The World's Violoncello Schools

Kunstuniversität Graz
Institut Oberschützen
A COMPARATIVE RESEARCH ON THE FAMOUS

VIOLONCELLO SCHOOLS
OF THE 20TH CENTURY
Master Thesis
Jelena Magdalena Šarić
2016
Mentor: Univ.Prof. Dr.phil. MA Klaus Aringer

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this thesis is to recognize each cellist’s connection to another through their
teachers and schools and therefore identify their similarities and their differences.
The problematic in establishing the exact foundation of a cellist’s style of playing is that each
cellist is an individual and may not have necessarily been absolutely influenced by his
schooling. Another difficulty was that many of the available historical materials are limited to
providing basic information such as; a cellist’s teacher and his/her place of study. This is not
sufficient information for the attempt of understanding the origin of a musician’s style of
playing. Analyzing late 20th century cellists has proven to be easier due to accessible
interviews that handle these particular issues in more detail.
Combining a historical overview, a cello ‘family tree’ and an analysis of modern cellists’
technique, it becomes possible to notice the connections between the cellists, which make the
process of tracing them through generations in the past all the more interesting. The historical
overview explains the role the cello played in music in the 17th century and its transition into
becoming a soloist instrument. As cellists began to discover more solutions to technical
problems, composers became more interested in engaging the cello in their compositions,
which in turn encouraged cellists to search for even more possibilities the instrument had to
offer. Violoncello schools began to form, mainly stemming from the two strongest ones in the
19th century; the French and the German Schools. It took one successful student to travel to
Russia and bring the German School there. The Russian School then began to take the lead in
the late 20th century producing great cellists recognizable for their depth of sound. The French
School simultaneously grew, demonstrating its strong and long line through Fournier and
Tortelier, but also its fresh approach through the largely self-taught André Navarra. Cellists
who traveled to the USA contributed to the formation of a global cello school, and were in
general more open to differences in playing. Pedagogical abilities played a great role in the
development of this “family“ line and are therefore discussed in this work, but the focus will
also be on certain individuals who largely influenced the development of cello technique by
performing and composing.
1
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist den Zusammenhang zwischen verschiedenen Cellisten und ihren
Schulen zu erkennen. Durch diesen Prozess kann man die Gemeinsamkeiten und
Unterschiede identifizieren.
Das Problem bei der Ermittlung der genauen Grundlage der Cellisten ist, dass jeder Cellist ein
Individuum ist und nicht unbedingt absolut durch seine Schulbildung beeinflusst werden
musste. Eine weitere Schwierigkeit war, dass viele der verfügbaren historischen Materialien
auf die Bereitstellung von grundlegenden Informationen beschränkt werden, so wie zum
Beispiel: der Cellolehrer und die Universität, wo der Cellist studiert hat. Dies ist keine
ausreichende Information für den Versuch, den Ursprung des Musikspielers zu verstehen. Die
Analyse der Cellisten des späten 20. Jahrhunderts war leichter durch zugängliche Interviews,
die diese Fragen im Detail behandeln.
Durch die Kombination eines historischen Überblicks, eines Cello „family trees“ und einer
Analyse moderner Cellistentechnik wird es möglich, die Zusammenhänge zwischen den
Cellisten zu erkennen, die den Prozess der Verfolgung durch Generationen in der
Vergangenheit umso interessanter machen. Der historische Überblick erklärt die Rolle, die
das Cello im 17. Jahrhundert in der Musik spielte, und dessen Übergang zum Soloinstrument.
Als Cellisten begannen, mehr Lösungen für technische Probleme zu entdecken, interessierten
sich die Komponisten mehr für das Cello in ihren Kompositionen, was wiederum die Cellisten
dazu ermutigte, noch mehr Möglichkeiten zu finden, die das Instrument zu bieten hatte.
Violoncello-Schulen begannen sich zu bilden, von denen die beiden stärksten aus dem 19.
Jahrhundert stammen: die französischen und die deutschen Schulen. Es brauchte einen
erfolgreichen Studenten, um nach Russland zu reisen und die deutsche Schule dort zu bringen.
Die russische Schule fing dann an, die Führung im späten 20. Jahrhundert zu übernehmen und
brachte große Cellisten hervor, die an ihrer Tiefe des Klangs erkennbar waren. Die
französische Schule wuchs gleichzeitig und zeigte ihre starke und lange Linie durch Fournier
und Tortelier, aber auch ihren frischen Ansatz mit dem weitgehend autodidaktisch
ausgebildeten André Navarra. Cellisten, die in die USA reisten, trugen zur Bildung einer
weltweiten Cello-Schule bei und waren generell offen für Unterschiede. Pädagogische
Fähigkeiten spielten eine große Rolle bei der Entwicklung dieser „Familienlinien" und
werden daher in dieser Arbeit diskutiert, aber der Schwerpunkt wird auch auf bestimmten
2
Personen liegen, welche die Entwicklung der Cello-Technik durch Ausführen und
Komponieren weitgehend beeinflusst haben.
3
Contents
1. Historical Overview
1.1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..…6
1.2. The Italian Roots from the 17th Century………………………………………...………...7
1.3. The French School …………………………………………………………………….….8
1.3.1. Founder of the French Cello School………………………………….…………..…8
1.3.2. The Duports and the First Generation…………………………….………………....9
1.3.3. The Second Generation and the formation of the Belgian School............................10
1.3.4. The Third Generation and their Successors…………………………….…………11
1.4. The German School ………………………..……………………………………………14
1.4.1. First Generation…………………………….…………………………………...15
1.4.2. Second Generation…………………………………………….………………..15
1.4.3. The Third Generation and its Influence on the formation of the Russian and
Hungarian Schools…………………………………………………………..……….………17
1.4.4. Julius Klengel, Hugo Becker and Diran Alexanian……………………..…....….19
1.5. The Belgian School…………………………………………..…………………………..22
1.6. The Italian School in England and in the USA……………………………………….…25
1.7. Individual Lines……………………………………………………………….………...29
1.7.1. Luigi Boccherini………………………………………………..…………..……....29
1.7.2. Pablo Casals………………………………………………….…………….……....31
1.7.3. Rudolf Matz…………………………………………………………….…….……36
2. The 20th Century Cello Schools………………………………………………..………...40
2.1. The Russian School: Rostropovich and Shafran……………………….……....…..……40
4
2.1.1. Pedagogy………………………………………………………………………46
2.1.2. Technique………………………………………………………………………50
2.2. The French School: Navarra, Fournier and Tortelier…………………………………….52
2.2.1. Pedagogy……………………………………………………………………...56
2.2.2. Technique…………………………………………………………………...…60
2.3. The American School: Piatigorsky, Starker and Rose………………………………..….64
2.3.1. Pedagogy ……………………………………………………………………..…68
2.3.2. Technique …………………………………………………………………….…72
3. The New Generation of Cellists or the Early 21st Century of Cellism………………..76
3.1. Pedagogy and Technique……………………………………….…...........................77
4. Conclusion………………………………………………………….………………….….78
5. Literature................................................................................................………………....81
5
1. Historical Overview
1.1. Introduction
In order to understand the cellists of the 20th century, it is important to know the history of
their development. „The violoncello, that until now has been looked upon as a miserable,
hated, and pitiful wretch, whose lot was to starve to death for want of a free meal, now flatters
itself that it will receive many caresses.... It conjures up a bliss that will make it weep with
tenderness.“ 1 This quote explains the change of reputation this instrument experienced in the
middle of the 18th century. Until the fourth decade of the 18th century violoncello technique
was dominated by that of the violin and viola da gamba, with the gamba winning in over-all
popularity until then. However, the influence of Italian string players and the growing
demands placed upon the tenor/bass instrumental voice in opera orchestras and in chamber
ensembles proved changes were necessary. The viola da gamba soon became unable to live up
to the 18th century repertoire’s need for precision in pitch, volume in sound and matching
sonority with the other members of the violin family. The Italians were the first to recognize
this stylistic transition, while musicians in the rest of Europe gradually replaced use of the
viola da gamba with that of the violoncello. By the time the Parisians switched their
preferences to the violoncello, the era of the viola da gamba was over. 2
As the instrument’s popularity grew, so did the interest in developing techniques to rise up to
the performance challenges. This lead to the earliest method book, by Michel Corrette
Méthode théorique et pratique pour apprendre en peu de temps le violoncelle dans sa
perfection in 1740, which began the streak of such publications in the following decades. Late
eighteenth-century violinists and violoncellists traveled across Europe performing for each
other and sharing their preferences, as well as discussing instruments, bows, stylistic concepts
and technical methodology. These interactions formed the basis of the Italian, English,
Spanish, French, German, Bohemian and Russian string pedagogy. „Individuality in cellists
was highly regarded and few violoncellists completely agreed with each other as to how the
instrument should be played. The degree of diversity present in the playing styles of
eighteenth- and nineteenth-century violoncellists may come as an interesting surprise and
1
L e B l a n c Hubert, Défense de la basse de viole contre les entreprises du violon et les prétentions du
violoncelle (1740)
2
W a l d e n Valerie: „One Hundred Years of Violoncello: A History of Technique and Performance Practice,
1740-1840“, Cambridge University Press 1998, p. 3
6
perhaps a reminder that, while each considered his method to be superior to any other,
musicians of this era neither expected nor valued absolute uniformity.“ 3
1.2. The Italian Roots of the 17th Century
The roots of violoncello performance are found in Italy. After violoncello began to gain
popularity over the viol in the 1660s, Bologna seemed to be the first place where
violoncellists began to actively perform and interact. Bologna was a vibrant cosmopolitan
city, supporting two institutions in particular, which sustained the presence of enterprising
violoncellists, the Accademia Filarmonica and the Basicilica of San Petronio. Prominent
names from the early generations include Giovanni Battista Vitali (1632-92), Petronio
Franchesini (c. 1650-1747), Domenico Gabrielli (c. 1651-90) and Giovanni Bononcini (1670-
1747). Gabrielli’s sonatas date from 1689-90 and are the earliest extant works for solo
violoncello. 4
The first solo cellist to make an impact on the public was a Neapolitan, Francesco Alborea
(1691-1739), known universally as ‘Franciscello’. He was one of the few (mainly Italian)
cellists at the time who were changing the reputation of the cello from being an accompanying
instrument to a leading solo instrument. The French multi-intrumentalist, Michel Corrette
(1709-95) produced instructional material on singing and almost every instrument from the
flute to the musette and hurdy-gurdy. Recognizing the growing popularity of the cello and
although being an amatuer cellist, in 1741 he published a cello tutor, Méthode. théorique et
pratique, pour apprendre en peu de temps le violoncelle dans sa perfection. The tutor serves
as a testament of early development of cello playing and was the first of its kind.
Corrette explains three different ways of holding the bow and focuses on explaining ways to
play the thumb position, shifting, and playing double stops as well as arpeggios. Recognizing
the viol’s new lack of popularity, Corette recommends viol players switch to the cello and
advises on marking the fingerboard with frets similar to the viola da gamba to avoid insecure
intonation. However, it wasn’t until Martin Berteau, that the first school of cello playing was
realized.
3
W a l d e n Valerie: One Hundred Years of Violoncello: A History of Technique and Performance Practice,
1740-1840, Cambridge University Press 1998, p. 5
4
C o w l i n g Elizabeth, The Cello, B. T. Batsford Ltd., London, 1975, p. 77-78
7
1.3. The French School
1.3.1. Founder of the French Cello School
Martin Berteau was born in circa 1709 in Valenciennes. He was a French cellist and
composer, as well as a teacher and the founder of the French school of cello playing. Berteau
is reputed to have begun his musical training on the viola da gamba, perhaps studying in
Germany with a Bohemian named Kozecz. 5 An unproven anecdote says that after hearing the
legendary Francesco Alborea (Franciscello) and becoming attracted to the cello, Berteau
devoted himself to the instrument, and later became Franciscello’s student. 6 Berteau was
living in Paris in the mid-part of the eighteenth century and was active as a violoncello
performer, composer and teacher. 7 Berteau was famous for his beautiful sound and profound
interpretation, as well as his development of a modern fingering system and the use of
harmonics (which were unusual for the time), and including the use of the thumb position. An
impressive fact about his playing is that he contained his bowing technique from when he
played the viol, continuing to use the underhand hold of the bow. His more advanced
fingering system is collected in the tutors written by his students Jean-Baptiste Cupis ‘le
jeune’ and Joseph Bonaventure Tilliére (before 1750 and after 1790). Since cellists in his time
had limited knowledge on fingering options, Berteau greatly contributed by introducing his
system where each half tone had its own finger, as opposed to the old style where half steps
and even whole steps were played with the same finger.
His pupils were: Jean- Pierre Duport, Jean- Baptiste Cupis ‘le jeune’, Joseph Bonaventure
Tilliér and Jean-Baptiste-Aimée Joseph Janson. All of Berteau’s students became recognizable
by their quality of sound and beautiful tone, which they then passed on to their students as
well. 8
5
V o n W a s i e l e w s k i Wilhelm Joseph, The Violoncello and Its History, trans. Isobella S.E. Stigend
(London: Novello, Ewer, & Co., 1894/R 1986), p. 87
6
C a m p b e l l Margaret, The Great Cellists, Faber and Faber: London, 1988, p. 8
7
A d a s Jane, „Le célebre Berteau“, Early Music, 17, no.13 (August 1989)
8
C a m p b e l l Margaret, The Great Cellists, Faber and Faber: London, 1988, p.8
8
1.3.2. The Duports and the First Generation
Jean-Pierre Duport (1749-1820) was one of Berteau’s memorable students, who received the
nickname Duport l’aîné which means „the elder Duport“ in French. The nickname helped
distinguish Jean-Pierre from his younger brother Jean-Louis Duport, who eventually exceeded
his older brother in fame. Jean-Pierre was very successful as a soloist and performed around
Europe, but his younger brother became the more fruitful teacher. Jean- Louise Duport (1749-
1819), began his musical education as a violinist but was intrigued by the cello due to his
older brother’s success and later began to take cello lessons with him. By the time he was 18
years old, Jean-Louise was already recognizable for his virtuosic playing and was compared
to the violinist Viotti. The comparison was due to an incident that occured when Viotti failed
to arrive for a performance infront of Marie Antoinette, and Jean-Louise successfully played
his part which was ever so demanding being written for the violin, and executed on the cello.
By 1790, Paris had become the center of a vital school of both violin and violoncello
performance. Members of these schools (violinists Viotti, Rode, Baillot, and Kreutzer and
violoncellists J.P. and J.L. Duport, Janson, and Lamarre) left Paris and extended their
teachings throughout the rest of Europe. They were met in their travels by Germans, the
violinist Spohr and the violoncellist Romberg. 9
After the period of traveling, Duport settled in Paris in 1812 and began the most successful
part of his pedagogical career, having been appointed cello professor at the newly founded
Paris Conservatoire. Duport was one of the rare cellists of the time who managed to retain his
quality of sound and technical precision into old age. Upon being asked why this was so,
Duport would often reply: “All technical skill is acquired and retained by dint of hard work.
As for the sureness of intonation, I have to thank Nature alone for it.“ To reinforce his theory,
he would fill a glass with water and balance it on the back of his hand, walking around the
room without spilling- at the age of almost 70.
In his treatise Essai sur le doigté du violoncello et sur la conduite de l’archet (c.1813), he
writes: “I have treated with minute detail the subject of double stops. This I have done for two
reasons: the first is that, until now, nothing concerning them has been written, and they are so
important for a good player; the second, because they have so often served me as an
9
W a l d e n Valerie: One Hundred Years of Violoncello: A History of Technique and Performance Practice,
1740-1840, Cambridge University Press 1998, p. 4
9
argument, for without an established mode of fingering, double notes are impossible.“ 10
Duport neglected to remember Corrette. The methods by Corette (1741) and Azais (c.1778)
were written by non-violoncellists, while the one published by the Conservatoire (1805) is a
collection of ideas mainly influenced by Baillot. Those of Tilliére (1764), Cupis (1772),
Raoul (c.1802), Aubert (1802), Bideau (1802), Bréval (1804), Müntzberger (c.1804), Duport
(1806), P. Vaillant (c.1815), Baudiot (1826, 1828), Hus-Desforges (1829) and Vaslin (1884)
were written as personal testaments to individual performance methodology. 11 Regardless of
the publication of many new methods in a narrow period of time, Duport’s treatise remained
the most significant. French cellist Jerome Pernoo (b. 1972) refers to it as ‘the treatise not for
students but for teachers’. 12 Duport founded a practical system of fingering which focused on
the the chromatic scale. In the preface of the treatise, he gives us an expression of how close
his relationship with his older brother was; „Much will be found that is difficult, but nothing
that is impossible to execute, as I have tried everything repeatedly myself. It has also been
tried by my brother, whoever was and will be my master.“ 13
1.3.3. The Second Generation and the formation of the Belgian School
Jean-Baptiste Janson, another one of Berteau’s famous pupils, was a very successful soloist
and vastly respected professor at the Paris Conservatoire since its foundation in 1795, where
he had a class of outstanding cellists. Among them was the skillful and talented Charles
Nicolas Baudiot (1773- 1849) who led a career as a soloist while holding posts at the Treasury
and royal chapel. Althought Baudiot was known for his impeccable technique and precise
intonation, he was often criticized (as were many French cellists in this period) for lacking a
powerful sound and sentimental expressivity.
Baudiot’s students Louis Pierre Norblin and Olive-Charlier Vaslin were perhaps his most
renowned. He composed many pieces for the cello including the two-volume Méthode (1826-
8), in collaboration with his student Norblin. The method involves useful insight including his
theory that overwork could be harmful for technique, and lead to injuries. He also emphasizes
10
C a m p b e l l Margaret, The Great Cellists, Faber and Faber: London, 1988, p.12
11
W a l d e n Valerie, 100 Years of Violoncello, A History of Technique and Performance Practice, 1740-1840,
Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 13
12
OSM Master Class Jerome Pernoo https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=153&v=P24IB1g22ro
20.9.2016
13
C a m p b e l l Margaret, The Great Cellists, Faber and Faber, London, 1988, p.12
10
the importance of finding the best teacher available. „It is generally recognized that in
science, literature and art, as well as in our social life, the first education requires the greatest
care, its neglect leaves traces which sometimes prove indelible.“ 14 Baudiot advised following
then contemporary violinist’s approach on bow technique, which meant aligning all of the
fingers on the stick infront of the nut. Baudiot contributed to the 1804 Méthode de Violoncelle
et de Basse d’Accompagnement, along with Pierre Baillot, Jean Henri Levasseur (student of
Cupis and J. L. Duport and professor at Paris Conservatoire) and Charles-Simon Catel, which
was the official instruction book of the Paris Conservatoire. Besides French, the work
appeared in German as well and was published by C. F. Peters in Leipzig. The instructions for
handling the instrument and the bow didn’t differ much from those found in the late 19th
century manuals. The only differences between the instructions from late 19th century and
those found in the 1804 method were that there was still no use of the endpin, and cellists
were advised to avoid playing on the tip of the bow as the sound usually resulted in a dry,
hard tone due to the thickness of the gut strings that were played in the time. 15
One of the most significant students of Jean-Louise Duport was French born Nicolas Joseph
Platel (1777-1835). He is credited to be the founder of the Belgian cello school. Platel studied
with Duport for two crucial years (from the age of ten) and acquired his beautiful tone before
he continued his studies under the tutelage of Jacques Michel Hurel Lamarre (1772-1823,
student of Levasseur) following Duport’s departure to Berlin. Platel gained positions as the
principal cellist at the Parisian theatre and opera. During his travels around Europe, Platel fell
in love with Belgium so much that he impulsively decided to stay in Ghent, where he then
resided for many years. In 1813 he was appointed principal cellist at the opera orchestra in
Antwerp and in 1826 he was invited to join the faculty of the newly opened Royal School of
Music in Brussels. His many pupils included Servais, Batta and De Munck. 16 This is how the
„cello family tree“ traveled from France to Belgium.
1.3.4. The Third Generation and their Successors
Louise- Pierre Norblin (1781-1854) was a student of Baudiot and Levasseur, and succeeded
the latter as cello professor at the Paris Conservatoire where his students included Pierre A. F.
14
C a m p b e l l Margaret, The Great Cellists, Faber and Faber, London, 1988, p. 14
15
16
11
Chevillard and the notable cellist August Franchomme. Franchomme (1808- 1884) was one of
the most phenomenal French cellists of the 19th century. Originally from Lille, he went to
Paris in 1825 to study with Levasseur and Norblin at the Conservatory. As a student he won
many prizes and was appointed principal cellist at the Operá and the Théâtre Italien. In 1825
he began his pedagogical endeavors as second cello professor at the Conservatory and in 1846
he succeeded Norblin as first professor. Franchomme was also a prolific composer having
published over 50 works for the cello, including transcriptions of Mozart and Beethoven
violin sonatas, and the renowned Twelve Caprices, Op. 7, which remain popular pedagogical
material as well as performance pieces to this day as staples of the standard literature. He also
collaborated with his companion the composer Frederic Chopin on the Grand Duo
Concertante and the Sonata Op. 65. As a cellist, Franchomme was memorable for his
powerful and expressive sound and flexible left hand, as well as his unique gift of
interpretation.
Franchomme played the famous ‘Duport’ Stradivarius, which he was privileged to receive
from the original owner’s son in 1842, who stated, „you are Duport’s successor, and you
alone should have this instrument.“ 17 Franchomme kept his teaching position until his death
18
and brought up many wonderful cellists, including Louis Hegyesi and Jules Delsart.
Franchomme’s classmate and Norblin’s other pupil, Pierre A.F. Chevillard (1811-1877) was a
successful principal cellist at the orchestra „Théâtre Gymnase“ from 1827, and a tutti cellist at
the Italian Opera from 1831. Chevillard replaced Vaslin in his position as the cello professor
at the Paris Conservatory in 1859. Among his most notable students was Jules-Leopold Loeb.
Louis Hegyesi (1853-1894) began his studies at the Vienna Conservatory studying with Karl
Schlesinger and then continued with Franchomme in Paris. He was one of the rare cellists that
left Paris after completing his studies (Paris was the absolute centre of music at the time) and
joined the Wiener Hofoper as well as the Florentiner Quartet. He then went on to teach at the
Köln Conservatory. It was through him that the French cello school influenced many
Dresdner cellists of the time, including Hugo Becker. 19 Jules Delsart (1844-1900) was an
important figure in the making of cellists including Louis R. Feuillard, Paul Bazelaire and
Louis Abbiate. Feuillard was a dedicated professor at the Paris Conservatoire, and a faithful
17
18
S c h n i t z e r Ralf, Die Entwicklung der Violoncellpädagogik im frühen 20. Jahrhundert, Lang, Frankfurt am
Main, 1995, p. 30
19
Main 1995, p. 31
12
chamber musician and quartet cellist. He arranged O. Ševcik’s famous bow technique violin
studies for cello as well as produced a book of Etudes of his own. Feuillard’s most famous
student was Paul Tortelier. Feuillard’s classmate Paul Bazelaire went on to teach Pierre
Fournier, and the other classmate, Louis Abbiate taught the teacher of Daniil Shafran. Jules-
Leopold Loeb (a cellist from the line of Norblin) taught Maurice Maréchal (1892-1964),
André Levy (1894-1982) and André Navarra (1911-1988). 20 A very fruitful teacher who
brought us Maurice Gendron and the further development of Paul Tortelier (after Feuillard)
was Gérard Hekking. The Hekkings were a Franco-Dutch family of cellists, born in The
Hague, which contributed to the development of cello playing through several generations.
Brothers Robert and Charles Hekking both taught at the Conservatory in Bordeaux. Charles’
nephew and student André Hekking (1866-1925), was born in Bordeaux and was famed for
his rich sound and honest interpretations already as a young man. He eventually settled in
Paris, teaching at the École Normale de Musique and at the American Conservatory at
Fontainebleau and later at the Paris Conservatoire. Charles’ second nephew and brother of
André, Anton Hekking is mentioned as one of Pierre Fournier’s teachers at the Paris
Conservatory in Margaret Campbell’s The Great Cellists, as well as in Lev Ginsburg’s
History of the Violoncello, but Ralf Schnitzer writes that it is impossible because Anton was
never a teacher at that institution. Schnitzer claims André was the Hekking who taught
Fournier. 21 Gérard Hekking (1879-1942), Charles’ son, was the most famous member of the
Hekking family. Gerard studied at the Paris Conservatoire and later worked at the Opéra
orchestra. Following some years residing in Amsterdam, he was engaged as the principal
cellist of the Concertgebouw Orchestra. Before becoming professor at the Conservatory in
1927, Gerard Hekking served with the French army. 22 All available sources name the Paris
Conservatoire as Hekking’s place of study, however, they don’t state who his mentor was.
20
Main 1995, p. 32,33
21
Main 1995, p. 35
22
13
1.4. The German School
With Paris being the central point for string players in the 18th century, Dresden became a
great competitor for that title in the 19th century. In fact, the German cello school is actually
referred to as The Dresden School. The father of the Dresden Cello School was Bernhard
Romberg (1767-1841), but the founder of the school is considered to be J. F. Dotzauer.
Romberg was one of the most virtuosic cellists in Germany at the time. He was, for the cello,
a bridge between the Classical and Romantic periods, linking Boccherini and Duport.
Romberg had a close relationship with Ludwig van Beethoven and, according to an anecdote,
is nowadays considered responsible for the lacking of a Beethoven sonata in the violoncello
repertoire. Romberg had a great career as a soloist but was also very involved in pedagogical
work. One of the reasons why Romberg is not considered the founder, but rather the father of
the Dresden Cello School is because his student J. J. F. Dotzauer published a method six years
before Romberg published his Violoncell-Schule (1836), and the other reason being his
different approach to left hand technique. Romberg wasn’t satisfied with his own left hand
technique so he turned to the Italian string players, who traveled Europe, for answers. It was
from them that he gained the slanted left hand position (similar to the position of a violinist’s
