the following market:
a. perfectly competitive factor market

b. imperfectly competitive factor market
Jain T.R. & Khana, O.P. (2009). Managerial Economics. New Delhi-2,
200
ECO 231 MODULE 4
UNIT 4 THE CONCEPT MARGINAL PRODUCTIVITY

THEORY OF DISTRIBUTION (OR FACTOR
PRICING)
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Concept of Marginal Productivity Theory of
Distribution (Factor Pricing)
3.2 Assumptions of the Marginal Productivity Theory
3.3 Problem Inherent in the Use of Marginal Productivity
Theory
3.4 Demand for a Factor of Production
3.4.1 The Magnitude of Demand
3.4.2 Elasticity of Demand for Factors
3.5 Market Demand Curve for a Factor of Production
3.6 Supply of a Factor of Production
3.7 Equilibrium in Factor Market
3.8 Problem Inherent in the Theory of Factor Pricing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Having understood the basic concepts related to productivity of the

factor and cost of factor and cost of factor, we now take up detailed
analysis of a principal theory related to factor pricing- marginal
productivity theory of distribution and its assumptions. Here, you will
learn factors that affect demand for factors, factors that affect supply for
factors, and the equilibrium in factor market. Furthermore, you will
learn about problems inherent the theory of factor pricing.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 explain the concept of marginal productivity theory of

distribution (or factor pricing)
 enumerate the limitations of using marginal productivity theory
in reality
 explain factors that affect demand for factors
201
 explain factors that affect supply for factors

 determine the equilibrium in factor market.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Concept of Marginal Productivity Theory of

Distribution (Factor Pricing)
According to Leibhafasky, ‘The marginal productivity theory of income

distribution states that under perfect competition, factor tends to receive
a real rate of return which was exactly just equal to their marginal
productivity.’
The marginal productivity theory of distribution determines the prices of

factors of production. This theory states that a factor of production is
paid price equal to its marginal product. For example, a labourer gets his
wage according its marginal product. He is rewarded based on
contribution he makes to the total output.
Factors of production are demanded because they have productivity.

The higher the productivity of a factor, the greater will be its price.
Marginal product or otherwise called marginal physical product (MPP)
refers to addition to the total physical product by employing one more
unit of a factor.
When MPP is multiplied by price, it is called value of marginal product

(VMP). Marginal revenue product (MRP) is the addition made to total
revenue by employing an additional unit of a factor. Average revenue
product (ARP) is the average revenue per unit of a factor of production.
Marginal productivity theory explains the following facts:
(a) Reward of each factor is equal to its marginal productivity

(b) Reward for each factor is same in every use.
Reward of each factor is equal to its marginal productivity
Under perfect competition, a firm employs various units of a factor up to

that point where the price paid to the factor is equal to its marginal
productivity. Every producer compares the price with its productivity.
The price paid to a factor is income to it while it is cost to the producer.
The point of equilibrium reaches at that point where MPP=Price. If the
producer employs fewer units of factors, the productivity will be more
and the cost will be less. Thus, in such a case the producer will increase
his profit by employing more units of factors and reaches the
equilibrium point. On the other hand, if the number of factor employed
is more than the equilibrium level, the cost will be more than the
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
productivity. The producer will lower the units of factors so long he

reaches equilibrium. Thus his profit is maximised at the point of
equilibrium (MRP=MC). In other words, a producer will employ the
factors only up to the point where the cost of an additional factor unit
equals its marginal revenue.
Reward for each factor is same in every use
Marginal productivity theory assumes that productivity of a factor is

equal in all its uses. If the factor cost in two different uses is not uniform
i.e. the factor cost in one use is greater than other use, factors will move
to that use where the factor cost is high.
This price will continue so long as the productivity of a factor becomes

equal in all its uses. Besides this the marginal productivity, all factors is
the same in a particular use and thus they are the perfect substitutes of
each other. The producer goes on substituting nearer factors by the
cheaper factors so long as the marginal productivity of the factor
becomes proportional to their prices. This condition for achieving
equilibrium is stated as follows.
When producer employees more factor unit, the marginal physical

