Work & Stress

Vol. 23, No. 2, AprilJune 2009, 155172

Workaholism, burnout and well-being among junior doctors:

The mediating role of role conflict

Wilmar B. Schaufelia*, Arnold B. Bakkerb, Frank M.M.A. van der Heijdenc

and Jelle T. Prinsd
a
Department of Social and Organizational Psychology and Research Institute Psychology &
Health, Utrecht University, The Netherlands; bDepartment of Work and Organizational
Psychology and Research Institute Psychology & Health, Erasmus University Rotterdam,
The Netherlands; cVincent van Gogh Institute for Psychiatry, Venray, The Netherlands;
d
Dutch Doctors’ Association (Artsen Stichting Nederland, ASN), The Netherlands
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This study, conducted on a nation-wide sample of Dutch junior doctors (also called medical
residents) (N2115), investigated the unique relationships of workaholism with burnout and
well-being, and hypothesized that (inter- and intra-) role conflict would mediate these effects.
The results of multi-group structural equation modelling analyses offered support for this
model. Specifically, role conflict fully mediated the relationships between workaholism (i.e.
working excessively and working compulsively) and job demands (i.e. emotional, mental and
organizational demands) on the one hand, and burnout (i.e. emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization and reduced medical accomplishment) and well-being (job satisfaction,
happiness and perceived health) on the other hand. This indicates that workaholism
contributed incrementally to explaining positive (well-being) and negative (burnout) outcomes
beyond common indicators of job demands.
Keywords: burnout; role conflict; workaholism; junior doctors; medical residents; work-related
stress

Introduction
Since the introduction of the concept in the late 1960s (Oates, 1968), scientific
interest in workaholism has been growing, particularly during the last 15 years or so.
A literature search using PsychInfo revealed that over that period 184 articles on
workaholism haven been published, and that the publication rate has doubled every
5 years from 1990 onwards (Taris & Schaufeli, 2007). Nevertheless, our knowledge
about workaholism is still quite limited because most studies have dealt with the
measurement of workaholism and with its correlates, rather than with the processes
involved (McMillan, O’Driscoll, & Burke, 2003).
The current study tries to fill this void by proposing a model assuming that
workaholism is indirectly related to employee burnout and well-being through intra-
and inter-role conflict. Moreover, the model proposes that job demands are related
to these outcomes in a similar indirectly way, and that both workaholism and job

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

ISSN 0267-8373 print/ISSN 1464-5335 online

# 2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/02678370902834021
http://www.informaworld.com
 156 W.B. Schaufeli et al.

demands (although positively related) make an independent contribution to intra-

and inter-role conflict. Following positive occupational psychology (Luthans &
Youssef, 2007), not only negative but also positive outcomes are included in our
model that is displayed in Figure 1. The basic tenet of the model is that workaholism
impacts on employee well-being through role conflicts and that this is independent of
employees’ perceptions of their job demands. We tested this model in junior doctors
(also called medical residents) who almost by definition experience problems in
combining their roles as doctor and trainee and who, despite being a prototypical
risk-group (e.g. Harpaz & Snir, 2003; Scott, Moore, & Miceli, 1997), have not been
included before in a study on workaholism.

The nature of workaholism

The most obvious characteristic of workaholics is that they work far beyond what is
required. Consequently, they devote an excessive amount of time and energy to their
work, thereby neglecting other spheres of life (e.g. Buelens & Poelmans, 2004;
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Mudrack & Naughton, 2001). For instance, North American workaholics work on
average 5060 hours per week (Brett & Stroh, 2003). However, conceiving
workaholism exclusively in terms of the number of working hours would be wrong
because it would neglect its addictive nature. After all, people may work long hours
without being addicted to it for many reasons, including financial problems, poor
marriage, social pressure or career advancement. Rather than being motivated by
such external factors, a typical work addict is motivated by an obsessive internal
drive that (s)he cannot resist. Hence, we define workaholism as an irresistible inner
drive to work excessively hard (Schaufeli, Taris, & Bakker, 2008). So in our view,
workaholism includes two elements: a strong inner drive and working hard.
Our two-dimensional conceptualization of workaholism corresponds with the
original meaning of the term as it was used by Oates (1971), who described
workaholism as ‘‘ . . . the compulsion or the uncontrollable need to work inces-
santly’’ (p. 11). Analogously to alcoholics, for workaholics their need to work is so
exaggerated that it endangers their health, reduces their happiness and causes a
deterioration in their interpersonal relations and social functioning, he argued. In
addition, various overviews confirm that both dimensions feature across most
definitions of workaholism. For instance, Scott et al. (1997) observed that virtually
all definitions assume that workaholics: (1) spend a great deal of time on work
activities when given the discretion to do so*they are excessively hard workers; (2)

Workaholism Well-being
_
+

+ Role conflicts
_

+ +

Job demands Burnout

Figure 1. The research model.