left hand) which was the opposite of what ended up being the Dresden School’s main
trademark; a squared left hand position. Romberg’s method focused on finding a more natural
thumb position of the left hand, as well as a better general sitting position when playing.
Cellists were generally very stiff up to that point and Romberg aimed to gain a more relaxed
shoulder pose. Romberg revolutionized the German right hand technique by moving the hand
closer to the frog of the bow and this was a foundation on which the Dresden Cello School
was built. 23 Aside from revolutionizing the cello technique of the time, Romberg was also a
gifted composer. His cello pieces are regarded as pedagogical works today, but in the time
when they were composed they were often performed at concerts, providing not only
academic, but artistic value as well.
Among Romberg’s compositions there are several operas, ten concertos, six concertinos,
sonatas, duets, string quartets, fantasias, divertimentos, variations and numerous other pieces.
Romberg was a supporter of J. L. Duport’s specific fingering system and developed it further
in his own way. He incorporated more common use of the thumb position than any of his
predecessors since Boccherini and recommended using less vibrato, with the belief that when
23
V e n t u r i n i Adriana, The Dresden School of Violoncello in the Nineteenth Century, University of Central
Florida, Orlando, Florida, 2009, p.13
14
used only when necessary it would have a much greater effect. He had a similar approach
regarding the use of spiccato and harmonics. As a follower of the school of Viotti and Spohr,
Romberg too believed excessive use of harmonics and spiccato, and the showcasing of
virtuosity for its own sake was vulgar, tasteless and unnecessary. Romberg was the one to
revolutionize the fingerboard of the cello, suggesting ‘flattening the right-hand side in order to
prevent the C string from beating on it when played with more force.’ 24
1.4.1. First Generation
Johann Justus Friedrich Dotzauer (1783-1860) was Romberg’s most important student and
went on to be one of the most notable cello pedagogues of Germany as the founder of the
Dresden Cello School. He composed over 170 compositions, but his methods and etude books
are the only ones that are still actively used to this day. Dotzauer teaches similar techniques as
seen in Romberg’s Violoncell-Schule, except for his treatment of the left hand position and
Dotzauer’s insistance on a relaxed bow hold. He used a more rounded and relaxed hold at the
frog, which allowed for easier wrist and finger motion and, most importantly, a bent thumb. 25
Romberg’s student J. Prell was the teacher of Sebastian Lee. Lee is an important figure from
the second generation to mention when discussing the topic of different cello schools because
he was one of the rare cellists of the time who gained influence from both German and French
cello schools. Sebastian Lee was born and studied in Germany but spent the majority of his
life performing and teaching in Paris. Lee combined features of German and French cello
technique fashions in his cello method Ecole de Violoncelliste, which was later used as a cello
manual of the Paris Conservatory.
1.4.2. Second Generation
The three cellists that stem from Dotzauer are Carl Schuberth, Carl Drechsler and Friedrich
Kummer. After Schuberth’s studies with Dotzauer were over, he toured across Germany as a
solo cellist and in 1853 became the music director of the Saint Petersburg University, as well
24
25
W a l d e n Valerie, One Hundred Years of Violoncello: A History of Technique and Performance Practice,
1740-1840, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 92-93
15
as a teacher. He taught one of the greatest virtuosic and pedagogical cellists of the third
generation Carl Davidov and brought the German influence to Russia. While studying with
Dotzauer, Drechsler quickly became a soloist and even took up a teaching position in Dessau.
Numerous students, whose works and contribution have reached our century, have studied
and received training from Drechsler. Among them were Bernhard Cossmann (1822-1910),
Carl Schroeder (1848- 1935) and Friedrich Wilhelm Grützmacher (1832- 1903), who became
the most famous and important virtuoso and teacher of the Dresden line since Dotzauer.
Friedrich Kummer began studying with Dotzauer and received lessons from Romberg
occasionally when he was in Dresden, although some sources say Kummer began as
Romberg’s student and would therefore be found in other historical overviews in the list of
first generation cellists. 26 Kummer was equally important as a virtuosic cellist and pedagogue.
He worked in Dresden at the Royal Orchestra for fifty years and he held the position as the
first cello professor at the Dresden Conservatory from its foundation in 1856, until his
death. 27 His most important students include Julius Goltermann (1825- 1876) and Bernhard
Cossmann. Because of the uncertainty of where to place Kummer in the list of Dresden cellist
generations, his students will be added to the second generation as well. Julius Goltermann
was successful as the solo cellist of the Theater in his hometown Hamburg. He started
teaching at the Prague Conservatorium in 1850 and continued for twelve years before going to
Stuttgart where he continued as the solo cellist at the Hofkapelle and teacher at the
Conservatory. Bernhard Cossmann (1822- 1910) is most famous for his studies that remain
crucial to the cello pedagogical literature. He was a student of Drechsler, Theodore Müller
(cellist of the Müller String Quartet) and Kummer. Besides being a successful solo cellist in
numerous orchestras, as well as taking part of lengthy concert tours in England and Ireland, he
also worked as a pedagogue. For several years Cossmann held the position of the cello
professor at the Imperial Conservatory in Russia, and from 1878 to 1911 he worked as the
cello professor at the Hochschule at Frankfurt am Main, which would be his last position
before his death. Cossmann composed and edited many works for the cello; nevertheless the
only pieces that are remembered today are his Etudes de Concert Op. 10 and his cello
studies. 28 Cossmann’s studies are often used today among cellists when warming up or when
26
Main 1995, p. 27
27
Main 1995, p. 27
28
16
trying to build muscle strength in the fingers of the left hand, due to their chromatic scales and
thrill exercises.
1.4.3. The Third Generation and its Influence on the formation of the Russian
and Hungarian Schools
Carl Davidov studied cello with Schuberth at the University of St. Petersburg. Davidov’s
interests in composing soon lead him to Leipzig, where he received lessons in composition
and theory with Moritz Hauptmann. It didn’t take long for him to be recognized as a superb
cellist in Leipzig, and in 1860 he received a teaching position at the Conservatory. Two years
later he returned to Russia and began teaching at the St. Petersburg Conservatory, and
continued traveling as a virtuoso throughout west Europe. Davidov wrote his Violoncello
Schule (1888), which would be the first method of the Dresden School to incorporate
physiology into a cello method. Davidov composed concerti that are used to this day by many
famous pedagogues, either from the French or German school, to build technique amongst
their students. Davidov’s most prominent students include Hanus Wihan (1855- 1920),
Alexander Weirzbilowicz and Alfred von Glehn. Wierzbilowicz went on to teach Leopold
Rostropovich (father and first teacher of the legendary Mstislav Rostropovich) while Alfred
von Glehn taught the famous Gregor Piatigorsky at the Moscow Conservatory. These
connections suggest that the most famous Russian cellists of the 20th century stem from a line
of German cellists and school. Russia had an inviting attitude toward violoncellists in the
beginning of the nineteenth century and much was invested in the development of violoncello
playing in Russia prior to Karl Davidov, thanks to Prince Golitzin and Count Matvey
Viel’gorsky (Wielhorsky) who were both amateur violoncellists. Nevertheless, the
development of the Russian school is identified with Karl Davidov, since most professional
posts were filled by foreign musicians until his generation of students emerged. 29
One of the main cellists of the second half of the 19th century was Friedrich Wilhelm
Grützmacher (1832- 1903). He began his cello studies with his father, and continued with
Dotzauer’s pupil Drechsler. Being one of the leading virtuosos of the school, he took over
principal cello positions from both Cossmann and Kummer in Dresden. Despite his
29
W a l d e n Valerie, 100 Years of Violoncello, A History of Technique and Performance Practice, 1740-1840,
Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 48
17
commitments he still managed to tour throughout Europe and Russia as a soloist. During his
tours in Russia, he made the acquaintance of Karl Davidov to whom he often went to for
consultations. Grützmacher’s playing was known for its technical flawlessness combined with
„a delicate manner of expression and musicality“ 30. The one criticism expressed was that „his
playing had a certain stiffness because he didn’t indulge in slides and excessive vibrato to the
same extent as some of his contemporaries.“ 31 A fruitful pedagogue, Grützmacher taught
many young cellists who achieved great fame, including Emil Hegar, Wilhelm Fitzenhagen
and Hugo Becker. His students continued to represent the principles of the Dresden School,
which were associated with the Viotti School of violin playing, and they continued the
attempt to broaden the cello’s repertoire. Grützmacher had an interest in composing and
editing pieces, which lead to his own version of Boccherini’s Concerto for violoncello in B-
flat and a „concert version“ of Bach’s solo suites to which he added accompanying chords,
thus completely distorting the composer’s original idea. Margaret Campbell refers to these
editions as vandalisms. His Twelve Etudes Op.72 and Daily Exercises Op. 67 however,
gained a very positive reputation and position among the pedagogical works of the violoncello
literature.
The name David Popper is perhaps the most well-known name among cello students of today.
Popper began studying violin at the Prague Conservatory, then switched to the cello and
joined the class of Julius Goltermann (1824- 98), a former student of Kummer in Dresden.
Following some exquisite performances as principal cellist of the Imperial Opera Orchestra,
Popper achieved great fame through newspaper reviews, thus acclaiming himself as one of the
most outstanding virtuosos of his time. Popper composed more than 75 works (mostly for the
violoncello) including four concertos, a string quartet, a suite for two cellos and numerous
salon pieces. His most important addition and direct link to the Dresden Cello School is his
Hohe Schule des Violoncello-Spiels (1901-1905); a set of forty studies that examine the
positions of the left hand with a highly chromatic style. It is to this day one of the most
important pedagogical works. Some studies include variations on difficult passages found in
music by contemporaries Hector Berlioz, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner.
The etudes from the Hohe Schule are in almost every cello student’s repertoire and are
obligatory pieces in many entrance exams, regular exams and graduation exams at music
universities and famous competitions around the world. Cellist and professor at the Curtis
30
31
18
Institute, David Soyer uses scales and Popper etudes to maintain his technique, because they
cover all positions and bow styles. 32 His piece Elfentanz, a pleasantly virtuosic and
technically challenging piece, is often played as an encore today. It is a great acknowledgment
to Popper’s works that many notable violinists, including Auer, Emil Sauret, Hermann,
Neruda and Karol Halir made transcriptions of Popper’s pieces for their instrument. In 1886
Popper became cello professor at the Royal Hungarian Academy of Music in Budapest. His
class rarely consisted of more than eight cellists and he worked with them for three hours,
twice a week. He gave private lessons as well, but at a high financial cost. Popper was not
only a cellist and composer, but also a fairly good pianist. He regularly demonstrated on the
piano during his lessons. Some of his best known students include Arnold Földesy, Jenö
Kerpély, Ludwig Lebell, and Adolf Schiffer (the teacher of Janos Starker). David Popper
represents the link between the German and the Hungarian cello school of the 20th century.
1.4.4. Julius Klengel, Hugo Becker and Diran Alexanian
Some of the most notable students of Grützmacher were Emil Hegar, Hugo Becker and Diran
Alexanian. Emil Hegar (1843- 1921) was appointed principal cellist at the Gewandhaus
Orchestra and teacher at the conservatory, where he taught many successful cellists, among
them was Julius Klengel. Klengel (1859- 1933) started an early career at 15 when he became
a member of the same orchestra where his teacher was principal. At 22 he was promoted to
the position of the principal himself and received the position of the Royal Professor at the
Leipzig Conservatory. Klengel served in the orchestra for 50 years, celebrating half a century
in 1924. He first went to Russia on tour in 1882 and continued to return many times to play
concerts as well as to participate in a cello competition as a jury member in 1911, organized
by the Russian Music Society. 33 His playing was described as technically superior and
musically intelligent, “creating effects through subtlety of accent and emphasis rather than
violent contrasts and extreme emotional climaxes. His least strong point was quality of tone,
which, though clear and effective, was a little lacking in beauty”. 34 Like Popper, Klengel was
a fine pianist and accompanied his students on the piano during teaching, playing everything
by heart. Klengel was a fruitful composer who, like other cellists who were composers,
32
A p p l e b a u m Samuel and Sada, The Way They Play; Book 2, Paganiniana Publications, New Jersey, 1973,
p. 300
33
34
19
produced mainly cello pieces including teaching works. His contact with musicians such as
Joseph Joachim, Johannes Brahms and Max Reger had substantial impact on his musical
development. Klengel composed four concertos for cello and orchestra, two for two cellos and
two for cello and violin; a sonata, caprices and a Hymnus for Twelve Cellos (1922), as well as
his teaching works Technical Exercises in all Keys (1909) for developing finger and bowing
techniques, and Daily Exercises (1911). Klengel also published editions of classical sonatas
and concertos and in 1900 an edition of the Bach solo suites. A contemporary of Klengel,
Hugh Butler’s student S.S. Dale wrote that Klengel introduced Bach’s suites to his students
around the 1880s. This was consequentially before Casals discovered them. 35 While working
at the Leipzig conservatory, Klengel worked with his students around 50 hours a week.
Among his students were Guilhermina Suggia, Emanuel Feuermann (who brought Dresden
methods to Asia and taught Hideo Saito), Edmund Kurtz, Gregor Piatigorsky and William
Pleeth (teacher of Jacqueline Du Pre), most of which gained great fame. Klengel’s teaching
system involved encouraging his students to learn from each other. He would often remark to
one student, for example, that the other has a marvelous vibrato which would lead the rest of
the students to ‘spy’ on the student’s appraised skill. The students, though jealous, learned
from each other and made progress. Klengel’s student Gregor Piatigorsky writes in his
autobiography, that he marveled his teacher’s „art of teaching by really not teaching“. Klengel
rarely verbalized his musical ideas at lessons. He much rather let the student play the piece
through before saying „Fine“ or in a severe case, „Watch your left arm, young man“. 36 Many
of Klengel’s student’s that were interested in broadening their cello knowledge after finishing
their studies went to Hugo Becker for lessons and therefore stayed within the German line.
Hugo Becker (1864-1941) studied with Grützmacher in Dresden and Piatti in London. He was
appointed principal cellist of the opera orchestra in Frankfurt in 1884 and remained in that
position for two years. In 1895 Becker began to teach cello and chamber music at the
Frankfurt Hochschule. He was very active as a chamber musician, a member of the Frankfurt
String Quartet until 1906, while maintaining a busy career of concert tours in Russia and
England. In the early 1900s Becker was famously a good teacher but also received occasional
criticism for being overly pedantic. He was the cello professor at the Royal Music Academy
in Stockholm and replaced Hausmann at the Hochschule Berlin. Among his students were
Enrico Mainardi, Johannes Hegar and Raya Garbousova. Gregor Piatigorsky studied with
35
36
P i a t i g o r s k y Gregor, The Cellist, Da Capo Press, New York, 1976, p. 65
20
Becker in Germany briefly, but described him as a rude and negative personality and teacher
in his autobiographical work „Cellist“. Becker, among other music pedagogues in the time,
focused on exploring more organic ways to play their instrument through research of the
physiological aspects of the body while performing. Becker’s teaching works Mixed Finger
Bowing Exercises, Etudes and Six Special Etudes are still in use today. In the work Technique
and Aesthetics of Violoncello Playing (Vienna, 1929) written in collaboration with
physiologist Dr. Dago Rynar, Becker lays out the findings of his research which was a result
of his great interest in the role of anatomy and physiology in playing. Becker’s 1911 edition
of Bach’s solo suites is of historical importance and had been used by German teachers for
many years. In his edition Becker added many markings and bowings suggesting a very
strong stand on how the Bach suites should be played. Nor Becker nor Klengel supported
playing the Bach solo suites in concert and Becker expressed disapproval towards Casal’s
rhythmically flexible interpretations. 37 Becker’s 1908 recording 38 reveals his progressive
approach with lighter portamenti and discreet vibrato which was unlikely for the time. His
mastery of up-bow and down-bow staccato is particularly notable as well as his quality of
sound. The disciplined and almost reserved musical expression would become a trademark of
classical German playing, although Becker demonstrated a more modern avoidance of tonal
excess, more than Grützmacher or Piatti would have done. Klengel and Becker shared similar
artistic tastes such as the austerity of interpretation, a rather academic style of playing, and a
fully developed interest in teaching and compilation of teaching aids and editions. Both were
important figures of the first 30 years of the 20th century. Although they had similarities as a
result of coming from the same line, they had different teaching methods.
Diran Alexanian (1881-1954) was one of the most controversial teachers of the 20th century.
He gained most of his musical experience in the city of Leipzig, where he studied with
Grützmacher and played chamber music with Joachim and Brahms, and orchestral music as
the principal in Strauss’ Don Quixote under the composer’s baton. Following his move to
Paris in 1901, he was acquainted with legendary cellist Pablo Casals. Casals became intrigued
by Alexanian’s then unconventional fingerings. This formed a bond between the two cellists
and lead Alexanian to eventually lead Casal’s cello class at Ecole Normale in Paris in 1921.
Casals was one of the school’s artistic directors and founders. 39 The class was their
opportunity to apply their controversial ideas to use. Alexanian published his treatise, Traité
37
M i l s o m David, in: http://www.naxos.com/person/Hugo_Becker/149448.htm 1.9.2016
38
Hugo Becker https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mNQGBNjHxDQ 17.01.2017
39
K i r k Herbert L., Pablo Casals, A Biography, Horst, Reinhart and Winston, 1974, p. 357
21
théorique et pratique du violoncello in 1922, and several years later published an analytical
edition of the Bach solo suites. After Paris he moved on to the USA and successfully taught at
the Peabody Institute in Baltimore and the Manhattan School of Music in New York. Among
his students were Maurice Eisenberg and Antonio Janigro. Many professional cellists such as
Bernard Greenhouse, David Soyer, Pierre Fournier, Emanuel Feuermann and Raya
Garbousova attended his lessons and came to him for consultations. Alexanian is considered a
controversial figure because he was interested in finding an individual approach for each
student’s specific physique, which wasn’t standard for the time because it meant dismissing
certain rules. His contemporaries were mainly supporters of the old style of playing, usually
recognized by many slides. His method of teaching often lead to frustration for those who
wished to study with him for less than a year, as his goal was to go back to basics and “break
things down in order to rebuild” 40. As cellist Antonia Butler (1909-97) mentioned in Margaret
Cambpell’s “The Great Cellists”, it was at the beginning of the second year that she began to
feel like she was absorbing something and that she could make it part of her own intelligence.
Alexanian’s ideas on technique served the purpose of expressing music and he carefully
avoided unnecessary slides that didn’t support his musical concepts. The only occasion he
recommended to add a slide was if one deliberately wanted to express the music that way, but
never to let it occur as an accidental casualty. Alexanian discovered skillful methods to shift
on semi-tones and achieve smooth bow changes. His main priority as a teacher was to
demonstrate to his students the viable possibility of subjugating technical difficulties without
disturbing the musical phrases. Alexanian was very strict towards his students and demanded
of them that they get acquainted with the harmonic progression and form of the Bach solo
suites before pursuing them. His students religiously adopted his fingerings, and as Bernard
Greenhouse mentions, Alexanian expected of his students to play almost like copies of how
he played.
1.5. The Belgian School
The Belgian school was founded by Nicolas Joseph Platel (1777-1835), student of Jean
Louise Duport and Jacques Lamarre from the French School. Although it is younger than its
German and French counterparts, the Belgian school is worth mentioning due to its greatest
exponents and their influence on the development of cello technique and playing in 19th
40
22
century Europe. Being of French roots, it is interesting that it spread onto German, English
and even Russian territories through Belgian pedagogues moving freely and receiving
teaching positions abroad. It may have been the most open cello school of the 19th century, in
comparison to the strict German and French cello heritages that only spread through one
cellist each. Nevertheless, it received criticism in being overly romantic in style.
The Belgian School of cello playing began to flourish through the teachings of Adrien
Francois Servais (1807-66) at the Brussels Conservatory. Servais studied with Platel at the
Conservatory and in 1829 became his assistant. Servais had a career of solo appearances and
work in the Opera orchestra, but did not draw attention in his own country. However, he was
very well praised in Paris and London in 1834/44 when he engaged in the Philharmonic
Society concerts. His technique is described as one with „a graceful, flowing bow arm, and a
warm expressive tone“ 41 and was „often compared to the incredible technique and excellent
accuracy of the left hand to that of Paganini“. 42 Servais was also a composer who produced
three concertos, fantasias, duos with piano and violin, caprices and several transcriptions. His
works are primarily of teaching value today, but bare considerable historical significance. One
of his pieces „Souvenir de Spa“, however, became a showpiece of the Belgian school due to
its ‘pyrotechnical’ virtuosity. Servais visited St. Petersburg for the first time in 1839 and
returned for a visit nine more times after that. His playing left a strong impression on the
Russians, activating the public’s affection for the instrument. The interaction formed a bond
between the Russian and Belgian musical scene, similar to the one Vieuxtemps and
Wieniawski represented in the violin. After the death of Nicolas Platel, Servais took his place
as cello professor at the Brussels Conservatory. His pupils include his son Joseph, Jules de
Swert, Ernest de Munck, Joseph Hollman and Edouard Jacobs. The invention of the endpin is
reportedly attributed to him, with a lack of sources to confirm it. As Servais aged and the
musical trends shifted, his style of playing was thought to have been too romantic and he was
criticized for his ‘unending sugary vibrato’, particularly in Russia where the popularity of the
youthful Davidov began to arise. 43 By the end of the nineteenth century, the style of the
Belgian school was a style of which its display and sentimentality were generally more
evident than its emotional or intellectual content. Servais’ playing represents the epoch of
romantic virtuosity of the cello.
41
42
G i n s b u rg Lev, History of the Violoncello, Paganiniana Publications, Montreal, 1983, p.33
43
23
Ernest de Munck (1840-1915) completed his studies with Servais in Brussels and later toured
as a soloist throughout Europe. Great impressions were left in Paris after playing an
unpublished Vieuxtemps duo for violin and cello with his brother and later touring as a
member of the Maurin String Quartet. In 1871 he was appointed principal cellist at the
Weimar grand ducal chapel, where he became in contact with Franz Liszt. After living in the
USA for a short while, Munck settled in England, finding a position as the professor of cello
at the Royal Academy of Music.
Jules de Swert (1843-1891) was one of the finest Belgian cellists. He entered the class of
Servais with an early age and easily began a successful soloist career touring throughout
Europe. He held several appointments in Germany’s Weimar and Berlin, as principal cellist of
the royal chapel and professor at the Hochschule. In 1876 he founded an orchestra and acted
as its principal cellist in Bayreuth. De Swert was also very active as a chamber musician,
particularly taking part in a trio with Clara Schumann and Leopold Auer in Düsseldorf.
Edouard Jacobs (1851-1925) was a controversial personality due to some impressions he left
on young Pablo Casals. Before Jacobs’ post as second professor at the Brussels Conservatory,
he worked as principal cellist for eight years at the Weimar royal chapel. Following Joseph
Servais’ death (Adrien Francois Servais’ son and notable cellist), Jacobs succeeded him as
first professor of the Conservatory. During those years he managed a successful soloist career
touring in London and Russia for many years. Pablo Casals had a negative experience with
Jacobs when traveling from Spain in search of a cello class to study in. Casals described the
students of the class’ playing as „traditionally stiff and mediocre“. Jacobs reacted to Casals’
innocent confidence with sarcastic and biting remarks, amusing himself and making Casals
feel more and more awkward. Although Casals had problems with stage fright, he wrote in his
memoirs that this particular occasion let him play without stage fright due to how angry
Jacobs was making him. After Casals finished playing, Jacobs realized what level of a true
talent he had before him and invited him to join his class, but Casals refused. 44 Among
Jacobs’ students were Felix Salmond, Robert Maas and Iwan d’Archambau.
Joseph Hollman (1852-1927) was another one of Servais’ talented students. At the Brussels
Conservatory he excelled at virtually every subject. After his studies, Hollman toured through
Europe, including Scandinavia and Russia and composed two concertos as well as several
44
K i r k Herbert L., Pablo Casals, A Biography, Holt, Reinhart and Winston, 1974, p. 99
24
short pieces. His compositions were of considerable popularity in his day but are now
forgotten. 45
Iwan d’Archambeau (1879-1956) was a Belgian cellist who was a member of the Flonzaley
Quartet, which grew into one of the most eminent quartets of the time. Beginning his musical
journey as a pianist, d’Archembeau switched to cello at the age of 16, continuing his cello
studies with Edouard Jacobs in Brussels and with Hugo Becker in Frankfurt and additionally
took part in an intensive course of chamber music playing under the tutelage of Bernhard
Cossmann. D’Archembeau managed a prosperous career until his death. 46
1.6. The Italian School in England and in the USA
Until the twentieth century, there hadn’t been a constant line of Italian cellists, rather most of
the notable individuals were scattered around Europe. The few good cellists that were brought
