Pipe Flow Module Users Guide

Pipe Flow Module
User’s Guide
Pipe Flow Module User’s Guide
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C o n t e n t s
Chapter 1: Introduction
About the Pipe Flow Module 10

What Can the Pipe Flow Module Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The Pipe Flow Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes . . . . . . 13
The Liquids and Gases Materials Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 14
Overview of the User’s Guide 18
Chapter 2: Fluid Flow Interfaces
Mechanisms for Modeling Fluid Flow 22

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
The Pipe Flow Interface 23

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Pipe Flow Interface . . . . 24
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Pipe Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Phase Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Inlet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
No Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Lossless Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
CONTENTS |3
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Contraction/Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
T-Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Y-Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
n-Way Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Internal Pressure Lock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Pipe Flow Physics Feature Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
The Nonisothermal Pipe Flow Interface 42

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Nonisothermal Pipe Flow
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
The Water Hammer Interface 46

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Water Hammer Interface . 48
Pipe Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Local Friction Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Closed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface 51

Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
References for the Pipe Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Theory for the Water Hammer Interface 64

Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
CONTENTS |4
Reference for the Water Hammer Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Chapter 3: Heat Transfer Interfaces
The Mechanisms for Heat Transfer 68
The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface 69

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat Transfer in
Pipes Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Wall Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Internal Film Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
External Film Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Wall Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Wall Heat Transfer, Inner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Heat Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface 78

The Heat Transfer Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Reference for the Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface . . . . . . . . . . 85
Chapter 4: Chemical Species Transport Interfaces
The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface 88

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species in Pipes Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Convection and Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Wall Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Mass Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
CONTENTS |5
The Reacting Pipe Flow Interface 92
Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Reacting Pipe Flow
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Pipe Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Convection and Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes

Interface 98
Chapter 5: Acoustics Interfaces
The Pipe Acoustics Interfaces 102

The Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain Interface. . . . . . . . . . 102
The Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Pipe Acoustics
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Pipe Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Closed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
End Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Theory for the Pipe Acoustics Interfaces 112

Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Theory for the Pipe Acoustics Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . 116
Solving Transient Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Cut-off Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Flow Profile Correction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
References for the Pipe Acoustics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6 | CONTENTS
Chapter 6: Pipe Mechanics
Chapter 7: Multiphysics Couplings
Coupling Features 126

Pipe Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Acoustic-Pipe Acoustic Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
CONTENTS |7
8 | CONTENTS
1
Introduction
This guide describes the Pipe Flow Module, an optional add-on package for
COMSOL Multiphysics® designed to model and simulate incompressible and
weakly compressible flow, heat, and mass transfer in pipes and channels with the
Pipe Flow features. Compressible hydraulic transients and acoustics waves can also
be modeled using the Water Hammer features and Pipe Acoustics features,
respectively. To analyze the stresses and deformation in the pipes, the Pipe
Mechanics interface is available. The Pipe Flow Module can address problems
involving flow velocity, pressure, temperature, stresses, deformation and sound
waves in cooling systems, ventilation systems, pipe systems in the chemical
processing industry, and lines in the oil and gas industry.
This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.
9
About the Pipe Flow Module
What Can the Pipe Flow Module Do?
The Pipe Flow Module is intended for the modeling and simulation of flow of fluids
in the pipes and channel systems, as well as compressible hydraulic transients and
acoustics waves. Typical simulations yield the velocity, pressure variation, and
temperature in systems of pipes and channels. Hydraulic transients resulting from a
valve that is closed rapidly in a pipe network is referred to as water hammer, which can
be modeled too. This module has extra functionality for computing displacements,
rotations, stresses, and strains in the pipes. The module can be used to design and
optimize complex cooling systems in turbines, ventilation systems in buildings, pipe
systems in chemical processes, and lines in the oil and gas industry.
In common for pipes and channels that can be modeled using the Pipe Flow Module
is that the pipe length is large enough so that the flow inside can be considered fully
developed. Piping components such as bends, valves, T-junctions, contractions/
expansions, and pumps are also available in the module.
The Pipe Flow Module includes these physics interfaces:
• The Pipe Flow interface computes the pressure and velocity field in isothermal pipe
systems.
• The Heat Transfer in Pipes interface computes the energy balance in pipe systems
but receives the flow field as a value or as a known solved field. Wall heat transfer to
the surroundings is included.
• The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes interface solves a mass balance equation
for pipes in order to compute the concentration distribution of a solute in a dilute
solution, considering diffusion, dispersion, convection, and chemical reactions.
• The Nonisothermal Pipe Flow interface is a multiphysics interface that solves the
flow, pressure, and temperature simultaneously and fully coupled.
• The Reacting Pipe Flow interface is a multiphysics interface that solves the flow,
pressure, temperature, and reacting species transport simultaneously and fully
coupled.
• The Water Hammer interface solves rapid hydraulic transients in pipe systems,
taking the elastic properties of both the fluid and pipe wall into account.
10 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
• The Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain interface models sound waves in flexible
pipe systems, with the assumption of harmonic vibrations.
• The Pipe Acoustics, Transient interface models sound waves in flexible pipe systems
with arbitrary transient variations in pressure.
• The Pipe Mechanics interface analyzes the stresses and deformations in pipes.
The physics interfaces in the module define the conservation of momentum, energy,
and mass of a fluid inside a pipe or channel system. The flow, pressure, temperature,
and concentration fields across the pipe cross sections are modeled as cross-section
averaged quantities, which only vary along the length of the pipes and channels. The
pressure losses along the length of a pipe or in a pipe component are described using
friction factor expressions. A broad range of built-in expressions for Darcy friction
factors cover the entire flow regime from laminar to turbulent flow, Newtonian and
non-Newtonian fluids, different cross-sectional geometries, and a wide range of
relative surface roughness values. In addition to the continuous frictional pressure
drop along pipe stretches, pressure drops due to momentum changes in components
such as bends, contractions, expansions, T-junctions and valves are computed through
an extensive library of industry standard loss coefficients. Pumps are also available as
components.
Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual
The Pipe Flow Module Physics Interface Guide

The Pipe Flow Module extends the functionality of the physics interfaces of the base
package for COMSOL Multiphysics. The details of the physics interfaces and study
types for the Pipe Flow Module are listed in the table. The functionality of the
COMSOL Multiphysics base package is given in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:
• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.
ABOUT THE PIPE FLOW MODULE | 11

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION
Acoustics
Pipe Acoustics
Pipe Acoustics, pafd 3D, 2D eigenfrequency; frequency

Frequency Domain1 domain
Pipe Acoustics, patd 3D, 2D time dependent
Transient1
Chemical Species Transport
Reacting Pipe Flow rpfl 3D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Transport of Diluted dsp 3D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Species in Pipes
Fluid Flow
Single-Phase Flow
Pipe Flow pfl 3D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Water Hammer whtd 3D, 2D time dependent
Nonisothermal Pipe nipfl 3D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Flow
Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer in Pipes htp 3D, 2D stationary; time dependent
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION
Pipe Mechanics pipem 3D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;

time dependent, modal;
time dependent, modal
reduced-order model;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
frequency domain, modal
reduced-order model; time
dependent; response
spectrum; random
vibration (PSD)
1 Requires both the Pipe Flow Module and the Acoustics Module.
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes

There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display in COMSOL Multiphysics.
In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for

links to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

The Liquids and Gases Materials Database
The Pipe Flow Module includes an additional Liquids and Gases material database with
temperature-dependent fluid dynamic and thermal properties.
For detailed information about materials and the Liquids and Gases
Materials Database, see Materials in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of internet resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the application libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.
If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.
THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions about how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the
electronic Documentation and Help content.
Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to the features in the COMSOL Desktop.
To learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click
to highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.
To open the Help window:
• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder click a node or

window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.
To open the Help window:
• In the Model Builder or Physics Builder click a node or window and then
press F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Help ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Help.
Opening the Documentation Window
To open the Documentation window:
• Press Ctrl+F1.
• From the File menu select Help>Documentation ( ).
To open the Documentation window:
• Press Ctrl+F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Documentation ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW
Each model or application includes documentation with the theoretical background
and step-by-step instructions to create a model or application. The models and
applications are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as MPH files that you can open
for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as templates for your own modeling. In most models, SI units are used to
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions, but other unit systems
are available.
Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.
The Application Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.
Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):
• From the Home toolbar, Windows menu, click ( ) Applications

Libraries.
• From the File menu select Application Libraries.
To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help

menu, select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.
Select Application Libraries from the main File> or Windows> menus.
To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.
CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at [email protected].
COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
[email protected]. An automatic notification and a case number are sent to you by
email. You can also access technical support, software updates, license information, and
other resources by registering for a COMSOL Access account.
COMSOL ONLINE RESOURCES
COMSOL website www.comsol.com

Contact COMSOL www.comsol.com/contact
COMSOL Access www.comsol.com/access
Support Center www.comsol.com/support
Product Download www.comsol.com/product-download
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Discussion Forum www.comsol.com/community
Events www.comsol.com/events
COMSOL Video Gallery www.comsol.com/video
Support Knowledge Base www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase

Overview of the User’s Guide
The Pipe Flow Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling using COMSOL
Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module. Instructions how
to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.
As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.
TABLE OF CONTENTS AND INDEX

To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents and Index.
THE FLUID FLOW BRANCH

The Fluid Flow Interfaces chapter describes the Pipe Flow interface and the
Nonisothermal Pipe Flow interface including the underlying theory for these physics
interfaces.
THE HEAT TRANSFER BRANCH

The Heat Transfer Interfaces chapter describes the Heat Transfer in Pipes interface and
the underlying theory for the physics interface.
THE CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT BRANCH

The Chemical Species Transport Interfaces chapter describes the Transport of Diluted
Species in Pipes and the Reacting Pipe Flow interfaces and the underlying theory.
THE ACOUSTICS BRANCH

The Acoustics Interfaces chapter describes the Pipe Acoustics, Transient interface and
its theory. This physics interface requires both the Acoustics Module and the Pipe Flow
Module.
THE STRUCTURAL MECHANICS BRANCH

The Pipe Mechanics chapter describes the Pipe Mechanics interface.
THE MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS
The Multiphysics Couplings chapter describes the multiphysics couplings available
with the Pipe Flow Module. These are the built-in conditions that couple physics
together.
OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 19

2
Fluid Flow Interfaces
This chapter has information about the physics interfaces in the Pipe Flow Module
found under the Fluid Flow branch ( ).
• Mechanisms for Modeling Fluid Flow

• The Pipe Flow Interface
• The Nonisothermal Pipe Flow Interface
• The Water Hammer Interface
• Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface
• Theory for the Water Hammer Interface
See The Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual for other Fluid Flow interface and feature node settings.
21
Mechanisms for Modeling Fluid Flow
The Fluid Flow branch ( )has a number of subbranches to describe momentum
transport. The main focus of this physics area is to model fluids transported in pipe
networks in 2D and 3D space, calculating velocity, flow rate, and pressure drops. Pipe
flow including heat and mass transfer can also be modeled.
The Pipe Flow Interface ( ), found under the Single-Phase Flow branch ( ) when
adding a physics interface, is used to model incompressible and weakly compressible
fluid flow in piping systems. The equations that are solved are 1D equations that live
on 2D boundary segments or 3D edge segments.
The Nonisothermal Pipe Flow Interface ( ), found under the Nonisothermal Flow
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, solves a temperature equation together
with the equations for compressible flow.
The Water Hammer Interface ( ), found under the Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, has the equations and boundary
conditions for modeling rapid pressure transients in a pipe systems.
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

It is often be relevant to couple flow and transport in pipes or pipe networks to physical
processes occurring outside the pipe network itself. For instance, liquid can be injected
into the surrounding by means of perforated pipes. The Pipe Flow interface can
calculate flow rates and pressure drops in a 1D representation in the injection system.
The equations can then be coupled to a Fluid Flow interface describing fluid flow in
2D or 3D geometries. Another important coupling that is prepared in the Pipe Flow
module is the Wall Heat Transfer feature that couples the temperature in a pipe to the
temperature in a 3D surrounding.
More advanced descriptions 2D and 3D continuum fluid flow, such as turbulent and
multiphase flow, can be found in the CFD Module. More extensive descriptions of heat
transfer, such as in turbulent flow or involving radiation, can be found in the Heat
Transfer Module. Furthermore, some applications involving the flow of liquids and
gases in porous media are better handled by the Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module.
22 | CHAPTER 2: FLUID FLOW INTERFACES

The Pipe Flow Interface
The Pipe Flow (pfl) interface ( ), found under the Single-Phase Flow branch ( )
when adding a physics interface, is used to compute the velocity and pressure fields in
pipes and channels of different shapes. It approximates the pipe flow profiles flow by
1D assumptions in curve segments, or lines. These lines can be drawn in 2D or 3D and
represent simplifications of hollow tubes. The interface is available in 3D on edges, and
in 2D on boundaries.
When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Fluid Properties, Pipe Properties, Pressure, Lossless Fitting and Initial Values.
Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Pipe Flow to select
physics features from the context menu.
SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.
The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is pfl.
FLUID MODEL
Select a Fluid model — Newtonian (the default), Power Law, or Bingham.
For Newtonian select Single phase (the default), Gas-Liquid, friction factor multiplier, or
Gas-Liquid, effective Reynolds number.
When Gas-Liquid, friction factor multiplier or Gas-Liquid, effective Reynolds number are
selected, the Phase Fractions node is automatically added as a default node. Selecting
these options also enables the choice of Liquid material and Gas material for the Fluid
Properties node.
For more information about the fluid models, see the section Theory for the Pipe Flow
Interface.
THE PIPE FLOW INTERFACE | 23

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This section defines the dependent variables (fields). If required, edit the name, but
dependent variables must be unique within a model:
• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)

• Tangential velocity u (SI unit: m/s)
DISCRETIZATION
The default discretization for Pipe Flow interface is Linear — that is, piecewise linear
interpolation for tangential velocity and pressure.
FURTHER READING
• For an explanation of the tangential velocity, see Theory for the Pipe
Flow Interface.
• Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Pipe Flow Interface
• Discharging Tank: Application Library path Pipe_Flow_Module/

Tutorials/discharging_tank
• Convective Flow in a Heat Exchanger Plate: Application Library path
Pipe_Flow_Module/Tutorials/heat_exchanger_plate
Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Pipe Flow Interface
The Pipe Flow Interface has these boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes, listed in
alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).
In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

• Bend • The Nonisothermal Pipe Flow
• Contraction/Expansion Interface
• Fluid Properties • Pipe Properties
• Initial Values • Pressure
• Inlet • Pump
• Internal Pressure Lock • T-Junction
• No Flow • Valve
• n-Way Junction • Volume Force
• Outlet • Y-Junction
• Phase Fractions • Lossless Fitting
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.
Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node is always present and adds the momentum and mass balance
equations solved by the physics interface. If volume forces are needed in the model,
they should be added by a Volume Force node. The node also provides settings for
defining the material properties of the fluid. If a Liquid-Gas option is selected in the
Pipe Flow node settings, properties for both liquid and gas can be entered here.
FLUID PROPERTIES
This subsection displays when Newtonian>Single phase is selected as the Fluid model for
the Pipe Flow interface.
The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) uses the value From material. For User defined
enter a different value or expression.
The default Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) uses the value From material and
describes the relationship between the shear rate and shear stresses in a fluid.
Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often described as thick
(such as oil) have a higher viscosity.

LIQUID PROPERTIES
This section displays when Newtonian is selected as the Fluid model for the Pipe Flow
interface and then Gas-Liquid, friction factor multiplier or Gas-Liquid, effective Reynolds
number are also chosen.
Select the Liquid material — Edge material (3D components) or Boundary material (2D
components). If you have more than one material added to the model, you can toggle
this setting between the different designated materials.
The default Density ρL (SI unit: kg/m3) uses the value From material. You can change
this to User defined to enter a different value or expression.
The default Dynamic viscosity μL (SI unit: Pa·s) uses the value From material and
GAS PROPERTIES
This section displays when Newtonian is selected as the Fluid model for the Pipe Flow
Select the Gas material — Edge material (3D components) or Boundary material (2D
components). If you have more than one material added to the model, you can toggle
this setting between the different designated materials.
The default Density ρG (SI unit: kg/m3) uses the value From material. For User defined
The default Dynamic viscosity μG (SI unit: Pa·s) uses the value From material and
MIXTURE VISCOSITY MODEL

This section displays only when Newtonian is selected as the Fluid model for the Pipe
Flow interface and the Gas-Liquid, effective Reynolds number is also chosen.
The default is the Extended Einstein which is considered the most accurate method for
a large range of gas fractions. The list of options include
• Extended Einstein (default)

• Linear average
• Reciprocal average

• Liquid viscosity
• User defined
For details, please refer to the theory section Newtonian Fluids.
Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the volume force F on the right-hand side of the flow
equation. Use it, for example, to incorporate the effects of gravity in a model.
If several volume force nodes are added to the same domain, then the sum of all
contributions are added to the momentum equations.
VOLUME FORCE
Enter the components of the Volume force F (SI unit: N/m3).
Pipe Properties
The Pipe Properties node is used to define the pipe shape, flow resistance, and surface
roughness.
PIPE SHAPE
Select a pipe shape from the list — Not set (the default), Circular, Square, Rectangular,
Concentric circular annular, or User defined.
• For Circular enter a value or expression for the Inner diameter di (SI unit: m). The
default is 10 cm.
• For Square enter a value or expression for the Inner width wi (SI unit: m). The
default is 5 cm.
• For Rectangular enter a value or expression for the Inner width wi (SI unit: m. The
default is 5 cm) and Inner height hi (SI unit: m. The default is 10 cm).
• For Concentric circular annular enter a value or expression for the Inner diameter,
outer pipe di,outer (SI unit: m. The default is 10 cm) and Outer diameter, inner pipe
do, inner(SI unit: m. The default is 0 cm).
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the Cross-sectional area Ac (SI unit:
m2). The default is 0.01 m2. Enter the Wetted perimeter Z (SI unit: m). The default
is 0.4 m.