 Work & Stress 157

are reluctant to disengage from work and they persistently and frequently think
about work when they are not at work*they are obsessed workers; and (3) work
beyond what is reasonably expected from them to meet organizational or economic
requirements. The latter is in fact a specification of the first and the second features,
because it deals with the motivation to spend an excessive amount of time to work.
Taken together, Scott et al.’s conceptual analyses revealed that workaholics work
harder than is required out of an obsessive inner drive, and not because of external
factors. In a similar vein, in seven of the nine workaholism definitions that were
recently listed by McMillan and O’Driscoll (2006), working excessively hard and
being propelled by an obsessive inner drive are mentioned as core characteristics.
Finally, a recent analysis of scholarly definitions by Ng et al. (2007) concludes that
hard work at the expense of other important life roles and an obsessive internal drive
to work are the two core aspects of workaholism.
Taken together, it seems that a common denominator exists of workaholism: the
tendency to work excessively hard in a compulsive way. Working excessively hard
represents its behavioural component that indicates that workaholics tend to allocate
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an exceptional amount of their time and energy to work and that they work beyond
what is reasonably expected to meet organizational or economic requirements.
Working compulsively represents the cognitive component of workaholism and
indicates that workaholics are obsessed with their work and persistently and
frequently think about work, even when not being at work.

Workaholism, role conflicts and outcomes

Following human capital theory (Becker, 1991, 1993), we posit that employees have
access to a finite pool of resources in terms of time (allocated to behaviours) and
energy (both physical and psychological). Human capital theory argues that people
prioritize broad domains of activity (e.g. work, family and leisure) that they are
willing to allocate resources to, and then make choices about how to spend their
resources. Typically, workaholics spend an excessive amount of time working at the
expense of non-work activities (see previous section). Since time and energy are finite
commodities, time and energy spent at work cannot be spent in another domain such
as home and family. This reasoning is also compatible with the role scarcity
hypothesis of Edwards and Rothbard (2000). Hence, inter-role conflict is likely to
occur because role expectations from work and non-work domains are mutually
incompatible. This means that participation in the home and family domain is
frustrated by the workaholic’s excessive commitment to the work role. Indeed,
research has consistently shown that workaholics experience more workhome
conflict than others (Aziz & Zickar, 2006; Bakker, Demerouti, & Burke, 2009;
Bonebright, Clay, & Ankenmann, 2000; Burke, 2008; Taris, Schaufeli, & Verhoeven,
2005). Moreover, levels of marital estrangement are higher among workaholics than
among non-workaholics (Robinson, Flowers, & Carroll, 2001).
Following the logic of human capital theory once more, intra-role conflicts are
likely to occur as well, especially among junior doctors (who are referred to in some
countries as medical residents). Essentially, junior doctors perform two work roles,
namely that of a doctor and of a trainee. Although both roles are not entirely
incompatible, an inherent tension exists between them. For instance, their role as
trainee requires that junior doctors learn from their work. This will generally cost
 158 W.B. Schaufeli et al.

extra time that might interfere with efficient patient care that they are expected to
deliver as a doctor. At any rate, resources that are spent while performing one role
cannot be spent while performing the other (cf. the role scarcity hypothesis; Edwards
& Rothbard, 2000). Typically, workaholics make their work (in either role) more
complicated than necessary. They create difficulties for their co-workers, and they
refuse to delegate work (Burke, 2001; Kanai & Wakabayashi, 2001; Machlowitz,
1980). Moreover, they are characterized by orderliness, rigidity and a high need for
achievement (Mudrack, 2006; Mudrack & Naughton, 2001), and by inflexibility and
perfectionism (Kanai & Wakabayashi, 2001; Killinger, 2006; Porter 2001). Hence, it
is likely that workaholic junior doctors are caught between their roles as doctor and
trainee. They like to spend an excessive amount of time and energy in both roles, but
resources spent in one role go at the expense of the other role and vice versa, thus
causing an intra-role conflict at work. Compared to the literature on workaholism
and inter-role conflict, studies on intra-role conflict are scarce. However, a study
among Japanese automotive workers showed that role conflict was positively
associated with the compulsive component of workaholism, after controlling for
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role ambiguity and workload (Kanai & Wakabayashi, 2001).