up in Italy worked in London during the mid-part of the eighteenth century, due to the city’s
interest in Italian opera. The opera overshadowed instrumental music at the time. 47
One of those cellists was Alfredo Piatti (1822-1901), who was the next Italian cellist after
Luigi Boccherini of importance. Piatti studied violoncello for five years at the Milan
Conservatory in the class of Vincenzo Merighi, whose teachings were based on the methods
of J. L. Duport and F. J. Dotzauer. 48 Merighi (1795-1849) is considered to be the founder of
the Lombardian school of cello playing, and he was a professor at the Milan Conservatory
from 1826 to 1849. His students included Piatti, Alexander Pezze and Guglielmo
Quarenghi. 49 Merighi’s teacher was Italian cellist Giuseppe Rovelli (1753-1806) who was a
distant relative of his second generation student Piatti. 50
Piatti began successfully touring Europe and Russia, starting in 1838 with his debut at
Milan’s La Scala. His British debut was in 1844 at a morning concert at Her Majesty’s
45
46
47
Main 1995, p. 39
48
Main 1995, p. 39, 91
49
50
25
Theatre, and since then he developed a love for England. 51 The critics immediately
reciprocated the affection. One critic for the Morning Post wrote that „Piatti’s magnificent
violoncello playing won universal admiration, by the perfection of his tone and his evident
command over all the intricacies of the instrument.“ 52 Piatti often performed in London and
the main provincial towns in the UK and became the principal cellist of the Italian Opera
Orchestra in London. He also played in the original London Joachim String Quartet with
Joachim, Ludwig Straus and Zerbini which held a permanent engagement at the Pops (a
regular series of concerts on Mondays and Saturdays at the St. James Hall in London). 53
Throughout his performing career, Piatti was offered several influential teaching positions in
Italy, but he declined them all, with England remaining his preferred country of residence. He
became professor of violoncello at the Royal Academy of Music in London and taught
privately as well. He played in the traditional demeanor, without an endpin, holding his cello
with his knees. According to portraits of him, he preferred a low right hand elbow. Among his
students were the Germans Robert Hausmann, Hugo Becker and Leo Stern and the British
William Whitehouse and Edward Howell. 54 Aside from the Tarantella, Op. 23, most of
Piatti’s compositions are out of use today. Piatti was one of the first to publish arrangements
for 18th century sonatas by Pietro Locatelli, Benedetto Marcello and Boccherini, and unlike
Grützmacher explored viable ways to preserve the composer’s original style while arranging.
Piatti’s Twelve Caprices, Op. 25 (1875), remain effective among modern-day pedagogical
literature due to their practical instructions on staccato and spiccato. 55
Despite the fact that many fantastic chamber music cellists emerged from Great Britain in the
second half of the nineteenth century, hardly any of them were great soloists. London-born
William Whitehouse (1859-1935) was Alfredo Piatti’s favorite student. He began his studies
at the Royal Academy of Music in 1878 under the tutelage of Piatti and one more Merighi
student- Alexander Pezze. A successful student, Whitehouse soon became assistant professor
56
at the Royal Academy and finally a full-time professor in 1883. After 1886 he
simultaneously taught at the Cambridge University and the Royal College of Music. 57 Besides
teaching, Whitehouse had a successful career touring England as a soloist, as well as a
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
Main 1995, p. 40
26
member of the London Trio and the Ludwig Quartet. 58 He made regular appearances at the
Pops, acting as Piatti’s usual replacement when he was abroad. His most important students
were Felix Salmond and Beatrice Harrison, who besides their studies with Whitehouse, both
furthered their studies with other teachers; Salmond, with Servais’ pupil Edouard Jacobs in
Brussels and Harrison with Hugo Becker in Berlin. 59
An important student of Piatti was British-born Edward Howell (1846-98), who worked as the
leader of the cello section of the Queen’s Band, as well as a member of the Covent Garden
Theatre Orchestra since 1872 and principal cellist of the Royal Italian Opera. Howell was one
of the three cellists who gave the first London performance of Popper’s Requiem for three
cellos and orchestra. The other two cellists were Jules Delsart and David Popper, himself. 60
Howell taught at the Guildhall and Royal Academy where his most prominent student was
Herbert Walenn. Howell arranged Romberg’s 1840 treatise as A First Book for the
Violoncello, which was a great contribution to the pedagogical repertory. 61
Third generation Piatti students Herbert Walenn (1870-1953) and Felix Salmond were
important teachers since they would both go on to produce extremely influential violoncello
pedagogues of the 20th century. Both of them, besides studying within the Piatti line, were
students of other lines like that of Becker and Jacobs. Walenn studied with Becker in
Frankfurt and Piatti in London. Besides being a successful soloist and chamber musician,
Walenn was a tremendously honored and cherished teacher at the Royal Academy, where he
worked for plenty of years. Among his students were Zara Nelsova, John Barbirolli (who later
succeeded internationally as a conductor) and the fruitful British pedagogue Douglas
Cameron, who was the teacher of Julian Lloyd Weber. 62 Cameron (1902-72) taught at the
Royal Academy, coached the cello section in the National Youth Orchestra and lectured at
several summer schools. A recurrent participant at Cameron’s summer schools was Emanuel
Feuermann, the great violoncello virtuoso from the German line. Paul Tortelier was a judge in
a competition at the Royal Academy of Music where he had a difficult time deciding which of
the contestants was better, since he found them all equally good, yet stylistically rather
58
Main 1995, p. 40
59
Main 1995, p. 41
60
61
62
27
different. Upon asking who their individual teachers were, he was shocked to realize that
Douglas Cameron was responsible for virtually all of them. 63
Piatti and Becker student Felix Salmond (1888-1952) influenced American cellists for almost
thirty years throughout his long residence at two of America’s dominant conservatories; the
Julliard School in New York and the Curtis Institute in Philadelphia. His most notable
students were Channing Robbins, Orlando Cole and the celebrated Leonard Rose, who went
on to teach Lynn Harrell and Yo-Yo Ma. 64 Salmond began his studies with Whitehouse in
London and furthered his studies with two years under the tutelage of Edouard Jacobs in
Brussels. As a teacher he was strict and harsh towards his students, and he drew inspiration
from Casals’ playing, although he never studied with him. His student Orlando Cole (who
continued Salmond’s work as a teacher at the Curtis Institute) explained Salmond’s technical
and musical criteria:
„He always aimed for a beauty of sound, and he achieved it with a different kind of bow arm.
At that time, the German school used a lot of wrist in string crossing and produced a dry nasal
sound- if one judges from recordings made by Klengel and Becker. Even Suggia had it
occasionally. Salmond made a much more modern sound- he didn’t slide around like the
previous generation, with heavy glissandi and so on. His was much more tasteful playing. I
always think he was much more under the influence of Casals- at least he greatly admired
him.
…His bow-change was so simple- not at all like the German or the French School. They
played with a caved-in straight thumb. Salmond derived power from a bent thumb.“ 65
According to Cole, Salmond taught the great music of cello literature to his students,
including the sonatas of Beethoven, Brahms and Franck. Salmond did not prefer the Popper
etudes or his virtuoso pieces, nor did he perscribe the Davidov or Romberg concertos to his
students. He taught them the Franchomme and Piatti caprices, having learnt them with his
teacher, Whitehouse. Salmond taught the Bach solo suites, which were slightly despised by
the German school who viewed them as etudes that were beneficiary to technique, but lacking
compositional quality in order to be worthy enough to be performed. 66 Salmond’s other
student Leonard Rose described him as an „absolutely first class musician, in my opinion
63
64
65
66
28
impeccable of taste. Unfortunately, he was not a truly great cellist. He had limited technical
command of the instrument. He had a magnificent sound of the instrument. I think a lot of my
sense of sound -- and I do love sound -- came from that period." 67 Rose continues to describe
how Salmond was very strict in his own ways and didn’t teach his students how to investigate
possibilities other than what he dictated „if we took the slightest different fingering or
bowing, his ego was immediately shattered.“ 68
1.7. Individual Lines
Besides the two strongest schools of the 18th, 19th and early 20th century, there were a few
lines that developed in their own way and from their own roots, without establishing a
national group. Luigi Boccherini was one of the most important cello figures of the late 18th
century, but unfortunately didn’t pass his legacy onto a school of younger cellists since he
wasn’t active as a pedagogue. Luckily his legacy lives on through his compositions and his
interpretative influence, adding extensive use of the thumb position and creating more
possibilities in cello composition by incorporating more clefs. Pablo Casals did indeed
continue his own legacy by engaging in pedagogical work, but doesn’t stem from a line of any
of the famous national schools. Casals is however, the most mentioned cellist in biographic
literature among cellists, since a surprising number of his contemporaries were greatly
inspired and influenced by his playing regardless whether they studied with him or not;
Navarra, Tortelier, Salmond, Klengel- to name a few. Rudolf Matz began his own violoncello
school in former Yugoslavia, which began and continued in the same premises, greatly
developing violoncello playing in that region.
1.7.1. Luigi Boccherini
The most renowned Italian violoncellist and primary character in the evolution of cello
playing in the latter half of the 18th century was Luigi Boccherini. He was appreciated for his
expansion of the violoncello’s tessitura, the writing of lyrical melodies, and his integration of
the violoncello into chamber ensembles. Born in Lucca on February 19, 1743, Boccherini was
67
J a n o f Tim, in: Leonard Rose http://www.cello.org/newsletter/articles/rose/rose.htm 9.10.2016
68
29
a member of an artistic family. His father was a contrabass player, his sister a dancer, and his
brother a dancer, violinist, and well regarded librettist. Boccherini first studied violoncello
with Francesco Vanucci, the local maestro di cappella. He left for Rome in 1757, spending
several months there to study with the maestro di cappella at St. Peter’s basilica and former
pupil of Tartini, G. B. Constanzi. At the end of that year, Boccherini and his father were
invited to Vienna to take positions in the court theater orchestra; his brother and sister arrived
shortly thereafter. Boccherini’s early continuo sonatas were composed to demonstrate his
proficiency; he performed them in Vienna with accompaniment by his father. 69 In the
following years Boccherini alternated between Lucca and Vienna, ending the travels in 1764
eager to accept a permanent position in Lucca. However eager he was to settle in his
hometown, he may not have been satisfied or may have needed to be surrounded by musicians
with similar talent, resulting in him leaving the post the following year. 70 He spent time in
Milan during 1765, performing his own and Haydn’s string quartets with Manfredi, Nardini
and Cambini. Those were the first known public performances of a string quartet. With the
death of Boccherini’s father, Boccherini became responsible for his own finances and soon
found a friend and musical collaborator in the violinist Manfred. They traveled through Italy
on a joint tour and finished in Paris in 1767. In the pre-Revolutionary years of the eighteenth
century, acceptance by Parisian musical connoisseurs was the gateway to an artist’s fame and
fortune. The first step in this process was to be invited into the musical salon of Baron de
Bagge, the Prussian chamberlain. Boccherini was invited to perform at the Baron’s soirees,
and managed to impress the Baron. The soirees connected him with important artistic figures
of the pre-revolutionary epoch such as J. B. Janson and the Duport brothers, although he was
never presented at court. Boccherini and Manfredi left Paris for Madrid in the end of 1768,
joining the establishment of Don Luis and remaining in his employ until 1785. Boccherini had
by then composed sonatas, concertos, string trios and quartets and began composing string
quintets using two violoncellos. These quintets became especially popular in Paris owing their
popularity to the influence of French violinist Baillot, who featured them in virtually all of his
chamber music concerts until he ceased performing in 1840. Baillot also included excerpts
from Boccherini’s works in the study methods published by the Paris Conservatoire.
Although he remained in Spain, Boccherini recommenced associations with Austrian and
German musicians during the early 1780s. He exchanged letters with Joseph Haydn, which
69
D e R o t h s h i l d Germain, Luigi Boccherini: His Life and Work, trans. Norbert Dufourcq, Oxford
University Press, 1965, p. 1-14
70
30
was reported by contemporary biographers. 71 Based on J. P. Duport’s initiative, Friedrich
Wilhelm II of Prussia became a patron of Boccherini’s and made him the Chamber Composer
to the Berlin court in 1786. He received an annual salary until the King’s death in 1798.
Boccherini published fifty-six works for the Prussian court. After Boccherini contracted
tuberculosis, he ceased performing, but numerous young musicians made the effort to meet
with him. Among them were Rode and Romberg, who like Baillot, greatly admired the older
composer. 72 In his obituary, in the Gazette Musicale Générale de Paris, Boccherini was
described as „a marvelous violoncellist“. „Above all he charmed us by the incomparable
sonority and the peculiarly expressive singing tone of his instrument.“ 73 Dutch cellist Anner
Bylsma considers Boccherini to be the most important personage in the history of the
instrument. Nevertheless, Bylsma lays emphasis on the fact that Boccherini’s music is most
effective when performed on period instruments. Boccherini was one of the first of the Italian
cellists to give the cello the wide range that was necessary to achieve the soloist and virtuosic
role. He extended the range by introducing extensive use of the thumb position. Before
Boccherini did this, composers wrote for the cello’s highest register in the violin clef, adding
additional markings to signify that the sound must be one octave lower than written.
Boccherini changed that by beginning to use five clefs (soprano, alto, tenor, bass and treble).
Even though Boccherini didn’t continue the Italian line of cello school by focusing on
pedagogy, he contributed vastly to the development of the instrument by opening up new
horizons in cello writing. Had Boccherini not been abroad so much, perhaps there would have
been a line of cellists today that stem from his pedagogical tree.
1.7.2. Pablo Casals
Pablo Casals (1876-1973) was a unique figure in the cello world in the 19th century. He is said
to have revolutionized the technique of the cello, and is credited for reintroducing the Bach
solo suites to the world. He was born in Catalonia, the son of an organist, and was surrounded
by music from an early age. From the age of four, Casals began learning a new musical
„language“ every two years. He began with the piano, singing in a choir, playing the violin
71
W a l d e n Valerie, One Hundred Years of Violoncello, A History of Technique and Performance Practice,
1740-1840: Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 12
72
D e R o t h s h i l d Germain, Luigi Boccherini: His Life and Work, trans. Norbert Dufourcq, Oxford University
Press, 1965, p. 74
73
31
and cello and eventually began to compose. Casals had in his father an excellent teacher from
the beginning, and his mother chaperoned him throughout all of his travels, carefully
organizing his education. By the time his son had been studying piano for two years, Carlos
Casals had introduced him to some of the simpler works of Chopin, Beethoven and
Mendelssohn. At the age of 11, Casals heard the sound of the cello being played in a trio by
Jose Garcia at a local concert. The instrument caught his attention and interest and soon he
was a student of Garcia at the Municipal School of Music, aged 12. In short time he was
already earning money with the cello, playing in a trio of his own at the Café Tost. 74 Casals
contributed to the repertoire of his trio with his familiarity with the music of Beethoven and
Brahms. During his time as a pupil in the music school, he detected the stiff-armed way of
playing that was favored in the time and knew very early on that he did not like this style. In
that time, in order to train the elbows to remain close to the body, students would use books
under their arms to preserve the position while playing. 75 When Casals was 13 years old, he
was browsing through a music shop and gathered a clump of old and discolored scores. He
recognized their importance at once. The scores were of Bach’s Solo cello suites, of which he
had never heard of before. The discovery revolutionized his musical perspective. For the
following twelve years of his life he prepared them until he felt ripe enough to perform them
in public. 76 Since the rediscovery of the Bach suites, Mendelssohn, Grützmacher, Piatti and
Schumann made their own versions with piano accompaniment. In 1894 Casals was
introduced by his friend the composer Isaac Albeniz to the Count de Morphy in Madrid. The
Count presented Casals to the Queen who administered him with financial support to enter the
Madrid Conservatory of Music. There he studied composition with Tomás Bretón and
chamber music with the director Jesus de Monasterio. 77 After discussions between Casals’
mother and the music school director Monasterio, it was decided that the best thing for young
Casals would be to study at the Brussels Conservatory. Brussels was in their view the most
important centre of string teaching in Europe. With the main focus on studying composition
with Francois Geväert, Casals was also set to study cello with the Conservatory’s cello
professor Edouard Jacobs (Servais’ student), based on Geväert’s recommendation. 78 At the
session next morning, Casals arrived into the classroom and sat there unnoticed and
unacknowledged. The professor waited until some the regular students finished playing and
74
K i r k Herbert L., Pablo Casals, A Biography, Holt, Reinhart and Winston, 1974, p.51
75
C a s a l s Pablo, K a h n Albert E., Joys and Sorrows: Reflections by Pablo Casals, Simon & Schuster, New
York, 1970, p. 29
76
77
78
32
during that time, Casals managed to examine their playing. He wasn’t impressed; in fact he
was disappointed by their stiffness, dry and blurred tone and squeaks. When the class was
over the students remained sitting, rather too cordially. Margaret Campbell describes the
scene in her book The Great Cellists:
“Jacobs noticed Casals and asked: ‘So you are the little Spaniard that the director spoke to me
about. Do you wish to play?’ Casals agreed, and then the professor asked if he knew certain
pieces, rattling off a long list. When he truthfully replied that he knew them all, the professor
turned to the class saying, ‘Well, well, you must be remarkable! It seems that our young
cellist plays everything. He must be really quite amazing!’ He then asked Casals to play
Servais’ Souvenir de Spa, the virtuoso piece that was regularly played at the conservatory.
Casals, by now incensed, nevertheless decided to oblige. As he played, the room fell silent
and when he had finished, the students were too stunned even to applaud. Visibly shaken, the
professor took him aside, praised his talent and offered to take him in his class, promising him
first prize. The angry young Casals retorted, ‘You ridiculed me in front of your pupils. I do
not want to remain here a moment longer!’ He left for Paris the next morning.” 79
The boy’s defiance brought repercussions. When the Queen, who was financing Casals,
found out that her prodigy discarded the opportunity to study in Brussels, she canceled her
support. Until returning to Spain, the Casals family had a difficult time in Paris regarding
finances.
Casals’ return to Barcelona in 1896 coincided with the sudden emigration of his teacher José
Garcia to Argentina. Garcia’s former student Casals soon filled his teacher’s musical
commitments. He took over most of Senor Garica’s private students and his chair in various
concert orchestras and church ensembles. 80 In addition to teaching and performing, in the
spring of 1897 Casals began to play chamber music regularly with Enrique Granados and
Mathieu Crickboom, a fine violinist and former student of Ysaye who had moved from his
native Belgium to Barcelona in the fall of 1895. 81 The local press praised all three artists
lavishly, singling out Casals as being „without dispute the foremost Spanish cellist.“ 82 Even
with the posts he had, he always tried to continue learning and improving his technique. For
Casals, teaching was learning. He was persistent in avoiding the constraints of perspectives
79
80
K i r k Herbert L., Pablo Casals, A Biography, Winston of Canada, 1974, p.103
81
K i r k Herbert L., Pablo Casals, A Biography, Winston of Canada, 1974, p. 106
82
K i r k Herbert L., Pablo Casals, A Biography, Winston of Canada, 1974, p. 106
33
and traditions of the past. Although he supported learning from the past, he refused to let the
past dominate him. He introduced fingering and bowing systems he developed on his own to
his students and tried to demonstrate the relevance of a relaxed body and diminished tension
to them. „The purpose of technique is to transmit the inner meaning, the message of the
music. The most perfect technique is that which is not noticed at all.“ 83 Under the age of
twenty-one, Casals performed for the first time as a soloist with an orchestra. He performed
the Lalo D minor concerto with the Madrid Symphony orchestra, under Bretón’s direction.
His performance of the concerto was received coolly, since he refused to indulge in the
gestures of showmanship the public liked. 84
The collapse of the Spanish Empire in the Spanish-American War strongly affected Casals
and must have been the trigger that led him to devote his life to advocating peace. An
encounter with the most important conductor in Paris, Charles Lamoureux opened the door to
an international career for Pablo Casals. Lamoureux invited Casals to play with his orchestra,
after receiving a letter of introduction from Count Morphy. Upon arriving to the rehearsal,
Lamoureux hardly looked up to signal Casal’s entrance in the piece. When Lamoureux heard
the opening phrase of the Lalo Concerto he stopped what he was doing and listened
attentively to the end. He threw his arms around Casals and, with tears in his eyes, said, ‘My
dear boy, you are one of the elect,’ and immediately invited him to perform with the orchestra
at the Chateau d’Eau in October 1899. 85 A performance with the Saint-Saens Concerto
followed. The French cellist Joseph Salmond remembered the performance as ‘unbelievable!
Like listening to the work for the first time… Casals made it sound like it was easy. We
cellists were dumbfounded.’ 86 The audience went wild at the end of the concerto and the
conductor proclaimed him Knight of the Order of the Violoncello, „now and forever“. 87 In
1905, Casals formed a trio that in turn became one of the most famous trios in history. The
other members were his friends Jacques Thibaud and Alfred Cortot and they collaborated for
thirty years. Together, they were responsible for some of the earliest gramophone recordings
of chamber music. 88 Casals then visited Russia for a solo tour in 1905, which was not the best
time considering the revolution took place that year. 89 Casals was in New York during the
First World War and went back to Barcelona in 1919, with the hope of contributing to the
83
84
K i r k Herbert L., Pablo Casals, A Biography, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1974, p. 107
85
86
87
88
89
34
musical scene by offering financial support to the few symphony orchestras in the city. Since
the conductors of both orchestras’ saw no help in his offer, Casals formed his own orchestra
called “The Orquesta Pau Casals”. 90 Over the following years, Casals performed great
concertos such as Schumann and Elgar in England until he decided he would no longer
perform in a country that recognized Franco’s regime in Spain. In the opinion of Casals’
former student and later his French manager Charles Kiesgen, the French School of cello
playing had not produced anything like Casals, nor had any other so-called national style of
playing. “Whatever the reasons”, writes Kiesgen, “The violoncello simply was not an
important solo instrument to the public until Casals entered the concert arena.” 91 This
statement is difficult to agree with, when taking into consideration all of the historical
accounts of cellists building the instrument’s reputation for hundreds of years before Casals.
Nevertheless, Casals did cause quite an international stir. Japanese cellist and student of
Klengel, Hideo Saito used to tell a story about the time when he secretly copied down
Klengel’s fingering of one of the Bach Suites. When he played it to his master, Klengel said,
„Oh no! Don’t use my fingering. There’s a newcomer on the scene called Casals who plays
extremely well. Much better to see what he does.“ 92 Perhaps Casals was so unique because of
his respect towards the composers of the pieces he played. Gerald Moore, the Canadian born
pianist wrote in his autobiography Am I Too Loud?, tries to explain that „many a good
musician of modesty unconsciously thrusts himself between the composer and the listener
through his concern over his fourth finger, through technical insecurity, or through fright…“
Casals, in Moore’s opinion had no such problems. Moore continues „Casals began where
lesser mortals left off: supremely sure of himself technically… He thought only of the music-
of the message of the composer and that he was the bringer of that message.“ 93Janos Starker
believed Casals’ popularity hugely increased the interest of young composers to write for the
cello. 94 Sir John Barbirolli had heard all the great cellists of his time, including Casals’ Bach-
antagonist Hugo Becker, whom Barbirolli considered the finest before Casals and „perhaps
the first creator of modern cello playing. But then, then came the Master…“ Barbirolli spoke
of the particular quality of Casals that „is not only cellistic but musical. People say that he is a
very great artist, but they forget that he was and is technically the greatest cellist… That is
what enabled him to be such a great artist: such a command of the instrument that he could do
90
91
92
93
94
A p p l e b a u m Samuel and Sada, The Way They Play; Book 2, Paganiniana Publications: New Jersey, 1973
p. 252
35
what he liked. He could phrase like he did because he completely revolutionized the fingering
of the cello, but he revolutionized it so he could make the musical phrases as they should be
made, as if he had another finger, even. Therein lies his greatness.“ 95 Not all opinions on
Casals were always positive. David Popper was intrigued by the Spanish cellist and
appreciated that he was interested in Popper’s music, but he wasn’t a supporter of his
technique. „After attending a Casals concert with Popper in Budapest, De’ak recalled
Popper’s surprise in discovering that Casals did not favor a loose wrist and straight thumb,
which was in vogue among cellists at the time. He also noted that Casals used far fewer overt
slides than did Popper’s generation. Popper mumbled about ‘beautiful tone’, ‘excellent
technique’ and ‘splendid intonation’, before finally admitting that ‘in spite of all these, he did
not touch my heart“‘. 96 Casals’ audio recordings feed certain controversy or perhaps don’t
manage to accurately reproduce Casals’ true way of playing, since in many of the recordings
Casals’ intonation sounds out of tune and the sound is very raw. It could be due to the low
quality recording systems of the time, but in comparison to the 1908 recording of Hugo
Becker, the latter wins in general quality. Over the years, cellists from all over the world came
to Casals to study or seek advice, including Guilhermina Suggia, Pierre Fournier, Paul