FLOW RESISTANCE
Select a Friction model.
Newtonian Fluids
Select Churchill (the default), Stokes, Wood, Haaland, Colebrook, Von Karman,
Swamee-Jain, or User defined.
• For Churchill, Wood, Haaland, Von Karman, or Swamee-Jain go to the Surface

Roughness section to select from a list of predefined values. Alternatively, enter
values or expressions.
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the Darcy friction factor fD
(dimensionless).
Non-Newtonian Fluids
For Power-law and Bingham fluids in tubes of circular cross section, the Irvine, Stokes,
and Darby friction models are available.
For more information about the friction models, see Expressions for the Darcy Friction
Factor.
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
This section is available if Churchill, Wood, Haaland, Von Karman, or Swamee-Jain is
selected as the Friction model.
Select a Surface roughness from the list — Smooth (0 mm), Drawn tubing (0.0015 mm)
(the default), Glass (0.0015 mm), Thermoplastics (0.0015 mm), Commercial steel (0.046
mm), Wrought iron (0.046 mm), Steel welded seamless (0.061 mm), Asphalted cast iron
(0.12 mm), Galvanized iron (0.15 mm), Cast iron (0.26 mm), Wood stave (0.5 mm), Copper
and brass (0.61 mm), Concrete (1.5 mm), Riveted steel (4.5 mm), or User defined.
For User defined enter a value or expression for the Roughness (SI unit: m).
Phase Fractions
This node is available when Newtonian is selected as the Fluid model for the Pipe Flow
Use the Phase Fractions node to define the gas fraction as area averaged void fraction
or a quality mass fraction.

GAS FRACTION
Select a Gas fraction specification — Area averaged void fraction (volume fraction) or
Quality (mass fraction).
• For Area averaged void fraction (volume fraction) enter an Area averaged void fraction
φG (dimensionless). The default is 0.
• For Quality (mass fraction) enter a Quality ωG (dimensionless). The default is 0.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the pressure and tangential velocity that
can serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa) and the
Tangential Velocity u (SI unit: m/s).
Inlet
Use the Inlet node to set the velocity, volumetric flow rate, or mass flow rate inlet
conditions that describe the fluid flow condition at an inlet.
In most cases the inlet boundary conditions appear, some of them slightly
modified, in the Outlet type as well. This means that there is nothing in
the mathematical formulations to prevent a fluid from leaving the domain
through boundaries where the Inlet type is specified.
INLET SPECIFICATION
Select a Specification for the inlet — Mass flow rate (the default), Velocity, Volumetric
flow rate. Additionally, Pump and Reservoir options are available for the Pipe Flow
interface.
• For Mass flow rate, enter a value or expression for the Mass flow rate qm,0 (SI unit:
kg/s). The default is 0 kg/s.
• For Velocity, enter a value or expression for the Velocity u0 (SI unit: m/s). The
default is 0 m/s.

• For Volumetric flow rate, enter a value or expression for the Volumetric flow rate qv,0
(SI unit: m3/s). The default is 0 m3/s.
• For Standard flow, SCCM, enter a value for standard cubic centimeters per minute.
The standard pressure and standard temperature as well as mean molar mass are
required as inputs as well. A standard cubic centimeter of gas is the amount of
molecules occupying a cubic centimeter at a specified standard temperature and
pressure, calculated by the ideal gas law. When used in the oil and gas industry, the
standard is often 15 degrees C and 100 kPa, but there are many other slightly
different standard conditions used in other circumstances. The inlet velocity
calculation is done according to
–6
10 p 0 M
u = ----------------------------- ⋅ Q SCCM
60T 0 AρR u
• For Pump, enter a value for the External pressure pext (SI unit: Pa) and define the
relationship between the head and the volumetric flow rate— Pump curve data, or
User defined.
Pump Curve Data

When Pump curve data is selected as the Pump curve, a table appears, in which the
values of the Flow rate and the Head can be either specified or imported from a text file
by clicking the Load from file button ( ) under the table. The interpolation between
points given in the table is defined using the Interpolation function type list in the Pump
Curve Interpolation section. Units can be specified for the Flow rate and the Head in the
Units section.
User Defined
With the User defined option, an expression for the Pump curve can be specified. The
flow rate across the point where this boundary condition is applied is defined by
phys_id.V0 where phys_id is the name (by default for pipe flow, phys_id is pfl).
In order to avoid unexpected behavior, the function used for the pump curve returns
the maximum of the user-defined function and 0.
• For Reservoir, enter values for reservoir density and pressure. Select a Entrance type
— Projecting (K = 1) (the default), Sharp edged (K = 0.5), Rounded (K = 0.05), or User-
defined loss coefficient.

Outlet
Use the Outlet node to set the velocity, volumetric flow rate, or mass flow rate point
conditions that describe the fluid flow condition at an outlet.
See Inlet for all settings.
All of the formulations for the Outlet type are also available, possibly
slightly modified, in other boundary types as well. This means that there
is nothing in the mathematical formulations to prevent a fluid from
entering the domain through boundaries where the Outlet boundary type
is specified.
No Flow
Use the No Flow node to define plugged exits or inlets (no flow).
Lossless Fitting
The Lossless Fitting node models junctions without losses. It is a default feature,
imposed at all junction points, that will be overridden by subsequent Bend, Valve,
Contraction/Expansion, Pump, T-junction, Y-junction, and n-way junction nodes
applied at overlapping points.
Pressure
Use the Pressure node to define the boundary pressure at points. The pressure
condition can only be applied to a point which is connected to exactly one edge (inlet
or outlet of a system).
BOUNDARY PRESSURE
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa). The default is 101325 Pa.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Bend
Use the Bend node to introduce additional pressure losses due to irreversible turbulent
friction in a point associated with a bend in the pipe system.
The Bend can only be applied to a point which is connected to exactly two
edges.
BEND SPECIFICATION
Select a Bend — 90 degrees standard elbow (K = 0.9) (the default), 45 degrees standard
elbow (K = 0.5), or User-defined loss coefficient. For User-defined loss coefficient enter a
Loss coefficient Kf (dimensionless).
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Physics Options.
Valve
Use the Valve node to introduce additional pressure losses due to irreversible turbulent
friction in a point associated with the position of a valve in the pipe system. Select a
predefined valve type or provide a user-defined loss coefficient.
The Valve can only be applied to a point which is connected to exactly two
edges.
VALVE SPECIFICATION
Select a Valve — Globe valve (K = 10) (the default), Angle valve (K = 4.4), Gate valve (K
= 0.2), Ball valve (K = 4.5), Butterfly valve (K = 0.6), Swing check (K = 2.5), or

User-defined loss coefficient. For User-defined loss coefficient enter a Loss coefficient Kf
(dimensionless).
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Physics Options.
Contraction/Expansion
Use the Contraction/Expansion node to introduce additional pressure losses due to
irreversible turbulent friction in a point associated with the position of a contraction or
expansion in the pipe system.
The Contraction/Expansion can only be applied to a point which is

connected to exactly two pipe segments.
CONTRACTION SPECIFICATION
Select an option from the Friction list — Sudden (the default), Gradual, or User-defined
loss coefficient.
• For Gradual, enter an Angle of convergence α (SI unit: radians). The default is
0 radians.
• For User-defined loss coefficient, enter a Loss coefficient Kf (dimensionless). The
default is 0.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Physics Options.

Pump
Use the Pump node to introduce a pressure jump in a point associated with the position
of a pump in the pipe system. Alternatively, specify a fixed mass flow rate for the pump.
The Pump can only be applied to a point which is connected to exactly

two edges.
PUMP SPECIFICATION
Select a Pump direction (available options are based on space dimension) — Positive X
direction (the default), Negative X direction, Positive Y direction, Negative Y direction,
Positive Z direction, or Negative Z direction. The pressure is increases in the direction
specified in the Pump direction.
Select an option from the Type list — Fixed flow rate (the default), Downstream
pressure, Pressure increase, and Pump curve.
• For Fixed flow rate, enter a value or expression for the Mass flow rate mpump (SI unit:
kg/s). The default is 0 kg/s.
• For Downstream pressure, enter a value or expression for the Pressure pdown (SI unit:
Pa). The default is 101 325 Pa.
• For Pressure increase, enter a value or expression for the Pressure increase Δp (SI
unit: Pa). The default is 0 Pa.
• Pump curve specifies an relationship between the head and the volumetric flow rate
— Pump curve data, or User defined.
Pump Curve Data

When Pump curve data is selected as the Pump curve, a table appears, where values of
the Flow rate and the Head can be specified or imported from a text file by clicking the
Load from file button ( ) under the table. The interpolation between points given in
the table is defined using the Interpolation function type list in the Pump Curve
Interpolation section. Units can be specified for the Flow rate and the Head in the Units
section.

User Defined
With the User defined option, an expression for the Pump curve can be specified. The
flow rate across the point where this boundary condition is applied is defined by
phys_id.V0 where phys_id is the name (by default for pipe flow, phys_id is pfl).
In order to avoid unexpected behavior, the function used for the pump curve returns
the maximum of the user-defined function and 0.
T-Junction
Use the T-Junction node to specify additional energy losses due to irreversible turbulent
friction in a T-junction, which can act as a split or a merger.
SELECTION SETTINGS
Figure 2-1: A T-junction with local pressure indications.
The T-junction is intended for a point that is connected to exactly two

collinear main branches and one perpendicular side branch. If this
condition is not met, a warning message will be issued when solving. The
flow can go in either direction through each of the main branches and the
side branch. See Figure 2-1.
The automatic search for T-junction points is possible. If you want to use this option,
clear the Manual control of selections check box, the selections will be replaced by the
automatic ones. If you want to modify the selection, select Manual control of selections
again.
FRICTION SPECIFICATION
Several options to specify pressure drop across the junction branches are available.
The Loss coefficients option allows you to enter a value or expression for the Loss
coefficient main branch Kmain for the energy loss between main branch and junction
(the default is 0.1) and the Loss coefficient side branch Kside for the energy loss between

the side branch and junction (the default is 1.2). Both are dimensionless numbers. See
Figure 2-1.
The respective losses are calculated as
1 2 1 2
p main, 1 + --- ρ main, 1 u main, 1 – p junction = --- K f, main ρ main, 1 u main, 1
2 2
1 2 1 2
p main, 2 + --- ρ main, 2 u main, 2 – p junction = --- K f, main ρ main, 2 u main, 2
2 2
1 2 1 2
p side + --- ρ side u side – p junction = --- K f, side ρ side u side .
2 2
For Nonisothermal Pipe Flow and Reacting Pipe Flow interface interfaces, the
respective pressure drops are calculated as
1 2
p main, 1 – p junction = --- K f, main ρu main, 1
2
1 2
p main, 2 – p junction = --- K f, main ρu main, 2
2
1 2
p side – p junction = --- K f, side ρu side .
2
The advantage of using loss coefficients is that they are readily available in engineering
tables and textbooks.
The Loss coefficients, extended model option is available for the Pipe Flow interface.
This option allows you to specify the loss coefficient in more details and account for
the flow directions. Enter values or expressions for the six dimensionless loss
coefficients. See Figure 2-2.
Figure 2-2: T-junction, joining and separating flows.
The losses for the outgoing branches are calculated as

1 1
 --2- Ki,in j,out ρi,in u i,in
0 2 2
p av,in – p j,out – --- ρ j,out u j,out =
2
i, in
The total pressure is assume to be equal for all incoming branches:
0 1 2
p av,in = p j,out + --- ρ j,out u j,out
2
Use the Pressure drops option to specify a value or expression for the pressure drop
explicitly for each branch respectively:
Δp 1, s = p main, 1 – p side
Δp 2, s = p main, 2 – p side
Main 1 is the main pipe segment that has the lower index of the two in the selection
list (for example, see the list in Pipe Properties).
ADVANCED SETTINGS
The angle tolerance is used to specify the tolerance to a geometry not being a perfect
T. Increase the tolerance if you get an error message but accept the geometry even if
does not fulfill the requirements for an Y-shape.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Physics Options.
Y-Junction
Use this feature to specify additional losses due to irreversible turbulent friction in a
Y-junction, which can act as a split or a merger. The pressure drop is calculated
according to
1 2
Δp = --- K f ρu ,
2
where Kf is a loss factor. Alternately, specify the pressure drop as a user-defined

expression.

Figure 2-3: A Y-junction with local pressure indications.
The Y-junction can only be applied to a point that is connected to exactly

two side branches and one main branch. The angle between each of the
side branches and main must be equal, and must not be 120 degrees. See
Figure 2-3. If these conditions are not met, use an n-way junction. The
flow can go in either direction through each of the main branches and the
side branch.
The automatic search for Y-junction points is possible. If you want to use this option,
clear the Manual control of selections check box, the selections will be replaced by the
automatic ones. If you want to modify the selection, select Manual control of selections
again.
The Loss coefficients options allows you to enter a value or expression for the Loss
coefficient main branch Kside for the energy loss between side and junction and the Loss
coefficient side branch Kmain for the energy loss between the main branch and junction
(the default is 1.2). Both are dimensionless numbers. See Figure 2-3. The respective
pressure losses are calculated as
1 2 1 2
p side, 1 + --- ρ side, 1 u side, 1 – p junction = --- K f, side ρ side, 1 u side, 1
2 2
1 2 1 2
p side, 2 + --- ρ side, 2 u side, 2 – p junction = --- K f, side ρ side, 2 u side, 2
2 2
1 2 1 2
p main + --- ρ main u main – p junction = --- K f, main ρ main u main .
2 2
For Nonisothermal Pipe Flow and Reacting Pipe Flow interface interfaces, the
respective pressure drops are calculated as

1 2
p side, 1 – p junction = --- K f, side ρu side, 1
2
1 2
p side, 2 – p junction = --- K f, side u side, 2
2
1 2
p main – p junction = --- K f, main ρu main .
2
The advantage of using loss coefficients is that they are readily available in engineering
tables and textbooks.
Use the Pressure drops option to specify a value or expression for the pressure drop
explicitly for each branch respectively:
Δp 1, m = p main – p side, 1
Δp 2, m = p main – p side, 2
Side 1 is the main pipe segment that has the lower index of the two in the selection list
(for example, see the list in Pipe Properties).
ADVANCED SETTINGS
The angle tolerance is used to specify the tolerance to a geometry not being a perfect
Y. Increase the tolerance if you get an error message but accept the geometry even if
does not fulfill the requirements for an Y-shape.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Physics Options.
n-Way Junction
Use the n-Way Junction feature to specify additional pressure losses due to irreversible
turbulent friction in an n-way junction that does not fall into the categories Y- or

T-junctions. The number of pipe connections to a point can be any number, and the
angles between the connection pipes arbitrary.
Figure 2-4: An n-Way Junction with local pressure indications.
The Loss coefficients options allows you to enter a value or expression for the Loss
coefficient main branch Kbranch for the energy loss between branch and junction.
The pressure loss is calculated as
1 2 1 2
p branch, i + --- ρ branch, i u branch, i – p junction = --- K branch ρ branch, i u branch, i
2 2
For Nonisothermal Pipe Flow and Reacting Pipe Flow interfaces, the pressure drop is
calculated as
1 2
p branch, i – p junction = --- K branch ρu branch, i .
2
Internal Pressure Lock

Use the Internal Pressure Lock node to specify the pressure at a point. The Internal
Pressure Lock condition can only be applied to a point which connects exactly two
edges.
Pipe Flow Physics Feature Symbols

For pipe flow interface, the physics symbols are available for internal points boundary
conditions. To display the boundary condition symbols listed in Table 2-1, enable the
Show physics symbols from the Graphics and Plot Windows menu on The Preferences
Dialog Box. The check box is not selected by default.