When the excessive amount of energy that workaholics spend at work is not
counterbalanced with appropriate recovery (Sonnentag & Zijlstra, 2006) they might
eventually exhaust their energy back-up, leaving them burned out. Following this line
of reasoning, Maslach (1986) considered workaholism as a root cause of burnout.
Indeed, the empirical support for a positive association between workaholism and
burnout is both convincing and abundant (e.g. Andreassen, Ursin, & Eriksen, 2007;
Burke, 2008; Burke, Richardsen, & Mortinussen, 2004; Schaufeli, Shimazu, & Taris,
in press; Schaufeli, Taris, & Bakker, 2008; Taris et al., 2005). We argue that recovery
from work is doomed to be inappropriate for workaholics given their atrophied non-
work life and the concomitant workhome conflict. Moreover, intra-role conflicts at
work further drain the workaholic’s energy and might lead to burnout. This is
supported by a meta-analysis that revealed a substantial association between role
conflict and emotional exhaustion (r.53) and depersonalization (r .37), two core
components of burnout (Lee & Ashforth, 1996). In sum, we predict an indirect
relationship between workaholism and burnout, through (inter- and intra-) role
conflicts. This assumption is also supported by an abundance of research showing a
positive relationship between role conflict and workfamily conflict on the one hand
and burnout on the other hand (for reviews, see Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Schaufeli,
2007).
A similar process is likely to operate in the case of workaholism and well-being.
Various studies have shown that workaholism is negatively related to job satisfaction
(Aziz & Zickar, 2006; Bonebright et al., 2000; Buelens & Poelmans, 2004; Burke,
2001, 2008; Burke & Koskal, 2002), experienced health (Buelens & Poelmans, 2004;
Burke, 2000; Schaufeli, Taris, & Bakker, 2006) and happiness or subjective well-being
(Burke, 2000, 2008; Burke & Koskal, 2002; Schaufeli et al., 2006). Most likely the
reason is that working excessively hard in a compulsive way causes considerable
stress (including that resulting from inter- and intra-role conflict) which is
incompatible with feelings of health and well-being. For instance, the classic meta-
analysis of Jackson and Schuler (1985) revealed substantial negative correlations
between role conflict at work and various aspects of satisfaction ( .31 B r B.48)
and tension/anxiety (r .43).
 Work & Stress 159

Job demands, role conflicts and outcomes

According to all major job stress models, such as the Job Demands-Control model
(Karasek & Theorell, 1990) and the Job Demands-Resources model (Bakker &
Demerouti, 2007), psychological demands may lead to both chronic job strain such
as burnout, and to a deterioration of positive outcomes such as health and job
satisfaction. This is not only true for quantitative demands but also for qualitative
demands, particularly in health care settings (see Schaufeli, 2007, for an overview).
For instance, junior doctors process large quantities of information and make
complicated decisions (mental demands), they work in a complex organizational
environment (organizational demands) and they must deal with suffering patients
and their families (emotional demands). We argue that these qualitative demands
produce additional stress which makes it more difficult for junior doctors to perform
well in their roles as doctor and trainee, thus aggravating intra-role conflict. At the
same time these qualitative job demands are likely to spill over to the non-work
domain, causing inter-role conflict. Indeed, a recent meta-analysis revealed a
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substantial association (r.48) between job stress, resulting from psychological

demands at work and work family conflict (Byron, 2005). In sum, we predict an
indirect relationship (via inter-role and intra-role conflicts) between qualitative job
demands on the one hand and burnout and well-being on the other hand. Since we
argued that role conflicts play a similar mediating role in the case of workaholism
and job demands, this implies that the impact of workaholism on negative and
positive outcomes is considered to be independent from external job demands. Or
put differently, our research model posits that individual behavioural tendencies
(workaholism) contribute incrementally to explaining positive (well-being) and
negative (burnout) outcomes beyond common indicators of job demands, such as
emotional, mental and organizational demands.

Context of the present study

Junior doctors work excessively long hours. For instance, a national US-survey
found that, on average, medical residents were 56.9 hours per week on call in the
hospital (Daugherty, DeWitt, & Rowley, 1998). In a similar vein, depending on the
year that was surveyed, between 63% and 85% of junior doctors did not take sick-
leave although they suffered from illness (Perkin, Higton, & Witcomb, 2003). So an
important precondition for workaholism seems to be met; junior doctors work
excessive hours, even when they feel ill. Of course, the reason for working long hours
may also be external and result from peer-group pressure, excessive demands from
supervisors or organizational constraints (understaffing). Yet, it is generally
recognized that junior doctors are particularly at-risk for workaholism (Harpaz &
Snir, 2003; Scott et al., 1997). In our study we seek to demonstrate that the
psychological effects of workaholism among junior doctors are independent from
the demands they experience at the job.
A recent review found 15 articles that suggest that burnout levels are particularly
high among junior doctors and may be associated with depression and problematic
patient care (Thomas, 2004). A more comprehensive review that identified 19 studies
confirms this picture and concludes that between 18% and 76% of the junior doctors
suffered from severe burnout symptoms (Prins, Gazendam-Donofrio, Tubben, Van
der Heijden, Van de Wiel, & Hoekstra-Weebers, 2007a). The prevalence of burnout
 160 W.B. Schaufeli et al.