Tortelier, Bernard Greenhouse, Christopher Bunting, Maurice Gendron, Amaryllis Fleming,
Mstislav Rostropovich and many others. This is evidence that Pablo Casals influenced many
of the greatest exponents of virtually every famous violoncello school of the twentieth
century.
1.7.3. Rudolf Matz
Rudolf Matz was born in 1901, in Zagreb. Matz received his education at the Royal Upper
Town High School („Kraljevska Gornjogradska Gimnazija“) and the Music School „Hrvatska
zemaljska glazbena škola“, where he took cello lessons from Italian cellist and notable
chamber and orchestral musician Umberto Fabbri. As a 16 year old, Matz took lessons in
harmony, piano, conducting, choir singing, chamber music and History of Music. The young
Matz soon joined the church choir and began to participate in the musical evenings at the
residence of Alfonso Gutschy, composer and musical theoretician, where he first experienced
the joys of chamber music performance. What really had an immense impact on his artistic
95
96
36
development was his socializing with other aspiring young artists of the time, such as painters
Oton Postružnik and Ljudevit Šestić, composer and pedagogue Zlatko Grgošević, poet and
novelist Vjekoslav Majer and others. They all curiously followed the dynamic artistic events
in west Europe, especially in France. It was an interesting time of alteration between
Impressionism and Expressionism, Cubism, Dadaism, and other avant-garde trends. The
socializing was followed up by discussing and reading literary works, making music and
exploring art reproduction. During his years as a student, he took private lessons from cellist
and composer Juro Tkalčić, but he has stated that „...The one who truly taught me to play
cello…“ 97 was in fact notable pedagogue and violinist Vaclav Huml, pupil of Ševčík, and
professor of violin at the University of Zagreb for 50 years. Matz’s association with Huml,
first as a student and later as a colleague, was in his estimation crucial, both in his
development as a cellist and in the evolution of his ideas on cello technique. 98 Matz composed
many etudes for cello, focusing on various problematic positions on the cello such as etudes
for young hands, lower position, introduction to thumb position, and relating low positions to
thumb positions. After Matz’s pedagogical career started to bloom, he also found himself very
interested in composing for cello ensembles, which brought us the „Quartet for 4 Celli“ and
the „Suite for Cello Ensemble“. Looking back on his composing journey, Matz commented
that his style was sometimes interpreted as somewhat „conservative“, but that he considered
his compositions as simplistic works, stripped of the pretensions for affirmation as a
99
composer, they were written to serve the educational purpose. Matz dedicated almost half a
century of his lifetime to pedagogical work; he educated several generations of Croatian
musicians, hence it is not at all surprising that he considered it his life calling. 100
He was a temporary singing teacher at the Royal High school (1925), an intern teacher at the
state Music Academy (1930) and after his professional examination in 1937 was appointed as
a teacher of artistic schools. He taught theoretical subjects in a beginner’s course including
Solfeggio, Harmony and Choir. Concurrently, he organized and led a musical studio, his own
private music school at his residence from 1931 till 1941. At his school children could study
music and prepare for high school entrance exams for a smaller fee. Matz taught cello and
97
‚’... Svojim najzaslužnijim učiteljem, koji ga je „uistinu naučio svirati čelo“, smatrao je ipak znamenitog
violinističkog pedagoga Vaclava Humla...“ –translated by J. Šarić
J e l č i ć Zrinka, Zbirka Margite i Rudolfa Matza// Donacija Muzeju Grada Zagreba, Muzej grada Zagreba:
Zagreb, 2010, p. 13
98
99
J e l č i ć Zrinka: Zbirka Margite i Rudolfa Matza// Donacija Muzeju Grada Zagreba, Muzej grada Zagreba:
Zagreb, 2010 , p. 23
100
C a m p b e l l Margaret, The Great Cellists, Faber and Faber: London, 1988 , p. 113
37
theoretical subjects, while he hired other colleagues for violin and piano lessons. 101 Rudolf
Matz wrote „The First Lesson on Music“ and „Elementary School of Piano“ for participants
of his studio, as well as piano pieces such as „Stara ura igra polku“ and „The Suite for
Children“. After WWII, encouraged by Antonio Janigro, Matz decided to originate his own
systematic School for cello based on contemporary principals and rich experiences passed on
by Vaclav Huml. He combined technical achievements from the best existing cello schools
(Italian, French, and Central European) with the newest discoveries in science (Anatomy,
Physiology, Psychology, Kinesiology). In the comprehensive work „Prve godine violončela“
(„First Years of Cello“) he presents his method of a natural and secure way of learning how to
play an instrument, from the first ten years till achieving high professional requirements. „The
First Years of Cello“ was published in six volumes individually between 1947 and 1964. It
has been described as the best cello method since Duport’s Essai 140 years earlier. 102
Rudolf Matz’s unique school is based on the principle that everything performed on the cello
must be visually beautiful, audibly correct and in proportion with physiological laws. With the
original concept of his work, he set a new standard for the synthesis of pedagogical methods
and composed brand new technical exercises and etudes. The „First Years of Cello“ took
place as a very important piece in modern cello pedagogy and soon became the main
workbook in the whole territory of Yugoslavia, and later in professional associations within
Europe and America.
Matz studied and tested his ideas through teaching and practicing, experimenting and
cooperating with many cellists and pedagogues. He was constantly updating his work, based
on new experiences and insights. Matz also introduced new terminology to cello pedagogy,
taken from medicine and other sciences, which was well accepted and standardized. In 1945
he was appointed as a high school teacher, in 1950 as a docent, two years later as an associate
and in 1962 as a full-time cello and chamber music professor. Matz was also a cello professor
at the Academy of Music in Ljubljana, Slovenia (1947-1951). He considered his pedagogical
work as an encouragement for further personal development, which is why he joyously passed
his extensive knowledge and experience onto his students. The serious and systematic work in
his classroom was infiltrated with humorous remarks and digressions; which brought great
results. Since students are a teacher’s best evaluation, we can use Matz’s ex-students as proof
101
Zagreb, 2010 , p. 33
102
38
of his value. Many of them are affirmed throughout the world as respected cellists and
103
pedagogues. His students include Janko Kichl, Stanislav Tuksar and Ernest Zornjak. When
a student of Janigro’s in Zagreb, went to study with Luigi Silva at Yale University, Silva saw
the first few volumes of Matz’s First Years of Cello and wrote to Matz in September 1954
that he considered them one of the most important contributions to cello teaching in our time.
‘Now I feel we have finally the modern method of which I have often dreamed and which, in
due time, will supplant all that has been printed. 104Matz turned his hometown, Zagreb into the
centre of cellism in the 50s and 60s of the 20th century. He was a teacher who inspired and
motivated his students, an athlete champion who connected sports with the art of playing an
instrument and a composer who broadened the Croatian Musical legacy. He was also a
passionate conductor, exquisite performer and an inspiring choir master.
103
Zagreb, 2010 , p. 33
104
E n i x Margery, Rudolf Matz- Cellist, Teacher, Composer, Dominis Publishing, Ottawa, 1996, p. 98
39
2. The 20th Century Cello Schools
The cellists of the 20th century were allowed slightly more mobility than their predecessors
and their fame traveled further due to the development of the sound recorder. When it came
to teaching, in Europe there was a tendency for a school of music to hire their own alumni in
order to preserve a musical and technical heritage. In the USA however, professors from all
over the world were invited to take teaching positions in leading universities and
conservatories which lead to a more open heritage, which some might even call a global cello
school. Mstislav Rostropovich taught at the Moscow Conservatory where he studied and
André Navarra taught at the Paris Conservatory as well as other cities in Europe, while
Gregor Piatigorsky, Leonard Rose and Janos Starker found teaching positions at universities
in the USA.
By the second half of the 20th century, the famous German school of Klengel and Becker had
spread and transformed into a Russian school through Rostropovich, and American through
Piatigorsky. The link between Rostropovich and the German School was Karl Davidov, while
Piatigorsky’s connection was directly from Klengel and Becker. The French school
persevered and grew enormously due to André Navarra, Paul Tortelier and Pierre Fournier.
The new school that emerged was the American or Global school. The term „global“ is fitting
due to the fact that the cellists who represent it stem from different lines and all ended up
teaching in America. Those cellists were Gregor Piatigorsky from the Russian and German
line, Janos Starker from the German/ Hungarian line, and Leonard Rose from the
Italian/British line.
2.1. The Russian School: Rostropovich and Shafran
Our two greatest exponents of the Russian School have quite a few similarities, but musically,
technically and personality-wise, they were worlds apart. Both were sons of fathers who were
cellists, both were the best Russian cellists of their time, both carried a legacy of Cello
Schools dating back from the 18th Century, and both found their own original and individual
styles on the cello. As pedagogues however, Rostropovich was more active than Shafran,
having taught at the Moscow Conservatory and at various master classes. Nevertheless,
Shafran remains an interesting factor to this chapter due to his “cello family” heritage and his
unique technique.
40
The great Mstislav Rostropovich (1927-2007) was a virtuoso with ultimate mastery over the
instrument, an amazing pianist and conductor, but also a pioneer for modern music who
enthusiastically encouraged composers to help enhance the instrument’s repertoire. 105
Rostropovich was a student of his father Leopold, and later of Semyon Kozolupov. Leopold
Rostropovich was a very talented cellist and he was a student of Alexander Wierzbilowicz,
who was a student of Karl Davidov and took lessons with Pablo Casals. Mstislav
Rostropovich claimed he got the love for the instrument (and music) from his father and
serious professional training from Kozolupov. 106 Semyon Kozolupov was an important
pedagogical figure in Russia in the first half of the 20th century, and like Mstislav’s father, he
also studied with the Davidov student Wierzbilowicz. His most famous students are Mstislav
Rostropovich and Svyatoslav Knushevitsky. Mstislav studied cello with Kozolupov and
composition with Dmitri Shostakovich at the Moscow Conservatory (1943-1948).
Rostropovich married Galina Vishnevskaya in 1955, soprano at the Bolshoi Opera. They
toured together as a duo, Rostropovich as the piano accompanist and Galina as the singer.
Both of them were unknown to the world before 1965 when they had a recital in front of the
half-full Carnegie Hall in New York. 107 In the same year, Rostropovich’s first performance in
London with the Soviet Orchestra of the Dvorak Cello Concerto was a historical event. It was
only hours after the Soviet tanks crushed the Prague Spring liberalization movement, and
angry protesters can be heard even in the recording. It was a sort of scandal for the Russian
cellist and orchestra to perform a Czech piece on such a day, but with his intense
performance, he connected with the, at first skeptical audience and warmed their hearts. ‚’As
can be heard at the start, political protestors briefly attempt to disrupt the concert; in response,
Rostropovich delivers his briskest recorded performance with knife-edge intensity,
appropriately supported by Svetlanov, who provides powerfully emotive if decidedly unsubtle
support.“ 108 After a performance of Shostakovich’s First Cello Concerto, Benjamin Britten
was bewildered by Rostropovich’s new, unrestrained way of playing the cello and
immediately after the concert, started composing his solo suite. What followed was a close
friendship and professional association between the composer and cellist. Of the performance
of Shostakovich’s First Cello Concerto in 1961, The Strad wrote:
105
P r i e t o Carlos, The Adventures of a Cello, University of Texas Press, Texas, 2006, p. 251
106
A p p l e b a u m Samuel and Sada, The Way They Play; Book 2, Paganiana Publications, New Jersey 1973, p.
274
107
108
BBC Legends: Rostropovich http://www.arkivmusic.com/classical/album.jsp?album_id=612176 23.9.2016
41
“In his hands, the music was revealed with all its humor, fire, color, intimacy and brilliance.
His rhythm carried everything before it in the quick movements and he phrased them and the
more lyrical middle sections of the work with an affectionate authority that will not soon be
forgotten.” 109
Rostropovich’s second concert in New York was sold out within hours, as opposed to his first
performance there, and Milly Stanfield of The Strad wrote:
“His bow sweeps over the strings so that unless one watches it constantly the changes of the
stroke and string are quite unnoticeable. It seems as natural as breathing, which should be the
aim of all cellists from the elementary to the greatest… The percussive articulation of the
fingers of the left hand coupled with their powers of vocalization is perhaps the most
outstanding single element in Mr Rostropovich’s technique. It enables him to make the cello
sing and carry, whether playing loudly or softly, fast or slow. It permits him to achieve his
fine intonation and, with the backing of his flexible bowing, helps him to phrase as he would
wish.” 110
Rostropovich soon became the violoncello equivalent of David Oistrakh, when concerning
fame in the West. Due to his friendship and hospitality towards the Russian author Alexander
Solzhenitsyn, the Rostropovich family had wrecked their relations with the Soviet authorities.
As a result, the family was banned from traveling abroad from 1970 till 1974. After leaving
the Soviet Union as soon as they could, the family decided they would not return until artists
were free to speak their minds. The Soviet Union responded by stripping the family of their
Russian citizenship, after which they acquired Swiss documents in order to travel. After
President Gorbachev increased government transparency, the Rostropovich family was
allowed to return to Russia. After 25 years in exile, the Rostropovich’s built homes in
Moscow and St. Petersburg. 111
Rostropovich was the music director of the National Symphony Orchestra in Washington
from 1977 to 1994 and afterwards remained close as a conductor laureate. He often
collaborated with world’s great orchestras including the London Symphony Orchestra, the
109
110
111
K o z i n n Allan, in: Mstislav Rostropovich, Cellist and Conductor dies at 80
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/27/arts/music/27cnd-Rostropovichcnd.html?_r= 23.9.2016
42
Philadelphia Orchestra and the New York Philharmonic. 112 He also taught at the Moscow
Conservatory since 1965 and traveled the world giving master classes. In his obituary in 2007,
Allan Kozinn described his personality well:
„He had a mischievous sense of humor that cut through the sobriety of the concert
atmosphere. He sometimes surprised his accompanists by pasting centerfolds from men’s
magazines into the pages of their scores. At the San Francisco Symphony’s 70th-birthday
tribute to Isaac Stern, he played “the Swan” movement from Saint-Säens’s “Carnival of the
Animals” attired in white tights, a ballet tutu, a swanlike headdress and red lipstick.“ 113
Daniil Shafran (1923-1997) was a Russian cellist, but didn’t stem from the same line as
Rostropovich. As a matter of fact, his cello ‘family’ originates from France. Davidov was
responsible for bringing the German School of Dotzauer to Russia, but it was Delsart’s pupil
Louis Abbiate who brought the French School of Berteau to Russia. 114 After finishing his
studies with Delsart, Louis Abbiate went to Russia and became a professor at the St.
Petersburg Conservatory as Wierzbilowicz’s successor. He then taught Alexander Shtirmer
who graduated in 1916. 115 Alexander Shtirmer (1888-1961), was Daniil Shafran’s teacher,
and during his time in Russia he was influenced by the Davidov School as well as the musical
style of Pablo Casals, whom he first heard in the Leipzig Gewandhaus in 1906. 116
Although from two different cello schools and heritages, Rostropovich and Shafran were the
two best cellists in Russia and in their youth they were often at the same competitions, tying
for first place. They were constantly publicly compared, even though their styles were
extremely different. There certainly was an element of rivalry between them even when they
matured, as mentioned in an interview which Shafran’s stepdaughter Vera Guseva gave to
The Internet Cello Society. She claims they were always on good terms but that „Daniil or my
mother always sent telegrams to Mr. Rostropovich on the latter’s birthday. This gesture was
never reciprocated, however. And our family did not hear from Rostropovich or his wife
112
113
114
S c h n i t z e r Ralf, Die Entwicklung der Violoncellpädagogik im frühen 20. Jahrhundert, Lang: Frankfurt
am Main 1995, p.31
115
G i n s b u r g Lev, in: Shtrimer A.Y. The Russian Academic Encyclopedia
http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc_music/8702 20.9.16
116
43
when Daniil died, even though they were in Moscow at that time.“ 117 She goes on to say that
Shafran didn’t receive as much support as Rostropovich in Moscow, referring specifically to
his 1993 concert at the Moscow Conservatory where the concert had no press announcements
or reviews and the hall was half full. 118 Shafran was a well sought-after pedagogue in his
time, but never attached to a music college. Because of his highly individual style, Shafran
aroused strong feelings. To his admirers, he was regarded with an almost religious reverence;
to the unconvinced, he remained an enigma. His playing revealed an intellectual musicality
and a subtle lyricism producing a tone that was rich, mellow, unforgettable and very unique.
In certain pieces, his musical approach was fresh and his sound almost exotic (e.g. the
Debussy Cello Sonata, the Kabalevsky Concertos, De Falla’s Suite Populaire Espagnole), but
in others (e.g. the Dvorak Cello Concerto) his interpretation represents musical liberties that
aren’t permissible to cello students today. The reasons why his interpretation of the Dvorak
Concerto isn’t considered correct could be the thesis of a whole separate work; the impression
when listening to it today is that it contains a dangerous excess in glissandi and portamenti
but the style in the time of Dvorak in fact often included the use of glissandi. Still, many
cellists will disagree with Shafran’s interpretation of the Dvorak Concerto.
From an early age, Daniil begged his father Boris Shafran, who was principal cellist at the
Leningrad Symphony (also a student of A. Shtrimer) 119, to let him play cello, but his father
refused this request until Daniil was eight years old. When he finally started to play, he took it
very seriously and never complained about the long practicing hours. A legacy from this time
was that throughout his professional life he would always put on full evening dress for the
final rehearsal of any performance: his father maintained that an artist could be compared
with a soldier planning an operation and a dress rehearsal was de rigueur 120 121
. Shafran
studied cello at the St. Petersburg Conservatory in the class of Alexander Shtrimer, who was
responsible for Shafran’s tone color and comprehensive musical interpretation and
performance. Shafran described him as „a striking personality and a broad-minded man who
had a profound knowledge of law, literature and art- who never intimidated his students with
117
J a n o f Tim, in: Conversation with Vera Guseva
http://www.cello.org/newsletter/articles/shafran/shafran.htm 2.9.2016
118
119
120
French for something required by etiquette or current fashion
121
C a m p b e l l Margaret, in: Obituary-Daniil Shafran, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-
daniil-shafran-1278498.html 20.9.2016
44
encyclopedic knowledge.“ 122 Shtrimer taught his students that „a musician must be aware of
everything around him, should know about the colors of the grass, the trees and the sky and be
123
able to express the drama in everything.“ Shafran studied with him for ten years. After
moving to Moscow in 1950, following his graduation from the St. Petersburg Conservatory,
Shafran experienced an artistic crisis as a result of being separated from Shtrimer. 124 This tells
us how attached and loyal he was to his teacher.
As a person Daniil Shafran was even-tempered and calm, rarely ever entering conflict. He
would get very nervous before performances and become withdrawn the day of the concert,
barely saying a word, which his family saw as a sort of sacred torment of his creativity.
Shafran was highly educated and had a humble personality. He was known for his integrity.
For example, when Shafran was in charge of the jury at the Tchaikovsky Competition, he
always tried to ensure that the judging was fair and focused on the contestant as a musician
rather than his political ties. On one of those occasions, the American cellist Nathaniel Rosen
won the Gold Medal in 1976, which caused a sensation in Russia.. 125 He practiced five or six
hours a day, always searching for new fingerings and for the right sound. For an interview
with the Internet Cello Society’s Tim Janof, Shafran’s step-daughter Vera Guseva wrote:
„Daniil’s style certainly evolved over the years. As he grew older, his playing became more
and more personal. He simply ceased to care what others thought and he played exactly how
he wanted to without fear of being judged. Some people criticized him because they felt he
didn’t project well in large halls, and this used to really bother him. It wasn’t until when he
was in his late 70’s that he stopped being afraid of playing quietly. He knew that he played
with great nuance: vibratos ranging from nothing, to a slight shimmer, to wide, and with
various shades of dynamics, including piano, pianissimo, and pianississimo. He finally
stopped worrying about whether he was audible and just followed his musical instincts,
including whispering with his cello. „ 126 Shafran played a 1630 Amati cello which was
slightly smaller than the full size, and after his death his wife Svetlana donated it to the Glinka
Museum of National Culture. He received the Amati as a prize at the USSR All Union
122
123
C a m p b e l l Margaret, in: Obituary-Daniil Shafran, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-
daniil-shafran-1278498.html 20.9.2016
124
125
126
45
Competition at the age of 14 and it was the only instrument he played throughout his whole
career. 127
2.1.1. Pedagogy
Rostropovich’s pedagogical career began as early as the age of 14. When his father died,
Rostropovich took his place as the professor at the music school in Orenburg, Russia, and
from 1956 he held a professorship at the Moscow Conservatory and was highly respected as a
teacher. 128 He claims never to have had technical difficulties. ‘All of my teachers were angry
with my position when playing either piano or cello. It was the same with my father from the
beginning. He would say „Make elbow higher“; I make it for him but it is very
uncomfortable. After lesson, elbow is coming down. But I have always played with low
elbow because that is how it suits me. That is how it is comfortable.“ 129 Therefore,
Rostropovich preserved a flexible approach regarding technique to his students and a single
rule he considered necessary to be strict about was keeping the bow parallel to the bridge. His
recommendation was to always find a position that felt comfortable. Scottish cellist Moray
Welsh described his teacher- Rostropovich’s pedagogical method as „centered mainly on
enlarging the imagination of the student, so the greater possibilities of characterization and
sound could be opened up.“ 130
One of his pupils, Alfia Nakipbekova, describes his teaching style as full of humor and
versatility, saying he could see through people instantly, knowing if they were playing
sincerely or not. She claims he had „a sixth sense in recognizing potential.“ 131 Rostropovich
rarely ever demonstrated on his cello while teaching, although he did sit at the piano to
explain what he wished, aiming to avoid his students from copying his playing. Natalia
Gutman recalls the same approach when remembering her lessons with him. In an interview
with The Internet Cello Society she spoke of the way Rostropovich had an intuition for what
he had to say to each student, telling her to open up more and play with more passion. With
Gutman, Rostropovich was able to focus on musical issues, but this was because Gutman had
127
M i l s o m David, in: Daniil Borosovich Shafran http://www.naxos.com/person/Daniil_Shafran/57840.htm
20.9.16
128
Interview with Mstislav Rostropovich at the Kronberg Academy https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cvowys-
OnxU 1.8.2016
129
130
131
46
a strong foundation from the start of her musical education. She studied with her stepfather
and Galina Kozolupova, both students of Semyon Kozolupov, who made her go through
many etudes and scales during her first three years of study. This tells us that the Russian
approach was very serious in building a technical foundation early on. Rostropovich’s go-to
material for building technique were the Davidov concertos, the Piatti, Franchomme and
Popper etudes and three-scale octaves. Mischa Maisky described Rostropovich as an
incredibly demanding teacher because he judged his students by his own standards. 132
When introducing a new piece to a student, Rostropovich liked to give his interpretation and
then let the student practice the technical difficulties before returning to the musical issues
again. At the next lesson, the student needed to know the piece by heart before beginning to
analyze the work together with his teacher. The analysis would include studying the
harmonies, chords, and other elements the composer wished to express. When the student
reached the point where he understood the piece well enough, he would be free to polish the
work himself. 133 Rostropovich explains his own approach on learning new pieces for an
interview with Margaret Campbell. He begins by becoming familiar with other works by the
composer that he is going to play, not focusing merely on the cello works. He bases his
research of the piece on mental work and therefore doesn’t need his instrument for the
introduction process. Another reason why Rostropovich avoids taking his cello into his hands
while learning a new piece is to avoid becoming bothered by or focused on technical
difficulties. Then he searches in the scores for „brighter or pathetic parts“ of the music and
focuses on finding the climax of the piece. When he feels he has understood the piece well
enough, he plays it through and only then does he start to search for fingerings and bowings.
He stressed that fingerings play a great role in the expression of the music.
Russian cellist Karine Georgian remembers Rostropovich telling her she hadn’t spilled
enough tears in her life, after hearing her play the Brahms e minor Sonata. She also recalled
him teasing her for playing with over-polished, over-careful bow strokes, urging her to play
more emotionally free. 134 To Rostropovich „pedagogy is knowledge and art combined. Every
student is a different person, and for each student you, as the teacher, must find the key. One
pupil has this fault, that one has another. I cannot give similar advice to everyone, except to
132
M a i s k y Mischa, in: http://www.thestrad.com/cpt-latests/cellist-mischa-maisky-on-studying-with-
piatigorsky-and-rostropovich/ 1.8.2016
133
A p p l e b a u m Samuel and Sada, The Way They Play; Book 2, Paganiniana Publications: New Jersey,
1973, p. 283
134
G e o r g i a n Karine, in: Russian cellist Karine Georgian remembers Mstislav Rostropovich, The Strad,
http://www.thestrad.com/russian-cellist-karine-georgian-remembers-mstislav-rostropovich/ 27.3.2016
47
say that he must practice a great deal, think and let the head tire more than the fingers. That is,
the student should always think seriously about what he is doing.“ 135
Regarding technical matters in pedagogy, Rostropovich believed a good diagnosis was