These symbols are available with the applicable pipe flow feature nodes in the Pipe
Flow interface are reproduced in the table below:
TABLE 2-1: PIPE FLOW BOUNDARY CONDITION PHYSICS SYMBOLS
SYMBOL SYMBOL NAME DISPLAYED BY NODE
Bend Bend
Valve Valve
Pump Pump
Contraction/Expansion Contraction/Expansion
T-Junction T-Junction
Y-Junction Y-Junction
n-Way Junction n-Way Junction

The Nonisothermal Pipe Flow
Interface
The Nonisothermal Pipe Flow (nipfl) interface ( ), found under the Nonisothermal
Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to compute the
temperature, velocity, and pressure fields in pipes and channels of different shapes. It
approximates the pipe flow profile by 1D assumptions in curve segments, or lines.
These lines can be drawn in 2D or 3D and represent simplifications of hollow tubes.
The physics interface is available in 3D on edges and 2D on boundaries.
Builder — Fluid, Pipe Properties, Pressure, Temperature, and Initial Values. Then, from
the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Nonisothermal Pipe Flow to select
SETTINGS
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is nipfl.
FLUID MODEL
Select a Fluid model — Newtonian (the default), Power law, or Bingham.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This physics interface defines these dependent variables (fields). If required, edit the
name, but dependent variables must be unique within a model:

• Temperature T (SI unit: K)

FURTHER READING
• For an explanation of the tangential velocity, see Theory for the Pipe
Flow Interface.
• Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Nonisothermal Pipe
Flow Interface
• Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface
Insulation of a Pipeline Section: Application Library path

Pipe_Flow_Module/Heat_Transfer/pipeline_insulation
Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Nonisothermal Pipe
Flow Interface
Because The Nonisothermal Pipe Flow Interface is a multiphysics interface it shares
many nodes with other physics interfaces. These boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes
are available as indicated (and listed in alphabetical order).
Described in this section:
• Fluid
• Heat Transfer
These nodes are described for the Reacting Pipe Flow interface:
• Fluid Properties
• Pipe Properties
These nodes are described for the Heat Transfer in Pipes interface:
• External Film Resistance

• Internal Film Resistance
• Wall Heat Transfer
• Wall Layer
These nodes are described for the Heat Transfer interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual:
THE NONISOTHERMAL PIPE FLOW INTERFACE | 43

• Heat Source
• Outflow
• Temperature
These nodes are described for the Pipe Flow interface (listed in alphabetical order):

• Inlet • Pressure
• No Flow • Pump
• n-Way Junction • T-Junction
• Outlet • Valve
• Phase Fractions • Volume Force

• Y-Junction
Fluid
Use the Fluid node to define the density, dynamic viscosity, and heat convection and
conduction properties.
PRESSURE WORK
The Pressure Work section has an Include pressure work check box where a pressure
work term can be activated. When checked a contribution to the right-hand side of the
Heat Transfer in Pipes equation is added.
This term can be important to activate if the pressure drop is expected to be

considerable and the fluid is compressible. The pressure-volume work is added to the
energy balance.
For more information, see the section Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Density ρ and Dynamic viscosity is specified here.
HEAT CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION

The default Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), Ratio of specific
heats γ (dimensionless), and Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) all use values
From material. For User defined enter different values or expressions.
Heat Transfer
Use the Heat Transfer node to define the density, yield stress, plastic viscosity, and heat
convection and conduction properties.
FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is User defined and is 1·103 kg/m3.
Enter a value or expression for the Yield stress τs (SI unit: Pa) and Plastic viscosity μs
(SI unit: Pa·s). The defaults are 0 Pa and 0 Pa·s, respectively.

THE NONISOTHERMAL PIPE FLOW INTERFACE | 45

T he Wa t e r H a m m er In t erface
The Water Hammer (whtd) interface ( ), found under the Fluid Flow>Single-Phase
Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to compute the velocity and
pressure fields for propagation of a hydraulic transient, also known as a water hammer,
in elastic pipe systems. For example, the propagation of a water hammer in a piping
system of an oil refining plant.
The equations governing the propagation of hydraulic transients in pipes stem from
considering momentum, mass, and energy balances for a control volume of a piece of
pipe. In the formulation of the Water Hammer interface, the compressibility effects of
the fluid and pipe walls are linearized. The resulting equations are expressed in the
cross-sectional averaged variables and reduce the equations to a 1D component with
scalar field variables. The physics interface is available in 3D on edges and at points,
and in 2D on boundaries and points.
Builder — Fluid Properties, Pipe Properties, Closed, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Water Hammer to select physics features from the context
menu.
SETTINGS
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is whtd.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES

• Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Water Hammer
Interface
Water Hammer: Application Library path Pipe_Flow_Module/

Verification_Examples/water_hammer_verification
THE WATER HAMMER INTERFACE | 47

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Water Hammer
Interface
The Water Hammer Interface has these edge, boundary, point, and pair nodes available
and listed in alphabetical order:
• Closed • Pipe Properties

• Fluid Properties • Pressure
• Local Friction Loss • Velocity
• The Initial Values and Volume Force nodes are described for the Pipe Flow
interface.
Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum equations solved by the physics
interface, except for volume forces which are added by the Volume Force node. The
node also provides an interface for defining the physical properties of the fluid.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Select a Fluid model — Linear elastic (the default).
describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear stresses in a fluid.
The default Speed of sound cs (SI unit: m/s) uses the value From material. For User
defined enter a different value or expression.

Pipe Properties
The Pipe Properties node is used to define the pipe shape, pipe model, and flow
resistance.
PIPE SHAPE
The Pipe Shape settings are the same as for the Pipe Properties node described for the
Pipe Flow interface.
PIPE MODEL
Select a Pipe model — Zero axial stress (the default), Anchored at one end, Anchored at
both ends, or Incompressible cross section.
• For Zero axial stress, select a Young’s modulus E — Not set (the default) or User
defined. If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression.
• For Anchored at one end or Anchored at both ends, enter a value or expression for the
Young’s modulus E. Select a Poisson’s ratio v — Not set (the default) or User defined.
For User defined enter a value or expression.
When Zero axial stress, Anchored at one end, or Anchored at both ends is selected, also
select a Wall thickness Δw — Not set (the default) or User defined. For User defined enter
a value or expression.
FLOW RESISTANCE
The Flow Resistance settings are the same as for the Pipe Properties node described
for the Pipe Flow interface.
Local Friction Loss

Use the Local Friction Loss node to add a lumped friction loss that depends on the
velocity according to Equation 2-7.
Enter a Loss coefficient Kf (dimensionless). The default is 0.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Physics Options.
THE WATER HAMMER INTERFACE | 49

Closed
Use the Closed node to impose zero velocity.
Velocity
Use the Velocity node to prescribe a velocity.
VELOCITY
Enter a value or expression for uin (SI unit: m/s). The default is 0 m/s.
Pressure
Use the Pressure node to define the boundary pressure at points.
PRESSURE
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Physics Options.

Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface
The Pipe Flow Interface and The Nonisothermal Pipe Flow Interface theory is
described in this section:
• Flow Equations
• References for the Pipe Flow Interface
• References for the Pipe Flow Interface
Flow Equations
The Pipe Flow Interface calculates the pressure and velocity of an incompressible or
weakly compressible fluid by solving the continuity and momentum equations
outlined below.
A one dimensional pipe can be present on a boundary in a 2D geometry, or on an edge

in a 3D geometry.
MOMENTUM AND CONTINUITY EQUATIONS

The momentum and continuity equations for flow in a pipe are given by (Ref. 16):
∂u ρ
ρ ------- + ρu ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p – f D ---------- u u + F (2-1)
∂t 2d h
and
∂Aρ
----------- + ∇ ⋅ ( Aρu ) = 0 (2-2)
∂t
The second term on the right-hand side in Equation 2-1 represents the pressure drop
due to viscous shear. Here, u is the cross-section averaged velocity (SI unit: m/s), ρ
the density (SI unit: kg/m3), p pressure (SI unit: Pa), fD (dimensionless) the Darcy
friction factor (see Expressions for the Darcy Friction Factor) and F is a volume force
term (SI unit: N/m3).
Furthermore, dh is the mean hydraulic diameter (SI unit: m), given by:
4A
d h = ------- (2-3)
Z
THEORY FOR THE PIPE FLOW INTERFACE | 51

where A is the pipe cross section area (SI unit: m2) available for flow, and Z is the
wetted perimeter (SI unit: m).
Figure 2-5: Unit tangent vector to the pipe axis.
Let
e t =  e t, x e t, y e t, z 
be the unit tangent vector to the pipe axis.
If the following assumptions apply:
• The velocity profile is fully developed with an entire pipe section.

• The cross section area is allowed to change between pipe segments and within pipe
segments.
• Empirical functions (friction charts) describe viscous pressure drop both for
turbulent and laminar flow regimes
• The curvature of the pipe segment gives rise to insignificant pressure loss in
comparison with wall friction.
• Shocks are neglected
• All velocity components normal to the pipe axis is assumed to be 0,
the momentum balance in Equation 2-1 can be rewritten as
∂u ρ
e t ⋅ ρ ------- + ρu ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p – f D ---------- u u + F (2-4)
∂t 2d h
and we can define the tangential velocity u as u = uet. The pipe flow physics interface
in COMSOL Multiphysics solves for the tangential velocity u. This is also the quantity
the user specifies in for example inflow boundary conditions and in the initial
conditions settings.
Curvature pressure drop effects can be added in points with the Bend feature.
Gravity can be included explicitly in the model, but when the variation in density is
negligible, and the model is not pressure driven (the inlet boundary condition is a
pressure setting), the only effect of including gravity is a change in the total pressure

level. In those cases, it is therefore common modeling practice to set the gravity F to
0 and interpret the pressure variable as the reduced pressure p = p − ρg(z0 − z), where
z0 is the datum level of the free liquid surface. This reduces the model complexity and
yields the same results.
The Darcy friction factor in Equation 2-1 accounts for the continuous pressure drop
along a pipe segment due to viscous shear, and is expressed as a function of the
Reynolds number (Re) and the surface roughness divided by the hydraulic diameter
(e/dh).
f D = f D  Re, ------
e
(2-5)
dh
where
ρud h
Re = -------------- (2-6)
μ
The physics interface automatically calculates fD from one of the predefined

expressions Equation 2-8 through Equation 2-14.
Additional Flow Resistances

Additional flow resistance due to irreversible turbulent effects in joints and junctions
can be added as point conditions between pipe segments — Bends, Valves,
T-junctions, Y-junctions, n-way junctions, Contractions, and Expansions. These
resistances give rise to abrupt (lumped) energy losses due to turbulence in the points
where they are added. The lumped pressure drop is calculated as:
1 2
Δp = --- K f ρu (2-7)
2
For more information about each type, see the interface descriptions in The Pipe Flow
Interface section.
Loss coefficients, Ki, for turbulent flow are available in the literature (Ref. 14) and the
set predefined in the Pipe Flow interface is reproduced in the table below:
TABLE 2-2: LOSS COEFFICIENTS
FEATURE DESCRIPTION LOSS COEFFICIENT K
Bends 90° standard elbow 0.9

45° standard elbow 0.5
Valves Globe, fully open 10

TABLE 2-2: LOSS COEFFICIENTS
FEATURE DESCRIPTION LOSS COEFFICIENT K
Angle, fully open 4.4

Gate, fully open 0.2
Ball, fully open 4.5
Butterfly, fully open 0.6
Swing check, fully open 2.5
T-junction T-junction split/merger 0.1 and 2.1 for side and main. See
Figure 2-1 for a description of flow
branches in a T-junction.
Contractions Sudden 2
0.5 ( 1 – β )
Gradual, angle of
0.8 sin ( α ) ( 1 – β )
convergence α < 22°
Gradual, angle of
0.5 sin(α ) ( 1 – β )
convergence α > 22°
Expansions Sudden 2 2
(1 – β )
Gradual, angle of 2
convergence α < 22° 2.6 sin ( α ) ( 1 – β )
Gradual, angle of 2
convergence α > 22° (1 – β)
Above, β is the ratio of small to large cross-sectional area. The point friction losses
listed above apply for Newtonian fluids. Point losses applying to non-Newtonian flow
can be added as user-defined expressions, for instance from (Ref. 15).
For the point pressure loss features Bends, Valves, T-junctions, Y-junctions, n-way
junctions, Contractions, and Expansions, the pressure loss can also be specified as a
pressure drop Δp directly.
Expressions for the Darcy Friction Factor
Newtonian Fluids For single-phase fluids, the Churchill equation (Ref. 1) for the
Darcy friction factor can be used for the full range of Re (laminar, transition and
turbulent) and full range of e/d:
8 12 1 ⁄ 12
f D = 8  ------ + ( A + B )
– 1.5
(2-8)
Re
where

0.9 16
A = – 2.457 ln   ------ + 0.27 ( e ⁄ d )
7
(2-9)
  Re 
37530 16
B =  ---------------- (2-10)
 Re 
In the laminar regime (Re < 2000), fD is independent of the surface roughness and is
given by the Stokes formula:
64
f D = ------ (2-11)
Re
The Wood equation (Ref. 2) gives the friction factor for 4000 < Re < 1·107 and
1·10-5 < e/d < 0.04, according to
0.225 0.44 a
f D = 0.094 ( e ⁄ d ) + 0.53 ( e ⁄ d ) + 88 ( e ⁄ d ) ⋅ Re (2-12)
with
0.134
a = – 1.62 ( e ⁄ d ) (2-13)
The Haaland equation (Ref. 3) for the Darcy friction factor is commonly used for oil
pipelines and wells. It can recover both small and large relative roughness limits for a
wide range of Reynolds numbers (4·103 < Re < 1·108)
e ⁄ d- 1.11  6.9

1- = – 1.8log   ---------
----- 10   3.7  +  --------  (2-14)
fD Re
It can be rewritten as
2
( 1 ⁄ 1.8 )
f D = -------------------------------------------------------------------
- (2-15)
 log  --------- e ⁄ d- 1.11  6.9  
2
+ --------
 10  3.7   Re  
For very low relative roughness e/d, the Haaland equation simplifies to Colebrook’s
explicit formula (Ref. 4)
1- = – 1.8 log  6.9

--------
----- 10  Re  (2-16)
fD
For very large relative roughness e/d, the Haaland equation simplifies to the von
Karman formula (Ref. 5)

⁄ d- 1.11
1- = – 1.8log   e--------- e⁄d
----- 10   3.7  = – 2log 10  ---------- (2-17)
fD   3.7 
An alternative to Haaland equation is the Swamee-Jain equation (Ref. 6)
0.25
f D = --------------------------------------------------------------------2- (2-18)
 log   e--------- ⁄ d- 5.74 - 
-----------------
 10   3.7  + ( Re ) 0.9 
The equation is valid for relative roughness 1·10-6 < e/d < 1·10-2 and for Reynolds
number in the range 5·103 < Re < 1·108.
All the above equations are selectable from a list of friction factor expressions. As
noted, only the Churchill equation covers both the laminar and turbulent flows, as well
as the transitional region in between these flow regimes. The equations by Wood,
Haaland, Colebrook, von Karman, or Swamee-Jain, intended for the turbulent regime,
are combined with the Stokes equation for laminar flow to cover all flow conditions.
When Re<1000, COMSOL Multiphysics selects Stokes equation if it predicts a friction
factor greater than equations for the turbulent regimes. This produces more accurate
results that using the turbulent frictions factors in the laminar regime, but it does not
necessarily produce accurate estimates of the friction factor in the transition region.
Therefore, it is always advisable to check the Reynolds number for a give pipe flow
solution and change the friction model and recalculate, if necessary.
The Newtonian fluid type also has two Gas-Liquid options, which employs a simple
two-phase approach presented by Balasubramaniam and others (Ref. 25). This is a
one-fluid approach that treats the fluid as one phase (one mass and momentum balance
is solved), but it corrects the pressure drop correlation with empirical factors for
liquid-gas mixtures. As such, the model also makes the following assumptions:
• The velocity of the gas and liquid phases are the same, meaning that no liquid
holdup is accounted for.
• No phase separation occurs due to gravity or other effects.
• No phase transition (condensation or vaporization) is assumed.
• The gas phase-fraction is assumed to be small so that the mixture is virtually
incompressible.
The first selectable method is the gas-liquid, friction factor multiplier, which
modifies the single-phase Newtonian Darcy friction factor defined in Equation 2-8 and
on, such that

2
fD = Φ 2P ⋅ f D, L (2-19)
where fD,L is the Newtonian single phase friction factor computed as described earlier
in this section. fD is then used as usual in the pressure drop correlation in Equation 2-4.
2
The two-phase friction factor Φ 2P is calculated as (Ref. 25)
2 ρL ( ρL – ρG ) ( μL – μG ) –1 ⁄ 4
Φ 2P = ------ 1 + ω G ------------------------ 1 + ω G ------------------------ (2-20)
ρ ρG μG
where ρL, μL, ρG, and μG are the density and viscosity of the liquid, and gas,
respectively, and where ωG is the quality (the gas phase mass fraction). The total
density in Equation 2-20 is calculated as
ρ = φ G ρ G + ( 1 – φ G )ρ L (2-21)
or
1
ρ = ------------------------------------- (2-22)
ωG ( 1 – ωG )
------- + ----------------------
ρG ρL
where φ G is the user provided volumetric void fraction. The user has a choice to either
enter gas phase mass fraction ωG or volumetric void fraction φ G . The conversion
formula between the two is
ρ
φ G = ------- ω G (2-23)
ρG
The second selectable gas-liquid method is the gas-liquid, effective Reynolds number.
This method uses an effective adjusted viscosity to calculate the Reynolds number in
the pressure loss calculations. The default mixture viscosity model is the extended
Einstein, which probably is the most accurate within a large range of gas mass fractions
(Ref. 26):
– ( μ L + 2.5μ G ) ⁄ ( μ L + μ G )
μ = μL ( 1 – φG ) (2-24)
and the other options are
Linear average
μ = μL ( 1 – φG ) + μG φG (2-25)
Reciprocal average