among Dutch junior doctors (the group under study in this article) was estimated at
13% in a preliminary study and was thus somewhat lower (Prins et al., 2007c).
Nevertheless, this percentage is substantially higher than the 4% burnout cases that
has been estimated using a Dutch sample of over 13,000 employees from 29 different
professions (Bakker, Schaufeli, & Van Dierendonck, 2000). So taken together, there
is convincing evidence that burnout is particularly prevalent among junior doctors.
In our study we investigate to what extent burnout levels are uniquely related (via
role conflicts) with workaholism, controlling for the effects of job demands.

Method
Sample and procedure
All 5245 Dutch junior doctors who were included in the national register of the
Royal Dutch Medical Association on 1 October 2005 received a questionnaire by
mail. In the Dutch system medical students follow a 6-year general training in
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medical school, followed by a traineeship in a particular specialized area. The length

of this specialized training of junior doctors varies between 3 years (e.g. general
practitioner) and 6 years (e.g. neurosurgeon). A total of 105 respondents indicated
that they were no longer junior doctors. Of the remaining 5140 junior doctors, 2240
responded (43.7%), of whom 2115 completed the questionnaire and 125 indicated
they did not wish to participate. The top three reasons for not responding were: ‘‘I
am too busy’’ (23%), ‘‘The questionnaire is too long’’ (22%) and ‘‘I lack energy’’
(11%). A cover letter was included that explained the purpose of the study (a working
conditions survey) and emphasized anonymity. In terms of gender, 60.7% of the
participants were female; the mean age of the sample was 31.5 years (SD 3.5).
Almost 77% were married or lived together with a partner, and 32% of the
respondents had one or more children. The five most important specialties included
were: internal medicine (13.7%), psychiatry (11.4%), surgery (8.0%), paediatrics
(7.6%) and anaesthesiology (7.0%).

Measures
Workaholism was measured with the 10-item DUWAS (Dutch WorkAholism Scale;
Schaufeli et al., in press) that includes two scales: Working Excessively (5 items,
a .67) and Working Compulsively (5 items, a .77). Example items are: ‘‘I seem to
be in a hurry and racing against the clock’’ (working excessively) and ‘‘I feel that
there’s something inside me that drives me to work hard’’ (working compulsively).
Both scales were scored on a 5-point rating scale, ranging from 1 (‘‘never’’) to 5
(‘‘always’’). A confirmatory factor-analyses revealed that the hypothesized two-
factor structure of the DUWAS fit well to the data (x2(34 df) 360.46, pB.001;
GFI .97; AGFI .95; RMSEA .07, NFI 92; NNFI.91, CFI .93). The
correlation between both latent factors was .55 (pB.001).
Three qualitative job demands were assessed: Mental Demands (4 items; a .77),
Organizational Demands (5 items; a .64), Emotional Demands (4 items; a .71),
using shortened scales (e.g. Bakker, Demerouti, Taris, Schaufeli, & Schreurs, 2003) of
the Questionnaire on the Experience and Evaluation of Work (QEEW). The QEEW
is widely employed by applied researchers in The Netherlands (Van Veldhoven, De
Jonge, Broersen, Kompier, & Meijman, 2002). Example items are: ‘‘Does your work
 Work & Stress 161

demand a lot of concentration?’’ (mental demands); ‘‘Do you have a lot of

meetings?’’ (organizational demands); and ‘‘Does your work put you in emotionally
upsetting situations?’’ (emotional demands).
Role conflicts were assessed with two scales measuring inter-role conflicts and
intra-role conflict, respectively. Inter-role Conflict was operationalized by three items
from the Survey Workhome Interference Nijmegen (SWING; Geurts, Taris,
Kompier, Dikkers, Van Hooff, & Kinnunen, 2005; see also Demerouti, Bakker, &
Bulters, 2004) (a.71). Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which their
work negatively influences their home situation, e.g. ‘‘How often does it happen that
you find it difficult to fulfil your domestic obligations because you are constantly
thinking about your work?’’ Intra-role Conflict was assessed with a self-constructed,
four-item scale that focuses on conflicts between the resident’s role as a doctor and as
a trainee (a .64). An example item is: ‘‘How often does it happen that because of
your training, it is difficult to fulfil the requirements as a doctor?’’
Burnout was assessed with two scales of the Dutch version (Schaufeli & Van
Dierendonck, 2000) of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey
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(MBI-HSS; Maslach, Leiter, & Jackson, 1996): Emotional Exhaustion (8 items; a 