crucial. For example, when struggling to create a bigger sound, the diagnosis could be a
cramped elbow, shoulder or wrist, the bow of the instrument not being properly adjusted or
136
the fingers of the bow being wrongly placed. David Geringas, Vilnius-born cellist who
studied with Rostropovich, describes Rostropovich as a very demanding teacher, who
expected his students to learn new pieces in a matter of days. „Lessons and masterclasses
were extremely stimulating, and the standard was very high. Rostropovich’s ideal was for
every student to develop harmoniously. He worked by sitting at the piano and would quote
examples from the symphonic or operatic repertory; or he would simply play as accompanist,
revealing his musical ideas.“ 137 The Latvian Mischa Maisky had the opportunity to study with
both Rostropovich and Piatigorsky. Although Russian musicians were put rigorously through
the basics and had a very strong technical foundation, Maisky claims he didn’t receive such a
strong base or a method to follow, due to the constant absence of his first teacher Emmanuel
Fishman. In his interview for The Strad, Maisky admits he considers himself a half-amateur
cellist, because he loves music more than anything, but claims he doesn’t know much about
cello playing. Nevertheless, winning a prize at the Tchaikowsky Competition in 1966 created
the opportunity for him to join the class of Mstislav Rostropovich. 138 Maisky explains that
Rostropovich was a wonderful teacher who had a story for every piece of music. Based on
Rostropovich’s recommendation, Maisky joined Piatigorsky’s class in California. Maisky
noticed a similarity in the way Piatigorsky and Rostropovich taught, both of them rarely ever
talking about cello playing, but about music. Piatigorsky always stressed that in any piece of
music you have a clear idea of your final goal and then you find your way to achieve it,
because there are many different ways. 139 „At the Moscow Conservatory, Rostropovich’s
students regularly played for his assistant Stefan Kalianov, who dealt with technical issues,
leaving Rostropovich with the musical ones. Nevertheless, Rostropovich would occasionally
pounce on a student and demand a study or technical exercise transposed on the spot- just to
135
1973, p. 283
136
1973, p. 283
137
138
139
48
test the student’s responses.“ 140 Russian cellists are taught from their young age that scales are
an important part of every musician’s daily routine. Natalia Gutman mentions that it is
common in the Russian school to make the scales more difficult by adding double and triple
stops and a lot of arpeggios. According to Gutman, after perfecting such studies one’s
technique must improve. Gutman claims it is not insisted upon so much in the West as much
as in Russia. 141
Daniil Shafran had a recognizable style that included a fast vibrato that usually began in the
middle of each long note. With superb technique and a unique approach, Shafran earned the
reputation of an extraordinary performer in the history of great cellists, but didn’t pass his
style on to his students. Perhaps his own uniqueness inspired him to let his students find their
own. Alfia Nakipbekova (b. 1954), a pupil of Shafran from the age of 15 (who also studied
with Rostropovich), feels that „the time she spent with him gave her a special polish that she
could not have obtained elsewhere“ 142. Nakipbekova summed up his philosophy: ‘He could
feel each pupil’s potential long before they were aware of it themselves. He was able to make
you find your own way through your own experience so you did not imitate him but you took
from him and then shaped your own playing.’ 143 For the last ten years of his life, Shafran gave
masterclasses all over Europe and Japan. In 1995 he gave one at the Menuhin School in Stoke
d’Abernon, Surrey. He held strong views on the teaching of the present time: ‚’I think many
teachers today are obsessed with technical perfection and because they are not themselves
aware of the importance of the emotional aspect of playing, they are unable to pass it on,“ he
told Margaret Cambpell in an interview. When asked about the differences between that
Leningrad and Moscow cello schools, he said he felt that „the Moscow school, under Simeon
Kozolupov, concentrated more on establishing a purely technical base, whereas Shtrimer, in
Leningrad, though attaching great importance to technical matters, gave more attention to
interpretation, revealing the stylistic diversity of works, and developing the artistic
propensities of the pupil.“ 144 Although he never taught at music conservatory, Shafran always
aimed to pass on certain principals and ideas of performance that have evolved and ripened
over the years of his concertizing experience to his students that went to him privately.145
‚’Shafran did not recognize giving universal truths to anonymous students, including advice
140
141
142
143
144
A p p l e b a u m Samuel, R o t h Henry, in: „The Way They Play“ Volume 8
http://www.classicus.jp/shafran/articles/conversation.html 23.9.2016
145
Interview with Truls Mork by Tim Janof, http://www.cello.org/newsletter/articles/mork.htm 2.9.2016
49
regarding technical development. He would only give advice after seeing an individual pupil
with his concrete faults. If he saw a cellist with a poor spiccato or staccato, Shafran would
suggest etudes that will help him out, although he stressed it was always best to prescribe
specific things after making an overall evaluation of a student: his musicality, hand structure,
temperament and other personal qualities.“ 146 Shafran’s go-to material for building technique
were Piatti etudes, in particular numbers 1, 3 and 12, and the Duport Etudes. The essence of
pedagogy, according to Shafran, is to encourage the pupil to think for himself. 147
2.1.2. Technique
By watching as well as reading about exponents of the Russian cello school handle their
instrument, it is impossible not to notice the way their body weight is transferred to the
instrument from above (as opposed to the French school where the cellist’s body preserves a
natural sitting position all the way to the relaxed, low shoulders). Gerhard Mantel wrote that
Rostropovich „tended to lean back when playing in low positions, but forward, sometimes a
lot, when playing in higher positions.“ 148 Truls Mork, a cellist of mainly Russian cello
influence, said „it [the Russian style] is a very warm style, which is partly the result of how
they put more weight into the instrument and dig deeper into the instrument with their
bow“ 149 . Rostropovich’s sound is described as one with great projection and enormous
expressivity, with absolute volume and broad palette of colors. There is a richness of tone
which is the hallmark of the great Russian cellists. Watching Rostropovich playing, one can
see the perfection of his physical relationship with the cello, which is especially visible in the
freedom of his right arm. When playing the ending of the finale of Shostakovich’s First Cello
Concerto, Op. 126, many of the Russian cellists including Gutman and Rostropovich take the
bow with their whole fist because the fingers aren’t strong enough to hold it in a normal way
and produce a strong enough sound across three strings. 150 Rostropovich was interested in
pushing the technique of the instrument further through trying to inspire composers to create
pieces that were more progressive. Prior to meeting Rostropovich, Prokofiev wasn’t
146
147
148
J a n o f Tim, in: Gerhard Mantel www.cello.org/newsletter/articles/mantel.htm 23.9.2016
149
J a n o f Tim, in: Interview with Truls Mork by Tim Janof, http://www.cello.org/newsletter/articles/mork.htm
2.9.2016
150
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enthusiastic about composing for cello before, but Rostropovich’s passion and exquisite
technique inspired the composer and brought us Prokofiev’s Sinfonia Concertante.
Rostropovich had a wonderful left hand and was blessed with long fingers which were all of
similar length, allowing thumb positions to be executed easier. He could also stretch his
fingers widely, allowing him to execute more difficult fingerings with ease. His left hand was
rather slanted in comparison to that of Pierre Fournier, and he had a wide range of vibrato
from narrow to broad. The joints of his left hand fingers were always very free of tension and
firmly present on the fingerboard, without the slightest hint of tension. When observing his
bow arm, his hand is often positioned further away from the frog and less fixated than that of
André Navarra. His little finger is placed low, gripping the frog with the second joint,
occasionally falling even lower, although never inactively. The more active fingers on the
bow are however his middle and ring finger. His right hand thumb is bent inward (arched with
the joint curved in towards the palm). Rostropovich played with a long bent endpin often
called the ‘Tortelier endpin’, positioning his cello horizontally rather than vertically like
Navarra did. Rostropovich played with a low right hand elbow and had amazingly accurate
intonation, worthy of making any violinist enviable.
Daniil Shafran’s technique involved a staggering mastery of the upper registers of the
instrument, flexible and at times unconventional fingerings including extensive use of the
thumb and fourth finger, as if they were any other finger, and a versatile, colorful palette of
vibrato. “A small minority of string players can get by without constant practice, but I admit
that I am not one” 151, he noted. Each day would start with a slow cantilena piece for about 15
minutes, “to refresh the reflexes” for tonal beauty. During learning Popper’s Elfentanz with
his father, he learned to play a piece through at twice the written speed, to ensure that all
technical challenges were met. “I must work and persevere without pause. And if there comes
a time when I feel some element of my instrumental control is slipping, I immediately start
exercises to rectify the situation. For the left hand I execute great leaps over the fingerboard
with all fingers, striving for exactness of intonation and purity of sound.” 152 To develop tone
control, he would take a piece of moderate difficulty, like Rachmaninoff’s ‘Vocalise’, and
play it high on the C-string instead of the A-string. 153 Shafran produced a warm savory tone
151
152
153
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with his relatively firm grip on the bow with his fingers, and his fingers were positioned in a
similar way as with Rostropovich; his middle fingers were dominant and his little finger had a
lesser role when controlling the bow and his thumb was straightened, curving inward. What
was different than Rostropovich, regarding the bow, was that Shafran often turned his bow, to
an angle that allowed all of the bow hairs to be in contact with the string. While playing, his
body posture was relatively reserved and he held his neck close to the cello, almost stiffened.
As a result, his upper arm (bow arm) often remained close to his body and with a low, free
elbow he extended his forearm when playing on the tip. He positioned his left hand thumb
deeper than the standard. Most cellists, including Navarra recommended putting the thumb in
the middle of the neck of the cello, but Shafran often played with a thumb position that
resembled that of a violinist. Shafran sometimes played a note with absolutely no vibrato, and
other times with a fast, narrow one, beginning in the middle. Those were trademarks of his
style. He played with a short endpin.
2.2. The French School: Navarra, Fournier and Tortelier
The French school was perhaps the most fruitful when considering how many leading cellists
it produced in the twentieth century. Cellists and pedagogues Paul Bazelaire (1886-1958) and
Maurice Maréchal (1892-1964) were outstanding representatives of the French school in the
19th century who taught and influenced the next generation.
André Navarra (1911-1988) was one of the rare great cellists who didn’t have a mentor after
the age of 15, and who was mainly self-taught. This enabled him to search for his own cello
method. Until he was fifteen, Navarra studied with Jules Leopold-Loeb at the Paris
Conservatory. Loeb was a student of Chevillard, who studied with Norblin, tracing back to the
French school of Baudiot, but was also influenced by the German school of Romberg. The
young Navarra wanted to study with Maréchal, but Maréchal told him he didn’t have enough
time to hold private lessons. He would have loved to study with Julius Klengel in Leipzig, as
he writes in his memoirs, but at the time there were no scholarships and he simply couldn’t
afford to go. Navarra could have arranged to have more lessons with Loeb, but wasn’t
interested in studying with him anymore and was left to his own resources. After hearing a
concert performed by the violinist Carl Flesch, Navarra became mesmerized by his smooth
bow changes and perfect vibrato, and immediately purchased a method by Flesch. Navarra
52
cherished the method because nobody had ever told him how exactly he must hold the bow,
and with which gestures should one control it. His teacher [Loeb] had apparently only focused
on giving his student a piece, telling him to learn it and then pointing out which notes were
too high and which were too low, what was too fast and what was too slow. It was from the
Flesch method that Navarra was inspired to adapt it for cello, in his own way. It took Navarra
years before he was satisfied with what progress he was making, but he always persevered.
He even changed the way he played vibrato, adapting it more to the violin style- from the
wrist rather than from the arm, like all cellists did. To Navarra, in retrospect, not having a
teacher was a great fortune because it made him find his own method. If Navarra had
managed to study with Klengel, he probably would have achieved great left hand technique,
but it would have all been in Klengel’s way and not his own. 154
When asked if he thinks the world of cello has changed since the 1930s, Navarra explained
that it most certainly has and largely due to the microphone. Not only has it influenced the
musicians but also, and especially, the audience. The microphone, according to Navarra, has
changed the musician world into a perfectionist world. The good side to the perfectionism is
that the technique has evolved since the 30s but the more negative side, as well as the cause of
it, is that the audience hears a version on the radio that is not realistic. One will never hear
with such clarity all of the passages in the Lalo Concerto in real life as they are heard on the
radio, simply because the orchestra inevitably covers the cellist, no matter how loud he plays.
In the recordings there is sound engineering, and in live concerts there are natural acoustics.
Not to mention, the development of sound engineering that made it possible to cut out any
mistake or less brilliantly played passage and replace it with a brilliant one. Navarra stresses
that mistakes are normal and human, and that the biggest problem for a musician is being
afraid of playing. Not in the sense of stage fright, but in the actual sense of being afraid to
play music, because it could be wrong. One must have the space and freedom to make
mistakes. 155 Navarra has only words of praise for Casals and for Emanuel Feuermann, who he
admired all his life. He believes the cello world owes to Casals for making the instrument so
154
K i t t Florian, K ü h n e Tobias, E r b e n Valentin, André Navarra und die Meisterschaft des Bogens:
Wiener Gespräche und Erinnerungen seiner Schüler, Bibliothek der Provinz, Wien, 2013, p. 30
155
K i t t Florian, K ü h n e Tobias, E r b e n Valentin, André Navarra und die Meisterschaft des Bogens: Wiener
Gespräche und Erinnerungen seiner Schüler, Bibliothek der Provinz, Wien, 2013, p. 44
53
popular, and believed there were many cellists who were as good as Casals, but there were
only a few who achieved as much musically, as well as gave so much musically. 156
Paul Bazelaire’s most famous student was Pierre Fournier (1906-1986). He was one of the
rare musicians that were admired by colleagues and the public equally. He was known as the
‘aristocrat of cellists’. Fournier was praised for his „satiny tone“ and the „utmost grace of his
phrasing“, as written in the Boston Globe in c. 1948. 157 Bernard Holland described him as „a
cellist whose elegance and reserve represented French musical style at its best“ in his obituary
for The New York Times in 1986. 158 Holland continues that „despite the lean, pared-down
tone and the emphasis on symmetry over extroversion, Mr. Fournier was known for the
breadth of his repertory.“ Indeed, Fournier often performed the Bach solo suites as well as
music from the Baroque and Romantic era, but was genuinely devoted to new music as well.
Many pieces by contemporary French composers were dedicated to him, including those of
Jean Martinon, Frank Martin, Francis Poulenc (Sonata for Cello and Piano), as well as from
the Czech Bohuslav Martinu (both Cello Concertos) and he also gave the first performances
of Albert Roussel’s Concerto. Fournier began his studies at the Paris Conservatory studying
with André Hekking 159 (1855- 1935) and Paul Bazelaire, graduating in the year 1923. 160 By
that time he already possessed an enviable bow arm. Fournier and Paul Tortelier, who were
friendly competitors, once met after a performance and exchanged the following dialogue;
Fournier said, ‘Paul I wish I had your left hand’, to which Tortelier repied, ‘Pierre, I wish I
had your right.’ 161 Fournier later became professor at the Paris Conservatory, but for a rather
short time, dating from 1941 to 1949. His soloist career eventually outgrew his pedagogical
career and as it began to take pace, Fournier resigned from his teaching position in Paris.
Following his resignation at the Paris Conservatory, Fournier began to travel more and
perform all over the world, with conductors such as Herbert von Karajan and Rafael Kubelik.
He began to take part in festivals and give master classes. Fournier was also well engaged in
performing chamber music and achieved great success replacing Pablo Casals as cellist in the
famous trio with Jacques Thibaud and Alfred Cortot. 162 Among his students and the many
156
K i t t Florian, K ü h n e Tobias, E r b e n Valentin, André Navarra und die Meisterschaft des Bogens: Wiener
157
158
H o l l a n d Bernard, in: Pierre Fournier Obituary http://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/09/obituaries/pierre-
fournier-is-dea-at-79-cellist-typified-french-style.html 23.9.2016
159
See page 6
160
161
162
S c h n i t z e r Ralf, Die Entwicklung der Violoncellpädagogik im frühen 20. Jahrhundert, Lang, Frankfurt
am Main, 1995, p. 35
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cellists who took private lessons with him were Julian Lloyd Weber, Xenia Jankovic, Carlos
Prieto, Gerhard Mantel, Hans Jørgen Jensen and Christoph Richter.
Paul Tortelier was a French cellist known for his elegance and passion, as well as for his
political idealism. He had his first cello lessons with Beatrice Bluhm, a proponent of the
Franco-Belgian school, and she passed on to him the flexible wrist and free bow arm of that
school. After Bluhm, Tortelier continued his studies privately with Louis Feuillard, a pupil of
Delsart; and several years later enrolled in his class at the Paris Conservatoire, switching to
the class of Gérard Hekking. Tortelier remembered of Hekking that he „had a remarkable
feeling for color and, like Casals, could make Bach dance“. 163 „Hekking, being Dutch, had the
kind of vigorous rhythmic feeling one finds in paintings by Brueghel. This rhythm is
something you have in your blood… freedom in between the beats but never disturbing the
regular lilt of the dance.“ 164 Tortelier was interested in understanding music from a
composer’s perspective and therefore entered the conservatoire in 1932 to study harmony
under Jean Gallon. Tortelier was a member of the Monte Carlo Symphony Orchestra from
1935 to 1937, where he played under the batons of Toscanini and Bruno Walter, as well as
with Richard Strauss, who conducted his Don Quixote, with Tortelier playing the cello solo.
(He became internationally associated with Don Quixote, and played it with many orchestras
around the world.) Tortelier played for Casals in 1945 and was later invited to be the principal
cellist of the orchestra at the first Prades Festival which commemorated the 200th anniversary
of Bach’s death. The alliance with Casals led to a firm friendship and had a deep and long-
term impact on Tortelier’s artistic improvement. Tortelier was very sensitive to world politics
and, following a successful American tour in 1954, declined an invitation from Lorin Maazel
in the 1960s to return, due to his disapproval of America’s stance on the Vietnam War 165.
Tortelier remained in Europe for the most part of his career. He taught at the Paris
Conservatoire from 1956 to 1969 and held the same position at the Folkwang Hochschule in
Essen from 1969 until 1975. He held the position of an Honorary Professor of Music at the
Central Conservatory of Beijing, China, which was a great honor since he was the first
Westerner to receive it. 166 His master classes for the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
163
164
B l u m David, T o r t e l i e r Paul, Paul Tortelier: A Self Portrait, edition Buchet/Chastel: Paris 1986, p.37
165
H o l l a n d Bernard, in: Paul Tortelier, a French Cellist And Political Idealist, Dies at 76
http://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/20/obituaries/paul-tortelier-a-french-cellist-and-political-idealist-dies-at-
76.html 17.09.2016
166
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in 1964 drew considerable attention. Among his notable pupils were Jacqueline du Pre and
Arto Noras.
People who knew Tortelier considered his personality to be versatile. His colleagues and
family thought of him as someone who always gave one hundred percent and his students
thought of him as a perfectionist. 167 Before his performances, Tortelier preferred not to
rehearse too much. He believed that over-rehearsing could damage the spontaneity and
freshness of the performance. When he had to perform a difficult piece with the orchestra, he
preferred two rehearsals, believing that if it didn’t work with two, ten more wouldn’t help
either. According to Tortelier the most important thing was that he could understand and
168
communicate well musically with the pianist or the conductor he was playing with. After
returning to the concert stages in America, following his absence of 35 years in New York,
James R. Oestreich wrote for the New York Times that: “Mr. Tortelier showed no concern for
fashionable notions of proper period practice“ but that „his playing was on the whole so
eloquent that it swept those considerations aside.“ 169 Tortelier was one of the rare modern
cellists who composed a great deal of works for his instrument. Among his works are: a
Concerto for Two Cellos (1950), Alla Maud for two cellos and piano (or string orchestra)
(1973) and a Sonata Bréve for cello and piano (1983).
2.2.1. Pedagogy
As a pedagogue, Navarra deliberately restricted himself to things he knew to be correct, for