productivity of additional factor will start diminishing. That is why
marginal productivity curve diminishes after a particular point of
employment of a factor. Since the objective of a firm is to maximise
profit, he will always compare the cost of employing (MR) an additional
labourer with the contribution (MP) made by that additional labourer.
He will go on employing additional factor so long as marginal factor
cost is equal to marginal productivity. The moment the productivity of
an additional factor equals the marginal factor cost, he will stop
employing additional factors and thereby his profit is maximised. The
equilibrium situation is explained under the perfectly competitive
market and imperfect market.
3.2 Assumptions of the Marginal Productivity Theory
1. Prevalence of perfect competition in factor as well as product

market.
2. All factors are identical.
3. Factors are perfect substitute for each other.
4. Factors are perfectly mobile.
5. Perfect divisibility of factors.
6. The theory operates in the long-run.
7. The theory is based on full employment.
203
Describe two assumptions of marginal productivity theory.
3.3 Problem Inherent in the Use of Marginal Productivity

Theory
(1) Assumptions are not realistic: The theory is founded on certain

unrealistic assumptions like prevalence of perfect competition
and they are perfectly mobile. In reality there assumptions are not
found.
(2) MRP is difficult to calculate: It is difficult to measure marginal
revenue productivity of a factor. Marginal revenue productivity is
the addition made to total revenue by employing an additional
unit of a factor. However, it is difficult to get it. In a large-scale
industry, if the work of a labourer is decreased, it will have no
corresponding decrease in total production.
(3) Heterogeneous factors: In reality, different units of a factor are
not identical. They are heterogeneous and hence cannot be
substituted by one another. Land and capital cannot be substituted
for each other. Labour as a factor cannot be equal in health and
efficiency. They are not equally productive.
(4) Reward determines productivity: The reward of a factor is
determined by the factor's marginal productivity. Therefore, MRP
is the cause and reward is the effect. When a labourer is given
higher wages, his living standard will develop and his health and
efficiency will increase. Hence, reward is the cause and not the
wage.
3.4 Demand for a Factor of Production
It is a known fact that the demand for factors is a derived demand.

Factors of production are not demanded for their own sake but their
services are required for the production of other goods and services
which the consumers need as we have discussed earlier. For example,
labour is hired /engaged because it helps in the production of the
commodities. Similarly, land is not desired for itself. It is demanded for
the things which it grows or for the construction of a factory or shop.
The demand for a factor of production, like the price of commodity, is a
function of price. How much a factor of production will be demanded in
the market depends upon two parameters:
(1) the magnitude of demand and

(2) the elasticity of demand for that factor.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
3.4.1 The Magnitude of Demand
(i) If a factor of production is very important in the process of

production of a particular commodity or commodities, it will
have a higher demand in the factor market.
(ii) If the demand for final product is expected to be high, then the
demand for all the factors which produce the product will go up.
(iii) If a factor of production has close substitutes, then its demand
will not rise even if the demand for final product in which it is
used increase. The reason is that the employers of factors of
production would prefer to engage a substitute which is available
in the market at an attractive price.
3.4.2 Elasticity of Demand for Factors
By elasticity of demand for factors is refers to the degree of

responsiveness of demand for the various factors to changes in their
prices. The main propositions on which the elasticity of demand for the
factors of production depends are as follows:
(i) If the price of a factor of production forms a very small