( 1 – φG ) φG
--1- = --------------------
- + ------- (2-26)
μ μL μG
Liquid viscosity
μ = μL (2-27)
User defined.
Non-Newtonian Power-law Fluids For Power-law fluids the apparent viscosity is

related to the shear rate as
∂γ n–1
μ = m  ----- (2-28)
∂t
where m and n are two empirical curve fitting parameters known as the fluid
consistency coefficient and the flow behavior index, respectively. In the laminar regime
the friction factor for power law fluids can be calculated by the Stokes equation using
the modified Reynolds number proposed by Metzner and Reed (Ref. 7):
64
f D = -------------- (2-29)
Re MR
(2 – n) n
ρu dh
Re MR = ------------------------------------------------n- (2-30)
( n – 1 )  3n + 1
8 m -----------------
 4n 
For the turbulent regime Irvine (Ref. 8) proposed the following expression for the
friction factor:
 ----------------
1 -
 3n + 1
D( n)
fD = 4  -------------- (2-31)
 Re MR
where
(n + 4) 2
4n - 3n
2 -  ----------------
D ( n ) = ---------------- (2-32)
7n  3n + 1
7
Ryan and Johnson (Ref. 9) formulated a criterion for the transition between laminar
and turbulent flow, where

2
-------------
+n
6464n  1 + n
Re MR = -----------------------2- ( 2 + n ) (2-33)
( 3n + 1 )
predicts the critical Reynolds number.
Non-Newtonian Bingham Plastic Model. The Bingham model describes viscoplastic

fluid with a yield stress:
∂γ
τ = τ B + μ B  ----- for τ > τ B
 ∂t
(2-34)
 ∂γ
----- = 0 for τ < τ B
 ∂t
The yield stress, τB (SI unit: Pa), and the plastic viscosity, μB (SI unit: Pa·s), are found
by curve fitting to experimental data.
The Swamee-Aggarwal equation (Ref. 10) gives the friction factor for a Bingham
plastic fluid in the laminar regime according to:
He 1.143
10.67 + 0.1414  ----------
 Re 
-  ---------
64 B He-
f D, laminar = ---------- + ------------------------------------------------------------------- (2-35)
Re B   ----------
He 1.16
 Re  Re B

 1 + 0.149  Re B  B
where
ρud h
Re B = -------------- (2-36)
μB
and
ρd h τ B
He = ----------------
2
(2-37)
μB
is the Hedström number.
For turbulent flow Darby (Ref. 11) provided the equation:
a – 0.193
f D, turbulent = 4 ⋅ 10 0 Re B (2-38)
with

–5
a 0 = -1.47 ( 1 + exp ( -2.9 ⋅ 10 He ) ) (2-39)
as well as an equation covering all flow regimes:
1
---
b b b
fD = ( f D, laminar + f D, turbulent ) (2-40)
where
40000
b = 1.7 + ---------------- (2-41)
Re B
The non-Newtonian friction models outlined above do not include any

effects of wall roughness. Since the laminar sub-layers tend to be thicker
than non-Newtonian than for Newtonian fluids, the effect of pipe
roughness is likely to be smaller. Friction models including the surface
roughness can be used as user-defined specifications and can be found in
for example (Ref. 12).
The non-Newtonian friction models outlined above apply for pipes with circular
cross-section. The generalized Reynolds number needs to be modified to account for
other cross-sections.
Surface Roughness
Values of the absolute surface roughness found in the literature (Ref. 13 and Ref. 14)
are reproduced in the table below:
TABLE 2-3: SURFACE ROUGHNESS
TUBE MATERIAL SURFACE ROUGHNESS (MM)
Smooth 0
Drawn tubing 0.0015
Glass 0.0015
Thermoplastics 0.0015
Commercial steel and wrought iron 0.046
Steel, welded seamless 0.061
Asphalted cast iron 0.12
Galvanized iron 0.15
Cast-iron 0.26

TABLE 2-3: SURFACE ROUGHNESS
TUBE MATERIAL SURFACE ROUGHNESS (MM)
Wood stave 0.18–0.9

Concrete 0.3–3
Riveted steel 0.9–9
Copper and brass 0.61
References for the Pipe Flow Interface

1. S.W. Churchill, “Friction factor equation spans all fluid-flow regimes”, Chem. Eng.,
vol. 84. no. 24, pp. 91–92, 1997.
2. D.J. Wood, “An explicit friction factor relationship”, Civil Engrs., ASCE 60, 1966.
3. S.E. Haaland, “Simple and explicit formulas for the friction factor in turbulent
flow,” J. Fluids Engineering (ASME), vol. 103, no. 5, pp. 89–90, 1983.
4. C.F. Colebrook, “Turbulent flow in pipes with particular reference to the transition
region between the smooth and rough pipe laws”, J. Inst. Civil Engineers, London,
vol. 11, pp. 133–156, 1939.
5. R.J. Houghtalen, N.H.C. Hwang, and A.O. Akan, Fundamentals of Hydraulic

Engineering Systems, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, p. 63, 2009.
6. P.K Swamee and A.K. Jain, “Explicit Equations for Pipe-flow Problems”, J.
Hydraulics Division (ASCE), vol. 102, no. 5, pp. 657–664, 1976.
7. A.B. Metzner and J.C. Reed, “Flow of non-Newtonian fluids — correlation of the
laminar, transition, and turbulent-flow regions”, AIChE Journal, vol. 1, no.4, pp.
434–440, 1955.
8. T.F. Irvine, Chem Eng Commun, vol. 65, p. 39, 1988.
9. N.W. Ryan and M.M. Johnson, “Transition from laminar to turbulent flow in
pipes”, AIChE Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 433–435, 1959.
10. P.K. Swamee and N. Agarwal, “Explicit equations for laminar flow of Bingham
plastic fluids”, J Petroleum Science and Engineering, vol. 76, no. 3–4, pp. 178–184,
2011.
11. R. Darby, R. Mun, and D.V. Boger, “Predict Friction Loss in Slurry Pipes”, Chem
Eng, vol. 99, p. 116, 1992.

12. R.P. Chhabra and J.F. Richardson, Non-Newtonian Flow in the Process
Industries: Fundamentals and Engineering Applications, Butterworth Heinemann,
p. 111, 2004.
13. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume. 1, 4th ed.,
Pergamon Press, p. 56, 1990.
14. Engineering and Design Liquid Process Piping, Department of the Army, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, Engineering Manual No.1110-1-4008, 1999.
15. R.P. Chhabra and J.F. Richardson, Non-Newtonian Flow in the Process
Industries: Fundamentals and Engineering Applications, Butterworth Heinemann,
p. 111 and 140–149, 2004.
16. C.L. Barnard et. al., “A Theory of Fluid Flow in Compliant Tubes”, Biophysical
Journal, vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 717–724, 1966.
17. F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 4th
ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
18. V. Gnielinski, “New equations for heat and mass transfer in turbulent pipe and
channel flow”, Int. Chem. Eng, vol. 16, pp. 359–368, 1976.
19. S.W. Churchill and M. Bernstein, “A Correlating Equation for Forced Convection
From Gases and Liquids to a Circular Cylinder in Crossflow”, J. Heat Transfer, vol.
99, no.2, pp. 300–307, 1977.
20. S.W. Churchill and H.H.S. Chu, “Correlating Equations for Laminar and
Turbulent Free Convection from a Vertical Plate”, Int J Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 18,
no. 11, p. 1323–1329, 1975.
21. G. Taylor, “Dispersion of Soluble Matter in Solvent Flowing Slowly through a

Tube”, Proc. Roy. Soc. A., vol. 219, pp. 186–203, 1953.
22. G. Taylor, “The Dispersion of Matter in Turbulent Flow Through a Pipe”, Proc.
Roy. Soc. A., vol. 223, pp. 446–468, 1954.
23. L.T. Fan and C.B. Wang, “Dispersion of Mater in Non-Newtonian Laminar Flow
Through a Circular Tube”, Proc. Roy. Soc. A., vol. 292, pp. 203–208, 1966.
24. M.V. Lurie, Modeling of Oil Product and Gas Pipeline Transportation,
WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co., KGaA, Weinheim, 2008.

25. R. Balasubramaniam et. al., Two Phase Flow Modeling: Summary of Flow Regimes
and Pressure Drop Correlations, NASA Report No. NASA/CR — 2006-214085,
National Center for Space Exploration Research, Cleveland, OH.
26. M. Ungarish, Hydrodynamics of Suspensions, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, p. 18. ISBN

3540547622 (Berlin), 0387547622 (New York), 1993.

Theory for the Water Hammer
Interface
In this section:
• Flow Equations
• Reference for the Water Hammer Interface
Flow Equations
The Water Hammer interface implements both the continuity equation and the
momentum equations for a compressible fluid traveling inside pipes of variable cross
section.
THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

The mass conservation for a fluid inside a pipe is given by:
∂Aρ
----------- + ∇ ⋅ ( Aρu ) = 0 (2-42)
∂t
where A (SI unit: m2) is the cross section area of the pipe, ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the
fluid density, and u (SI unit: m/s) is the tangential fluid velocity.
For adiabatic processes, the density and cross section area are function of the pressure,
so the continuity equation reads
∂A ( p )ρ ( p )
---------------------------- + ∇ ⋅ ( A ( p )ρ ( p )u ) = 0 (2-43)
∂t
In a first order approximation, this equals
1 ∂p
A 0 ρ 0  ------- + ------- ------ + ∇ ⋅ ( A 0 ρ 0 u ) = 0
1
(2-44)
 K ρ K A ∂t
where Kρ is the bulk modulus of the fluid (the inverse of its compressibility), and KA
is the effective bulk modulus of the cross section area. A0 and ρ0 are the reference area
and reference density at a given pressure p0.
The Water Hammer wave speed c (SI unit: m/s) is given by a combination of fluid and
structural material properties

= ρ 0  ------- + -------
1- 1 1
---- (2-45)
c2  K ρ K A
The effective bulk modulus for the cross-sectional area KA (SI unit: Pa) is given by the
pipe’s material properties
w th
K A = E ---------
dh
where E is the Young’s modulus, dh is the hydraulic diameter, and wth is the pipe’s
wall thickness. This is the so-called Korteweg formula (Ref. 1)
The Korteweg formula can also be extended to pipes suffering from axial stresses, in
this case, a more general formula would include the Poisson’s ration ν of the pipe’s
material
E w th
K A = ---- --------- (2-46)
ζ dh
where ζ = 1 for pipe with zero axial stress (this is Korteweg’s original formula for a pipe
furbished with expansion joints), ζ = 1 − ν/2 for a pipe anchored at one end, and
ζ = 1 − ν2 for a pipe anchored at both ends.
THE MOMENTUM EQUATION

The momentum equation is written as:
∂u ρ
ρ ------- = – ∇p – f D ---------- u u + F (2-47)
∂t 2d h
here, fD is the Darcy friction factor, normally a function of the Reynolds number, the
surface roughness and the hydraulic diameter, as described in Expressions for the
Darcy Friction Factor.
This set of equations are normally acknowledged as the Water Hammer equations, and
are they mainly written in the literature as (consider gravity forces, so F = ρg)
1 ∂p
A ----2- ------ + ∇ ⋅ ( Aρu ) = 0 (2-48)
c ∂t
∂u ρ
ρ ------- = – ∇p – f D ---------- u u + ρg (2-49)
∂t 2d h
THEORY FOR THE WATER HAMMER INTERFACE | 65

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The available boundary conditions are Closed, Pressure, Velocity, and Additional Flow
Resistances.
Reference for the Water Hammer Interface

1. M. Ghidaoui et al., “A Review of Water Hammer Theory and Practice”, Appl.
Mech. Rev. 58, pp. 49–76, 2005.

3
Heat Transfer Interfaces
This physics interface, which is found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) when
adding a physics interface, has functionality for simulating heat transfer in pipe
networks, including wall heat transfer to the surroundings.
In this chapter:
• The Mechanisms for Heat Transfer

• The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface
See The Heat Transfer Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for other Heat Transfer interface and feature node settings.
67
The Mechanisms for Heat Transfer
The Heat Transfer in Pipes interface ( ), found under the Heat Transfer branch ( )
when adding a physics interface, solves a temperature equation for a fluid transported
in a pipe. The physics interface requires the fluid velocity as input, provided either by
the user or by coupling to the Pipe Flow interface. However, it is advisable to instead
use The Nonisothermal Pipe Flow Interface which is a multiphysics interface that
combines Pipe Flow and Heat Transfer in Pipes to model the velocity, pressure and
temperature fully coupled.
The Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids (general convection and
conduction, nonisothermal flow, and conjugate heat transfer), and Joule
Heating interfaces all belong to the COMSOL Multiphysics base package.
See The Heat Transfer Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual for more information.
COUPLING TO OTHER PHYSICS INTERFACES

It is often relevant to couple heat transport in pipe networks to heat transfer in the
region surrounding the pipe network. Simulating the cooling of a mold is a good
example of such an application. The Heat Transfer in Pipes interface or the
Nonisothermal Pipe Flow interface can be used to model the removal of heat in the
cooling channels represented by 1D edges, and couple that heat loss to a 3D model of
the mold. The pipe heat model is automatically coupled to the 3D surroundings.
More extensive descriptions of heat transfer, such as 3D turbulent flow models or

problems involving surface-to-surface radiation, can be found in the Heat Transfer
Module. Furthermore, some cases that involve geothermal applications with
groundflow models for porous media are better handled by the Subsurface Flow
Module.
68 | CHAPTER 3: HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES

The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface
The Heat Transfer in Pipes (htp) interface ( ), found under the Heat Transfer
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to model heat transfer by
conduction and convection in pipes and channels of different shapes, where the fluid
velocity and pressure fields are known a priori. It provides 1D models to define the pipe
flow profile and temperature profiles on curve segments, or lines. These lines can be
drawn in 2D or 3D and represent simplifications of hollow tubes. Wall heat transfer,
including multilayer walls and cladding is included as an option.
The temperature equation corresponds to a 1D convection-diffusion equation that

may contain additional contributions like heat sources.
The Nonisothermal Pipe Flow Interface extends this physics interface by providing
equations to compute the velocity and pressure fields when they are unknown.
Builder — Heat Transfer, Pipe Properties, Temperature, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Heat Transfer in Pipes to select physics features from the context
menu.
SETTINGS
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is htp.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This physics interface defines the Temperature T (SI unit: K) dependent variable (field).
If required, edit the name, but dependent variables must be unique within a model.
THE HEAT TRANSFER IN PIPES INTERFACE | 69

DISCRETIZATION
The default discretization for temperature is quadratic.
• Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Pipes
Interface
• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual
Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Pipes
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface has these boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes
available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac
or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

• Heat Outflow • Pipe Properties

• Heat Source • Temperature
• Heat Transfer • Wall Heat Transfer
• Initial Values
Heat Transfer
Use the Heat Transfer node to define the tangential velocity, density, dynamic viscosity,
and heat convection and conduction properties.

FLUID PROPERTIES

Select an option from the Tangential velocity list — User defined, Tangential velocity
(nipfl/nipfl), or Tangential velocity (pfl/pfl). For User defined enter a value for the
Tangential velocity u (SI unit: m/s).
The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3), Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s), Heat capacity
at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), Ratio of specific heats γ (dimensionless),
and Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) all use values From material. For User
defined enter different values or expressions.
Heat Source
The Heat Source describes heat generation within the domain. Express heating and
cooling with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one or more nodes as
needed — all heat sources within a domain contribute to the total heat source.
HEAT SOURCE
Click the General source, Linear source or Heat rate button.
• For General source enter a value for the distributed heat source Q (SI unit: W/m3).
• For Heat rate enter a value for the heat rate P0(SI unit: W). In this case Q=P0/L
where L is the total length of the selected boundaries.
• For Linear source (Q = qs·T) enter the Linear heat source qs (SI unit: W/(m3·K)).
The advantage of writing the source in this form is that it can be stabilized
by the streamline diffusion. The theory covers qs that is independent of
the temperature, but some stability can be gained as long as qs is only
weakly dependent on the temperature.

Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
Wall Heat Transfer

Use the Wall Heat Transfer node to set up heat exchange across the pipe wall. Define
the external temperature and the nature of the heat transfer. The Internal Film
Resistance, Wall Layer, and External Film Resistance subnodes are available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu. These compute heat transfer coefficients based on the section Theory for the
Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface.
You must add at least an Internal Film Resistance subnode. This

corresponds to a drilled channel in a solid. If a pipe wall exists, (pipe
embedded in a solid), add also Wall Layer. If the pipe wall has more than
one layer, add more Wall Layer features. If the pipe exchanges heat to a
surrounding fluid by forced or natural convection, add also External Film
Resistance.
Internal film External film
Wall layers
Figure 3-1: Internal and external films and the associated film coefficients (blue), and
wall layers (dark and light gray).
HEAT TRANSFER MODEL

Select an option from the External temperature list — User defined, or Temperature
(ht/ht), the latter representing a temperature field calculated by a surrounding 3D solid
physics. For User defined enter a value for the External Temperature Text (SI unit: K). If
an expression is used for Text that is a locally defined variable on the edge, the check
box Take average in adjacent domain should be cleared.

