Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

BLOOMS TAXONOMY
      UNIT NO: -3 SUBJECT: - Antennas and Microwave Engineering

FACULTY: - V.SANTHOSH KUMAR     BRANCH/SEM/YEAR: - ECE/ IV-I

1.Define Antenna Arrays with suitable examples [L1] [CO3]

Antenna array - a configuration of multiple antennas (elements) arranged to achieve a given
radiation pattern.

Linear array - antenna elements arranged along a straight line.

Circular array - antenna elements arranged around a circular ring.

Planar array - antenna elements arranged over some planar surface (example - rectangular array).

Conformal array - antenna elements arranged to conform to some non-planar surface (such as an
aircraft skin).

There are several array design variables which can be changed to achieve the overall array pattern
design.

Array Design Variables

General array shape (linear, circular, planar, etc.).

Element spacing.
Element excitation amplitude.
Element excitation phase.
Patterns of array elements.

Phased array - an array of identical elements which achieves a given pattern through the control
of the element excitation phasing. Phased arrays can be used to steer the main beam of the antenna
without physically moving the antenna.
2.Discuss about Pattern multiplication theorem in antenna arrays [L2] [CO3]

Given an antenna array of identical elements, the radiation pattern of the antenna array may be
found according to the pattern multiplication theorem

Array element pattern - the pattern of the individual array element.

Array factor - a function dependent only on the geometry of the array and the excitation
(amplitude, phase) of the elements.

N-Element Linear Array

The array factor AF is independent of the antenna type assuming all of the elements are identical.
Thus, isotropic radiators may be utilized in the derivation of the array factor to simplify the
algebra. The field of an isotropic radiator located at the origin may be written as (assuming -
polarization)

We assume that the elements of the array are uniformly-spaced with a separation distance d.

In the far field of the array

The current magnitudes the array elements are assumed to be equal and the current on the array
element located at the origin is used as the phase reference (zero phase).
The far fields of the individual array elements are

The overall array far field is found using superposition.

(Array factor for a uniformly-spaced N-element linear array)

Uniform N-Element Linear Array
(Uniform spacing, uniform amplitude, linear phase progression)

A uniform array is defined by uniformly-spaced identical elements of equal magnitude with a

linearly progressive phase from element to element.

Inserting this linear phase progression into the formula for the general N- element array gives

The function AF is defined as the array phase function and is a function of the element spacing,
phase shift, frequency and elevation angle. If the array factor is multiplied by e j , the result is
Subtracting the array factor from the equation above gives

The complex exponential term in the last expression of the above equation represents the phase
shift of the array phase center relative to the origin. If the position of the array is shifted so that the
center of the array is located at the origin, this phase term goes away.
The array factor then becomes

The array factor may be normalized so that the maximum value for any value of N is unity. The
normalized array factor is

The nulls of the array function are found by determining the zeros of the numerator term where the
denominator is not simultaneously zero.

The peaks of the array function are found by determining the zeros of the numerator term where
the denominator is simultaneously zero.

The m = 0 term,
3.Demonstrate Broadside and End-fire Arrays and its importance [L3] [CO3]

The phasing of the uniform linear array elements may be chosen such that the main lobe of the
array pattern lies along the array axis (end-fire array) or normal to the array axis (broadside array).

End-fire array main lobe at Ɵ = 0o or Ɵ = 180o Broadside array main lobe at Ɵ = 90o.The
maximum of the array factor occurs when the array phase function is zero.

For a broadside array, in order for the above equation to be satisfied with Ɵ = 90o, the phase angle Ɵ
must be zero. In other words, all elements of the array must be driven with the same phase. With Ɵ =
0o, the normalized array factor reduces to

Normalized array function Broadside array, Ɵ = 0o

Consider a 5-element broadside array (Ɵ = 0o) as the element spacing is varied. In general, as the
element spacing is increased, the main lobe beamwidth is decreased. However, grating lobes
(maxima in directions other than the main lobe direction) are introduced when the element spacing
is greater than or equal to one wavelength. If the array pattern design requires that no grating lobes
be present, then the array element spacing should be chosen to be less than one wavelength.
4. Explain about Hansen-Woodyard End-fire Array [L4] [CO3]
The Hansen-Woodyard end-fire array is a special array designed for maximum directivity.

Ordinary end-fire array α = ±kd

Hansen-Woodyard end-fire array α = ± (kd + δ)

In order to increase the directivity in a closely-spaced electrically long end- fire array, Hansen and
Woodyard analyzed the patterns and found that a additional phase shift of

increased the directivity of the array over that of the ordinary end-fire array given an element
spacing of

For very long arrays (N - large), the element spacing in the Hansen- Woodyard end-fire array
approaches one-quarter wavelength. The Hansen- Woodyard design shown here does not
necessarily produce the maximum directivity for a given linear array but does produce a directivity
larger than that of the ordinary end-fire array [by a factor of approximately 1.79 (2.5 dB)]. The
Hansen-Woodyard end-fire array design can be summarized as

where the upper sign produces a maximum in the Ɵ = 0o direction and the lower sign produces a
maximum in the Ɵ = 180o direction. The Hansen- Woodyard end-fire design increases the
directivity of the array at the expense of higher sidelobe levels.
5.How do you recommend binomial arrays in real time examples. [L5] [CO3]
Given a two-element array with equal current amplitudes and spacing, the array factor is

For a broadside array (Ɵ = 0o) with element spacing d less than one-half wavelength, the array
factor has no sidelobes. An array formed by taking the product of two arrays of this type gives

This array factor, being the square of an array factor with no sidelobes, also has no sidelobes.
Mathematically, the array factor above represents a 3- element equally-spaced array driven by
current amplitudes with ratios of 1:2:1. In a similar fashion, equivalent arrays with more elements
may be formed.

The current coefficients of the resulting N-element array take the form of a binomial series. The
array is known as a binomial array.
The excitation coefficients for the binomial array are given by Pascal’s triangle.