instance his technique. „Cassadó never talked about technique. Navarra never talked about
170
anything else!“ said the former Navarra and Cassadó student, Johannes Goritsky.
Generally his teaching went toward the goal of guiding his student into playing the way he
did, as opposed to the Russian school and teachings of Rostropovich and Shafran. Navarra
was a technical master, because he had to search for his technique on his own, perhaps
making him more aware of a pupil’s frustration and conceivably more capable to solve such
frustrations. However, if a student of his didn’t intend to play the way Navarra did, the student
167
B l u m David, T o r t e l i e r Paul, Paul Tortelier: A Self Portrait, edition Buchet/Chastel: Paris 1986 , p. 45
168
B l u m David, T o r t e l i e r Paul, Paul Tortelier: A Self Portrait, edition Buchet/Chastel: Paris 1986, p. 242
169
http://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/20/obituaries/paul-tortelier-a-french-cellist-and-political-idealist-dies-at-
76.html 17.09.2016
170
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was in for a rough time. „The job of the student was to aim to copy, which at its worst still
produced excellent results and at its best meant a student was achieving the mutually agreed
goal under Navarra’s guidance and approval“. 171 Navarra was strict and his students were
obligated to accept all of his fingerings and bowings, and to practice all of the basic exercises
including scales. Former student and French cellist and pedagogue Philippe Muller claims it
wouldn’t have been acceptable to suggest to Navarra that he had a different view than him.
One needed to be in sufficiently good shape to endure his strict approach in front of others.
He expected and usually had one hundred percent loyalty from his students in return for
which they received the wisdom and skills developed over a 40 year career. Navarra’s student
Alexander Baillie describes his skills: „His Rolls Royce bowing, his heart-rendingly
emotional, singing sound, free yet disciplined.“ 172
Navarra held masterclasses in Sienna, but had his own cello classes at conservatories in Paris,
Vienna and Detmold (Germany) where one of his students Xenia Janković now teaches. After
Julius Klengel and Hugo Becker (and the early death of their successor Emaunel Feuermann),
Germany was deprived of quality German cello pedagogues of the caliber of Klengel or
Becker (seeing as they were all scattered throughout Europe) and had to turn their search for a
good teacher abroad. 173 André Navarra then got the teaching position and built a wonderful
class in Detmold, which still lives through generations of Navarra’s students. Perhaps the
most fascinating thing about the Navarra School is precisely the fact that it still lives on in a
very similar way as it has when it was conceived. Besides Detmold, the Folkwang University
of Arts in Essen enjoys a class from Navarra’s School taught by Christoph Richter, The
University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna has kept its line of Navarra students passed
on by Tobias Kühne and now by Heinrich Schiff, Valentin Erben and Reinhardt Latzko as
well as the University of Music and Performing Arts in Graz which has Florian Kitt, Rudolf
Leopold and Tobias Stosiek from the line of André Navarra. Many other students of his are
respected pedagogues all over Europe. Further proof to the fact that Navarra’s school still
stands together is a Facebook page in the honor of André Navarra where former students and
second or third generation students join together in posting photographs and memories,
something that hasn’t been done in the name of other 20th century cello pedagogues. It is the
171
K i t t Florian, K ü h n e Tobias, E rb e n Valentin, André Navarra und die Meisterschaft des Bogens: Wiener
Gespräche und Erinnerungen seiner Schüler, Bibliothek der Provinz, Wien, 2013, p.125
172
K i t t Florian, K ü h n e Tobias, E r b e n Valentin: André Navarra und die Meisterschaft des Bogens:
Wiener Gespräche und Erinnerungen seiner Schüler, Bibliothek der Provinz, Wien, 2013, p. 125
173
K i t t Florian, K ü h n e Tobias, E r b en Valentin: André Navarra und die Meisterschaft des Bogens: Wiener
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students Navarra had worked with for more than three or four years that he considers his true
students. 174 Other teachers required less time with their students as a minimal duration to
achieve something, which could be the reason why Navarra’s ‘family’ of cellists grew so
close. Navarra often said to his students how important it is to practice in peace and search for
perfection there, not on the stage. The stage or the performance is where the student must
forget everything and only think about the music. „One must work on technique at home, that
is where one is a craftsman, not an artist.“ 175
From his students, Fournier insisted upon a beautiful quality of sound and a high right elbow
and a (as opposed to the Russian teachers who demanded of Mstislav Rostropovich to play
with a low elbow; although he didn’t adopt this). He advocated gripping the bow firmly,
without stopping the rest of the hand and arm from being relaxed, and recommended the
Ševčík violin exercises for improving bow technique. Most of his students struggled to
distinguish the core principles of his teaching, as most of his teachings were very
individualistic and personal. The British cellist, Margaret Moncrieff, studied with him in 1949
and recalls him as a „kind and considerate teacher who treated his pupils as equals“. „He
taught each pupil in a different way. He would always go straight to the music and this was
the core of everything that happened during a lesson. There were certain things that he felt
strongly about. Rhythm was of prime importance and he disliked players taking too many
liberties with rubatos.“ 176 Cellist Joan Dickson studied with Fournier for a while but, although
she found him very inspiring, claimed he was not able to give her the basic technical help she
felt she needed. 177 Another student of Fournier, Amaryllis Fleming (1925-1999) enjoyed the
inspiration he passed on to her, „opening her eyes to the immense possibilities of color,
nuance and phrasing, particularly in regard to bowing technique enabling her to acquire a
palette of far greater variety“ 178 . „Her friendship with and admiration for Fournier was
lasting; his musical influence remained for her a constant source of inspiration“. 179There is a
long list of famous cellists that studied with Fournier privately, but most of them got their
main musical education in classes and institutions with other teachers. For example, Julian
Lloyd Weber says he was „lucky enough to study with the superb cellist Pierre Fournier“ but
174
K i t t Florian, K ü h n e Tobias, E r b e n Valentin: André Navarra und die Meisterschaft des Bogens: Wiener
175
K i t t Florain, K ü h n e Tobias, E r b e n Valentin: André Navarra und die Meisterschaft des Bogens: Wiener
Gespräche und Erinnerungen seiner Schüler, Bibliothek der Provinz, Wieitra, 2013, p. 45
176
177
178
179
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that Douglas Cameron will always be his „cello daddy“ 180, and Xenia Jankovic, although
having studied with Fournier, appears to be loyal to her Navarra schooling. Xenia Jankovic
and Julian Lloyd Weber both studied with Fournier privately during the last years of his life,
while he was in Switzerland. His mentorship was evidently a well sought after experience for
young professionals who already had years of building musical and technical foundation
behind them.
Paul Tortelier was a Frenchman, but recommended to his students that they avoid French
music. The case was not that he lacked affection for French music, but that he recognized that
what the audience wanted to hear was Beethoven and Mozart. He taught his students to be
international in their musical tastes and performances. 181 In one of his master classes for the
British Broadcasting Corporation he stresses the importance of scales while referring to music
by Elgar (the upward scale that leads to the culmination in the first movement of the Cello
Concerto) and Beethoven (the scale in the theme from the beginning of the first movement of
the Violin Concerto in D). He then continues by quoting Shakespeare that „Music is the food
of love“ and adds his own twist by saying that „Scales are the food of music“ emphasizing the
notability of scales and the necessity of incorporating them into daily practice. 182 Tortelier
described himself as a strict teacher. 183 He was very pedantic with his students and would
allow them to search for their own interpretations only after successfully managing to play
exactly as he wished. Former student and Finnish cellist Arto Noras recalls: „He was one of
those people who insisted- as I think all teachers should- that unless you have the most solid
technique you will never become an interesting interpreter. He demanded patience. You had
to be able to push at one bar for hour after hour to get it just the way he wanted. Only then did
he give you the freedom to add your own ideas.“ 184 Tortelier first gave lessons when his
teacher Louis Feuillard was ill. When Feuillard returned, he was surprised to see how strict
Tortelier was with his class. Many of Tortelier’s students achieved careers as professional
cellists, and they all agree that it wasn’t always easy. „I would rather that you play only one
bar well, than two badly!“ as Tortelier used to say. 185 He used to spend a great deal of time at
the piano (while teaching) on which he would try to make his students aware of the harmonic
180
L l o y d – W e b e r Julian, in: A Musical Virgin with a Husband in the First Row
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/classicalmusic/3650609/A-musical-virgin-with-a-husband-in-the-
front-row.html 19.09.2016
181
S t . J o h n Marshall, in: Paul Tortelier http://www.cello.org/cnc/tortel.htm 17.09.2016
182
Paul Tortelier Masterclass 1974 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=beCrq6ObjrQ 17.9.2016
183
184
185
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tendencies in the pieces they were playing. Tortelier’s pedagogical personality was allegedly
very different when teaching at a master class and at a lesson with his long term students from
the conservatory. The famous BBC master classes were very successful at the time and
attracted a wide audience, including even those who knew little of classical music. To
Tortelier’s former student Richard Markson his teacher appeared to have a „tremendous ego
on television“, but was a „very serious musician and dedicated teacher“ who was very humble
to his art in real life. 186
2.2.2. Technique
André Navarra based the most part of his teaching on technique and spent his beginning years
as a cellist developing his own, drawing inspiration from Carl Flesch’s violin method. His
outstanding bowing technique made many of his contemporaries envious as he seemed to
have been able to play with a never-ending legato in the slowest of passages. His student,
Heinrich Schiff, reminisces that Navarra’s secret to bowing involved „allowing the right hand
fingers to listen’. The fingertips were the last link in the chain between body and sound, the
refiners- ‘the last point before the control passes from the body into the instrument“. 187
Navarra thought the ideal built for a cellist was to be sturdy and muscular in order to
physically dominate the instrument. He himself was a professional middle-weight boxer in his
youth. During his years as a teacher in Vienna (1973-1988), Navarra filmed a video called
„My Cello Technique“ 188 in which he focused on the principles and basics of cello playing.
He recommended sitting at the very edge of the chair with relaxed shoulders and straight
posture. His endpin was short, in comparison to the Russian style, but also to the length
fellow Frenchman Tortelier preferred. According to Navarra, the bow was to the cello what a
voice was to a singer, and every cellist should search for their own individual voice. Navarra
stressed the importance of having an absolutely relaxed right hand, and doing so one could
find their own natural distances between the fingers, as they should be on the bow. He
positioned the little finger on the ‘eye’ of the frog, and the middle finger half on the metal-
ring of the bow and half on the bow-hairs. The rest of the fingers found their positions
naturally, with the hand angled slightly toward the bow-tip. He recommended that the thumb
of the bow hand was to be positioned from its right side and into the corner of the frog. An
186
187
188
‘My Cello Technique’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfEY9IOmBz0 19.9.2016
60
important aspect of Navarra’s technique was that the thumb was rounded, as opposed to
Fournier who played with a straight thumb. Navarra believed placing the thumb from its right
side was more natural than placing it from its middle and this lead to a naturally slanted
towards the tip of the bow right hand position. Navarra explained in his video, that the quality
of the sound comes from the weight of the right arm. While his shoulders and elbows are low,
Navarra doesn’t position his bow hand too low at the frog, but rather slightly high in
comparison to the Russian style. During a down-bow stroke he focuses his arm weight
through his low elbow onto his hand and fingers of the bow, and stretches his forearm while
naturally raising his elbow, then stretches his whole arm aiming to keep the same weight
throughout the whole length of the bow. To simplify; when playing down-bow he stretches
his arm naturally and without pressure. When playing up-bow from the tip however, Navarra
recommends adopting a sort of „digging“ maneuver, with compression from above and
leading the bow back to the frog with the pressure of the fourth (little finger). Navarra relied
on the strength of his little finger for his bowing technique, while in Fournier’s technique it
had a more passive role. Based on an unproven anecdote, Navarra was able to crush a cube of
sugar with the little finger of his right hand. Navarra used Duport’s Etude No.7 as material for
various bow exercises including legato, spiccato and special bow-hand finger exercises on the
frog as well as on the tip of the bow. Many students of the Navarra line, generations later, still
use those exercises. The position of the left hand should be mirroring the right hand, regarding
the placement of the thumb; in between the middle fingers and in the middle of the neck of
the cello. Navarra kept a parallel line from his left hand through his wrist to his elbow, but
didn’t keep a completely square left hand position like Fournier did. Left hand shifting was a
simple vertical movement in which the fingers remain lightly on the string and follow the
movement of the elbow. Navarra was well known for his fast and narrow vibrato. This sort of
vibrato isn’t often heard nowadays, perhaps because of the fashion leaning towards a broader
one or it may be because the narrow kind is more difficult to execute without creating tension
in the left hand. Navarra however, played with no tension and achieved his vibrato through
the flexibility of his finger joints, which he drew from the example of violin methods. Former
student Alexander Baillie describes Navarra as „one of the few people who taught a
comprehensive „school“ of cello playing that works“. 189
In Fournier’s opinion, the 19th century bow technique had not been developed as much as the
left hand technique. As a youngster, he began the practice of the Ševčik violin bow technique.
189
61
In Fournier’s opinion, one needed to master the complicated bow strokes of staccato and
martele on all parts of the bow in order to achieve a good bow arm. „Every passage on the
cello must be sung with great tonal beauty even if it is obviously a technical passage for the
left hand. Fournier practiced the staccato a great deal with scales, concentrating on purity of
tone“. 190 According to Fournier, it is important to feel great communication between the
thumb and the middle finger. 191 They must almost face each other. This is a quite different
approach than that of Navarra, who places the thumb from its side. From what is possible to
see in Fournier’s videos, his right-hand thumb was straight rather than rounded. The other
fingers are then placed down naturally, without much space between each. With the thumb
and the middle finger taking the dominant role, the little finger is then less important, which is
another important difference between Navarra and Fournier’s bowing technique. Fournier
played with a low shoulder and stressed that it should never be raised out of the socket, but he
did not like a low elbow. The elbow should be relatively high. The position of the elbow is
extremely important, according to Fournier. „It should always be midway between the
shoulder and the side of the body“. 192 With a low shoulder and high elbow, Fournier’s wrist
was usually low and his fingers weren’t angled as much towards the cello as they were with
Navarra, at the starting point of the down-bow on the frog. By viewing Fournier’s bow hand
during playing, one can note that there is a general similarity with Tortelier’s bowing
technique, which is also a logical occurrence when one is reminded of the fact that both
cellists are second generation students of Jules Delsart. Navarra, although mainly self-taught,
is a third generation Norblin student through J. L. Loeb and Delsart is a second generation
Norblin student through Franchomme. Although from the same „cello“ family, Tortelier and
Fournier were further ‘cousins’ of Navarra. As far as the left hand is concerned, Fournier
stresses that arpeggios are even more important than scales, and that one should have more
than one fingering option for the same scales. 193 His left hand retains a squared or straight
position, allowing the first finger to drop to the fingerboard in a straight position of 90°,
which was common with cellists like Tortelier, Leonard Rose and Pablo Casals. Fournier
mainly used his whole arm to vibrate, and achieved a wide, warm and powerful vibrato. The
relaxed and low shoulders as well as a straight sitting position were and remain hallmarks of
190
A p p l e b a u m Samuel and Sada, The Way They Play; Book 2, Paganiniana Publications, New Jersey,
1973, p. 289
191
1973, p. 289
192
1973, p.289
193
1973, p. 289
62
the French cello school. Fournier played with a relatively short endpin, positioning his cello
more vertically than horizontally.
Like Fournier, Paul Tortelier also favored a square hand approach for the left hand, which in
fact originates from Pablo Casals. Richard Markson, a former student of his recalls: “At the
very first lesson, he put the cello on his knee and said ‘Here we have a keyboard. It is the
logical position for the hand and all fingers must be equal.” 194 Regarding the bow arm,
Tortelier played with a free moving forearm and wrist, with the position of each finger on the
bow rarely changing but the muscles and joints of the fingers moving flexibly. The fingers of
his bow hand were positioned relatively close to one another, and the elasticity of his wrist
allowed the impulses from the upper arm and forearm to transfer on to the bow in the form of
smooth bow changes. The dominance of his middle finger as opposed to his little finger
contributes to the similarity of his bowing technique with Fournier. Tortelier’s right-hand
thumb was rounded, as evident in his videos. Tortelier held his cello in a more horizontal
position in comparison to his French counterparts Navarra and Fournier, which was due to his
famously bent endpin. The bent endpin was in fact invented by Paul Tortelier, and is often
referred to as the „Tortelier endpin“. The endpin is angled downwards rather than parallel
with the instrument. Mstislav Rostropovich was a strong proponent of the bent endpin, and
was also mistakenly credited with the invention of it in Elizabeth Cowling’s 1975 book The
Cello. 195 The horizontal position of the instrument allows Tortelier’s bowing arm, and
especially his elbow as well as his wrist to position itself in a low, hanging manner. Although
they played with the same bent endpin, Tortelier didn’t possess the trademark of the Russian
style of raising his shoulders over the cello that Rostropovich did, rather he kept them low and
relaxed as was typical with the French style. The wrist of his left hand remained straight,
forming a parallel line from his elbow to his fingers and he often vibrated from the joints of
his fingers, which was in common with the technical style of his contemporary and fellow
Frenchman André Navarra. His vibrato was also often fast and narrow, similar to Navarra’s.
194
195
William Braun, The Evolution of the Endpin and Its Effect on Technique and Repertoire, University of
Nebraska-Lincoln, 2015, p. 23
63
2.3. The American School: Piatigorsky, Starker and Rose
Gregor Piatigorsky’s first teacher was Mark Iliych Yampolsky. After some months
Yampolsky left Yekaterinoslav and was replaced by Professor Dimitri Petrovich Gubarev.
Piatigorsky thrived under his tutelage, becoming the musical wunderkind of Yekaterinoslav
and amazing people with his virtuosity, maturity and depth of tone. After moving to Moscow,
Piatigorsky joined the class of Alfred von Glehn at the Conservatory. 196 Von Glehn, a former
student of Karl Davidov was strict about technical matters and didn’t let his students advance
to the technically demanding Davidov concertos until they completed a course of etude
material. 197 By the time he turned eight years old, the young Piatigorsky was forced to
financially support himself.. He took a few lessons with Anatoly Brandukov, but yearned for
the European style of playing. After finally arriving in Germany, Piatigorsky began to have
lessons with Hugo Becker, but unfortunately found Becker to be less than helpful, a poor
teacher. His next step was to travel to Leipzig to study with Julius Klengel. In Klengel’s class,
Piatigorsky found a wonderful atmosphere of young cellists working together, practicing and
learning from one another. After returning to Berlin in 1924, Piatigorsky found work in a café
called ‘Ruscho’ playing as a cellist in a trio. As a result, he was heard by someone who
recommended him to Wilhelm Furtwängler and was invited to be principal cellist at the Berlin
Philharmonic. What followed was a period of solo performances with orchestras and tours
around Europe, Asia and the USA. Piatigorsky also played chamber music with some of the
most famous artists of the time, forming a trio with Schnabel and Flesch. He often played
with Nathan Milstein and Vladimir Horowitz in less serious settings. 198 After 1929,
Piatigorsky began to travel as a soloist and gave up his position at the orchestra. His first
concert in the USA was in 1929 in Oberlin, Ohio and his New York debut was with the
Dvorak Cello Concerto with the New York Philharmonic under Mengelberg. In the year of
1942, Piatigorsky received American citizenship. Piatigorsky premiered many works that
were dedicated to him, including; Hindemith’s Sonata (1948), Darius Milhaud’s Suite
Cisalpin for cello and orchestra (1954) and William Walton’s Cello concerto, which was
premiered on January 25 1957, with the Boston Symphony Orchestra under Charles Munch.
199
Along with his solo career, teaching played a very important role in his career. He held
196
K i n g Terry, Gregor Piatigorsky: The Life and Career of the Great Cellist, McFarland & Company Inc.,
North Carolina, 2010, p. 9
197
K i n g Terry, Gregor Piatigorsky: The Life and Career of the Great Cellist, McFarland & Company Inc.,
North Carolina, 2010, p. 12
198
199
64
summer master classes at the Berkshire Music Centre in Tanglewood, Massachusetts and
worked as the head of the cello department at the Curtis Institute from 1941 until 1949. His
last post began in 1962 when Piatigorsky was the main cello professor at the University of
Southern California Music School in Los Angeles. 200 Many of his students were awarded at
the International Tchaikowsky Competition in Moscow in 1962 and 1966 where he was
invited to be a juror. The Violoncello Society of New York initiated the Piatigorsky Prize in
1962, which is given every two years to praiseworthy young artists. 201 President Emeritus of
the Violoncello Society of the Rockfeller University, Janos Scholz described him as „on stage
he was a supreme performer with an unsurpassed presence and sense of projection.“ 202
Janos Starker entered the Franz Liszt Academy in 1931 to study with Adolf Schiffer. At the
time, composers like Jenö Hubay, Béla Bartók and Zoltán Kodály were among the staff at the
Academy and the musicians there claimed a line of knowledge on how certain masterpieces
were to be played, having been taught from the composers themselves. 203 Starker describes
his teacher, Schiffer’s teaching approach in his book „An Organized Method of String
Playing“: „his forte was in assisting his students develop their natural abilities. He used no
method. He assigned material, corrected musical errors, played fragments to clarify his
suggestions, and ridiculed unnatural motions that were contrary to the music.“ 204 Schiffer was
a student of David Popper, and in Starker’s opinion „was a superb cellist and musician, but
because of a rather late start as an instrumentalist, he limited his performing activities to string
quartet playing.“ 205 From the time he was eight years old, Starker began to tutor other cello
students. He was a child prodigy who had many concerts from a young age, and
professionally debuted with the Dvorak Concerto at the age of 14. 206 Starker took an
unexpected turn when he left the academy in 1939 without graduating and proceeded to
pursue his solo career, all the while, continuing to teach. Starker recalled the combination of
teaching and performing to be very helpful. 207 Abandoning the cello during the Second World
War, Starker returned to it in late 1945, becoming the principal of both the Budapest Opera
and the Budapest Philharmonic orchestras. In February the next year, he left for Vienna in
order to perform and prepare for the Geneva Cello Competition where he won a bronze
200
201
202
203
204
S t a r k e r Janos, An Organized Method of String Playing, Peer Music, New York, 1965, p. 23
205
S t a r k e r Janos, An Organized Method of String Playing, Peer Music, New York, 1965, p. 23
206
207
65
medal. 208 Starker’s successes brought him many soloist opportunities, but at that time he
preferred to perform in a quartet, since he was going through a phase of rediscovering
technique; developing his own theories on bowing, phrasing, breathing and the distribution of
power and testing those theories on friends who had similar issues as he did. 209 By October
1947, Starker regained confidence in his playing and in the next years he immigrated to the
USA, where he was invited to be principal cellist of the Dallas Symphony Orchestra and later,
the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra in New York. He remained in the Metropolitan Orchestra
for four years and then followed the conductor Fritz Reiner to the Chicago Symphony
Orchestra in 1953, remaining for nine years. Following his London debut at the Wigmore
Hall, critics wrote of the ‘intensity of his musical thought’ and the ‘electrifying mastery’ 210
with which he performed Kodály Solo Sonata, Op. 8. Following his post at the CSO, Starker
resumed his solo career, which was difficult to maintain while working in the orchestra. An
easier position to have parallel with his solo career was the one he received in 1958 at the
Indiana University School of Music in Bloomington as cello professor, where he remained
until his death in 2007. Starker’s presence in Bloomington turned it into a Midwestern
musical centre for his talented students, including Tsuyoshi Tsutsumi, Gary Hoffman and
Maria Kliegel. 211 Starker was widely known for his many recordings including that of the
Bach solo suites, which brought him a Grammy Award in 1998. 212 Although not a fan of a
romanticized way of playing, Starker had a broad repertoire including romantic works such as
the Dvorak Cello Concerto. He also played 20th century music, and was considered one of the
leading interpreters of music by fellow Hungarian, the composer Zoltan Kodaly. Starker was
proud and confident, allowing him the liberty to publicly criticize contemporary cellists.
“What I’d like to see is a little more humility and dignity displayed toward our art, and less
self-aggrandizement,” Mr. Starker said of Rostropovich in a 1980 interview with People
magazine. “Slava is more popular, but I’m the greater cellist.” 213 Perhaps the reason why he
208
209
210
211
F o x Margalit, in: Janos Starker, Obituary http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/30/arts/music/janos-starker-
master-cellist-dies-at-88.html 11.10.2016
212
213
M o o r e H a l l Sarah, in: Janos Starker May Be a ‘Cold Bastard’ in Concert but He’s Hot Stuff at Indiana
University http://people.com/archive/janos-starker-may-be-a-cold-bastard-in-concert-but-hes-hot-stuff-at-
indiana-university-vol-14-no-5/ 11.10.2016
66
allowed himself to express such open criticism towards a fellow cellist, was merely a response
to the occasional criticism he received for being „a cold bastard on stage“. 214
Leonard Rose (1918-84) was a brilliant soloist and renowned pedagogue. His first cello
lessons were with his father who was an amateur cellist, and later he studied with Walter
Grossman at the Miami Conservatory and Frank Miller, principal cellist with the NBC
Symphony Orchestra in New York. At 16 years of age, he received a scholarship to study
with Felix Salmond at the Curtis Institute. Only a couple years later he became Salmond’s
assistant. Although Rose has said on various occasions that his teacher Felix Salmond was a
great musician but a limited cellist, Rose credits Salmond for his beautiful sound, saying he
always demanded a beautiful sound, no matter what was being played. „I think sound is
terrible important. I must confess I am a sucker for sound! I like to think of sound on an
instrument, in the same way a marvelous painter thinks about colors. Not all his reds are the
same, nor blues, nor greens. He is constantly making variations of color/sound; and for me the
really artistic players try to make a difference.“ 215 Rose was twenty years old when he became
principal cellist with the NBC Symphony Orchestra under Toscanini and after one season
went to the Cleveland Orchestra under Rodzinski. He followed Rodzinski to the New York
Philharmonic in 1943, and worked as their principal cellist until 1951. Rose made his solo
debut at the Carnegie Hall in 1944 playing the Lalo Concerto and embarked on a solo career.
His London solo debut was with the Brahms Double Concerto together with Isaac Stern and
the London Symphony Orchestra. Rose was absolutely dedicated to teaching even throughout
his solo career, when he gave private lessons and worked as cello professor at the Julliard
School, since 1946. At one point, four of the cellists in the Philadelphia Orchestra, five in the
New York Philharmonic, six in the Cleveland Orchestra and seven in the Boston Symphony
Orchestra had been protégés of Leonard Rose. Erich Leindorf used to refer to the Boston
cellists as the ‘Rose section’. Other pupils included Lynn Harrell and Yo Yo Ma. 216 Rose was
recognized by his romantic lyricism and expressive phrasing as well as his intelligent use of
rubato and his infallible technique. Rose did not limit himself to 19th century material and
made a fascinating recording of Bach’s viola da gamba Sonatas with Glenn Gould in the early
1970s. He also excelled in contemporary material like Ernst Bloch’s „Schelomo“ and
214
215
216
P a g e Tim, in: Rose Obituary http://www.nytimes.com/1984/11/19/obituaries/leonard-rose-cellist-dies-key-
performer-and-teacher.html 0.10.2016
67
commissioned and recorded a cello concerto by William Schumann called „A Song of
Orpheus“. 217
2.3. 1. Pedagogy
Piatigorsky’s opinion on pedagogy is best explained through one of his quotes: „ the best
thing a musician can possibly do after he has acquired a great deal of experience is to pass it
on to younger musicians. So many people are now gone — Kreisler, Toscanini, Rachmaninoff
— who never had students. This is a great loss, and we must not repeat the mistake.“ 218
Piatigorsky’s first taught in Berlin in the 1920s and later at the Curtis Institute in the 1940s. In
the 1960s he joined Jascha Heifetz and William Primrose at the USC which made his master
classes famous. Piatigorsky’s students are principal cellists at the leading orchestras such as
Boston, New York, Chicago, Dallas, Houstan, San Francisco, Cleveland, Pittsburgh,
Minneapolis, Philadelphia, Washington DC, Berlin, London, Vancouver, Toronto and more.
Former students of his that have become soloists or chamber musicians are Nathaniel Rosen,
Steven Isserlis, Raphael Wallfisch, Mischa Maisky, Stephen Kates, Gert von Bülow, Paul
Katz, to name a few. 219 His student Paul Katz described his cello class as not competitive, and
thought of Piatigorsky as a father figure to the full class of good cellists. 220 Although the
cellists in the class weren’t competitive, Piatigorsky was demanding as a teacher. All lessons
were in the form of a masterclass which meant that criticism (which some teachers kept for
private lessons) were publicly communicated. This ‘master class’ style of lessons was in the
example of his teacher Julius Klengel, which is where Piatigorsky experienced as a student
how it created an environment where students could learn from each other. He wanted
everybody to find their own musical personality. As described by Katz, Piatigorsky often
made jokes that served a pedagogical purpose on the expense of the student who was having
his lesson. Some students were traumatized; others didn’t seem to be bothered. Former
student Jeffrey Solow said „he was consistently supportive, kind, generous and often very
entertaining, He held that we were not his pupils, a word he disliked, but that he was an older,
217
P a g e Tim, in: Rose Obituary http://www.nytimes.com/1984/11/19/obituaries/leonard-rose-cellist-dies-key-
performer-and-teacher.html 0.10.2016
218
B a t t e y Robert, in: Gregor Piatigorsky Core Principals http://cellobello.com/blog/index.php/legacy-
cellists/piatigorskycore-principles/ 10.11.2016
219
B a t t e y R obert, in: Gregor Piatigorsky Artist Teacher: http://cellobello.com/blog/index.php/legacy-
cellists/piatigorskyartist-teacher/ 10.11.2016
220
B a t t e y Robert, in: Gregor Piatigorsky Tributes: http://cellobello.com/blog/index.php/legacy-
cellists/piatigorskytributes/ 10.11.2016
68
more experienced colleague and together we were all ‘students of art’. 221 „ He valued a
student’s imagination and encouraged students to write their own cadenzas and to improvise
in class. „ He gave us lots of exercises,“ said Katz „ like 3+1 bowings, where we might play a
rapid three-octave scale at the frog, three notes slurred, one note separate, and then repeat it,
three notes slurred, one note separate, but over the course of the scale, gradually and evenly
move the bow out to the tip. Then we’d do the same thing while staying at the tip, and repeat
3+1 one more time while moving back to the frog. We would then repeat the whole three
octaves x3 again with the same patterns, but starting up-bow. He was brilliant when it came to
playing and teaching bow distribution and painting colors with bow speed.“ 222 One of his
focuses was on expanding the dynamic range by teaching how to play softer and louder,
comparing it to a painter’s palette. Piatigorsky believed it was important to dress well and
present oneself visually and sometimes had extreme ways of teaching that to his students,
having kicked students out from lessons for having too long sleeves or untailored suits. 223 He
required all of his students to show up for lessons wearing tailored suits because one
performed in those clothes in concerts and because he believed the students would then take
the lessons more seriously and learn better. Piatigorsky never brought his own cello to
lessons, but he demonstrated on other student’s cellos which was a great way for them to see
how different their instruments could sound when played by the teacher. Some students
moved rapidly through repertoire while others, like Solow, stayed on Davidov’s Concerto No.
2 for a whole year. 224 His goal was to teach his students to communicate through the cello
rather than mechanical perfection, and the greatest sin according to him was to play boring.
Piatigorsky preferred students with realistic goals as can be seen from the following anecdote:
„ He asked one prospective student, a young woman who “played exquisitely,” what her
dream was. She replied: “I want to be the greatest woman cellist who ever lived.” He turned
her down, explaining later: “She would never realize her dreams, and I would participate in
something hopeless.” Then a young man, “who looked and played like a truck driver,”
221
S o l o w Jeffrey, in: American Cellist Jeffrey Solow on studying with Gregor Piatigorsky
http://www.thestrad.com/american-cellist-jeffrey-solow-on-studying-with-gregor-piatigorsky/ 10.11.2016
222
223
224
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auditioned. His dream? “My uncle plays bass in the Oklahoma Symphony,” he said. “Do you
think I could ever play there?” Piatigorsky told him, “We’re in business!” 225
Janos Starker divided his method into four categories: 1) Playing Preparation (the use of
muscles and the application of power, weight, motions, balance, breathing and timing), 2)
Right Arm-Hand-Fingers, 3) Left Arm-Hand-Fingers and 4) Musical Application. Starker was
very wise when talking about cello pedagogy and progress. In one interview he talks about
how when one reaches a certain level in instrumental playing, he is at the top and can
celebrate, but once he goes into a higher level, he is once again at the bottom and must strive
to reach the top. This cycle keeps repeating as long as the cellist keeps searching for quality.
„It only ends if somebody does not use, or doesn’t know, the basic elements of instrumental
playing and music making, because then there’s a limit.“ 226This approach is very important
and positive, especially since many students experience extreme amounts of pressure and
frustration in the pursuit of mastering their instruments. Starker believed we should teach our
young players to strive for higher musical goals. „This is one of the aims that I pursue in my
university masterclasses at Indiana. I wish young players would get away from the feeling that
once they reach a certain technical proficiency, they try to ‘play it’ better that the other fellow.
They should strive, instead, to ‘say it’ better.“ 227 It was unfortunate, in Starker’s view, that
many young cellists interrupt their studies after reaching a certain level of skill to join an
orchestra, where the demand right now is great. In time, he said, these musicians are likely to
feel unsatisfied with their technique or feel that, in some instances, it has deteriorated.
Developing oneself at that point is never too easy. He pointed out, however, that most
difficulty comes at an earlier stage. „Cellists do not, as a rule, realize the possible lack in their
training until a difficulty arises. There is much to say about the problems: how to sit at the
instrument, how to build the basic position of the left hand to ensure good intonation, how to
228
produce the best sound.“ Starker had a specific taste when it came to musical
performances. „What is confusing for the audience is when somebody comes on stage and
seemingly gives his everything by throwing himself around. An awful lot of people adore it
and get carried away... It has nothing to do with music but those people get what they came
for, entertainment. It’s a pity they don’t know how to distinguish between entertainment and
225
J a r e s Sue Ellen, in: Piatigorsky the Mater Cellist Is Also a Master in Class
http://people.com/archive/piatigorsky-the-master-cellist-is-also-a-master-in-class-vol-5-no-24/ 10.11.2016
226
Starker, A Lesson in Music https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1WxtYc_cTTc 29.7.2016
227
1973, p. 258
228
1973, p. 258
70
art.“ He defined for one interviewer (Stephen E. Rubin) his idea of his own playing: „My
sound is clean and centered; therefore it has a certain lean quality. That leanness does not
coincide with the cello sound that people get accustomed to. When you achieve a clear,
focused sound it eliminates that ‘mushiness’ you get by vibrating so widely that the playing
sounds out of tune.“ Starker’s ambition, one to which most cellists subscribe, is to strip the
instrument of the detestable „schmaltz“ which for years made it the instrument used to portray
melancholy in all too many Hollywood films. 229 Starker took pride in the fact that all of his
students were extremely different in their approach to music, except for some fundamental
principles that he taught them. His goal, in teaching, was to teach his students to think and to
consider the many possibilities of how to play something, thus preparing them for any
situation, depending on what they chose to do. 230 Starker did not oppose the idea of listening
to recordings of a piece in order to become familiar with it. He stressed it was important for
cellists who were, for example, studying a Beethoven Sonata, to become familiar with other
works by Beethoven, composed for other instruments. According to Starker, the major
problem among his students was that many of them were taught to learn through imitation
instead of thinking for themselves. It is important for teachers to discuss with their students
why something is more difficult than something else, what the problems are, and what the
possible solutions are. 231 Starker was so insistent that his students adopt an all-consuming
approach to work, that he was once invited by Bobby Knight, Indiana’s basketball coach, to
give a similar pep-talk to the team. 232 Starker’s goal was to „affect the musical life of the
country by producing the finest members of the finest orchestras“, disliking the Julliard
School’s emphasis on producing competition winners. 233
Rose’s teaching was in the style of his teacher, Felix Salmond. As Rose’s student Stephen
Kates describes: „Rose’s training was certainly in the tradition of Salmond. Very thorough.
He was very much interested in instrumental finesse, tone color, expression, lyricism. What
he tried to do with his own students was to make very clear a certain kind of lyricism in their
229
1973, p. 262
230
J a n o f Tim, in: ICS Featured Artist: Conversation with Janos Starker
http://www.cello.org/Newsletter/Articles/starker.html 19.10.2016
231
232
233
71
playing, where the quality of the sound and level of music making had to be watched
constantly.“ 234 Kates explains how Rose loved to demonstrate at the lessons and liked his
students to pursue the same musical principles that he himself found important. Many of his
students therefore adopted some of his mannerisms of playing. Kates says: „He loved
everything that was simple and direct and I suppose he considered that at some time in one’s
career, imitation was crucial.“ 235 Kates believed that Rose had a special way of making
students play better, by giving them confidence. Rose was a firm believer in practice and
admitted to having practiced as much as four to five hours a day, even while touring. He was
convinced this was the only way to be ready to give the best possible performance. He often
rehearsed a program two or three times in front of an invisible audience, before facing the real
one. 236 There is no doubt his devotion and perfectionism has rubbed off on his pupils. Rose
talked less about the left hand than the right, but he ran his students through a strict regimen
of etudes and scales. He emphasized finding a good sitting position and playing with minimal
tension. 237 In his video Rose says „I have never taught a student yet who hasn’t exaggerated
everything that I’ve said“ 238. This is perhaps a valuable quote for students to keep in mind
when following their teacher’s orders.
2.3.2. Technique
Piatigorsky believed that if one had a healthy and natural technique, he or she shouldn’t have
to spend too much time working on sterile instrumental mechanics. His favorite analogy was
„If you know how to drive correctly you don’t have to learn over and over again in each new
city. You just look at a map and you can go wherever you want.“ 239 He encouraged his
students to find music in whatever they were playing, including scales. To Piatigorsky, music
and technique were inseparable. 240 Piatigorsky was a very tall man, and this affected his
technique, presumably to his benefit. He sat with his back straight and his shoulders relaxed,
his cello positioned relatively low in comparison to his tall figure. An interesting part of his
234
235
236
237
238
A Lesson with Leonard Rose https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZZCZwvcbSjM 9.10.2016
239
240
K i n g Terry, Gregor Piatigorsky: The Life and Career of the Virtuoso Cellist, McFarland, North Carolina,
2010, p. 244
72
right hand technique was how great a contrast there was in his finger movements when
playing long, legato notes and when playing short, staccato. Namely, when playing legato his
fingers on the bow would be almost stiff, allowing the whole right arm to guide the bow.
While he would play any type of shorter notes, his fingers on the bow would suddenly
become very active with little movements creating the small accents that are so necessary in
staccato. The second and third fingers on the bow seem to be the anchor fingers, while his
first finger curls around the stick of the bow. His bodily movements while playing are rather
raw and not overly controlled, as opposed to that of Navarra. This may be a result of his
emphasis on musicality over technique. He played with a square left hand and a narrow
vibrato which he achieved from the wrist. Unfortunately, Piatigorsky did not publish a method
explaining his cello technique.
Starker preferred to sit still and rid himself of any excessive movements while playing, saying
in an interview with the Internet Cello Society in 1996 that “I am not an actor… I don’t want
to be one of those musicians who appears to be making love to himself on the stage”. 241 “The
technical aspects of Mr. Starker’s playing are so wholly merged in the solution to problems of
interpretation and style that the listener tends to forget how much technical mastery the cellist
has achieved,” Raymond Ericson wrote in The New York Times in 1962, reviewing a recital
at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. “The pitch is unerringly right, the tone is mellow without
being mushy, difficult leaps and runs are manipulated with the easy unobtrusiveness of a
magician.” 242 Starker believed that the physical aspects of playing are most important and that
the real problem is not to break the muscle line, not to interrupt the power as it goes to various
parts of the body. According to Starker, cellists must avoid cramp in the muscles and yet not
think of relaxation- one cannot relax and still create power. The cellist must learn to distribute
the power from the back muscles down to the upper arm, the hand, and finally the fingers. All
pressure comes from the back. An elementary but crucial principle, according to Starker, is
that the bow arm should not be neglected but should be developed to the highest degree. „At
the moment the bow is put on the string at the frog, the whole arm is set in motion until the
middle point is reached. From there to the tip the lower arm takes over, with the wrist
compensating to keep the same angle to the strings.“ 243 On vibrato, Starker stated: „ I don’t
like a wide vibrato because it sounds out of tune. The vibrato can be so wide that one hears
241
242
243
S t a r k e r Janos, An Organized Method of String Playing, Peer Music: New York, 1965, p. 260
73
the adjacent notes in addition to the primary note. A wider vibrato gives the impression of
being louder, but one’s sound does not go any further, it only goes wider, and distributes
across a wider section of the audience. My sound goes straight back, so some people in the
hall probably don’t hear me as well. That’s why some say I have a small and pure sound.“ 244
In his method, Starker says „vibrato, an element of decoration, should be applied to enhance
the emotional content and to help the notes that are not enriched by natural overtones.“ 245 The
placement of the thumb of the right hand is approached with the idea that it should not be
placed; rather, it should align with the first finger when the hand hangs and with the second
finger when the forearm is turned inward. 246
Rose had strict ideas about cello technique. At a time when some cellists were favoring the
violin bow technique on the cello, with the little finger high on top of the stick, Rose
disagreed. „The stick should never go above the second joint of the index finger. Between the
first and the second joints is, I feel, a good starting point.“ 247 Vibrato should be initiated by
the lower arm „with the pad of the fingers as a pivot, and the upper arm moving only
passively“ 248 . He noticed this type of vibrato from the violinist Fritz Kreisler. „With the
forearm vibrato, one can get many types of color and much subtle variety. If the vibrato is
relaxed, one can play with any width and in any speed.“ 249 In his unreleased video from 1978
where he describes his cello technique, Rose sheds light on his specific views on bowing
technique; Fritz Kreisler was his ideal model for bow arm motion („I have tried to patent my
bow arm after Kreisler’s“) and he emphasized on trying to „coax or plead“ for the sound to
come out rather than forcing it out by too much pressure, which would result with a beautiful
sound. One could control the sound through the modulation of three factors: bow speed,
pressure and sound point. 250 Rose believed there were no straight bow strokes, in which the
bow and bow arm perfectly retrace their path on the up and down bow. In his video, Rose
demonstrates in an exaggeration, how attempting to play with a straight bow creates tension
and prevents smooth bow changes. Instead he recommends that the right hand traces the
244
245
S t a r k e r Janos, An Organized Method of String Playing, Peer Music: New York 1965, p. 146
246
S t a r k e r Janos, An Organized Method of String Playing, Peer Music: New York 1965, p. 144
247
1973, p. 320
248
249
1973, p. 320
250
74
figure eight in the air during a complete whole up-down cycle. 251 Rose explains that it is
logical to balance the thumb on the bow hand with the strongest finger across the frog, which
is in his opinion definitely the middle finger. He also talks about how the fingers of the right
hand should never go above the second joint on the bow; it is ideal to balance them between
the first and the second joints of the fingers (the little finger is naturally placed higher than the
first, second and third). He emphasizes that the bow hand must be slightly slanted toward the
tip of the bow.
251
75
3. The New Generation of Cellists or the Early 21st Century of Cellism
The world of cellism has changed hand in hand with the world of technology. To imagine that
a young boy, eighteen years of age, travels to Germany in search of broader musical horizons,
gets a job playing in a trio at a Russian bar which lands him the position of the principal
cellist of the Berlin Philharmonic would be difficult in the year of 2016. Nevertheless, this
story was true, back in 1920, when Gregor Piatigorsky traveled to Berlin and Leipzig to study
with Julius Klengel and Hugo Becker. He was heard playing in the Russian bar „Café
Ruscho“ by Boris Kroyt who later recommended him to Wilhelm Furtwängler and was
invited midseason to the Berlin Philharmonic as principal. 252 The reason why this would
hardly be believable in the year of 2016 is because nowadays, a great orchestra like the one
mentioned would post an online audition announcement, and within minutes hundreds of
young, high level cellists would apply for a rigorous set of audition rounds. With the
improved living standards and the arrival of internet and social media, great amounts of
information are available at our fingertips, including high quality videos of masterclasses with
old masters, as well as with new, well sought after pedagogues. There is an anecdote from the
years after André Navarra passed away in 1988, that a couple young cellists arrived for the
entrance exam at the University of Music in Vienna with the aim of studying with Navarra,
but were surprised to hear that he passed away, in fact, quite some time ago. Nowadays,
contacting any professor or cellist in the world is easier than ever before. This era of quickly
accessible information, combined with the popularity the cello had received from the previous
century, has lead to a generation of high quality, well connected young cellists all over the
world.
Nowadays, there are more diverse players than before, regarding technique especially. Cellists
like Sol Gabetta and Alisa Weilerstein are examples of new and personal techniques
developed individually. Many female cellists have become leading representatives of the
instrument in the 20th century, including Gabetta, Weilerstein, Monika Leskovar, Xenia
Janković and others.
252
P i a t i g o r s k y Gregor, The Cellist, Da Capo Press: New York, 1976, p. 105
76
3.1. Pedagogy and Technique
As a rule, cello teachers (including famous ones) have become less strict when it comes to
implanting their own technique onto their students. The reason for this may be the occurrence
of a global cello school, as a result of students having much more mobility and freedom to
take part in various masterclasses than the earlier generations. Argentinean cellist Sol Gabetta
has a peculiar technique of both left and right hand, but is deservedly one of the leading
cellists of the 21st century. She teaches with the principle one would expect from such a
technically unorthodox player, suggesting teachers should adapt their methods to each
student’s individual technique. She goes on to say that if the student’s technique just isn’t
working, then certain alterations to their technique should be made, but if everything is
working fine in their own way there is no need to interfere. „When I see teachers in schools
working to a very ‘straight’ method of technique and learning, I admire them, so I am not
rejecting this. I think a set system is needed for a good grounding, but after five, six or seven
years, if you begin to see that your students are stalling in their development, you need to ask
why this technique is not working any more. Am I locking myself and my students inside
these four walls?’ 253 Alisa Weilerstein is a cellist of smaller physical build and this has
presumably lead her to finding new and fresh ways to produce the big sound that she has. In
her master classes she often focuses on teaching her students to move their bodies against the
direction of the bow in long notes, which delivers an instant difference in the volume of the
sound as well as the smoothness of the bow changes. 254 Xenia Jankovic, student of Navarra,
still remains faithful to her teacher’s technique when passing it on to her own class in
Detmold. Young cellists can be very well connected due to the further emerging popularity of
cello masterclasses all over the world.
253
G a b e t t a Sol, in: Teachers should adapt their methods to students’ individual techniques,’ says cellist Sol
Gabetta, The Strad, http://www.thestrad.com/cpt-latests/teachers-should-adapt-their-methods-to-students-
individual-techniques-says-cellist-sol-gabetta/ 27.7.2016
254
Master Class with Alisa Weilerstein https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CMlF1K27BwY&t=629s
10.10.2016
77
4. Conclusion
Beginning with a bad reputation and turning it around into one that follows in the steps of its
sister-instrument, the violin, the cello and its cellists continued to develop and grow without a
pause, creating a web of powerful and mutually intersecting violoncello schools. The cello
began to steal the viol’s popularity in Bologna in the 1660s, after which the neapolitan
Franciscello reportedly began to influence viol players like Frenchman Martin Bertau to help
create the solo reputation of the new instrument of the time. J.L. Duport, influenced directly
by Bertau, established a practical fingering system for the left hand and thus boosted the ever-
developing cello technique. Second generation Bertau students were criticized for lacking in
expressivity and sound, labeling the French style of playing as secure in intonation and subtle
bowing technique, but lacking in power. This may have in fact been connected to Baudiot’s
findings that overwork could be injurious, meaning they were well acquainted with playing
injuries, which could have lead his followers to search for more subtle means of expression.
One of those followers, Platel, led the French school to Belgium. The position of the cello
professor at the Paris Conservatory was constantly occupied by generations of cellists from
the line of Bertau since its beginning. With Dresden becoming a serious competitor for Paris’
title as the centre of string players in the 19th century, Louis Hegyesi- a cellist who studied in
the latter city with Franchomme and later moved to Germany, made one of the fruitful
connections between the French and the German cello schools. He influenced the
simultaneously developing German school of Hugo Becker, dating back to the founder of the
German School Dotzauer and its father- Romberg. The German School of Dotzauer was
known for its square left hand position, which was one of the main reasons why great virtuoso
Bernhard Romberg and teacher of Dotzauer was not considered the founder- he followed the
left hand technique of the Italian violinists and favored a slanted left hand. Romberg
revolutionized cello technique by finally searching for a more relaxed shoulder position and
more natural left hand thumb position. He also brought the right hand closer to the frog,
resulting in a more powerful sound, differentiating his school from the more frail sound of the
French. His pupil Dotzauer furthered the idea of the relaxed bow hand and introduced the
bent thumb. Dotzauer’s pupil Schuberth was responsible for bringing the German cello
technique to Russia, and there he taught the Great Russian virtuoso and pedagogue Karl
Davidov. Alike to many of these cellists, Davidov too composed and contributed to the cello
repertoire, only his pieces- in particular the concerti, are still used today as useful material for
building stamina and technique in the enjoyable form of a concert piece (as opposed to that of
78
an etude). David Popper, a cellist from the German line of Dotzauer, composed perhaps the
most famous cello etudes which have survived the test of time and are used today among
pedagogical repertoire as well as competition and audition required repertoire. Popper was
also the link between the German and Hungarian line of cellists, having taught Janos Starker’s
teacher (among others) in Budapest. German cellists of the early 20th century, particularly
Julius Klengel, were often criticized for their sound; although strong and clear, it was often
lacking in beauty. Klengel’s teaching system involved encouraging his students to learn from
each other, which is a good image of how the Great Cello Schools learned from each other,
only on a much bigger scale. German cellist Hugo Becker embarked on the journey of
conjoining physiology with cello performance, which laid the grounds for future cellists with
similar ideas. Becker’s reserved musical expression would become a trademark for German
cello playing of the time. Alexanian, from the German line, introduced a very individualistic
approach to cello pedagogy which wasn’t common for the time, but grew popular due to its
effectiveness. The Belgian School (through Servais) however, received criticism for being
overly romantic in style, as opposed to the German. Due to the opera’s overshadowing of
instrumental performance, Italy only began developing its own line of cellists with Piatti and
Boccherini, of which the latter hadn’t done pedagogical work, but rather influenced others
with his brilliant virtuosity as well as his introduction of various clefs and extensive left hand
thumb use. Pablo Casals was another cellist who achieved an individual, rather than a national
line, and was credited for revolutionizing the cello technique and rediscovering the Bach Solo
Suites. Casals was also one of the rare cellists who personally influenced a big number of
famous cellists of different heritages through private lessons. Felix Salmond reportedly
achieved a new, different sound than the standard French and German one, having been
influenced by the Piatti line as well as the Belgian one of Edouard Jacobs, and went on to
teach a number of American cellists.
Among the famous Russian cellists, Rostropovich and Shafran emerge as the more interesting
exponents. Rostropovich stemmed from the Davidov line from Germany, but Shafran from
the generally less known line of Abbiate from France. Rostropovich was a legend in the cello
world, for his exquisite technique and inspirational personality, as well as for his dedication to
the broadening of the cello repertoire by encouraging composers to create more works due to
his seemingly never ending threshold of technical abilities. The Russian technique of the 20th
century began to be known for its deep, warm sound and great sound projection due to the
additional weight Russian cellists tended to focus to the bow arm. Their work ethics were well
79
known as the students of this line were put through rigorous etude and scale training. André
Navarra of the French school was an interesting figure due to his almost self-taught path of
education and his then fruitful dedication to pedagogy. An exquisite soloist, Navarra
nevertheless committed himself to solving technical issues and ridding students from
technical frustrations through breaking down his technique to utter basics. His students often
teach his technique in the same manner to this day. Although French cello exponents of the
20th century have differences in their technique, their heritage is recognizable due to their
lighter tone and subtler varieties in bow strokes. Among those are Fournier, Tortelier, Navarra
and others. The cellists that went on to teach in the United States of America brought their
heritages across the sea, and contributed to the creation of a global school of violoncello. The
Russian Piatigorsky didn’t believe in separating technique from music and taught in this way.
The Hungarian Janos Starker however, focused all of his practice on an economical
distribution of power through the body, and thus achieved enviable technique which he passed
on to his students. The American Leonard Rose believed in a specific approach to technique
which he searched for through the quality of sound and built up from that base.
The future for the further development of the instrument is bright, due to the evolution of the
internet and the over-all well-connectedness of the emerging young cellists. The cello schools
have merged into one global school, but have also left room for those devoted to the
continuation of a specific line.
80
5. Literature
A p p l e b a u m Samuel and Sada, The Way They Play; Book 2, Paganiniana Publications:
New Jersey, 1973
B l u m David, T o r t e l i e r Paul, Paul Tortelier: A Self Portrait, edition Buchet/Chastel, Paris,