proportion in the total costs of a product, then its demand will be
inelastic. If cost forms a greater proportion of the total cost, then
its demand will be elastic.
(ii) The demand for a factor of production also depends upon the
elasticity of demand for a commodity in which it is used. If the
demand for a commodity is fairly elastic, then the demand for
factors which go to make the product will also be elastic and vice
versa.
(iii) If a factor of production is easily substitutable in the market, then
its demand will be fairly elastic. In case, it is indispensable, the
demand will be inelastic.
3.5 Market Demand Curve for a Factor of Production
We have stated earlier that the demand curve for a factor is the marginal
revenue productivity curve of a firm. If we add up laterally individual
demand curves of all the firms, we get market demand curve for a
factor. This is illustrated below.
205
1
In the diagram above, when the wage is OW the firm s in equilibrium
2
at point K and the demand for the factor is OR. When wage is OW , the
firm is in equilibrium at point M. The firm engages OS units of a factor.
If we sum up laterally the individual demand curves of all the firms, we
/
get DD market demand curve for a factor.
It is clear from this Fig. 18.3 (b) that with the fall in wages, the demand
1
for a factor increases and vice versa. For instance, at OW , market is
OK units (in thousands) of factor are demanded. When wage falls to
OW, the demand for factor increases from OK to OR. With further fall
2
in wage to OW , the market demand for factor increase from OR to OS.
The market demand curve for a factory is a negatively sloped curve
206
ECO 231 MODULE 4
indicating inverse relationship between price of a factor and its quantity

demanded.
Evaluate the concept of marginal productivity theory in light of inherent

deficiencies.
3.6 Supply of a Factor of Production
The supply of a factor of production can be defined as a schedule of the

various quantities of a factor of production that would be offered for
sale at all possible prices at any one instant of time.
We have stated earlier that the demand for various factors of production
is a derived demand. Just as the supply and stock of a commodity can be
different, similarly, the supply and stock of a factor of production can
also vary. If the supply price of a factor is high, other things remaining
the same, the larger will be the units of factor offered for sale. If the
supply price is low, less quantity of factors of production will be
supplied in the factor market. The supply of a factor to an industry
depends upon the transfer earnings of the various units of factor.
Another characteristic of factors of production is that they do not bear
direct relation between the prices of services offered by the factors of
production and their cost of production.
The supply of factors of production is very complicated because each

factor presents a peculiar problem of its own. Land, for instance, is fixed
in quantity and its total supply cannot be increased even if its price rises.
However, for a particular use, its supply can be varied. Similar is the
case with labour. The total supply of labour in the country depends upon
various factors, such as size of population, labour efficiency, expenses
of training and education, geographical distribution, attitude towards
work, etc. The total supply of labour in the country is fixed but for a
particular occupation it can be increased by drawing workers from other
occupations and by increasing the working hours of the labour already
employed. The supply of capital is also complicated as it depends upon
the power and willingness of the people to save. The marginal efficiency
of capital and the rate of interest also play a very important role in the
supply of capital in the country.
In a nutshell, we can say that the supply of a factor is also a function of

price. The higher the price of a factor of production, other things
remaining the same, and the greater will be its supply and vice versa.
The supply curve of a factor of production is positively inclined, i.e., its
slopes upward from left to right as is shown below:
207
In the diagram above, we measure units of a factor, say labour, along

OX-axis and wage on OY-axis. If the wage is OP, OL workers are
supplied. At wage OR, the supply of workers increases from OL to ON.
The normal supply curve of a factor is positively sloped. It rises from
left to-right upward indicating that at higher factor prices, greater
quantity of factor is offered in the factor market and vice versa.
3.7 Equilibrium in Factor Market
In a perfect competitive market, there are large number of firms to

demand the services of a factor of production and also large number of
households to supply the services of a factor. In such a factor market,
the price of a factor is determined by the interaction of the forces and
demand and supply as is shown in the figure below.
208
ECO 231 MODULE 4
/ /
In the diagram above, DD is the demand curve and SS is the supply
curve of a factor, the demand and supply curves intersect at point E. The
equilibrium factor price is OP. The price of a factor cannot be stable at
the level higher than or lower than OP. For example, the price cannot be
1 1
established at OP since at price OP , the quantity offered to supply, is
greater than the quantity demand (QM). Therefore, the competition
between the owners of the factor will force down the price to OP level.
2
Similarly, the price of factor cannot be determined at the level of OP
because at this price, the supply of a factor is less than demand by
1 1
M Q . The competition among the producers demanding the factor of
production will push the price to OP level. We thus find that the reward
of a factor of production is determined by the interaction of the forces of
demand and supply.
With the use of graphical illustration explain how the forces of demand
and supply determine the price of factor in the factor market.
3.8 Problem Inherent in the Theory of Factor Pricing
The theory of factor pricing is criticised on the ground of its weak