Internal Film Resistance
The Internal Film Resistance subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Wall Heat Transfer parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Use it
to define the film resistance.
Even if you do not expect a boundary layer to build up, the thermal film
theory works well for laminar flow profiles. In fact, there is an analytical
solution available to the Nusselt number for laminar flow in circular tubes
(Nu = 3.66).
FILM RESISTANCE
The default Internal film resistance model is Automatic and the Nusselt number is
computed as described in the section Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface.
For User defined enter a value for the Nusselt number (dimensionless). The default is
3.66.
External Film Resistance

The External Film Resistance subnode is available from the context menu (right-click
the Wall Heat Transfer parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Use
it to define the external film resistance features including the material, thermal
conductivity, density, external velocity, and pressure of the external fluid. You can select
between forced and natural convection.
SPECIFICATION
Select an External film heat transfer model — External forced convection (the default),
External natural convection, or User defined.
External Forced Convection and External Natural Convection

For External forced convection or External natural convection the Surrounding fluid uses
the Domain material by default.
Be careful to select the right material in the Settings window for External
Film Resistance. Many times this should be another material than the
Domain material which is the internal fluid.

The default Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), Thermal
conductivity k (SI unit: W/(m·K)), Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3), and Dynamic viscosity
μ (SI unit: Pa·s), all use values From material. For User defined enter different values or
expressions than the default, which is 0 for all options.
The External velocity uext (SI unit: m/s) is User defined by default. This is the velocity
of the cooling or heating fluid outside the pipe.
For External natural convection only, also enter a value or expression for the External
pressure pext (SI unit: Pa). The default is 1 atm.
The natural convection correlations (see External Film Resistance under

The Heat Transfer Equation in the section Theory for the Heat Transfer
in Pipes Interface) require a temperature dependent density, or else the
coefficient of thermal expansion β evaluates to 0 (Equation 3-26), which
might generate unexpected results or even unstable models. Also, make
sure that the density correlation ρ(T) is smooth throughout the
temperature interval used, or else β is discontinuous and can cause
numerical instability.
Figure 3-2: Before you use the Natural Convection option, it is good practice to select
Density in the used material, and click Plot in the Settings window. That way you can
inspect the behavior and make sure it is smooth within the temperature interval you plan
to use it.
User Defined
For User defined:
• Enter the Nusselt number (dimensionless). The default is 3.66.

• The Surrounding fluid uses the Domain material by default.

• The Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) takes its value From material. For
User defined enter a different value or expression. The default is 0 W/(m·K).
• Enter a value or expression for the External pressure pext (SI unit: Pa). The default
is 1 atm).
Wall Layer
The Wall Layer subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Wall Heat
Transfer parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Use it to define the
thermal conductivity and wall thickness. You can add more layers.
SPECIFICATION
Select an option from the Thermal conductivity list k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) — Not set (the
default) or User defined to enter a different value or expression. The default is
0 W/(m·K).
Select an option from the Wall thickness list Δw (SI unit: m) — Not set (the default) or
User defined. For User defined enter a value or expression. The default is 0 m.

one layer, add more Wall Layer features.
Internal film External film
Wall layers
Figure 3-3: Internal and external films and the associated film coefficients (blue), and
wall layers (dark and light gray).

Wall Heat Transfer, Inner
Use the Wall Heat Transfer, Inner node to set up heat exchange across the pipe wall.
This feature is only applicable if Concentric circular annular is selected as Pipe Shape in
the Pipe Properties node. Define the core temperature Tcore and the nature of the heat
transfer. The Internal Film Resistance and Wall Layer subnodes are available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu. These compute heat transfer coefficients based on the section Theory for the
Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface.

one layer, add more Wall Layer features.
Internal film Core
Wall layers
Figure 3-4: Internal film (blue) and wall layer (light gray).
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the temperature that can serve as an
initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Temperature T (SI unit: K).
Temperature
Use the Temperature node to specify the temperature at an inlet of the pipe system.

TEMPERATURE
The equation for this condition is T = T0, where T0 is the prescribed temperature
(SI unit: K) on the boundary. Enter the value or expression for the Temperature Tin.
The default is 293.15 K.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.
Heat Outflow
The Heat Outflow node provides a suitable boundary condition for
convection-dominated heat transfer at outlet boundaries. In a model with convective
heat transfer, this condition states that the only heat transfer over a boundary is by
convection. The temperature gradient in the normal direction is zero, and there is no
radiation. This is usually a good approximation of the conditions at an outlet boundary
in a heat transfer model with fluid flow.

Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface and The Reacting Pipe Flow Interface theory is
described in this section:
• The Heat Transfer Equation

• Reference for the Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface
The Heat Transfer Equation

This physics interface solves an energy balance equation for 1D pipes, taking the flow
velocity as input.
HEAT BALANCE EQUATION

The energy equation for an incompressible fluid flowing in a pipe is (Ref. 24):
∂T ρA 3
ρAC p ------- + ρAC p u ⋅ ∇T = ∇ ⋅ Ak ∇T + f D ---------- u + Q + Q wall + Q p (3-1)
∂t 2d h
where ρ is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3), A is the pipe cross section area
(SI unit: m2) available for flow, Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the heat capacity at constant
pressure, T (SI unit: K) is the temperature. u is a velocity field. For information about
the tangential velocity in pipe flow, see Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface. Further, k
(SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the thermal conductivity. The second term on the right hand
side corresponds to friction heat dissipated due to viscous shear. Q (SI unit: W/m)
represents a general heat source and Qwall (SI unit: W/m) represents external heat
exchange through the pipe wall. Note that the Qwall term is detailed below.
An additional term Qp can be added to the right-hand side of the equation by enabling
the Pressure Work check box:
TA ∂ρ ∂p
Q p = – --------  -------  ------- + u ⋅ ∇p (3-2)
ρ  ∂T  ∂T 
This term is optional and can be used if the pressure drop is expected to be
considerable and the fluid is compressible. The contribution follows the same theory

as the pressure work term described in the section The Nonisothermal Flow and
Conjugate Heat Transfer Equations in the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide.
Wall Heat Transfer

The radial heat transfer from the surroundings into the pipe is given by
Q wall = ( hZ ) eff ( T ext – T ) (W/m) (3-3)
In Equation 3-3, (hZ)eff is an effective value of the heat transfer coefficient h

(SI unit: W/(m2·K)) times the wall perimeter Z (SI unit: m) of the pipe. Text
(SI unit: K) the external temperature outside of the pipe. See Figure 3-5. Qwall appears
as a source term in the pipe heat transfer equation, Equation 3-1.
The Wall Heat Transfer feature requires the external temperature and at least an
internal film resistance subnode added to it. The individual contributions of heat
transfer coefficients can be added by subnodes to the Wall Heat Transfer feature. The
subnodes are:
• Internal Film Resistance

• Wall Layer
• External Film Resistance
Text in Equation 3-3 can be a constant, parameter, expression, or given by a

temperature field computed by another physics interface, typically a 3D Heat Transfer
interface. h is automatically calculated through film resistances and wall layers that are
added as subnodes; see Equation 3-17 an on.
If Text is given as the temperature field computed by another 3D Heat Transfer

interface, automatic heat transfer coupling is done to the 3D physics side as a line
source. The temperature coupling between the pipe and the surrounding domain is
implemented as a line heat source in the 3D domain. The source strength is
proportional to the temperature difference (Equation 3-3) between the pipe fluid and
the surrounding domain.
THEORY FOR THE HEAT TRANSFER IN PIPES INTERFACE | 79

The overall heat transfer coefficient including internal film resistance, wall resistance
and external film resistance can be deduced as follows, with reference to Figure 3-5.
Layered pipe wall
r1
r0
rN
dr Δwn
T
Fluid domain T1
T T0
T2 Tn
TN
Text
Wall number: 1 2 n N
r0 r
Figure 3-5: Temperature distribution across the pipe wall.
• rn (SI unit: m) is the outer radius of wall n

• w = r − r0 (SI unit: m) a wall coordinate, starting at the inner radius r0
• Δwn = rn − rn−1 (SI unit: m) the wall thickness of wall n
• Zn (SI unit: m) is the outer perimeter of wall n
• hint and hext are the film heat transfer coefficients on the inside and outside of the
tube, respectively (SI unit: W/(m2·K)).
• kn is the thermal conductivity (SI unit: W/(m·K)) of wall n
Shell balance In Figure 3-5, consider a short length section ΔL of pipe, perpendicular
to the figure plane. The heat leaving the internal fluid of that segment into the wall is
Q 0 = h int A Q ⋅ ( T – T 0 ) (W) (3-4)
Here, AQ = ΔL2πr0 (SI unit: m2) is the area available for heat flux into the wall. For
stationary conditions that same amount of heat must travel through any cylindrical
shell at radius r in wall 1 (or any wall).
Q 1 = ΔL2πr ⋅  – k 1 --------
dT
(3-5)
 dr 

Rearrange and integrate from r0 to r1.
T1 r0
Q1
 dT = –   --------------------- ⋅ --- dr
1
(3-6)
ΔL2πk 1 r 
T0 r0
Perform the integration
Q1 r1
T 1 – T 0 = – --------------------- ⋅ ln  ----- (3-7)
ΔL2πk 1  r 0
and rearrange
ΔL2πk 1
Q 1 = --------------------- ⋅ ( T 0 – T 1 ) . (3-8)
r1
ln  -----
r0
For the example of two wall layers, the heat flow is equal across any shell from the inner
bulk fluid to the surroundings, and we can set all Q n = Q .
Q = h int ΔL2πr 0 ⋅ ( T – T 0 )
ΔL2πk 1
Q = -------------------------- ⋅ ( T 0 – T 1 )
ln ( r 1 ⁄ r 0 )
(3-9)
ΔL2πk 2
Q = -------------------------- ⋅ ( T 1 – T 2 )
ln ( r 2 ⁄ r 1 )
Q = h ext ΔL2πr 2 ⋅ ( T 2 – T ext )
Substituting
Θ = ΔL2π , (3-10)
and making a linear combination of the equations Equation 3-9 gives
Q = ( hA Q ) eff ⋅ ( T – T ext ) (3-11)
where (hAQ)eff is an effective conductance:
1
( hA Q ) eff = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3-12)
1 ln ( r 1 ⁄ r 0 ) ln ( r 2 ⁄ r 1 ) 1 -
------------------- + -------------------------- + -------------------------- + -------------------
r 0 h int Θ k1 Θ k2 Θ r 2 h ext Θ
For the general case with N wall layers this reads

1
( hA Q ) eff = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3-13)
rn 
N  ln  --------- 
1   r n-1  1
-------------------
r 0 h int Θ
+ 
 ---------------------
k n Θ
-  + ---------------------
 r N ext Θ
h
n = 1 
Now let
( hA Q ) eff
( hZ ) eff = ---------------------- , (3-14)
ΔL
where Z (SI unit: m) is an average perimeter (circumference), of the pipe, taken over
the thickness of the pipe walls. Combine Equation 3-10 and Equation 3-14 such a that
( hA Q ) eff = ( hZ ) eff Θ ⁄ ( 2π )
and insert in Equation 3-13:
2π
( hZ ) eff = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3-15)
rn 
N  ln  --------- 
1 - ---------------- 1   r n-1 

-------------- +
r 0 h int r N h ext
+   ----------------------
 kn 
n = 1 
For a circular pipe cross sections, this effective hZ in can now be used in Equation 3-3.
Note the reversed sign since Qwall is the heat added to the pipe from the surroundings.
The assumption in the deduction above is
• equal temperature around the circumference of the

• the heat transfer through the wall is quasi-static. The latter means that the wall is
assumed to immediately assume the equilibrium temperature distribution
corresponding to T and Text. If this assumption would not be made, an auxiliary
PDE across the wall coordinate would be required.
For square and rectangular pipe shapes the average conductance can be approximated
by the simpler sum of resistances across a plane wall, which can be found in for example
(Ref. 13):
1
( hZ ) eff = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N
- (3-16)
1 1 - w

---------------- + ----------------- n
+ -----------------------------------------------
Z 0 h int Z N h ext k n ( ( Z n + Z n-1 ) ⁄ 2 )
n=1

The film resistances can be calculated from
k
h = Nu ------ (3-17)
dh
where k is the thermal conductivity of the material, and Nu is the Nusselt number. dh
is the hydraulic diameter, defined as
d h = 4A ⁄ Z . (3-18)
• The inner and outer film coefficients is evaluated at (T + T0)/2 and (TN + Text)/2,
respectively.
• The thermal conductivity kn can be temperature dependent and is evaluated at
(Tn + Tn−1)/2.
• To compute dh in Equation 3-18 the local perimeter is calculated as Z = f(w) and
the cross section area as A = f(w). Automatic calculations for circular tubes are done
by the physics interface as Z = 2πr and A = πr2. For rectangular tubes it is
Z = 2(width + height) and A = width · height. For user-defined pipe shapes, the user
can enter arbitrary expressions.
The local temperatures in each radial position of the pipe wall (see Figure 3-5) are
computed considering the fact that Equation 3-3 also can be applied for each
individual wall layer:
Q wall = ( hZ ) eff ( T n+1 – T n ) (3-19)
Combining Equation 3-3, Equation 3-19 and Equation 3-15 or Equation 3-16
(depending on pipe shape) for each wall layer explicitly gives each Tn.
Internal Film Resistance For internal laminar forced convection in fully developed
pipe flow, the Nusselt number is a constant that depends on the pipe cross-section.
Values are listed in the table below (Ref. 1). The Pipe Flow interface interpolates to
find values for width/height ratios not listed. Default settings for film coefficient
calculations are “Automatic”, which means that laminar and turbulent correlations are
applied according to the Re number.
TABLE 3-1: NUSSELT NUMBERS FOR INTERNAL LAMINAR PIPE FLOW
CROSS SECTION WIDTH/HEIGHT NU
circular - 3.66
square 1 2.98
rectangular 1.43 3.08

TABLE 3-1: NUSSELT NUMBERS FOR INTERNAL LAMINAR PIPE FLOW
CROSS SECTION WIDTH/HEIGHT NU
rectangular 2 3.39
rectangular 3 3.96
rectangular 4 4.44
rectangular 8 5.60
parallel plates infinity 7.54
For user-defined cross sections, Nu is suggested to 3.66 as a default.
For internal turbulent forced convection (3000 < Re < 6·106, 0.5 < Pr < 2000), the
Gnielinski equation (Ref. 18) applies:
( f D ⁄ 8 ) ( Re – 1000 )Pr
Nu int = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
1⁄2 2⁄3
- (3-20)
1 + 12.7 ( f D ⁄ 8 ) ( Pr – 1)
Where Pr is the Prandtl number:
Cp μ
Pr = ----------- (3-21)
k
The film resistance due in the internal flow can be calculated using material properties
defined in the Heat Transfer feature and the calculated friction factor. Material
properties are evaluated at the mean internal film temperature (T + T0)/2 (see
Expressions for the Darcy Friction Factor).
The using the hydraulic diameter makes the equations applicable to non-circular pipe
cross sections.
External Film Resistance The material properties used should be those of the external
fluid. Do not set the material to Domain Material if you have a different fluid on the
inside and outside. Typically, the temperature and pressure are required to evaluate the
material functions. The external fluid velocity is required for the Forced Convection
option and is a user-defined input.
For External forced convection around a pipe, valid for all Re and for Pr > 0.2, the
Churchill and Bernstein (Ref. 19) correlation is used:
1⁄2 1⁄3
0.62Re Pr 5⁄8 4⁄5
Nu ext = 0.3 + -------------------------------------------------------
1 ⁄ 4
[ 1 + ( Re ⁄ 282000 ) ] . (3-22)
2⁄3
[ 1 + ( 0.4 ⁄ Pr ) ]

For External natural convection around a pipe, the Churchill and Chu (Ref. 20)
correlation is used which is recommend for Ra < 1012:
1⁄6 2
 0.387Ra 
Nu ext =  0.60 + -------------------------------------------------------------------
8 ⁄ 27 
(3-23)
 9 ⁄ 16 
[ 1 + ( 0.559 ⁄ Pr ) ]
where the Rayleigh number is given by:
Ra = PrGr (3-24)
and the Grashof number is:
3
gβ T N – T ext d
Gr = ----------------------------------------
- (3-25)
μ
2
---
 ρ
Above d is the outside diameter of the pipe and, β is the fluid’s coefficient of
volumetric thermal expansion:
1 ∂ρ
β = – ---  ------- (3-26)
ρ ∂T p
Material properties are evaluated at (TN + Text)/2.
STABILIZATION OF THE HEAT TRANSFER EQUATION

The transport equation in the Heat Transfer in Pipes interface is numerically stabilized.