1986
B r a u n William, The Evolution of the Endpin and Its Effect on Technique and Repertoire,
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 2015
C a s a l s Pablo, K a h n Albert, Joys and Sorrows: Reflections by Pablo Casals, Simon &
Schuster, New York, 1970
C o w l i n g Elizabeth, “The Cello“, B. T. Batsford Ltd., London, 1975
d e R o t h s h i l d Germain, Luigi Boccherini: His Life and Work, trans. Norbert Dufourcq,
Oxford University Press, 1965
E n i x Margery, Rudolf Matz- Cellist, Teacher, Composer, Dominis Publishing, Ottawa, 1996
G i n s b u rg Lev, History of the Violoncello, Paganiniana Publications: Montreal, 1983
J e l č i ć Zrinka, Zbirka Margite i Rudolfa Matza// Donacija Muzeju Grada Zagreba, Muzej
grada Zagreba, Zagreb, 2010
K i n g Terry, Gregor Piatigorsky, The Life and Career of the Virtuoso Cellist, McFarland 2010
K i r k Herbert L., Pablo Casals, A Biography, Horst, Reinhart and Winston, 1974
K i t t Florian, K ü h n e Tobias, E r b e n Valentin, André Navarra und die Meisterschaft des

Bogens: Wiener Gespräche und Erinnerungen seiner Schüler, Bibliothek der Provinz, Wien,
2013
L e B l a n c Hubert, Défense de la basse de viole contre les entreprises du violon et les