.89) and Depersonalization (5 items; a .73). Example items are: ‘‘I feel emotionally
drained from my work’’ (exhaustion) and ‘‘I don’t really care what happens to some
recipients’’ (depersonalization). All items were scored on a 7-point scale ranging
from 0 (‘‘never’’) to 6 (‘‘always’’). Instead of the third dimension of the MBI-HSS
(reduced personal accomplishment) Reduced Medical Accomplishment was assessed,
using a self-constructed scale (6 items; a .69). An example item is ‘‘I make mistakes
that have negative consequences for my patients.’’ The items were developed based
on a previous study of errors made by junior doctors (Shanafelt, Bradley, Wipf, &
Back, 2002). Items were scored on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (‘‘never occurs’’) to
5 (‘‘occurs often’’). The reason for substituting reduced medical accomplishment for
personal accomplishment as an indicator of burnout is twofold. First, medical
accomplishment is a specific and hence a more appropriate measure of accomplish-
ment in medical settings. Second, instead of a positive scale that is reversed in order
to assess burnout, it appeared that reduced accomplishment is more adequately
measured with a scale that consists of negatively worded items (Bresó, Salanova, &
Schaufeli, 2007).
Three indicators were used for well-being. Happiness or subjective well-being
(Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999) was tapped with a single item (‘‘Taken
everything together, how happy are you with your life?’’) that was scored on a 10-
point scale ranging from 0 (‘‘totally unhappy’’) to 10 (‘‘extremely happy’’). Perceived
Health was also assessed with a single item (‘‘Do you feel in good health?’’) that was
scored on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (‘‘almost never’’) to 4 (‘‘almost always’’).
Job Satisfaction was measured with a self-constructed scale of three items (a .89);
an example item is ‘‘To what extent are you satisfied with the training you receive?’’
Items were scored on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (‘‘not so much’’) to 5 (‘‘very
much’’).

Analyses
In order to reduce change capitalization, the total sample was randomly split into a
model development sample (Sample 1, N 1058) that was used to test the
 162 W.B. Schaufeli et al.

measurement model and the research model (see Figure 1) and a model validation
sample (Sample 2, N 1057) in which the final model was cross-validated. Structural
equation modelling methods as implemented by AMOS 5 (Arbuckle, 2003) were
used to test the fit of the measurement model and the research model. Maximum
likelihood estimation methods were used and the input for the analysis was the
covariance matrix of the items. The goodness-of-fit of the model was evaluated using
four absolute fit indices (cf. Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1986): x2 goodness-of-fit statistic,
Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI), Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI) and the
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). Because x2 is sensitive to
sample size, three relative goodness-of-fit indices were calculated (Hu & Bentler,
1999): Normed Fit Index (NFI), Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI) and Comparative
Fit Index (CFI). For these three fit-indices, as a rule of thumb, values greater than
.90 are considered as indicating acceptable fit, whereas values smaller than .08 for
RMSEA indicate acceptable fit.
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Results
Preliminary analysis
The means, standard deviations and correlations between the study variables of
Samples 1 and 2 are shown in Table 1.
First the measurement model was tested in Sample 1. The fit of the 1-factor
model with all 13 study variables loading on a single latent variable was compared
with that of a 5-factor model that included workaholism (working excessively and
working compulsively), job demands (mental, emotional, and organizational
demands), intra- and inter-role conflict, burnout (emotional exhaustion, deperso-
nalization, reduced medical accomplishment) and well-being (job satisfaction,
happiness, perceived health). The 5-factor model fitted well to the data
(x2(55 df) 307.04, p B.001, GFI .96; AGFI .93; RMSEA .07; NFI93;
NNFI .91; CFI .94), and its fit was superior to that of the 1-factor model.
(^x2(10 df)274.77; p B.001). Factor loading were all significant, ranging from
.35 to .91. So it is concluded that instead of loading on a single factor the study
variables load, as expected, on the five latent variables that have been specified in
our model.

Testing of the research model

The research model as shown in Figure 1 was a successful fit to the data of Sample
1: x2(59 df) 311.75; p B.001; GFI.95; AGFI .93; RMSEA .06; NFI92;
NNFI .92; CFI .94. All structural paths between the latent factors were
significant and in the expected direction. In a similar vein, the correlations
between workaholism and job demands (positive), and between burnout and well-
being (negative) behaved as expected. Next, in order to test for partial mediation,
the four direct paths from workaholism/job demands to burnout/well-being were
included in the model separately. It appeared that all direct path coefficients were
non-significant: workaholism 0 burnout b .10, n.s.; workaholism 0 well-being
b .04, n.s.; job demands 0 burnout b .23, n.s.; job demands 0 well-being
b .13, n.s. Subsequent Sobel tests supported the mediating role of role conflicts
in the relationship between workaholism and burnout (z4.92; pB.001) and
 Table 1. The means (M), standard deviations (SD) and Pearson’s Product Moment correlations (PM) of the study variables for Sample 1 (model
development sample, below the diagonal) and Sample 2 (model evaluation sample, above the diagonal).