assumptions.
i. The theory is based on the assumption of perfect competition in

both the product and factor markets. While in reality, it is the
imperfect competition which prevails in both the markets.
ii. The theory assumes that all the unit of a factor is homogenous.
But in the real life, they are different from each other.
iii. The theory assumes that different factors of production are
capable of being substituted for one another. In the real world, we
find that factors of production are not close substitutes of one
another.
iv. The theory ignores the increasing returns in factor pricing.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Marginal productivity theory explains how factor prices are determined

in markets, not how factor prices should be determined. However,
marginal productivity theory has been criticised even as a positive
theory. Since, product markets are not perfect, the marginal productivity
theory may not always offer a realistic explanation of short-run factor
pricing. However, over a long period of time, marginal productivity
theory does offer a good explanation of factor prices.
209
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you learnt about marginal productivity theory, which states
that a factor of production is paid price equal to its marginal
product.You were also taught the assumptions of marginal productivity
theory such as prevalence of perfect competition in factor as well as
product market, all factors are identical, perfect substitute for each other,
perfectly mobile, perfect divisibility of factors and so on. You also learnt
that the demand for factor is a derived demand and supply for factor is
directly related to price of offer. The equilibrium in this market is
determined by the forces of demand and supply. You also learnt about
factors that determine both the demand and supply of factor in the factor
market.
1. Define marginal productivity of factor and explain its

assumptions as well as its limitations.
2. Explain how the interplay of demand and supply in the factor
market determine its equilibrium point.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
UNIT 5 THE FACTOR MARKET UNDER PERFECT

COMPETITION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Factor Market under Perfect Competition
3.2 The Factor Market Equilibrium under Perfect Competition
of the Firm
3.3 Firm's Equilibrium
3.4 Factor Pricing under Imperfect Competition
3.5 Factors Price Determination under Imperfect Market
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn how the factor market under perfectly
competitive market and imperfect competition operate. Furthermore, the
firm’s equilibrium, factor pricing under imperfect competition, factors
price determination under imperfect market are also examined.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 describe how factor market works under perfect market

 describe how factor market works under imperfect market
 explain factors price determination under perfect market
 explain factors price determination under imperfect market.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Factor Market under Perfect Competition
In a perfectly competitive market, an individual firm cannot influence

the market price of a factor by increasing or decreasing its demand. So it
has to hire units of a factor at its prevailing price in the market. Same is
the case with the supplier of a factor. As the supplier of a factor sells an
insignificant quantity of the total supply, it is therefore not in a position
to alter the market price of a factor by its own individual action. The
211
individual buyers and sellers of a factor take the market price of a factor
as given and adjust the quantity of a factor in the light of market factor
price. The buyers and sellers of a factor are therefore called price takers.
Each firm faces a perfectly elastic resource supply curve. The diagram
below illustrates this relationship. The market price of the resource is
determined by the interaction of market demand and supply. As you
have known that each firm is a price taker in a perfectly competitive
resource market, each firm faces a resource supply curve that is
perfectly elastic at the equilibrium resource price.
Since each firm is a price taker in a perfectly competitive resource
market, the additional cost that results from the use of an additional unit
of the resource is just equal to the resource price. Thus, the marginal
factor cost curve is horizontal at the market price of the resource in such
a market. Two possible MFC curves are illustrated in the diagram
below.
As the diagram above suggests, the optimal level of employment occurs

at the level of resource use at which MRP = MFC. When the level of
marginal factor costs is given by the MFC curve, the optimal level of
resource use is Qo. If MFC increases to MFC', the optimal level of
resource use will fall to Q'. A bit of reflection should convince one that
at any given level of resource price (= MFC), the MRP curve determines
the quantity of the resource that is demanded by a firm. Since the MRP
curve determines the quantity of resource demanded at each level of the
resource price, it serves as the firm's resource demand curve.
Since a firm in a perfect competitive factor market is a price taker, so

the marginal product of the factor (MP) and the average product (AP)
are the same and their curves coincide. They are a horizontal straight
time and parallel to the X-axis.
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ECO 231 MODULE 4
3.2 The Factor Market Equilibrium under Perfect