Manual
Reference for the Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface

1. F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 4th
ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

4
Chemical Species Transport Interfaces
This chapter has information about the physics interfaces found under the
Chemical Species Transport branch ( ).
In this chapter:
• The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface

• The Reacting Pipe Flow Interface
• Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface
See The Transport of Diluted Species Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual for other Chemical Species Transport interface and feature
node settings.
87
The Transport of Diluted Species in
Pipes Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species in pipes (dsp) interface ( ), found under the Chemical
Species Transport branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to model a mass
balance equation for pipes in order to compute the concentration distribution of a
solute in a dilute solution, taking into account diffusion, dispersion, convection, and
chemical reactions. The physics interface approximates the concentration profile in
pipes and channels by a 1D assumption on lines in 2D and 3D. Depending on
additional add-on products, multiple species can be modeled.
Builder — Convection and Diffusion, Concentration, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions
and volume forces. You can also right-click Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes to select
The Reacting Pipe Flow Interface node uses this physics interface and couples it
automatically to Pipe Flow and Heat Transfer in pipes.
SETTINGS
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is dsp.
FLUID MODEL
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This physics interface defines these dependent variables (fields) — Number of
concentrations c (SI unit: mol/m3) and Concentrations.
88 | CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

If required, edit the name, but dependent variables must be unique within a model:
To enable multiple species (more than one concentration), you need a

license for one of these modules: Batteries & Fuel Cells Module, CFD
Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module,
Electrodeposition Module, Microfluidics Module, or the Subsurface
Flow Module.
Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
• Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species in Pipes Interface
• Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface

The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface has these boundary, edge, point,
and pair nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).:

• Concentration • Pipe Properties

• Convection and Diffusion • Reactions
• Initial Values • Wall Mass Transfer
• Mass Outflow
THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN PIPES INTERFACE | 89

Convection and Diffusion
Use the Convection and Diffusion node to define the fluid properties, velocity, diffusion
coefficient, and dispersion model. This node as present by default.
FLUID PROPERTIES
Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often described as thick,
such as oil, have a higher viscosity.
VELOCITY
Enter a value or expression for the Tangential velocity u (SI unit: m2/s). The default
is 0 m2/s.
DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT
Enter a value or expression for the diffusion coefficient Dc (SI unit: m2/s). The default
is 1 × 10-9 m2/s.
DISPERSION
Select a Dispersion model — User defined (the default), Taylor (laminar, circular cross
section), or Taylor (turbulent, circular cross section). For User defined, enter a value or
expression for the Dispersion coefficient DD (SI unit: m2/s). The default is 0 m2/s.
Find more detail in the theory section Dispersion.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the concentration that can serve as an
initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Concentration c
(SI unit: mol/m3). The default is 0 mol/m3.

Reactions
Use the Reactions node to account for the consumption or production of species.
Define the reaction rate expression as needed, which displays on the right-hand side of
the species transport equations in the Convection and Diffusion node.
REACTIONS
Enter a Reaction rate Rc (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)). The default is 0 mol/(m3·s).
Wall Mass Transfer

Use the Wall Mass Transfer node to model species loss to the surroundings of the pipe.
This could be used if the diluted species is soluble in the pipe wall or if the pipe wall is
semipermeable. A mass transfer coefficient is used to model the loss rate, and external
bulk concentration i specified to define the driving force.
WALL MASS TRANSFER

For each species, enter a Mass transfer coefficient kwall,c (SI unit: m/s). The default is
0 m/s. For each species, select an option from the list (when available) or define the
Bulk concentration cbulk (SI unit: mol/m3). The default is 0 mol/m3.
Concentration
The Concentration node adds a point condition for the species concentration. For
example, a c = c0 condition specifies the concentration of species c.
CONCENTRATION
Specify the Concentration cinc (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) for each species. Enter a value or
expression in the field for each species. The default is 0 mol/(m3·s).
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Mass Outflow
Use the Mass Outflow node to define species mass outflow. Mathematically this is
defined so that convection is the sole contribution to species mass transfer. Normally
this constitutes a well posed condition for all outflows.
THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN PIPES INTERFACE | 91

The Reacting Pipe Flow Interface
The Reacting Pipe Flow (rpfl) interface ( ), found under the Chemical Species
Transport branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is a multiphysics interface that
combines the three physics interfaces: Pipe Flow, Heat Transfer in Pipes, and Transport
of Diluted Species in Pipes. The physics interface approximates the flow profiles in
pipes and channels by a 1D assumption on lines in 2D and 3D. Depending on
additional add-on products, multiple species can be modeled.
Builder — Fluid, Pipe Properties, Temperature, Pressure, Concentration, and Initial Values.
Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Reacting Pipe Flow to
select physics features from the context menu.
SETTINGS
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is rpfl.
FLUID MODEL
PHYSICAL MODEL
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].
DEPENDENT VARIABLES


• Temperature T (SI unit: K)
• Concentration c (SI unit: mol/m3)
DISCRETIZATION
Use this section to change the discretization order for the dependent variables.
• The Pipe Flow Interface

• The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface
• The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface
• Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Reacting Pipe Flow
Interface
Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Reacting Pipe Flow
Interface
The Reacting Pipe Flow Interface has these boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes

These nodes are described in this section:
• Initial Values • Fluid Properties

• Convection and Diffusion • Pipe Properties
• Fluid
THE REACTING PIPE FLOW INTERFACE | 93

These nodes are described for the Pipe Flow interface (listed in alphabetical order):

• Inlet • Pressure
• No Flow • Pump
• Outlet • T-Junction
• Phase Fractions • Valve

• Volume Force
These nodes are described for the Heat Transfer in Pipes interface (listed in
alphabetical order):
• External Film Resistance • Internal Film Resistance

• Heat Outflow • Temperature
• Heat Source • Wall Heat Transfer
• Heat Transfer • Wall Layer
These nodes are described for the Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes interface
(listed in alphabetical order):
• Concentration
• Mass Outflow
• Reactions
• Wall Mass Transfer
Pipe Properties
The Pipe Properties node is used to define the pipe shape and flow resistance.

SHAPE
The Pipe Shape settings are the same as for the Pipe Properties node described for the
Pipe Flow interface.
FLOW RESISTANCE
The Friction model is User defined by default. Enter a value or expression for the Darcy
friction factor fD (dimensionless). The default is 0.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the pressure, tangential velocity,
temperature, and concentration that can serve as an initial condition for a transient
simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the:
• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default is 101325 Pa.

• Tangential velocity u (SI unit: m/s). The default is 0 m/s.
• Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default is 293.15 K.
• Concentration c (SI unit: mol/m3). The default is 0 mol/m3.
Fluid
Use the Fluid node to define the density, dynamic viscosity, and heat convection and
conduction properties.
FLUID PROPERTIES
Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often described as thick,
such as oil, have a higher viscosity.
Enter a value or expression for Dc (SI unit: m2/s). The default is 1 × 10-9 m2/s.

DISPERSION
Select a Dispersion model — User defined (the default), Taylor (laminar, circular cross
section), or Taylor (turbulent, circular cross section). For User defined, enter a value or
expression for the Dispersion coefficient DD (SI unit: m2/s). The default is 0 m2/s. For
detailed information about dispersion, see the theory section Dispersion.

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum equations solved by the physics
interface, except for volume forces which are added by the Volume Force feature. The
node also provides an interface for defining the fluid properties of the fluid.
FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is User defined and is 1 × 103 kg/m3.
The fluid model is selected as non-Newtonian, enter a value or expression for the more
parameters like Yield stress τs (SI unit: Pa) and Plastic viscosity μs (SI unit: Pa·s).
Convection and Diffusion

Use the Convection and Diffusion node to define the fluid properties, velocity, diffusion
coefficient, and dispersion model. This node is present by default.
FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is User defined and is 1 × 103 kg/m3.
Enter a value or expression for the Yield stress τs (SI unit: Pa) and Plastic viscosity μs
(SI unit: Pa·s). The defaults are 0 Pa and 0 Pa·s, respectively.
VELOCITY
No user selection is required for the Tangential velocity u.
Enter a value or expression for the diffusion coefficient Dc (SI unit: m2/s). The default
is 1 × 10-9 m2/s.

DISPERSION
Select a Dispersion model — User defined (the default) or Fan (laminar, circular cross
section). For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Dispersion coefficient DD
(SI unit: m2/s). The default is 0. For detailed information about dispersion, see the
theory section Dispersion.

Theory for the Transport of Diluted
The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface theory is described in this section.
This physics interface solves a mass balance equation for pipes in order to compute the
concentration distribution of a solute in a dilute solution, taking the flow velocity as
input.
MASS CONSERVATION EQUATION

The mass transport equation for a diluted species i an incompressible fluid flowing in
a pipe is:
∂c i
A ------- + Au ⋅ ∇c i = ∇ ⋅ ( A ( D i + D D, i ) ∇c i ) + A
∂t  Rik +  Rwall, ik (4-1)
k k
where A (SI unit: m ) is the cross section area available for flow, ci (SI unit: mol/m3)
2
is the diluted species concentration, and u a velocity field. Further, Di (SI unit: m2/s)
is the species diffusion coefficient and DD,i (SI unit: m2/s) is the species dispersion
coefficient. The second term on the right hand side, Rik (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)),
corresponds a source or sink due to chemical reaction number k for species i. Finally,
Rwall,ik (SI unit: mol/(m·s)), is a source term due to mass transfer contribution k
through the pipe wall.
For information about tangential velocity in pipe flow, see Theory for the
Pipe Flow Interface.
Dispersion
The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes interface can automatically calculate the axial
dispersion of species transported in a solvent stream.
For laminar flow in circular straight pipes, the total dispersion is given by the sum of
molecular diffusion, Di (SI unit: m2/s), and the effect of the velocity profile causing
some fractions of an initial plane of fluid in the pipe to move faster than others.
COMSOL Multiphysics uses the Taylor (Ref. 21) correlation for this second
contribution, DD,i (SI unit: m2/s):

2 2
u d
D D,i = ---------------- (4-2)
192D i
This expression is valid if:
L
---- > 0.04 ud
------- (4-3)
d Di
where d is the pipe diameter and L a characteristic pipe length. For turbulent
conditions, Taylor (Ref. 22) suggests:
d fD
D D,i = 10.1 --- u ----- (4-4)
2 2
For non-Newtonian fluids in the laminar regime, Fan (Ref. 23) extended the analysis
of Taylor:
2 2
u d
D D,i = k ------------- (4-5)
4D i
with k for Power-law fluids given by:
1
k = ---------------------------------------- (4-6)
2( n + 3 )( n + 5 )
and k for Bingham plastic fluids:
3 44
--- ------ φ
16
------
2 4 28 5 3 6 8 7 29 8 1 10
------ φ --- --- ------ φ ---
8 
 8 – 35 0 + 15 φ 0 + φ 0 – 15 0 – 5 φ 0 + 5 φ 0 – 56 0 + 5 φ 0 – φ 0 ln φ 0
k = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- (4-7)
2 2 4
2 ( 3 + 2φ 0 + φ 0 ) ( 1 – φ 0 )
The parameter φ0 is
r0
φ 0 = ----- (4-8)
R
where R is the pipe radius and r0 is the radius of the plug flow region in the plastic
flow, defined as
2Lτ B
r 0 = -------------- (4-9)
Δp
This can be rewritten as
THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN PIPES INTERFACE | 99

4τ B
φ 0 = -----------------
T
- (4-10)
d∇ p
where the tangential pressure gradient is calculated by the Pipe Flow interface.
STABILIZATION OF THE MASS TRANSFER EQUATION

The transport equation in the Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes node is
numerically stabilized.

Manual

5
Acoustics Interfaces
This module has extra functionality for simulating acoustics in pipe networks,
which is found under the Acoustics>Acoustic-Structure Interaction branch ( )
when adding a physics interface.
• The Pipe Acoustics Interfaces

• Theory for the Pipe Acoustics Interfaces
See the Acoustics Module User’s Guide for information about all other Acoustics
physics interfaces.
If you do not have the Acoustics Module, see The Pressure Acoustics, Frequency
Domain Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for an
Acoustic physics interface and its feature node settings.
101
The Pipe Acoustics Interfaces
In this section:
• The Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain Interface

• The Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface
• For links to all the physics features, go to Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes
for the Pipe Acoustics Interfaces
These interfaces require both the Pipe Flow Module and the Acoustics
Module.
The Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain Interface

The Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain (pafd) interface ( ), found under the
Acoustics>Pipe Acoustics branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to
compute the acoustic pressure and velocity variations when modeling the propagation
of sound waves in flexible pipe systems. The governing equations are formulated in a
general way to include the possibility of a stationary background flow. The physics
interface can for example be used to compute the propagation of sound waves in
HVAC systems, other large piping systems, or simply in an organ pipe.
In the frequency domain all sources and variations are assumed to be harmonic. The
solved equations assume that the propagating waves are plane. The propagation of
higher-order modes that exist above their cut-off frequency, dictated by the pipe cross
section, is not modeled.
The equations governing the propagation of sound in pipes stem from considering
momentum, mass, and energy balances for a control volume of a piece of pipe. The
resulting equations are expressed in the cross-sectional averaged variables and reduce
the equations to a 1D component with scalar dependent variables. The physics
interface is available in 3D on edges and points, and in 2D on boundaries and points.
In the no-background flow case, the 1D pipe domain can be coupled to a 3D pressure
acoustics model using the Acoustic-Pipe Acoustic Connection multiphysics coupling.
Builder: Fluid Properties, Pipe Properties, Closed, and Initial Values. Then, from the
102 | CHAPTER 5: ACOUSTICS INTERFACES

and point conditions. You can also right-click Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain to select
SETTINGS
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is pafd.
SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL SETTINGS

The zero level on the dB scale varies with the type of fluid. That value is a reference
pressure that corresponds to 0 dB. This variable occurs in calculations of the sound
pressure level Lp based on the root mean square (rms) pressure prms, such that
p rms
L p = 20 log  ----------
1
with p rms = --- p p∗
 p ref  2
where pref is the reference pressure and the star (*) represents the complex conjugate.
This is an expression valid for the case of harmonically time-varying acoustic
pressure p.
Select a Reference pressure for the sound pressure level based on the fluid type:
• Use reference pressure for air to use a reference pressure of 20 μPa (20·10−6 Pa).
• Use reference pressure for water to use a reference pressure of 1 μPa (1·10−6 Pa).
• User-defined reference pressure to enter a reference pressure pref, SPL (SI unit: Pa).
The default value is the same as for air, 20 μPa.
For postprocessing, plot the sound pressure level pafd.Lp, which

depends on the selected reference pressure. You can also plot the rms
intensity magnitude pafd.I_rms or the instantaneous intensity
magnitude pafd.I_inst.
THE PIPE ACOUSTICS INTERFACES | 103

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This section is used to define the dependent variables (fields) for Pressure p
(SI unit: Pa) and Tangential velocity u (SI unit: m/s). If required, edit the name, but
dependent variables must be unique within a model.
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select
Discretization in the Show More Options dialog box. It controls the element types used
in the finite element formulation.
• Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Pipe Acoustics
Interfaces
The Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface

The Pipe Acoustics, Transient (patd) interface ( ), found under the Acoustics>Pipe
Acoustics branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to compute the acoustic
pressure and velocity variations when modeling the propagation of sound waves in
flexible pipe systems. The governing equations are formulated in a general way to
include the possibility of a stationary background flow. The physics interface can for
example be used to compute the propagation of sound waves in HVAC systems, other
large piping systems, or simply in an organ pipe.
The solved equations assume that the propagating waves are plane. The propagation
of higher-order modes that exist above their cut-off frequency, dictated by the pipe
cross section, is not modeled.
resulting equations are expressed in the cross-sectional averaged variables and reduce
the equations to a 1D component with scalar dependent variables. The physics
interface is available in 3D on edges and points, and in 2D on boundaries and points.
In the no-background flow case, the 1D pipe domain can be coupled to a 3D pressure
acoustics model using the Acoustic-Pipe Acoustic Connection multiphysics coupling.
Builder: Fluid Properties, Pipe Properties, Closed, and Initial Values. Then, from the

and point conditions. You can also right-click Pipe Acoustics, Transient to select physics
features from the context menu.
SETTINGS
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is patd.
TRANSIENT SOLVER SETTINGS

Select the Time stepping (method) as Manual (default and recommended) or Automatic/
free and then enter the Maximum frequency to resolve in the model. The default
frequency is set to 1000[Hz] but should be changed to reflect the frequency content
of the sources used in the model. The generated solver will be adequate in most
situations if the computational mesh also resolves the frequency content in the model.
Note that any changes made to these settings (after the model is solved the first time)
will only be reflected in the solver if Show Default Solver or Reset Solver to Defaults is
selected in the study.
The rest of the settings are the same as for The Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain
Interface.
• Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Pipe Acoustics
Interfaces
Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Pipe Acoustics
Interfaces
The Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain Interface and The Pipe Acoustics, Transient
Interface have these edge, boundary, point, and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order,


• Closed • Pipe Properties

• End Impedance • Pressure
• Fluid Properties • Velocity
• Initial Values • Volume Force is described for the
Pipe Flow interface
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the pressure and tangential velocity that
can serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa) and the
Tangential Velocity u (SI unit: m/s).
Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations solved by the
physics interface, except for volume forces which are added by the Volume Force node.
The node also provides an interface for defining the material properties of the fluid.

