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LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers


within a limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory, university campus, or
office building. A wide area network not only covers a larger geographic distance but
also generally involves leased telecommunication circuits.
The two main types of LAN are wired local area network it uses switches and
Ethernet cabling to connect endpoints, servers and Internet of things devices to the
network, a wireless local area network is a wireless computer network that links two
or more devices using wireless communication to form a local area network within a
limited area such as at home, school, computer laboratory, campus, or office
building

How LAN works?


-share a common communications line or wireless link
-consist of a series of computers linked together to form a network in a circumstanced
location

Two main technologies used in LAN


Ethernet and Wi-Fi most commonly technology in use for local area network
Ethernet-is a family of wired computer networking technologies commonly used in local
area networks metropolitan area network and wide area network

BASIC PURPOSE OF LAN


They function to link computers together and provide shared access to printers, file
servers and other services connecting many computers within an organization to each
other and to the internet.

BENEFITS OF LAN
Resource Sharing
All resources are connected to one network, and if a computer needs a resource it can
be shared with another computer including DVD drives, printers, scanners, modems,
and hardware drives
The Relationship between the client and the server
All data of connected computers can be stored on one server like movies and songs
can be stored on a server and accessed by any authorized user.
Internet Sharing
It is which the Internet cable is connected to a server and distributed through the
operating system among the connected computers in the office and internet cafes.
Sharing applications and software
Applications and software can be easily shared over a LAN.
Data Security
Data storage on the server is highly secure. If you want to modify or delete data you can
easily do so on a server computer.
Easy and fast communication
Computers can exchange data and messages easily and quickly. This saves time and
gets things done faster it allows any user to share messages and data with any other
user on the network.
Computer ID
Each computer has its own MAC address, which is temporarily stored on a switch or
router when communicatory. All computers on the LAN can be identified by a MAC
address which can send and receive messages and data. On old computers, network
adapters are not built into the motherboard.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF LAN


Communication Media
•LANs use Twisted Pair Cable
•Many LANs use coaxial cable or fiber optic cable
•Some LANs use wireless transmission media
-easy to set up
-easy to configure
-slower than a cable network
Network Interface Card (NIC)
•Controls the wired and wireless connections of a computer to exchange information
with other computers and the internet.
HUB
•Least expensive and complicated. No intelligence.
•Just directs incoming packets from one port to other.
SWITCH
•More expensive and intelligent
•knows which port is carrying the traffic from which host/interface
ROUTER
•Most expensive and intelligent. Most complicated
•Learns about its neighboring conditions, manipulated data traffic.
GATEWAY
•Tasked with linking networks by performing translation between different protocols and
data formats of the network boundary.
BRIDGES
•Operates in data link layer of OSI model
•is use to connect two different LAN
•reads the MAC address of device
•has only two parts
•does not use any routing table for sending data

Metropolitan Area Network

What is MAN?
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size greater than LAN but
smaller than a WAN. It normally comprises networked interconnections within a city that
also offers a connection to the Internet.
How is MAN formed?
A Metropolitan Area Network is formed by connecting multiple LANs; thus, it covers a
larger geographical area than a LAN. A Metropolitan Area Network is more extensive
than a LAN network but smaller than a wide-area network (WAN).

MAN network example


There are various examples of a Metropolitan Area Network that we can observe daily.
Some of those are:

• Cable TV network
• Telephone networks
• DSL line
• The IUB network
• IEEE 802.16
• WiMAX

Characteristics of MAN
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an interconnection of the local area network
(LAN).
• It is easier to interconnect between the computers.
• Its network range in size from 5 to 50 km, and it could be surrounded by a small
number of buildings to an entire city.
• It has a system for local video surveillance.
• The user generally owns a MAN, and they provide the services to multiple LAN
networks.
• It gives the facility of sharing the resources to the entire region of MAN.
• They can connect LANs to WANs and provide internet connectivity.
• The data rate of the MAN network is medium to high.
• Metropolitan Area Networks gives a high-quality voice, data, and video
transmission. This is the reason to make a MAN network that works in the city.
• It mostly covers the town and cities in a maximum range of 50 km range.
• They mostly used the medium of optical fiber cable.
• Data rates are enough for distributed computing applications

What are the real-life applications of the MAN network?


As Metropolitan Area Network covers an area of 50 kilometers in diameter, it can
positively help people. Some real-world applications of the Metropolitan Area Network
include:

• Campus networks at universities


• Groundwater mapping, urban analysis, and so on.
• In public places such as libraries, hospitals, airports, etc.
• Connecting private establishments such as schools, shopping malls, and others.