prétentions du violoncelle (1740)
P i a t i g o r s k y Gregor, The Cellist, Da Capo Press, New York, 1976
P r i e t o Carlos, The Adventures of a Cello, University of Texas Press, 2006
S c h n i t z e r Ralf, Die Entwicklung der Violoncellpädagogik im frühen 20. Jahrhundert, Lang,

Frankfurt am Main 1995
S t a r k e r Janos, An Organized Method of String Playing, Peer Music, New York, 1965
81
V e n t u r i n i Adriana, The Dresden School of Violoncello in the Nineteenth Century,
University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, 2009
v o n W a s i e l e w s k i Wilhelm Joseph, „The Violoncello and Its History“, trans. Isobella S.E.
Stigend (London: Novello, Ewer, & Co., 1894/R 1986)
W a l d e n Valerie: “One Hundred Years of Violoncello: A History of Technique and

Performance Practice, 1740-1840”, Cambridge University Press, 1998
Articles:
A p p l e b a u m Samuel, R o t h Henry, in: “The Way They Play” Volume 8
B a t t e y Robert, in: Gregor Piatigorsky Core Principals http://cellobello.com/blog/index.php/legacy-

cellists/piatigorskycore-principles/ 10.11.2016
B a t t e y R obert, in: Gregor Piatigorsky Artist Teacher: http://cellobello.com/blog/index.php/legacy-

cellists/piatigorskyartist-teacher/ 10.11.2016

BBC Legends: Rostropovich http://www.arkivmusic.com/classical/album.jsp?album_id=612176

23.9.2016
C a m p b e l l Margaret, in: Obituary-Daniil Shafran,

http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-daniil-shafran-1278498.html 20.9.2016
F o x Margalit, in: Janos Starker, Obituary http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/30/arts/music/janos-

starker-master-cellist-dies-at-88.html 11.10.2016
G a b e t t a Sol, in: Teachers should adapt their methods to students’ individual techniques,’ says
cellist Sol Gabetta, The Strad, http://www.thestrad.com/cpt-latests/teachers-should-adapt-their-
methods-to-students-individual-techniques-says-cellist-sol-gabetta/ 27.7.2016
G e o r g i a n Karine, in: Russian cellist Karine Georgian remembers Mstislav Rostropovich, The Strad,
http://www.thestrad.com/russian-cellist-karine-georgian-remembers-mstislav-rostropovich/
27.3.2016

82
http://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/20/obituaries/paul-tortelier-a-french-cellist-and-political-idealist-
dies-at-76.html 17.09.2016
H o l l a n d Bernard, in: Pierre Fournier Obituary

http://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/09/obituaries/pierre-fournier-is-dea-at-79-cellist-typified-french-
style.html 23.9.2016


J a n o f Tim, in: Gerhard Mantel www.cello.org/newsletter/articles/mantel.htm 23.9.2016
J a n o f Tim, in: Interview with Truls Mork by Tim Janof,

http://www.cello.org/newsletter/articles/mork.htm 2.9.2016
J a r e s Sue Ellen, in: Piatigorsky the Mater Cellist Is Also a Master in Class
http://people.com/archive/piatigorsky-the-master-cellist-is-also-a-master-in-class-vol-5-no-24/
10.11.2016
L l o y d – W e b e r Julian, in: A Musical Virgin with a Husband in the First Row

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/classicalmusic/3650609/A-musical-virgin-with-a-
husband-in-the-front-row.html 19.09.2016

M i l s o m David, in: Daniil Borosovich Shafran

http://www.naxos.com/person/Daniil_Shafran/57840.htm 20.9.16
M i l s o m David, in: http://www.naxos.com/person/Hugo_Becker/149448.htm 1.9.2016
M o o r e H a l l Sarah, in: Janos Starker May Be a ‘Cold Bastard’ in Concert but He’s Hot Stuff at
Indiana University http://people.com/archive/janos-starker-may-be-a-cold-bastard-in-concert-but-
hes-hot-stuff-at-indiana-university-vol-14-no-5/ 11.10.2016
P a g e Tim, in: Rose Obituary http://www.nytimes.com/1984/11/19/obituaries/leonard-rose-cellist-
dies-key-performer-and-teacher.html 0.10.2016
http://www.thestrad.com/american-cellist-jeffrey-solow-on-studying-with-gregor-piatigorsky/
10.11.2016
S t . J o h n Marshall, in: Paul Tortelier http://www.cello.org/cnc/tortel.htm 17.09.2016
83
Videos:
Interview with Mstislav Rostropovich at the Kronberg Academy

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cvowys-OnxU 19.9.2016
‘My Cello Technique’ with André Navarra https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WfEY9IOmBz0

19.9.2016
Hugo Becker Recording https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mNQGBNjHxDQ
Paul Tortelier Masterclass 1974 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=beCrq6ObjrQ 17.9.2016
Master Class with Alisa Weilerstein https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CMlF1K27BwY&t=629s

10.10.2016
Janos Starker, A Lesson in Music https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1WxtYc_cTTc 29.07.2016
OSM Master Class Jerome Pernoo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=153&v=P24IB1g22ro 20.9.2016
84

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Kunstuniversität Graz

A COMPARATIVE RESEARCH ON THE FAMOUS

Jelena Magdalena Šarić

Mentor: Univ.Prof. Dr.phil. MA Klaus Aringer

1.2. The Italian Roots from the 17th Century………………………………………...………...7

1.3. The French School …………………………………………………………………….….8

1.3.1. Founder of the French Cello School………………………………….…………..…8

1.3.2. The Duports and the First Generation…………………………….………………....9

1.3.4. The Third Generation and their Successors…………………………….…………11

1.4. The German School ………………………..……………………………………………14

1.4.1. First Generation…………………………….…………………………………...15

1.4.2. Second Generation…………………………………………….………………..15

1.4.4. Julius Klengel, Hugo Becker and Diran Alexanian……………………..…....….19

1.5. The Belgian School…………………………………………..…………………………..22

1.6. The Italian School in England and in the USA……………………………………….…25

1.7. Individual Lines……………………………………………………………….………...29

1.7.1. Luigi Boccherini………………………………………………..…………..……....29

1.7.2. Pablo Casals………………………………………………….…………….……....31

1.7.3. Rudolf Matz…………………………………………………………….…….……36

2. The 20th Century Cello Schools………………………………………………..………...40

2.1. The Russian School: Rostropovich and Shafran……………………….……....…..……40

2.2. The French School: Navarra, Fournier and Tortelier…………………………………….52

2.3. The American School: Piatigorsky, Starker and Rose………………………………..….64

2.3.1. Pedagogy ……………………………………………………………………..…68

2.3.2. Technique …………………………………………………………………….…72

3. The New Generation of Cellists or the Early 21st Century of Cellism………………..76

3.1. Pedagogy and Technique……………………………………….…...........................77

1.2. The Italian Roots of the 17th Century

1.3.1. Founder of the French Cello School

1.3.4. The Third Generation and their Successors

1.4.1. First Generation

1.4.2. Second Generation

1.4.4. Julius Klengel, Hugo Becker and Diran Alexanian

1.5. The Belgian School

1.6. The Italian School in England and in the USA

1.7. Individual Lines

1.7.1. Luigi Boccherini

1.7.2. Pablo Casals

1.7.3. Rudolf Matz

2.1. The Russian School: Rostropovich and Shafran

Regarding technical matters in pedagogy, Rostropovich believed a good diagnosis was

2.2. The French School: Navarra, Fournier and Tortelier

As a pedagogue, Navarra deliberately restricted himself to things he knew to be correct, for

B l u m David, T o r t e l i e r Paul, Paul Tortelier: A Self Portrait, edition Buchet/Chastel, Paris,

C o w l i n g Elizabeth, “The Cello“, B. T. Batsford Ltd., London, 1975

G i n s b u rg Lev, History of the Violoncello, Paganiniana Publications: Montreal, 1983

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