MODEL INPUTS
Enter a value for the and Background mean flow pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa). This pressure
will also serve as input the material parameters that depend on the pressure.
BACKGROUND VELOCITY
Enter a value or expression for the Background mean flow velocity u0 (SI unit: m/s)
Physically sound background variables for the pressure p0 and velocity u0 can be
obtained by solving a Pipe Flow model on the same geometry.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Select a Fluid model — Linear elastic (the default).
The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and Speed of sound cs (SI unit: m/s) use the
values From material. For User defined enter different values or expressions.
Pipe Properties
The Pipe Properties node is used to define the pipe shape, pipe model, wall drag force,
and flow profile correction factor.
PIPE SHAPE
Select a pipe shape from the list — Not set (the default), Circular, Square, Rectangular,
or User defined.
• For Circular enter a value or expression for the Inner diameter di (SI unit: m). The
default is 10 cm (0.1 m).
• For Square enter a value or expression for the Inner width wi (SI unit: m). The
default is 5 cm (0.05 m).
• For Rectangular enter a value or expression for the Inner width wi (SI unit: m; the
default is 5 cm) and Inner height hi (SI unit: m; the default is 10 cm).
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the Cross-sectional area A (SI unit:
m2; the default is 0.01 m2) and Wetted perimeter Z (SI unit: m; the default is
0.4 m).
PIPE MODEL
Select a Pipe model — Incompressible cross section (the default), Zero axial stress,
Anchored at one end, or Anchored at both ends.

When Zero axial stress, Anchored at one end, or Anchored at both ends is chosen, select
an option from the Young’s modulus E (SI unit: Pa) and Wall thickness Δw lists — Not
set (the default) or User defined. For User defined in either case, enter different values
or expressions.
For Anchored at one end or Anchored at both ends also select an option from the
Poisson’s ratio v (dimensionless) list — Not set (the default) or User defined. For User
defined enter a value or expression for Poisson’s ratio.
WALL DRAG FORCE

Enter a value or expression for τw (SI unit: N/m2). The default is 0 N/m2.
FLOW PROFILE CORRECTION FACTOR

Enter a value or expression for β (dimensionless). The default is 1. For most practical
applications this correction factor is 1 as the propagating waves are assumed plane and
uniform. This value should typically be changed if a wall drag force is introduces or if
a non-plug-flow background flow field is used. The flow profile correction factor is
defined as
β =  ( u ˜ + u˜ )dA 2
˜ + u˜ ) 2 dA ⁄  ( u
 0    0 
where the velocity field is the actual one that exists in the pipe cross section. The factor
thus measures the deviation from a flat background flow profile (plug flow) and a plane
propagating acoustic wave.
Flow Profile Correction Factor
Closed
Use the Closed node to impose zero velocity. This is the default condition added on all
end points.
Theory for the Pipe Acoustics Boundary Conditions

Pressure
Use the Pressure node to define the boundary pressure at the pipe ends.
PRESSURE
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default is 0 Pa.
In the frequency domain p represents the amplitude and phase (if it is complex-valued)
of a harmonic pressure source.
In the time domain enter an expression for the pressure p, for example, a forward
moving sinusoidal wave of amplitude 1 Pa can be written as
1[Pa]*sin(omega*t-k*x), where omega and k are parameters defining the angular
frequency and wave number, respectively.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Velocity
Use the Velocity node to prescribe a velocity at the pipe ends.
VELOCITY
Enter a value or expression for the velocity uin (SI unit: m/s) at the inlet and/or outlet
of a pipe. The default is 0 m/s. The velocity uin is defined relative to background flow
u0 and thus in the tangential coordinate system. Enable the Show physics symbols from
the Graphics and Plot Windows menu on the Preference dialog box in order to visualize
the boundary or edge tangent direction. Click the Fluid Properties node to see the
tangents as a red arrows.

• The Preferences Dialog Box in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Guide

End Impedance
Use the End Impedance node to model conditions at the end of a pipe. The condition
can either model an infinite pipe and thus represent the characteristic impedance of the
pipe system at that point. This results in a zero reflection condition. Alternatively, the
condition can represent the radiation impedance of an open pipe in either a flanged (in
an infinite baffle) or unflanged (a pipe ending in free open space). The end impedance
can also be user defined and could then represent modeled or experimental values for
a specific pipe configuration.
The wave speed c in the pipe can be different from the speed of sound cs
in an open space. It then depends on the elastic properties of the pipe
structure. It is defined in Equation 5-4 in the Governing Equations
section.
The wave speed can be evaluated as sqrt(1/patd.invc2) or sqrt(1/

pafd.invc2) during the analysis and results stage.
END IMPEDANCE
Select an Impedance model.
For The Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface select Infinite pipe (low Mach number limit)
(the default) or User defined. The Infinite pipe (low Mach number limit) models and
infinite pipe by specifying the characteristic impedance at that point. This condition
creates a non-reflecting boundary. The expression is valid for small values of the Mach
number Ma = u0/c. For User defined enter an End impedance Zend (SI unit: Pa·s/m).
The default is patd.rho*(sqrt(1/patd.invc2)), which is ρ·c.
For The Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain Interface select from the following —
Infinite pipe (low Mach number limit) (the default), Infinite pipe, Flanged pipe, circular,
Flanged pipe, rectangular, Unflanged pipe, circular (low ka limit), Unflanged pipe, circular,
or User defined.
• For Infinite pipe enter a Wave number k (SI unit: rad/m). The default expression is
pafd.omega*(sqrt(pafd.invc2)). This end impedance models the infinite pipe
using the full (nonlinear) dispersion relation. It is valid for all Mach numbers but
requires the additional input of the wave number k.
• For Flanged pipe, circular enter an Inner radius a (SI unit: m). The default expression
is pafd.dh/2. This end impedance models the radiation impedance of a circular
pipe terminated in an infinite baffle. It is an exact analytical result valid for all

frequencies and pipe radii. In the low frequency limit it reduces to the classical
results:
Z end = ρc  --- ( ka ) + i ( 0.8216 ⋅ ka )

1 2
2
• For Flanged pipe, rectangular enter an Inner width wi (SI unit: m). The default is 5 cm
(0.05 m). Also enter an Inner height hi (SI unit: m). The default is 10 cm (0.1 m).
This end impedance models the radiation impedance of a pipe of rectangular cross
section terminated in an infinite baffle. The model is only valid in the low frequency
range where kw i « 1 and kh i « 1 .
• For Unflanged pipe, circular (low ka limit) or Unflanged pipe, circular enter an Inner
radius a (SI unit: m). The default expression is pafd.dh/2. These two end
impedance models prescribe the radiation impedance of an unflanged circular pipe
(a pipe ending in free open space). The first model is the classical low-frequency
approximation valid for ka « 1 . While the second model extends the frequency
range to ka < 3.83.
• For User defined enter an End impedance Zend (SI unit: Pa⋅s/m). The default
expression is pafd.rho*(sqrt(1/pafd.invc2)), which is ρ·c.
For a detailed review of the end impedance models see: Theory for the
Pipe Acoustics Boundary Conditions.

Theory for the Pipe Acoustics
Interfaces
resulting equations are expressed in the cross-sectional averaged variables and reduces
the equations to a 1D component with scalar dependent variables. The present theory
assumes no thermal conduction and thus no losses due to thermal conduction
(isentropic sound propagation). The Pipe Acoustics, Transient and the Pipe Acoustics,
Frequency Domain interfaces require both the Pipe Flow Module and the Acoustics
Module.
In this section:
• Governing Equations
• Theory for the Pipe Acoustics Boundary Conditions
• Solving Transient Problems
• Cut-off Frequency
• Flow Profile Correction Factor
• References for the Pipe Acoustics Interfaces
Governing Equations
The continuity equation derived for a control volume is given by
∂---------------
( Aρ )-
+ ∇ ⋅ ( Aρu ) = 0 (5-1)
∂t
and the corresponding momentum balance equation is
∂-------------------
( ρAu )- 2
+ ∇ ( ρAβu ) = – A∇p – τ w Z + AF (5-2)
∂t
where Z is the inner perimeter of the pipe and A = A(x, p,...) is the inner wetted
cross-sectional area, u is the area-averaged mean velocity, which is also defined in the
tangential direction u = uet, p is the mean pressure along the pipe, τw is the wall drag
force, and F is a volume force. The gradient is taken in the tangential direction et. The

term β is a flow profile correction factor relating the mean of the squared total velocity
to the square of the mean velocity. Such that
β =  ----  u˜ dA  ⁄ u
1 ˜
p = ---- p˜ dA
1 1 2
  
2
u = ---- u ⋅ dA (5-3)
A A A 
where
p˜ = p˜ ( x ) and u˜ = u˜ ( x )
are the local non-averaged parameters. Again p and u are the area-averaged dependent
variables.
LINEARIZATION
The governing equations are now linearized; that is, all variables are expanded to first
order assuming stationary zero-order values (steady-state background properties). The
acoustic variations of the dependent variables are assumed small and on top of the
background values. This is done according to the following scheme:
u ( x, t ) = u 0 ( x ) + u 1 ( x, t )
p ( x, t ) = p 0 ( x ) + p 1 ( x, t )
ρ ( x, t ) = ρ 0 ( x ) + ρ 1 ( x, t )
A ( x, t ) = A 0 ( x ) + A 1 ( x, t )
where A0 is often only function of x; however, A0 can be changed by external factors

such as heating or structural deformation, thus the time dependency. The first-order
terms represent small perturbations on top of the background values (zero order).
They are valid for
2
ρ1 « ρ0 p1 « ρ0 c 0 u1 « c0 A1 « A0
Moreover, the perturbations for the fluid density and cross-sectional area are expanded
to first order in p0 in a Taylor series such that
∂ρ
ρ 1 = ρ – ρ 0 = ( p – p 0 ) ------
∂p s
0
∂A
A 1 = A – A 0 = ( p – p 0 ) -------
∂p s
0
THEORY FOR THE PIPE ACOUSTICS INTERFACES | 113

where the subscript s refers to constant entropy; that is, the processes are isentropic.
The relations for the fluid compressibility and the cross-sectional area compressibility
are
1 1 1 ∂ρ 1 1
β 0 = ------- = ------ = ------ ------ = ------ ----2-
K0 Ks ρ 0 ∂p s ρ0 c
0 s
1 ∂A 1
β A = ------- ------- = -------
A 0 ∂p s KA
0
Here, β0 is the fluid compressibility at the given reference pressure p0, the isentropic
bulk speed of sound is denoted cs, and ρ0 is the fluid density at the given reference
temperature and reference pressure. βA is the effective compressibility of the pipe’s
cross-sectional A0 due to changes in the inner fluid pressure. The bulk modulus K is
equal to one over the compressibility.
Inserting the above expansions into the governing equations (Equation 5-1 and
Equation 5-2) and retaining only first-order terms yield the pipe acoustics equations
including background flow. These are:
1 ∂p 1   u0 
A 0 ----2- --------- + ∇ ⋅  A 0 ρ 0  u 1 + -----------2 p 1  = 0
c ∂t   ρ0 c 
2
 ∂u 1 u 0 ∂p 1  u0 
ρ 0 A 0  ---------- + -----------2 --------- + ∇  A 0 β ------ p + 2ρ 0 A 0 βu 0 u 1
 ∂t ρ0 c ∂t   c
2 1
 (5-4)
+ A 0 ( ∇p 1 + p 1 β A ∇p 0 ) + τ w Z – A F = 0
ρ0
----- = ρ 0 ( β 0 + β A ) = ρ 0  ------
1 1
1- ------- 1- -------
----
2  K 0 + K A = 2 + K A
c cs
where c is the effective speed of sound in the pipe (it includes the effect due to the
elastic properties of the pipe defined through KA). The bulk modulus for the
cross-sectional area KA is given by the pipe material properties according to the
so-called Korteweg formula (see Ref. 2). For a system with rigid pipe walls cs = c as KA
tends to infinity.
Using the fact that the velocity is taken along the tangential direction et, the governing
equations are rewritten in terms of the scalar values u and p and projected onto the
tangent. The 0 subscript is dropped on the density and area and the 1 subscript is also
dropped on the dependent variables.

1 ∂p   u0  
A ----2- ------ + ∇ t  Aρ  u + --------2- p  ⋅ e t = 0
c ∂t   ρc  
2
 ∂u u 0 ∂p  u0 
ρA  ------ + --------2- ------ + ∇ t  Aβ -----2- p + 2ρAβu 0 u ⋅ e t
 ∂t ρc ∂t   c  (5-5)
+ A ( ∇t p + p βA ∇t p0 ) ⋅ et + τw Z –A ( F ⋅ et ) = 0
ρ
= ρ ( β 0 + β A ) = ρ  ------- + ------- = ----2- + -------
1-
----
1 1 1
2  K 0 K A
c cs KA
where ∇ t is the tangential derivative, τw is the tangential wall drag force (SI unit: N/
m2) and F is a volume force (SI unit: N/m3).
GOVERNING EQUATIONS
Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface

Finally, the expression for the time derivative of the pressure in the momentum
equation is replaced by spatial derivatives using the continuity equation. This yields the
equations solved in the Pipe Acoustics, Transient interface:
1 ∂p   u0  
A ----2- ------ + ∇ t  Aρ  u + --------2- p  ⋅ e t = 0
c ∂t   ρc  
2
∂u  u0    u0  
ρA ------ + ∇ t  Aβ -----2- p + 2ρAβu 0 u ⋅ e t + u 0 ∇ t  Aρ  u + --------2- p  ⋅ e t
∂t  c    ρc   (5-6)
+ A ( ∇t p + p βA ∇t p0 ) ⋅ et + τw Z –A ( F ⋅ et ) = 0
ρ
= ρ ( β 0 + β A ) = ρ  ------- + ------- = ----2- + -------
1-
----
1 1 1
2  K 0 K A K
c cs A
Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain Interface

In the frequency domain all variables are assumed to be time harmonic such that
p = p˜ ( x )e
iωt
(5-7)
u = u˜ ( x )e
iωt
inserting this into the governing Equation 5-6 (and dropping the tilde) yields the
equations solved in the Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain interface:

A   u0  
iω ----2- p + ∇ t  Aρ  u + --------2- p  ⋅ e t = 0
c   ρc  
2
 u0    u0  
iωρAu + ∇ t  Aβ -----2- p + 2ρAβu 0 u ⋅ e t + u 0 ∇ t  Aρ  u + --------2- p  ⋅ e t
 c    ρc   (5-8)
+ A ( ∇ t p + p βA ∇ t p0 ) ⋅ et + τ w Z –A ( F ⋅ et ) = 0
ρ
= ρ ( β 0 + β A ) = ρ  ------- + ------- = ----2- + -------
1-
----
1 1 1
2  K 0 K A
c cs KA
where ω = 2πf is the angular frequency and f is the frequency.
PRESSURE, OPEN, AND CLOSED CONDITIONS

The simplest boundary conditions to specify are to prescribe the pressure or the
velocity at the pipe ends. These result in the Pressure condition
p = p in
and the Velocity condition
u = u in
and can be set independently of each other leaving the other dependent variable free.
A special subclass of the velocity condition is the Closed condition, where
u = 0
corresponds to the sound-hard wall condition in pressure acoustics. It is also assumed

here that u0 = 0 at a closed boundary.
END IMPEDANCE CONDITION

At the end of pipes the relation between the pressure and the velocity can be defined
in terms of an end impedance Zend. The End Impedance condition is in the Pipe
Acoustics interface given by
 u0   1 u 0
A  ρu + -----2- p = A  ρ ----------- + -----2- p (5-9)
 c   Z end c 

where Zend = p/u (SI unit: (Pa⋅s)/m). Different models for the end impedance exist
in the Pipe Acoustics interfaces. The variety depend on if the transient or the frequency
domain equations are solved.
Transient End-Impedance Models

In the transient version of the physics interface the end impedance can be user-defined
or set to mimic an infinite long pipe for low Mach number background flow
conditions. In this case it is assumed that the pipe continues with constant cross section
A and that there is no external body force F and drag τw. Because the acoustic waves
are, by design, always normal to the pipe ends. In order to define the relation between
the pressure and the velocity (the impedance) the dispersion relation for a plane wave
needs to be determined.
In order to do so insert the assumed plane waveform
p = Re ( p˜ e
i ( ωt – kx )
)
˜
u = Re ( u e
i ( ωt – kx )
)
into the governing Equation 5-6 and solve for the desired relations. After some
manipulation this results in
11 ω
= --- = ----2- ---  ---- – u 0
1- u
----------
Z end p c ρ k
with the dispersion relation
ω u 2
---- = βu 0 ± c β ( β – 1 )  -----0- +  1 – --- β A ∇p 0
1
(5-10)
k  c  k 
This dispersion relation is nonlinear in k. In the limit where βA tends to zero and for
small Mach numbers M (= u0/c), the expression is expanded to
ω u 2
--- β ( β – 1 )  -----0- 
---- ≅ βu 0 ± c  1 + 1
k  2  c 
Hence, the infinite pipe (low Mach number limit) end impedance relation reads
u0 2
= ----2- --- ( β – 1 )u 0 ± c  1 + --- β ( β – 1 )  ------ 
1- 11 1
---------- (5-11)
Z end c ρ 2 c
where the sign in front of c depends on the direction of propagation of the wave.