Differences between MAN and LAN

• LAN technology is older in origin than WAN


• WAN covers 10x larger area than LAN or more
• LAN supports significantly faster data transfer than WAN
• The average LAN setup is more secure than most WAN environments
• When owned by private entities, LAN is easier to maintain than WAN
• LAN can provide you with better performance due to more bandwidth availability
• LAN and WAN rely on different connectivity technologies
• LAN is more cost-effective to implement than WAN
• Unlike LAN, WAN may be publicly owned
• LAN may offer greater fault tolerance than WAN
• The use of software-defined (SD) technology is more prevalent in WAN than LAN
• LAN is a component of a larger WAN environment

Similarities between WAN and LAN

• LAN may offer greater fault tolerance than WAN


• The use of software-defined (SD) technology is more prevalent in WAN than LAN
• LAN is a component of a larger WAN environment
• Both involve two or more nodes that are being connected
• Both use TCP/IP protocols
• Both LAN and WAN may be wireless or wired in nature
• Both LAN and WAN can be used by consumers and enterprises alike
• They are both susceptible to security vulnerabilities (at varying degrees)
• Both can gain from the cloud

WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)


 A wide-area network (WAN) is the technology that connects your offices, data
centers, cloud applications, and cloud storage together. It is called a wide-area
network because it spans beyond a single building or large campus to include
multiple locations spread across a specific geographic area, or even the world.
 A wide area network (WAN) is a geographically distributed telecommunications
network that interconnects multiple local area networks (LANs).

Wide area network (WAN) is defined as a connected collection of telecommunication


networks that are distributed across a large geographic area spanning multiple cities,
territories, or nations so that the component networks can exchange data within the
defined WAN group. This article discusses the types of WAN to choose from, its
architecture components, and ten best practices for implementation.

Types of Wide Area Network (WAN)


WAN can be classified into two broad categories: switched WAN and point-to-point
WAN
1. Switched WAN
 In a switched WAN network, multiple component LANs are connected via a
shared networking infrastructure. A WAN switching exchange at the center
governs how network resources are distributed across locations, in
conjunction with the network appliances at each location. Switched WAN is
best suited to distributed environments where network configuration
requirements are largely homogenous.

2. Point-to-point WAN
 In a point-to-point WAN environment, two LANs or end nodes are connected
through a dedicated and secure leased line. Old school broadband networks
using dial-up technology are a good example of point-to-point WAN. Modern
enterprises also use this type of WAN to enable secure and customized network
performance between two locations. Each of the two end nodes is further
connected to multiple devices to create a local area network.

CONNECTION OF WAN
 A wide area network (WAN) connection allows devices to connect over a wide
geographic area without utilising public internet. Without a WAN, information can
only travel within the local area network (LAN), such as in one office. For
businesses wanting to collaborate across multiple locations, a WAN is essential.
WAN Connection Types
There are many WAN connections that we use to provide our connectivity to the
internet. Below are the common options for WAN connectivity from the internet
provider.

Leased Line
 This WAN connection type is a dedicated point-to-point link and fixed-
bandwidth data connection. By using leased lined, your network will have a
completely secured and reliable connection, high bandwidth, and superior
quality of service. On the other side, leased lines can be expensive and not
scalable as it is a permanent physical connection.

Digital Subscriber Line


 DSL is a medium used to transfer digital signals over the standard telephone
lines. It uses a different frequency than the telephone is using so that you can
use the internet while making a call. DSL is an older concept that provides a
typical speed of around 6mbps. The good thing in DSL is the bandwidth is not
shared and provides a constant speed.

Cable Internet
 One way to provide broadband internet connection is by using cable internet
from a local cable TV provider. It has quite a similarity with DSL as it also
uses an existing cable modem from cable TV to send data. On this
connection, the speed varies with the number of users on the service at a
specific time.

Fiber Internet Access


 It is the newest broadband connection that provides the highest internet
speed service to the customers. It is also commonly used in
telecommunication backhaul connections because of the higher speed it can
handle as compared to other cables. DWDM, SONET, and SDH are the ISP
backhaul transport equipment that uses fiber optic cable. Fiber optic is also
used in telecom packet switching networks or circuit switching networks.

Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)


 MPLS is a type of VPN that uses labels on forwarding packets instead of IP
addresses or layer 3 headers. It offers optimum security and routing for
customer’s sites. On MPLS, the service provider is participating in the
customer’s routing.

Wireless WAN
 Most of us are using mobile phones that use mobile data to connect to the
internet. The commonly known connection types for wireless WAN are 3G,
4G, LTE, and 5G. It is the services offered by local ISP to provide wireless
internet access to mobile devices via cellular sites. It uses specific
frequencies to provide wider coverage and stronger signal to customers.

Architectural Components of WAN

1. End devices
End devices are computing systems that are being connected through wide
area network technology. These can range from user-facing interfaces like
mobile devices, PCs, and industry-specific workstations to servers, data
centers, and mainframes. End devices in one location are grouped into a
LAN, and multiplier LANs are connected via WAN. The location and nature of
the end device will help you determine the type of WAN technology to use.

2. Customer premises equipment (CPE)


While most of the networking infrastructure used in WAN is owned by the
carrier or service provider, CPE is owned by the enterprise and sits in your
local environment. Different types of CPE are used to improve network
performance and align the infrastructure with business needs. Examples of
CPE include telephones, routers located in your office space, physical firewall
appliances, virtual private network (VPN) hardware devices, and set-top
boxes. Keep in mind that the WAN provider may assist you with CPE
management and maintenance as well.
3. Access points and routers
While access points and routers technically fall under CPE (as they are
located within the LAN environment), they deserve special mention as
indispensable architectural components of WAN. a router is your core LAN
hub and manages data flow to and from your end devices. Modern routers
also have built-in modems, which means that they can receive connectivity
signals from the external network and relay it to end devices from a singular
appliance.

Access points are a staple of enterprise WAN architecture. It lets you extend
the wireless coverage of your local area network so that you can group
hundreds or thousands of end devices spread across a massive office
campus into a single LAN. Once again, access points and routers are both
considered to be CPE.

3. Network switches
Network switches (also part of your CPE) sit between your access points and
routers and the end devices to which they are connected. They forward data
packets coming through the external network and regulate how they are
distributed across your various end devices. Switches can exist in multiple
layers, and their job is to ensure that every device gets the bandwidth it
requires for optimal performance. In an SD-WAN environment, the network
switch system exists purely in software format so that you can
programmatically configure how switches are turned on/off and managed.

4. Local area network (LAN)


LAN is a key architectural component of a wide area network. All the
components we discussed so far (end devices, CPE, access points, routers,
and network switches) are part of your local area network environment. LAN
can comprise just two devices in a consumer-grade use case – a mobile or
laptop and the router + modem combination. On the other hand, an average
office campus will have thousands of end devices and well-articulated
network topology of CPE, access points, routers, switches, etc., which
together form LAN. WAN is used to connect two or more LAN environments.

5. Connecting media
The connecting media carries data packets in a WAN mesh architecture to
and from different LAN components. There is a wide variety of media to
choose from when setting up your WAN, including traditional MPLS lines,
fiber optic cables, the cellular (3G, 4G, or 5G) spectrum, and satellite
connectivity. A complex enterprise WAN architecture will rely on multiple
media to connect end devices with the internet. For example, MPLS lines are
best suited to LAN environments in close proximity, 4G enables high-speed
connections in remote environments, and satellite connectivity is used for
security-sensitive applications.

6. Metropolitan area network (MAN) – optional


A metropolitan area network or MAN is an optional component of WAN
architecture. Instead of directly connecting two or more LAN environments,
you can choose to connect LANs within a relatively small radius using a
MAN. Multiple MANs, then, are interlinked to form a wide area network or
WAN. A metropolitan area network may be implemented in public sector use
cases, where it is necessary to connect schools, colleges, hospitals, and
other institutions in the same city using a single secure network.

7. Unified management portal – optional, but recommended


A unified WAN management portal is becoming increasingly commonplace in
enterprise WAN implementations. This is because WAN can be difficult to
orchestrate and manage, with each LAN hub responsible for network
management for its own location. A unified portal (preferably on the cloud)
gives you holistic visibility into network operations and allows you to configure
bandwidth capacity, speed, performance, and security mechanisms. One of
the biggest advantages of SD-WAN is that it makes it easier to deploy WAN
management portals and streamline network governance for the enterprise.

HOW WAN WORKS?


 WANs are either point-to-point, involving a direct connection between two
sites, or operate across packet-switched networks, in which data is
transmitted in packets over shared circuits. Point-to-point WAN service
may involve either analog dial-up lines, in which a modem is used to
connect the computer to the telephone line, or dedicated leased digital
telephone lines, also known as "private lines." Analog lines, which may be
either part of a public-switched telephone network or leased lines, are
suitable for batch data transmissions, such as nonurgent order entry and
point-of-sale transactions. Dedicated digital phone lines permit
uninterrupted, secure data transmission at fixed costs.

Point-to-point WAN service providers include both local telephone companies


and long distance carriers. Packet-switched network services are typically
chosen by organizations which have low volumes of data or numerous sites,
for which multiple dedicated lines would be too expensive.

Depending on the service, WANs can be used for almost any data sharing
purpose for which LANs can be used. Slower transmission speeds, however,
may make some applications less practical for WANs. The most basic uses of
WANs are for electronic mail and file transfer, but WANs can also permit
users at remote sites to access and enter data on a central site's database,
such as instantaneously updating accounting records. New types of network-
based software that facilitate productivity and production tracking, such as
groupware and work-flow automation software, can also be used over WANs.
Using groupware, workers at dispersed locations can more easily collaborate
on projects. WANs also give remote offices access to a central office's other
data communications services, including the Internet.

Advantages of WAN :
 Increase efficiency
 Easy of communication
 Large network cover
 Share information over the large area
 Message can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network
 It supports the global market and global business
 Centralized IT infrastructure
 Boost your privacy

Disadvantages of WAN :
 It is slow in speed
 It is complicated and complex
 It is difficult to maintain the network
 It is very costly because we have to pay every time for transferring data
 WAN is a big and complex problem
 Very much dependent on the third party because it is a public network
 WAN is not secure and means not reliable
 Security problem
 Training cost
 Maintenance problem
 Require high-performance device

BASICS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT

- Database Management Systems (DBMS) are software systems used to store,


retrieve, and run queries on data.
- DBMS serves as an interface between an end-user and a database, allowing users to
create, read, update, and delete data in the database.

♦Database System Concept

To store and manage data efficiently in the database let us understand some key terms:
1. Database Schema: It is a design of the database. Or we can say that it is a skeleton
of the database that is used to represent the structure, types of data will be stored in
the rows and columns, constraints, relationships between the tables.

2. Data Constraints: In a database, sometimes we put some restrictions on the table


that what type of data can be stored in one or more columns of the table, it can be done
by using constraints. Constraints are defined while we are creating a table.

3. Data dictionary or Metadata: Metadata is known as the data about the data. Or we
can say that the database schema along with different types of constraints on the data
is stored by DBMS in the dictionary is known as metadata.

4. Database instance: In a database, a database instance is used to define the


complete database environment and its components. Or we can say that it is a set of
memory structures and background processes that are used to access the database
files.
5. Query: In a database, a query is used to access data from the database. So users
have to write queries to retrieve or manipulate data from the database.

6. Data manipulation: In a database, we can easily manipulate data using the three
main operations that is Insertion, Deletion, and updation.

7. Data Engine: It is an underlying component that is used to create and manage


various database queries.

♦ Characteristics of Database Approach

Some of the most important characteristics of the database approach to the file
processing approach are the following as follows.

Approach 1:
Self-Describing Nature of a Database System:
- One of the most fundamental characteristics of the database approach is that the
database system contains not only the database itself but also an entire definition or
description of the database structure and constraints also known as metadata of the
database.

Approach 2:
Isolation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction:
- In a traditional file processing system, the structure of database knowledge files is
embedded within the application programs, so any changes to the structure of a file
may require changing all programs that access that file.
Approach 3:
Support for Multiple Views of the Data:
- A database sometimes has many users, each of whom may require a special
perspective or view of the database.

Approach 4:
Sharing of knowledge and Multi-user Transaction Processing:
- A multi-user DBMS, as its name implies, must allow multiple users to access the
database at an equivalent time or concurrently.

♦ Classification of Database System


- Classification of database management system is based on various parameters such
as the kind of data model used to construct the DBMS, the number of users that will be
using the database system, the way in which the database is distributed.
1. Based on Data Model
The data model defines the physical and logical structure of a database which involves
the data types, the relationship among the data, constraints applied on the data and
even the basic operations specifying retrieval and updation of data in the database.
Depending upon how the data is structured, data models are further classified into:

a. Relational Data Model


In the relational data model, we use tables to represent data and the relationship
among that data.
b. Entity-Relationship Model
The Entity-Relationship model (E-R data model) represents data using objects and the
relationship among these objects. These objects are referred to as entities that
represent the real ‘thing’ or ‘object’ in the real world.
c. Object-Based Data Model
The object-based data model is an extension of the E-R model which also include
notion for encapsulation, methods. There is also an object-relational data model which
is a combination of the object-oriented data model and relational data model.
d. Semi structured Data Model
The semi structured data model is different from what we have studied above. In the
semi structured data model, the data items or objects of the same kind might have a
different set of attributes. The Extensible Markup Language represents the semi
structured data.