Sample 1 Sample 2
(N 1058) (N 1057) PM correlations

M SD M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

1 Working excessively 2.67 .45 2.66 .44 1.0 .44 .32 .31 .27 .43 .38 .42 .17 .28 .14 .22 .20
2 Working compulsively 2.00 .60 1.96 .58 .48 1.0 .30 .25 .27 .45 .39 .50 .34 .24 .22 .31 .24
3 Emotional demands 2.45 .57 2.47 .57 .29 .27 1.0 .28 .36 .38 .40 .43 .31 .30 .18 .22 .28
4 Mental demands 4.01 .59 3.99 .58 .27 .18 .28 1.0 .18 .23 .21 .22 .10 .13 .06 .09 .08
5 Organizational 2.81 .67 2.85 .66 .35 .31 .31 15 1.0 .36 .44 .35 .19 .20

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.23 .23 .30
demands
6 Inter role conflict 2.30 .70 2.26 .69. .52 .49 .36 .20 .38 1.0 .55 .52 .29 .20 .29 .40 .33
Work & Stress

7 Intra role conflict 2.08 .55 2.06 .56 .41 .36 .35 .19 .40 .51 1.0. .47 .30 .27 .22 .31 .32
8 Emotional exhaustion 2.02 1.06 1.96 1.04 .48 .50 .42 .23 .38 .57 .47 1.0 .49 .37 .34 .50 .45
9 Depersonalization 1.45 .89 1.40 .87 .26 .33 .34 .13 .24 .33 .31 .56 1.0 .41 .15 .25 .26
10 Reduced medical 2.16 .56 2.17 .54 .28 .21 .26 .12 .22 .24 .35 .42 .43 1.0 .07 .16 .20
accomplishment
11 Perceived health 3.41 .62 3.41 .62 .16 .24 .17 .05 .17 .25 .19 .37 .19 .12 1.0 .38 .22
12 Happiness 7.69 1.08 7.71 1.01 .26 .33 .26 .07 .20 .41 .25 .52 .34 .18 .37 1.0 .39
13 Job satisfaction 3.32 .92 3.33 .90. .29 .27 .27 .03 .30 .31 .29 .49 .33 .31 .23 .38 1.0
Note: All correlations.06; pB.05.
163
 164 W.B. Schaufeli et al.

well-being (z2.98; pB.01); and supported the mediating role of role conflicts
in the relationship between job demands and burnout (z3.45; p B.01) and well-
being (z 2.53; p B.05). Hence, it is concluded that, as expected, role conflicts
fully mediate the relationships between workaholism and job demands on the one
hand and burnout and well-being on the other hand.

Cross-validation of the research model

In a next step, the original research model that successfully fitted to the data of
Sample 1 was cross-validated using the fresh Sample 2. The model also fitted well to
the data of Sample 2: x2(59 df)346.92; pB.001; GFI.95; AGFI .92;
RMSEA .07; NFI 91; NNFI .92; CFI .92. Again subsequent Sobel tests
supported the mediating role of role conflicts in the relationship between
workaholism and burnout (z 2.22; pB.05) and well-being (z 3.80; pB.001)
and in the relationship between job demands and burnout (z 3.21; p B.01) and
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well-being (z3.49; p B.001). Hence, the cross-validation of the model in an

independent sample was successful.
Finally, in order to assess the invariance of the research model across both
samples a model was simultaneously tested to the data of Sample 1 and Sample 2 in
which all structural paths (and both correlations) were constrained to be equal
across both samples. The fit of the resulting constrained multi-group model (x2(124
df)663.47; p B.001; GFI .95; AGFI.93; RMSEA .05; NFI 92; NNFI 
.91; CFI .93) was compared to that of the freely estimated model (x2(118 df)
658.67; p B.001; GFI .95; AGFI .93; RMSEA .05; NFI 92; NNFI .91;
CFI .93). Compared with the constraint model, the fit of the freely estimated
model did not deteriorate significantly (^x2(6 df)4.82; n.s.). This means that
invariance of the research model was demonstrated; the path coefficients and
correlations did not differ significantly across both samples.
Figure 2 shows the final path model with the structural paths. As can be seen, the
impact of workaholism on role conflicts was of the same magnitude as that of job
demands; the same is true for the impact of role conflicts on burnout and well-being,
respectively. The model explains 64% (61%) of the variance of burnout and 50%
(51%) of the variance of well-being in Sample 1 (Sample 2) respectively.