Frequency Domain End-Impedance Models
In the frequency domain many engineering relations exist for the end impedance or
radiation impedance of a pipe or waveguide. Most of the relations apply only to a
specific geometry or frequency range. The relations available in the Pipe Acoustics,
Frequency Domain interface are:
• Infinite pipe (low Mach number limit): This is the same relation as for the
transient study and the end impedance is given by Equation 5-11. This can be
thought of as the characteristic impedance of the tube.
• Infinite pipe: This relation uses the full dispersion relation given in Equation 5-10
and yields the expression
u0 2
= ----2- --- ( β – 1 )u 0 ± c β ( β – 1 )  ------ +  1 – --- β A ∇p 0
1- 11 1
---------- (5-12)
Z end c ρ c  k 
where the wave number k at the right hand side is a user input. In the frequency
domain a good estimate for this quantity is simply ω/c.
• Flanged pipe, circular: In the case of a circular pipe terminated in an infinite baffle
(a flanged pipe) an analytical expression exists for the radiation impedance (see
Ref. 1),
2J 1 ( 2ka ) 2H 1 ( 2ka )
Z end = ρc  1 – -------------------------- + i --------------------------- (5-13)
 2ka 2ka 
where J1 is the Bessel function of order 1, H1 is the Struve function of order 1, a is

the pipe radius, and k is the wave number. The Struve function is approximated
according to Ref. 3 by
H 1 ( x ) ≈ --- – J 0 ( x ) +  ------ – 5 ------------ +  12 – ------ --------------------

2 16 sin x 36 1 – cos x-
(5-14)
π π  x  π 2
x
In the low frequency limit (small ka) Equation 5-13 reduces to the classical
expression for the radiation impedance
Z end = ρc  --- ( ka ) + i ( 0.8216 ⋅ ka )

1 2
(5-15)
2
• Flanged pipe, rectangular: In the case of a pipe of rectangular cross-section (with

sides wi and hi) terminated in an infinite baffle (a flanged pipe) the radiation
impedance can be approximated by

ρc 2 3 ⁄ 2 wi
Z end = ------  k ( w i h i ) + ik ( w i h i ) f  ------ 
2
kw i « 1, kh i « 1
2π   hi  
(5-16)
1⁄2 –1 –1 –1 ⁄ 2 2 3 ⁄ 2 2 –3 ⁄ 2 2
–1 –1 3 ⁄ 2
f ( x ) = 2x sinh x + 2x sinh x + --- x + --- x – --- ( x + x )
3 3 3
see Ref. 4 and Ref. 5.

• Unflanged pipe, circular (low ka limit): In the case of a circular pipe of radius a
ending in free air the classical low ka limit for the radiation impedance is given by
Z end = ρc  --- ( ka ) + i ( 0.6133 ⋅ ka )

1 2
ka « 1 (5-17)
4
see Ref. 1 and Ref. 5.

• Unflanged pipe, circular: A solution for the unflanged pipe exists for the case when
ka « 3.83 = 1.22π , it is presented in Ref. 6 and is based on solving the
Wiener-Hopf integral, it reads
1+R 2ikaδ
Z end = ρc -------------- R = Re
1–R
– ( ka ) ⁄ 2 
1 + --- ( ka ) ln   --------- + ------ 
2
1 4 1 19 0.5772
R = e γ=e ka < 1 (5-18)
 6   γka 12 
– ka 
1 + ------ --------------2
3 1
R = πkae 1 < ka < 3.83
 32 ( ka ) 
where δ is an interpolation function found by numerical integration for ka = 0,

δ = 0.6133.
Common for the last four radiation impedance relations is that they do only apply
when there is no background flow present u0 = 0 (or at least when it is very small).
Solving Transient Problems

When solving transient acoustic problems where the wave shape is not necessarily
harmonic it might be necessary to resolve its spatial variations with a fine mesh, say
with a minimal scale dx. Now, in order for the numerical solution of the temporal
development of the acoustic field to be good it is necessary to restrict the maximal time
steps dt taken by the solver. The condition is known as the CFL condition (Courant–
Friedrichs–Lewy condition). For transient acoustic problems it is defined as
dt
C = c⋅
dx

where C is the Courant number, and c is the velocity.
For applications where all the shape functions are quadratic the Courant number
should be around 0.2. This condition restricts any acoustic disturbances to propagate
more than 20% of the mesh size dx during one time step dt. In the Pipe Acoustics
interface where a mixed formulation exists, with linear elements for the pressure and
quadratic elements for the velocity, the condition might have to be tightened such that
C < 0.2.
For an example where the CFL condition is used see Water Hammer:
Application Library path Pipe_Flow_Module/Verification_Examples/
water_hammer_verification.
Cut-off Frequency
The Pipe Acoustics interface assumes plane wave propagation. This means that it
cannot model the propagation of the higher order modes that can propagate above
their cut-off frequency fc. In a rectangular pipe of cross-section width wi and height
hi, the cut-off frequency is
f mn = --- c  ------ +  -----

c 1 m 2 n 2
2  w i  h i
In a pipe of circular cross section (with radius a), the cut-off frequency is
c α' mn c
f mn = ---------------
2πa
where α'mn is the n’th zero of the differential of the Bessel function J’m(x) or order
m. The first few values are α'01 = 0, α'02 = 3.83, α'11 = 1.84, and α'21 = 3.05 (see
Ref. 1 and Ref. 5 for further details).
Flow Profile Correction Factor

The flow profile correction factor, β, accounts for the ratio of the integrated local
square velocity field to the square of the integrated local velocity field (see
Equation 5-3). It is defined in terms of the total velocity field (background plus
acoustic variations).

In the case of no-background flow (u0 = 0) β is 1 in the absence of a wall drag
coefficient, as only plane wave modes propagate. If a wall drag force is introduced, to
model some loss mechanism, β starts to differ slightly from 1. This can for example be
losses introduced to model viscous and thermal effects in narrow pipes.
In the presence of a background u0 the factor β can be set different 1 in order to model
a non-flat velocity profile inside the tube. The value of b (and the actual shape of the
background field) influences the convective momentum transfer balances. The places
where β enter the governing equations are multiplied with either the Mach number or
the Mach number squared, indicating that the effects become important for an
increasing background flow.
References for the Pipe Acoustics Interfaces

1. D.T. Blackstock, Fundamentals of Physical Acoustics, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.
2. M.S. Ghidaoui, M. Zhao, D.A. McInnis, and D.H. Axworthy, “A Review of Water
Hammer Theory and Practice”, Applied Mechanics Reviews, ASME, 2005.
3. R.M. Aarts and A.J.E.M. Janssen, “Approximation of the Struve Function H1

Occurring in Impedance Calculations”, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., vol. 113, pp. 2635–2637,
2003.
4. O.A. Lindemann, “Radiation Impedance of a Rectangular Piston at Very Low

Frequencies”, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., vol 44, pp. 1738–1739, 1968.
5. A.D. Pierce, Acoustics: An Introduction to its Physical Principles and

Applications, Acoustics Society of America, 1994.
6. H. Levine and J. Schwinger, “On the Radiation of Sound from an Unflanged

Circular Pipe”, Phys. Rev., vol. 73, pp. 383–406, 1948.

6
Pipe Mechanics
This module has extra functionality for computing displacements, rotations,

stresses, strains in pipes using The Pipe Mechanics Interface, which you find under
the Structural Mechanics branch ( ) when adding a physics interface.
The documentation of The Pipe Mechanics Interface is found in the Structural

Mechanics Module documentation, which is supplied with the Pipe Flow Module
(irrespectively of whether a separate Structural Mechanics Module license is
purchased).
123
124 | CHAPTER 6: PIPE MECHANICS
7
Multiphysics Couplings
This chapter contains a description of all the Multiphysics coupling features of the
Pipe Flow Module.
125
Coupling Features
The Pipe Flow Module contains the following Multiphysics Coupling features:
• Pipe Connection
• Acoustic-Pipe Acoustic Connection
The couplings features are described below.
Pipe Connection
You can easily couple Pipe Flow Interface with Single-Phase Flow interfaces using
multiphysics coupling feature Pipe Connection ( ). The Pipe Connection node is only
available with some COMSOL products (see http://www.comsol.com/products/
specifications/).
The Pipe Connection multiphysics coupling couples a 1D pipe segment modeled with
the Pipe Flow interface with a 3D single phase flow body. There is an automatic search
for possible adjacent geometrical objects. If you want to modify the selections, select
the Manual control of selections check box. If you clear it, the selections will be replaced
by the automatic ones.
If the automatic selection is not sufficient, select the Manual control of selections check
box. Then, select the connected fluid boundaries in the Boundary Selection, Fluid
section and the corresponding pipe points in the Point Selection, Pipe section. You can
connect only one pipe segment to 2D surface that comprises an orifice in a 3D body.
The connection ensure continuity in mass flux and pressure across the connection,
regardless of flow direction.
Convective Flow in a Heat Exchanger Plate: Application Library path

Pipe_Flow_Module/Tutorials/heat_exchanger_plate
Acoustic-Pipe Acoustic Connection

The Acoustic-Pipe Acoustic Connection multiphysics coupling ( ) is use used to couple
the pipe acoustics interface to the pressure acoustics interface. It applies in quiescent
conditions, that is, for zero background mean flow in the pipe acoustic interface. The
coupling is between a point (the end of a 1D pipe) in the pipe acoustics interface and
126 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

a boundary in the pressure acoustics interface. The Acoustic-Pipe Acoustic Connection
multiphysics coupling is only available with some COMSOL products (see http://
www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).
BOUNDARY SELECTION, ACOUSTICS

Select the boundary in the pressure acoustics model that corresponds to the inlet/
outlet of the 3D model coupled to pipe acoustics.
POINT SELECTION, PIPE ACOUSTICS

Select the point in the pipe acoustics model that corresponds to the inlet/outlet of the
pipe model coupled to the 3D pressure acoustics domain.
Acoustics of a Pipe System with 3D Bend and Junction: Application

Library path Acoustics_Module/Tutorials,_Pipe_Acoustics/
acoustics_pipe_system
Probe Tube Microphone: Application Library path Acoustics_Module/

Tutorials,_Pipe_Acoustics/probe_tube_microphone
COUPLING FEATURES | 127

128 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS
I n d e x
A Application Libraries window 16 D Darcy friction factor 51
application library examples expressions for 54
acpr interface 127 dimensionless numbers
nonisothermal pipe flow 43 Grashof 85
pipe acoustics, transient 120 Hedström 59
pipe flow 24 modified Reynolds 58
pressure acoustics, frequency domain Nusselt 83
127 Prandtl 84
water hammer 47 Rayleigh 85
Reynolds 53
B bend (node) 32
documentation 14
bend specification 32
Bingham model 59 E edge nodes
boundary nodes heat transfer in pipes 70
heat transfer in pipes 70 non-isothermal pipe flow 43
nonisothermal pipe flow 43 pipe acoustics 105
pipe acoustics 105 pipe flow 24
pipe flow 24 reacting pipe flow 93
reacting pipe flow 93 transport of diluted species in pipes 89
transport of diluted species in pipes 89 water hammer 48
water hammer 48 emailing COMSOL 16
bulk modulus 114 end impedance (node)
pipe acoustics 110
C CFL condition 119
extended Einstein 57
closed (node)
external film resistance (node) 73
pipe acoustics 108
external film resistance, theory 84
water hammer 50
Colebrook’s explicit formula 55 F flow resistance 28, 53
common settings 13 fluid (node)
compressible flow 44 nonisothermal pipe flow 44
concentration (node) 91 reacting pipe flow 95
Connection 126 fluid models 23
contraction/expansion (node) 33 fluid properties (node) 25, 96
convection and diffusion (node) pipe acoustics 106
reacting pipe flow 96 forced convection 84
transport of diluted species in pipes 90
G gas-liquid, effective Reynolds number 57
Courant number 120
gas-liquid, friction factor multiplier 56
INDEX| 129
Gnielinski equation for Nusselt number n-way junction (node) 39
84 n-way junctions 53
Grashof number 85
O outlet (node) 31
H Haaland equation 55
P pair nodes
heat outflow (node) 77
heat transfer in pipes 70
heat source (node) 71
nonisothermal pipe flow 43
heat transfer (node)
pipe acoustics 105
pipe flow 24
nonisothermal pipe flow 45
reacting pipe flow 93
heat transfer in pipes interface 69
theory 78
water hammer 48
Hedström number 59
phase fractions (node) 28
I initial values (node) physics interfaces, common settings 13
heat transfer in pipes 76 physics symbols
pipe acoustics, frequency domain 106 showing 40
pipe acoustics, transient 106 pipe acoustics, frequency domain (pafd)
pipe flow 29 interface 102
reacting pipe flow 95 pipe acoustics, transient (patd) interface
transport of diluted species in pipes 90 104
inlet (node) 29 theory 112
internal film resistance (node) 73 pipe connection (node) 126
internal film resistance, theory 83 pipe cross section area 78
internet resources 14 pipe flow interface 23
theory 51
K knowledge base, COMSOL 17
pipe properties (node)
Korteweg formula 65, 114
pipe acoustics 107
L local friction loss (node) 49
pipe flow 27
loss coefficients 53
lossless fitting (node) 31
water hammer 49
M mass outflow (node) 91 point nodes
momentum and continuity equations 51 heat transfer in pipes 70
MPH-files 16 nonisothermal pipe flow 43
pipe acoustics 105
N no flow (node) 31
pipe flow 24
nodes, common settings 13
nonisothermal pipe flow interface 42
theory 51
water hammer 48
Nusselt number 83
Prandtl number 84
INDEX| 130
pressure (node) water hammer 64
pipe acoustics 109 T-junctions 53
pipe flow 31 transport of diluted species in pipes in-
water hammer 50 terface 88
Pressure Work 44 theory 98
pump (node) 34 two-phase flow 56
two-phase friction factor 57
R Rayleigh number 85
reacting pipe flow interface 92 U unit tangent vector 52
theory 78, 98
V valve (node) 32
reactions (node) 91
velocity (node)
Reynolds number 53
pipe acoustics 109
Reynolds number, modified 58
water hammer 50
S shell balance 80 volume force (node) 27
showing volumetric void fraction 57
physics symbols 40 von Karman formula 55
single-phase fluids 54
W wall heat transfer (node) 72, 76
stabilization 85
wall heat transfer, theory 79
standard settings 13
wall layer (node) 75
Stokes formula 55
wall mass transfer (node) 91
surface roughness 28
water hammer interface 46
values for 60
theory 64
Swamee-Aggarwal equation 59
websites, COMSOL 17
Swamee-Jain equation 56
Wood equation 55
swirl-correction factor 113
Y Y- junction 37
symbols for physics 40
Y-junctions 53
T T- junction (node) 35
tangential velocity 52
Taylor series 113
technical support, COMSOL 16
temperature (node) 76
theory
non-isothermal pipe flow 51
pipe acoustics, transient interface 112
pipe flow 51
reacting pipe flow 78, 98
INDEX| 131
132 | I N D E X

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Pipe Flow Module

• Support Center: www.comsol.com/support

Part number: CM022801

About the Pipe Flow Module 10

Overview of the User’s Guide 18

Chapter 2: Fluid Flow Interfaces

Mechanisms for Modeling Fluid Flow 22

The Pipe Flow Interface 23

The Nonisothermal Pipe Flow Interface 42

The Water Hammer Interface 46

Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface 51

Theory for the Water Hammer Interface 64

Chapter 3: Heat Transfer Interfaces

The Mechanisms for Heat Transfer 68

The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface 69

Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface 78

Chapter 4: Chemical Species Transport Interfaces

The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface 88

Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes

Chapter 5: Acoustics Interfaces

The Pipe Acoustics Interfaces 102

Theory for the Pipe Acoustics Interfaces 112

Chapter 7: Multiphysics Couplings

Coupling Features 126

The Pipe Flow Module includes these physics interfaces:

Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in the COMSOL Multiphysics

The Pipe Flow Module Physics Interface Guide

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

ABOUT THE PIPE FLOW MODULE | 11

Pipe Acoustics, pafd 3D, 2D eigenfrequency; frequency

Reacting Pipe Flow rpfl 3D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Transport of Diluted dsp 3D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Pipe Flow pfl 3D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Water Hammer whtd 3D, 2D time dependent

Nonisothermal Pipe nipfl 3D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Heat Transfer in Pipes htp 3D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Pipe Mechanics pipem 3D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;

Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes

In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for

ABOUT THE PIPE FLOW MODULE | 13

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

Opening Topic-Based Help

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder click a node or

To open the Help window:

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

To open the Documentation window:

ABOUT THE PIPE FLOW MODULE | 15

The Application Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Opening the Application Libraries Window

• From the Home toolbar, Windows menu, click ( ) Applications

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help

Select Application Libraries from the main File> or Windows> menus.

CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT