CHAPTER 1

Casting
Introduction

Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold

where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity.

The term casting is also applied to the part that is made by this process.

It is one of the oldest shaping processes, dating back 6000 years.

How the process of casting done

The principle of casting seems simple: melt the metal, pour it into a mold, and let it cool

and solidify; yet there are many factors and variables that must be considered in order to

accomplish a successful casting operation.

Casting includes both the casting of ingots and the casting of shapes.

The term ingot is usually associated with the primary metals industries; it describes a

large casting that is simple in shape and intended for subsequent reshaping by processes

such as rolling or forging.

Shape casting involves the production of more complex geometries that are much

closer to the final desired shape of the part or product.

A variety of shape casting methods is available, thus making it one of the most versatile of

all manufacturing processes.

Among its capabilities and advantages are the following:

 Casting can be used to create complex part geometries, including both external and

internal shapes.

 Some casting processes are capable of producing parts to net shape. No further

manufacturing operations are required to achieve the required geometry and dimensions

of the parts. Other casting processes are near net shape, for which some additional shape

processing is required (usually machining) in order to achieve accurate dimensions and

details.
 Casting can be used to produce very large parts. Castings weighing more than 100

tons have been made.

 The casting process can be performed on any metal that can be heated to the liquid.

 Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production.

There are also disadvantages associated with casting - different disadvantages for

different casting methods.

These include:

• Limitations on mechanical properties.

• Porosity.

• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some casting processes.

• Safety hazards to humans when processing hot molten metals.

• Environmental problems.
Parts made by casting processes range in size from small components weighing only a

few ounces up to very large products weighing tons.

The list of parts includes:

Dental crowns, jewelry, statues, engine blocks and heads for automotive vehicles,

machine frames, railway wheels, frying pans, pipes and pump housings.

All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and nonferrous.

Casting can also be used on other materials such as polymers and ceramics.

As a production process, casting is usually carried out in a foundry.

A foundry is a factory equipped for making molds, melting and handling metal in molten

form, performing the casting process, and cleaning the finished casting.
CASTING PROCESSES

Discussion of casting begins with the mold.

What is the usage of cavity
The mold contains a cavity whose geometry determines the shape of the cast part.
Why
The actual size and shape of the cavity must be slightly oversized to allow for shrinkage

that occurs in the metal during solidification and cooling.

Different metals undergo different amounts of shrinkage, so the mold cavity must be

designed for the particular metal to be cast if dimensional accuracy is critical.

Molds are made of a variety of materials including sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal.

The various casting processes are often classified according to these different types of

molds.
In an open mold, Figure 1.1 (a), the liquid metal is simply poured until it fills the open

cavity.

In a closed mold, Figure 1.1 (b), a passageway, called the gating system, is provided to

permit the molten metal to flow from outside the mold into the cavity.

The closed mold is by far the most important category in production casting operations.
Casting processes are divided into two broad categories, according to the type of the
used mold:

An expendable mold :
• The mold must be destroyed in order to remove the casting.
• These molds are made out of sand, plaster, or similar materials, whose form is
maintained by using binders of various kinds.
• Sand casting is the most prominent example of the expendable-mold processes.

A permanent mold :
• The mold can be used over and over to produce many castings.
• It is made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory material) that can
withstand the high temperatures of the casting operation.
• In permanent-mold casting, the mold consists of two (or more) sections that can be
opened to permit removal of the finished part.
• Die casting is the most familiar process in this group.
1.4 SAND CASTING

• Sand casting is the most widely used casting process.

• Nearly all casting alloys can be sand cast; indeed, it is one of the few processes

that can be used for metals with high melting temperatures such as steel, nickel

and titanium.

• Its versatility permits the casting of parts ranging in size from small to very large

and in production quantities from one to millions.

• Sand casting also known as sand-mold casting.

Sand casting consists of
1. Pouring molten metal into a sand mold.