Competition of the Firm
When a factor of product is to be hired by a firm, it compares the

marginal revenue productivity of the factor (MRP) with that of its
marginal factor cost (MFC). So long as the MRP of the factor is greater
than its marginal factor cost. (MRP > MFC), a firm will continue hiring
the units of a factor (because the factor adds more to its total revenue
than to its total cost). When the marginal revenue productivity of a
factor is equal to the marginal cost of the factor, the firm will be in
equilibrium and its profits maximised MRP = MFC.
If the output is increased by hiring additional units of the factor, then

the MRP < MFC, and firm incurs loss.
3.3 Firm's Equilibrium
Marginal revenue productivity of labour = Marginal factor cost (labour)

The equilibrium of the firm in the factor market is explained with the
help of a diagram.
In the figure above, we assume that labour is the only variable factor in
the factor market. KL straight line represents the marginal wage rate. All
the firms in the factor market can hire any number of workers at the
ruling wage of OK. The marginal revenue product curve of labour cuts
the wage line KL at two points P and R. The firm is not in equilibrium at
point P because by the employment of increasing number of workers,
the marginal revenue product raises higher than the marginal factor cost
(MFC) or the marginal wage OK. At point R, the marginal revenue
productivity of the labour is equal to its marginal factor cost. When the
firm employs OE number of workers, it is in equilibrium because at
point R, marginal revenue product of the variable factor is equal to
213
marginal factor cost (MFC). In case a firm decides to engage more than
OE workers, the marginal factor cost (marginal wage) will exceed its
marginal revenue productivity. The firm with therefore not be in
equilibrium.
In conclusion, we can say that a firm in the labour market is in

equilibrium when:
(i) Marginal revenue productivity of labour = Marginal cost of

labour.
(ii) Marginal revenue productivity curve of labour cuts the marginal
factor cost curve (marginal wage) from above.
3.4 Factor Pricing under Imperfect Competition
Marginal productivity theory of factor theory applies to conditions of

perfect competition; but in real life, we experience competition. We
shall only discuss one form of imperfect competition called monopsony.
Monopsony is a market situation in which there is only one buyer of the
factors of production. It is a market situation where only a single firm
provides employment to the factors. If the firm demands for more
factors, it will have to offer higher factor price. In other words, factor
price will go up. On the contrary, if the firm demands fewer factors,
then the price will go down. As a result in this type of market, not only
average factor cost curve (AFC) and marginal factor cost curve (MFC)
will be separated from one another but also upward sloping.
3.5 Factors Price Determination under Imperfect Market
Assuming in the factor market there is only one firm to employ while
there is perfect competition in the product market. As the demand of this
firm for the labourer goes on increasing, marginal factor cost (MFC) and
average factor cost (AFC) of these labourers will also go on increasing.
Both MFC curve and AFC curve will be upward sloping and MFC curve
will rise more steeply than average factor cost curve. AFC and MFC are
referred here as supply curve while marginal revenue product is the
demand curve for labour. In the imperfect market (monopsony), a firm
will employ that number of labourers at which their marginal revenue
productivity (MRP) is equal to their MFC. This is the equilibrium
situation.
Average factor cost is the price of the factor concerned with labour.
Since marginal wage or MRP is more than average wage, the labourers
will be receiving a wage rate which will be less than their marginal
productivity. Therefore, under monopsony, labourers will suffer
exploitation. Exploitation of factor refers to a situation in which it is
214
ECO 231 MODULE 4
employed at a price that is less than its marginal productivity. The extent
of exploitation depends upon the difference between marginal wage or
marginal revenue productivity and AVC.
In the graph, units of labour are shown on OX-axis and wages

rate/productivity on OY-axis. Marginal factor cost curve/marginal wage
and average factor cost curve/average wage represents marginal revenue
productivity curve.
A monopsony firm will employ that number of labourers at which their