2. Classification Based on Number of Users


The database management system can also be classified on the basis of its user. So, a
DBMS can either be used by a single user or it can be used by multiple users. The
database system that can be used by a single user at a time is referred to as a single-
user system and the database system that can be used by multiple users at a time is
referred to as a multiple user system.

3. Based on Database Distribution


Depending on the distribution of the database over numerous sites we can classify the
database as:
a. Centralized DBMS
In the centralized DBMS, the entire database is stored in a single computer site.
Though the centralized database support multiple users still the DBMS software and
the data both are stores on a single computer site.
b. Distributed DBMS
In the distributed DBMS (DDBMS) the database and the DBMS software are distributed
over many computer sites. These computer sites are connected via a computer
network. The DDBMS is further classified as homogeneous DDBMS and
heterogeneous DDBMS.

• Homogeneous DDBMS: The homogeneous DDBMS has the same DBMS


software at all the distributed sites.
• Heterogeneous DDBMS: The heterogeneous DDBMS has different DBMS
software for different sites.

4. Based on Cost of Database


Well, it is quite difficult to classify the database on the basis of its cost as nowadays you
can have free open source DBMS products such as MySQL and PostgreSQL.
The large systems along with the components that can handle distribution of database,
replication of database, parallel processing, mobile capability and so on can be sold in
the form of licenses. The site license allows unlimited use while another kind of license
limits the number of concurrent licenses.

5. Classification Based on Usage


On the basis of the access path that is used to store the files, the database can be
classified as general-purpose DBMS and special-purpose DBMS. The special-purpose
DBMS is the one that is designed for a specific application and it cannot be used for
another application without performing any major changes we refer to this as online
transaction processing (OLTP). The OLTP system supports a large number of
transactions concurrently without any delay.
The general-purpose DBMS is the one that is designed to meet the need of as many
applications as possible.

6. Based on Flow Control


Based upon the flow of control from application to DBMS the database management
system is broadly classified into two types’ active database management system and
passive database management system.

• With the passive database management system, the user needs to specify the
query to the current state of the database system to retrieve the desired information.

• The active database management system on other hand are referred to as data-
driven systems or event-driven systems where the control flow between the application
and DBMS is based on the occurrence of an event.

♦ Benefits of Database Approach

• Minimal Database Redundancy


• Improved Data Consistency
• Improved Data Sharing
• Enforcement of Standards
• Improved Data Integrity
• Improved Data Accessibility
• Improved Data Security
• Increased Productivity
• Reduce Program Maintenance

♦ Data Independence

- Data independence is the ability to modify the scheme without affecting the programs
and the application to be rewritten.

There are two levels of data independence based on three levels of abstraction.
These are as follows;

• Logical Data Independence


- Logical view of data is the user view of the data. It presents data in the form that can
be accessed by the end users.

• Physical Data Independence


- Physical Data Independence means changing the physical level without affecting the
logical level or conceptual level. Using this property, we can change the storage device
of the database without affecting the logical schema.
♦ Database Language

• Data Definition Language (DDL) – commands are used to alter/create schema and
metadata of the database.
• Data Manipulation Language (DML) - commands are used to access and
manipulate data stored in existing schema objects.
• Data Control Language (DCL) – commands are used to control the user privileges in
the database system.
• Transaction Control Language (TCL)– commands deal with the transactions within
the database.

♦Database Users
- Database users are granted access to read, insert, update, and delete specific objects
that define a set of fields and business rules. These objects can also update one or
more database tables.
- Database users in DBMS can be categorized based on their interaction with the
databases. According to the tasks performed by the database users on the databases,
we can categorize them into seven categories as follows:

• Database Administrators (DBA)


- Database Administrator (DBA) is an individual or a team of users who define the
database schema and can grant or revoke authorization permission to all other users.

• Database Designers
- Database Designers are the type of database users in DBMS who are responsible for
implementing the overall design of the database.

• System Analysts
- System Analysts are the type of database users in DBMS who analyze the
requirements of Naive / Parametric End users. It is their responsibility to check whether
all the requirements of end users are satisfied or not.

• Application Programmers / Back-End Developers


- Application Programmers also known as the Back-End Developers, are computer
professional users who are responsible for developing the application programs or the
user interface.

• Naive Users / Parametric Users


- Naive users / Parametric End users, don't have any knowledge of DBMS but still
frequently use the database applications to get the desired results using menu-driven
application interface.

• Sophisticated Users
- Sophisticated users have knowledge of DBMS (DDL & DML commands) and are
familiar with the database. Instead of writing whole programming code, they can interact
with the database directly using SQL queries using the query processor.

• Casual Users / Temporary Users


- Casual users also known as the temporary users. They are the type of database users
in DBMS who frequently or occasionally use the database services.

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