2. Allowing the metal to solidify.

3. Breaking up the mold to remove the casting.

Post processes

The casting must then be cleaned and inspected.

Heat treatment is sometimes required to improve metallurgical properties.

The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern and then removing

the pattern by separating the mold into two halves.

The mold also contains the gating and riser system.

In addition, if the casting have internal surfaces (hollow parts or parts with holes), a core

must be included in the mold.

Since the mold is sacrificed to remove the casting, a new sand mold must be made for each

part that is produced.

From this brief description, sand casting is seen to include not only the casting operation

itself, but also the fabrication of the pattern and the making of the mold.
Steps in the production sequence in sand casting
1.4.1 PATTERNS

• A full-sized model of the part, enlarged to account for shrinkage and machining

allowances in the final casting.

• Materials used to make patterns include wood, plastics, and metals.

• Wood is a common pattern material because it is easily shaped.

• Its disadvantages are that it tends to warp and it is abraded by the sand being compacted

around it, thus limiting the number of times it can be reused.

• Metal patterns are more expensive to make, but they last much longer.

• Plastics represent a compromise between wood and metal.

Selection of the appropriate pattern material depends to a large extent on the total quantity of
castings to be made.
Various types of patterns

solid pattern

• The simplest and made of one piece.

• Same geometry as the casting, adjusted in size for shrinkage and machining.

• Although it is the easiest pattern to fabricate, it is not the easiest to use in making the sand

mold.

• Determining the location of the parting line between the two halves of the mold for a solid

pattern can be a problem, and incorporating the gating system and sprue into the mold is

left to the judgment and skill of the foundry worker.

• Consequently, solid patterns are generally limited to very low production quantities.
Split patterns

• consist of two pieces, dividing the part along a plane coinciding with the parting line

of the mold.

• Split patterns are appropriate for complex part geometries and moderate production

quantities.

• The parting line of the mold is predetermined by the two pattern halves, rather than by

operator judgment.
Match-plate patterns
• For higher production quantities.

• In match-plate patterns, the two pieces of the split pattern are attached to opposite
sides of a wood or metal plate.

• Holes in the plate allow the top and bottom sections of the mold to be aligned
accurately.
Cope-and-drag patterns
• Similar to match-plate patterns.

• The split pattern halves are attached to separate plates, so that the cope and drag
sections of the mold can be fabricated independently, instead of using the same
tooling for both.

• Part (d) of the figure includes the gating and riser system in the cope-and-drag
patterns.
CORES

If the casting is to have internal surfaces, a core is required.

• A core is a full-scale model of the interior surfaces of the part.

• It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring, so that the molten metal will flow
and solidify between the mold cavity and the core to form the casting’s external and
internal surfaces.

• The core is usually made of sand, compacted into the desired shape.

• As with the pattern, the actual size of the core must include allowances for shrinkage
and machining.
Depending on the geometry of the part, the core may or may not require supports to hold it in
position in the mold cavity during pouring.

These supports, called chaplets, are made of a metal with a higher melting temperature than
the casting metal.

For example, steel chaplets would be used for cast iron castings.

On pouring and solidification, the chaplets become bonded into the casting.
1.4.1.1 Pattern Allowances

1. Shrinkage Allowance
In practice it is found that all common cast metals shrink a significant amount when they
are cooled from the molten state.
The total contraction in volume is divided into the following parts:

1. Liquid contraction, i.e. the contraction during the period in which the temperature of
the liquid metal or alloy falls from the pouring temperature to the liquidus
temperature.

2. Contraction on cooling from the liquidus to the solidus temperature, i.e. solidifying
contraction.

3. Contraction that results thereafter until the temperature reaches the room temperature.
This is known as solid contraction.
2. Machining Allowance
• It is a positive allowance given to compensate for the amount of material that is lost
in machining or finishing the casting.

• If this allowance is not given, the casting will become undersize after machining.

• The amount of this allowance depends on the size of casting, methods of machining
and the degree of finish.