Workaholism Well-being
.53 -.70

.79 -.59
Role conflicts

.48 .80

Job demands Burnout

Figure 2. Standardized path coefficients (multi-group constrained model).

 Work & Stress 165

Discussion
We set out to test a process model that assumed that both workaholism and job
demands have an indirect impact (via inter-role and intra-role conflicts) on negative
(burnout) as well as positive (well-being) outcomes. The model that is depicted in
Figure 1 was successfully tested and cross-validated in a large national sample of
Dutch junior doctors. This group was selected because junior doctors have been
considered a group at-risk for workaholism (Harpaz & Snir, 2003; Scott et al., 1997),
because they experience an inherent conflict between their role as a doctor and a
trainee, and because their levels of burnout are relatively high (Thomas, 2004). To
the best of our knowledge this is the first study that specifically focuses on
workaholism among junior doctors.
The results obtained in the current study add to the literature in at least six ways.
First, our model suggests that workaholism contributes incrementally to explaining
burnout and well-being beyond emotional, mental and organizational demands. Or
put differently, workaholism seems to act as an individual risk-factor that
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contributes, independently from the job context, to burnout and well-being. The
effects of workaholism and job demands on role-problems are of similar magnitude.
Obviously, being driven by a strong inner need to work excessively is associated with
burnout and poor wellbeing, independently from the experienced job demands. This
agrees with studies both on the Type A behavioural pattern and on overcommitment
as conceptualized in the Effort-Reward Imbalance model (Siegrist, 1998). For
instance, Day and Jreige (2002) showed in a Canadian sample that Type A
behavioural pattern, which is characterized by achievement striving and impa-
tience-irritability, was positively related to perceived stress and negatively related to
job satisfaction, after controlling for various job stressors, such as overload and
conflict. Furthermore, Tsutsumi, Kayaya, Theorell, and Siegrist (2001) showed in a
Japanese sample of employees who were threatened by job loss, that overcommit-
ment (i.e. an excessive striving in combination with a strong desire of being approved
and esteemed) was strongly related to depression, independently from an imbalance
between occupational efforts and rewards. It seems that workaholism, Type A
behavioural pattern and overcommitment have a strong inner drive in common, and
it is perhaps this drive that constitutes a risk-factor that threatens occupational
health and well-being.
Second, inter- and intra-role conflicts fully mediate the relationships between
workaholism and job demands on the one hand, and burnout and well-being at the
other hand. Model tests for partial mediation were unsuccessful and subsequent
Sobel tests yielded significant results so that we may conclude that role conflicts
indeed play a pivotal role. It remains to be seen whether or not this result may be
generalized beyond the group under study because role conflicts are particularly
salient for junior doctors. Not only do they (almost by definition) experience inter-
role conflicts between their roles as doctor and trainee, but many junior doctors are
also in the process of building a family, which aggravates work-to-family conflict.
However, our study suggests that in addition to crossover, the inter-individual
transmission of stress or strain from the job incumbent to his/her spouse (Bakker
et al., 2009), workaholism is also related to spillover, the intra-individual transmis-
sion of stress or strain from one domain (work) to another domain (home and
family).
 166 W.B. Schaufeli et al.