marginal wage (MW) is equal to their marginal revenue productivity
(MRP). In the graph, firm is in equilibrium at point E where MW =
MRP. Consequently, firm will employ OL units of labour. Labour will
be paid OW wage rate, as indicated by point F on AW curve. It is
because FL is the corresponding average wage (AW) to EL marginal
wage (MW). This is less than the marginal revenue productivity of
labour (MRP = OA). Monopsony firm will therefore earn AW profit per
unit of labour. This profit to the firm arises on account of exploitation of
labourers. Total profit would be equal to the area AWFE.
Y- Factor cost
MFC (MW)
A E
AFC (AW)
W expl
F
MRP
L X- Units of factor
4.0 CONCLUSION
Price of a factor of production under imperfect competition will be less

than marginal revenue productivity. In imperfect factor market, firms
can influence the price whereas; in the perfectly competitive market the
firm has no power to influence the price factor given the assumptions
earlier stated for this market. Average factor cost (AFC) and marginal
factor cost (MFC) are supply curves while marginal revenue product is
the demand curve for labour under monopsony (a market situation in
which there is only one buyer of the factors of production). In the
215
perfectly competitive market, marginal revenue productivity of labour

(MRP) = Marginal factor cost (labour). Finally, you learnt that
exploitation of factor refers to a situation in which it is employed at a
price that is less than its marginal productivity.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you learnt about the operations of factor market under
perfectly competitive market and under imperfect market. You also
studied how the equilibrium is established in the market by the forces of
demand and supply. Factor pricing in these two distinct markets were
also explained.
Describe exploitation in the imperfect factor market.
Jain, T.R. & Khana, O.P. (2009). Business Economics. New Delhi,
India: V.K. Publications.
216

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ECO 231 MODULE 4

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: ECO 231

COURSE TITLE: MICRO-ECONOMIC THEORY I

Course Team Adedeji Abiodun Liadi (Course Developer) –

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

This course, ECO 231 Micro-Economics Theory is a three-credit unit,

Therefore, the course is structured to expose you to the skills required to

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

This course builds on the foundation of ECO 102. Topics covered

You will be taught introduction to discipline of economics and to

The overall aims of this course include:

 to introduce you to the basic concepts in microeconomics theory

 explain the concept of consumer behaviour

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

Each unit contains self-assessment exercises and tutor- marked

Major components of this course are:

The breakdown of the four modules and 15 units are as follows.

Module 1 Theory of Consumer Behaviour

Unit 1 Basic Concept of Consumer Behaviour

Module 2 Market Structures 1

Unit 1 Overview of Market Structure

Module 3 Market Structures 2

Unit 1 Price Discrimination in the Monopoly Market

Module 4 Theory of Distribution

Unit 1 Concepts of Theory of Distribution

REFERENCES AND TEXTBOOKS

information on assignments will be found in the assignment file itself

The presentation schedule included in your course materials gives you

Your assessment will be based on tutor-marked assignments (TMAs)

There are many tutor-marked assignments in this course. You will

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

Tutor-marked assignment (best three assignment out of the four marked)

Final Examination 70%

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the

The purpose of the practical overview of some certain historical

Self-assessments are interspersed throughout the units, and answers are

The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If

1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

FACILITATOR/TUTOR AND TUTORIALS

There are some hours of tutorials (2-hour session) provided in support of

Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion

On successful completion of the course, you would have developed

Module 1 Theory of Consumer Behaviour ............................. 1

Unit 1 Basic Concept of Consumer Behaviour .................. 1

Module 2 Market Structures 1 ....................................................... 33

Unit 1 Overview of Market Structure .................................... 33

Module 3 Market Structures 2 ...................................................... 56

Unit 1 Price Discrimination in the Monopoly Market 56

Module 4 Theory of Distribution ................................................. 87

Unit 1 Concepts of Theory of Distribution .......................... 87

MODULE 1 THEORY OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

Unit 1 Basic Concept of Consumer Behaviour