• In general, however, the value varies from 3 mm to 18 mm.

3. Draft or Taper Allowance
• Taper allowance is also a positive allowance and is given on all the vertical surfaces of
pattern so that its withdrawal becomes easier.

• The normal amount of taper on the external surfaces varies from 10 mm to 20 mm/mt.

• On interior holes and recesses which are smaller in size, the taper should be around 60
mm/mt.

• These values are greatly affected by the size of the pattern and the molding method.

• In machine molding its, value varies from 10 mm to 50 mm/mt.

4. Rapping or Shake Allowance
• Before withdrawing the pattern it is rapped and thereby the size of the mold cavity
increases.

• Actually by rapping, the external sections move outwards increasing the size and
internal sections move inwards decreasing the size.

• This movement may be insignificant in the case of small and medium size castings, but
it is significant in the case of large castings.

• This allowance is kept negative and hence the pattern is made slightly smaller in
dimensions 0.5-1.0 mm.
5. Distortion Allowance
• This allowance is applied to the castings which have the tendency to distort during
cooling due to thermal stresses developed.

• For example a casting in the form of U shape will contract at the closed end on cooling,
while the open end will remain fixed in position.

• Therefore, to avoid the distortion, the legs of U pattern must converge slightly so that the
sides will remain parallel after cooling.
6. Mold Wall Movement Allowance
• Mold wall movement in sand molds occurs as a result of heat and static pressure on the
surface layer of sand at the mold metal interface.

• In ferrous castings, it is also due to expansion due to graphitisation.

• This enlargement in the mold cavity depends upon the mold density and mold
composition.

• This effect becomes more pronounced with increase in moisture content and
temperature.
1.4.1.2 Color codification for patterns and core boxes
There is no set or accepted standard for representing of various surfaces of pattern and core
boxes by different colors.

The practice of representing of various pattern surfaces by different colors varies with from
country to country and sometimes with different manufactures within the country.

Out of the various color codifications, the American practice is the most popular.
In this practice, the color identification is as follows:

• Surfaces to be left unfinished after casting are to be painted as black.

• Surface to be machined are painted as red.
• Core prints are painted as yellow.
• Seats for loose pieces are painted as red stripes on yellow background.
• Stop-offs is painted as black stripes on yellow base.
1.4.1.3 Design considerations in pattern making
The following considerations should always be kept in mind while designing a pattern.

1. All Abrupt changes in section of the pattern should be avoided as far as possible.

2. Parting line should be selected carefully, so as to allow as small portion of the pattern as
far as possible in the cope area.

3. The thickness and section of the pattern should be kept as uniform as possible.

4. Sharp corners and edges should be supported by suitable fillets or otherwise rounded of.
It will facilitate easy withdrawal of pattern, smooth flow of molten metal and ensure a
sound casting.
5. Surfaces of the casting which are specifically required to be perfectly sound and clean
should be so designed that they will be molded in the drag because the possible defects due
to loose sand and inclusions will occur in the cope.

6. As far as possible, full cores should be used instead of cemented half cores for reducing
cost and for accuracy.

7. For mass production, the use of several patterns in a mold with common riser is to be
preferred.

8. The pattern should have very good surface finish as it directly affects the corresponding
finish of the casting.

9. Shape and size of the casting and that of the core should be carefully considered to
decide the size and location of the core prints.
10. Proper material should always be selected for the pattern after carefully analyzing the
factors responsible for their selection.

11. Try to employ full cores always instead of jointed half cores as far as possible. This
will reduce cost and ensure greater dimensional accuracy.

12. The use of offset parting, instead of cores as for as possible should be encouraged to
the great extent.

13. For large scale production of small castings, the use of gated or match- plate patterns
should be preferred wherever the existing facilities permit.

14. If gates, runners and risers are required to be attached with the pattern, they should be
properly located and their sudden variation in dimensions should be avoided.
15. Wherever there is a sharp corner, a fillet should be provided, and the corners may be
rounded up for easy withdrawal of patterns as well as easy flow of molten metal in the
mold.

16. Proper allowances should be provided, wherever necessary.

17. As for as possible, the pattern should have a good surface finish because the surface
finish of the casting depends totally on the surface finish of the pattern and the kind of
facing of the mold cavity.
1.4.2 MOLDS AND MOLD MAKING
• Foundry sands are silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals.

• The sand should possess good refractory properties, capacity to stand up under high
temperatures without melting or otherwise degrading.

• Other important features of the sand include grain size, distribution of grain size in the
mixture, and shape of the individual grains.

• Small grain size provides a better surface finish on the cast part, but large grain size is
more permeable (to allow escape of gases during pouring).

• Molds made from grains of irregular shape tend to be stronger than molds of round
grains because of interlocking, yet interlocking tends to restrict permeability.
In making the mold, the grains of sand are held together by a mixture of water and
bonding clay.

A typical mixture (by volume) is 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay.

Other bonding agents can be used in place of clay, including organic resins (e.g.,
phenolic resins) and inorganic binders (e.g., sodium silicate and phosphate).

Besides sand and binder, additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to enhance
properties such as strength and/or permeability of the mold.
The packing process is performed by various methods. The simplest is hand ramming,
accomplished manually by a foundry worker.

In addition, various machines have been developed to mechanize the packing procedure.
These machines operate by any of several mechanisms, including:

(1) Squeezing the sand around the pattern by pneumatic pressure.

(2) A jolting action in which the sand, contained in the flask with the pattern, is
dropped repeatedly in order to pack it into place.

(3) A slinging action, in which the sand grains are impacted against the pattern at
high speed.
 Several indicators are used to determine the quality of the sand mold:

(1) Strength, the mold’s ability to maintain its shape and resist erosion caused by the flow
of molten metal; it depends on grain shape, adhesive qualities of the binder, and other
factors.
(2) Permeability, capacity of the mold to allow hot air and gases from the casting operation
to pass through the voids in the sand.
(3) Thermal stability, ability of the sand at the surface of the mold cavity to resist cracking
and buckling upon contact with the molten metal.
(4) Collapsibility, ability of the mold to give way and allow the casting to shrink without
cracking the casting; it also refers to the ability to remove the sand from the casting
during cleaning.
(5) Reusability, can the sand from the broken mold be reused to make other molds? These
measures are sometimes incompatible; for example, a mold with greater strength is less
collapsible.
Sand molds are often classified as:

• Green-sand

• Dry-sand

• Skin-dried molds.
Green sand molds

• Made of a mixture of sand, clay, and water.

• The word green referring to the fact that the mold contains moisture at the time of

pouring.

• Possess sufficient strength for most applications, good collapsibility, good

permeability, good reusability and are the least expensive of the molds.

• The most widely used mold type, but they are not without problems.

• Moisture in the sand can cause defects in some castings, depending on the metal and

geometry of the part.

Dry-sand molds

• Made using organic binders rather than clay and the mold is baked in a large oven at

temperatures ranging from 200oC to 320oC.

• Oven baking strengthens the mold and hardens the cavity surface.

• Provides better dimensional control in the cast product, compared to green-sand

molding.

• Dry-sand molding is more expensive and production rate is reduced because of

drying time.

• Applications are generally limited to medium and large castings in low to medium

production rates.
Skin-dried molds

• The advantages of a dry-sand mold is partially achieved by drying the surface of a

green-sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm at the mold cavity surface, using torches,

heating lamps, or other means.

• Special bonding materials must be added to the sand mixture to strengthen the cavity

surface.
Mold cavities
Pouring basin
A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal is poured
Sprue
The passage through which the molten metal reaches the mold cavity. It controls the flow of
metal into the mold.
Runner
The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.

Riser
A column of molten metal placed in the
mold to feed the casting as it shrinks and
solidifies.
Gate
The channel through which the molten
metal enters the mold cavity