Third, virtually all studies on workaholism and burnout are correlational in

nature; that is, the components of burnout are regressed on those of workaholism (e.g.
Burke, 2008; Burke et al., 2004; Schaufeli, Taris, & Bakker, 2008). We went one step
further by testing a process model that assumes a mediating role of role conflicts. A
notable exception is the study of Taris et al. (2005) who also tested a process model but
did not include burnout but only one of its components (i.e. exhaustion). They found
that quantitative job demands (work overload) partially mediated the relationship
between workaholism and exhaustion. Hence, it seems that instead of a direct
relationship, workaholism and burnout (exhaustion) are indirectly related.
Fourth, following the call for positive psychology that also resonates in the field
of organizational behaviour (Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008; Luthans & Youssef, 2007),
we not only included negative outcomes (burnout), but also positive outcomes (well-
being). Although it appeared already from the measurement model that the five
latent variables that are included in our model cannot be collapsed into one general
factor, we carried out a subsequent test to assess the discriminate validity of burnout
and well-being. It appeared that the fit of the two-factor model was superior to that
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of the one-factor model (^x2(1 df)28.86; pB.001). Hence, positive and negative
outcomes should not be collapsed into one overall factor. Yet, Figure 2 shows that
our model is rather symmetrical in the sense that the relationship of role problems
with burnout is comparable in strength with the relationship with well-being.
Fifth, many scholars differentiate between ‘‘good’’ and ‘‘bad’’ forms of
workaholism. For instance, Machlowitz (1980) distinguishes between ‘‘fulfilled’’
and ‘‘unfulfilled’’ workaholics, Scott et al. (1997) consider achievement-oriented
workaholics as ‘‘hyper performers’’ and Buelens and Poelmans (2004) write about
some workaholics as ‘‘happy hard workers.’’ Moreover, the most popular model of
workaholism assumes three underlying dimensions (the so-called workaholic-triad)
consisting of work involvement, drive and work enjoyment (Spence & Robbins,
1992). Different combinations of these three dimensions are assumed to produce
different workaholic types. For instance, ‘‘real workaholics’’ are high in involvement,
high in drive and low in enjoyment, whereas ‘‘work enthusiasts’’ are high in
involvement and enjoyment and low in drive. In contrast, we agree with Mudrack
(2006, p. 109), who concluded after reviewing various definitions of workaholism:
‘‘. . . work enjoyment, whether it is high or low, is simply not a defining characteristic
of workaholism.’’ Those who have been identified as ‘‘good’’ workaholics strongly
resemble engaged workers, as is explained in greater detail elsewhere (Schaufeli et al.,
2006). Moreover, recent studies in The Netherlands (Schaufeli, Taris, & Van Rhenen,
2008) and Japan (Schaufeli et al., in press) attested to the discriminant validity of
workaholism and work engagement. The results of the current study confirm that
workaholism (conceptualized as an irresistible inner drive to work excessively hard)
is negatively related to various positive indicators, notably job satisfaction and
happiness. This contradicts the notion of ‘‘good’’ workaholism.
Sixth, our results indicate that workaholism and perceived job demands are
strongly related. We did not assume a causal direction because it might work both
ways. On the one hand, workaholics are known to make their work more complicated
than necessary, to create more work than they actually have and not to delegate their
work (e.g. Machlowitz, 1980); to some extent they create their own (high) job
demands. On the other hand, high work demands may prompt workaholic behaviour,
especially among those with a particular ‘‘workaholic’’ predisposition characterized
 Work & Stress 167

by dominance, high need for achievement, super ego (i.e. being guided by conscience)
and perfectionism (Mudrack, 2006). Because of this bidirectional nature, the strong
correlation between job demands and workaholism is not unexpected.
Given these six contributions to the literature, we may conclude that the current
study contributes to our understanding of the nature of workaholism, at least as far
as junior doctors are concerned. We can have particular confidence in the obtained
results because the research model was not only successfully tested but also cross-
validated in an independent sample. Hence, it is not likely that our findings have been
influenced by chance capitalization.

Limitations and directions for future research

Nevertheless, our research has some limitations. All data are based on self reports,
meaning that the magnitudes of the effects that we reported may have been biased
due to common method variance or the wish to answer consistently (Conway, 2002).
Unfortunately, we cannot test the strength of this type of variance directly. However,
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we assessed the fit of the measurement model, relative to that of a model that
assumed that all study variables would load on one single factor that may be
interpreted as a common method factor. It appeared that the fit of the latter was
inferior to that of the measurement model that assumes five independent latent
factors that corresponded with those in our research model. Moreover, recently
Spector (2006) has argued that common method variance is not that troublesome as
one might expect in studies such as the current one. He convincingly showed that
potentially biasing variables such as social desirability, negative affectivity and
acquiescence (the tendency to agree with items independent of their content) do not
systematically inflate correlations between self-reported variables. Nevertheless, in
order to avoid common method variance, future research on workaholism should
include non-self reports as well, such as peer ratings from colleagues (Burke & Ng,
2007) or acquaintances (Aziz & Zickar, 2006; Bakker et al., 2009).
Another limitation is our rather homogeneous sample that consists of highly
educated professionals, i.e. junior doctors. This might have caused restriction of
range in some variables and potentially threatens the generalizability of our findings.
However, the sample can also be considered a major strength of our study because
the entire population was included: all Dutch junior doctors were invited to
participate. If the results are biased, it is most likely that workaholics, being busy and
tired, rather than healthy (non-workaholic) workers were under-represented in the
sample. Nevertheless, future research should replicate our results in other occupa-
tional groups and show that the two-dimensional conceptualization of workaholism
is (more than) the sum of its parts.
Three scales had internal consistency coefficients that were lower than the
recommended criterion of .70 (Nunally & Bernstein, 1994), their a-values ranged
from .64 to .67. However, this criterion of .70 is an arbitrary value that is not
universally accepted. For instance, De Vellis (2003) in his handbook on scale
construction, proposed .65 as a minimum threshold for an acceptable coefficient a.
As an example of the arbitrariness of his criterion, Nunally (1967) mentioned that a’s
ranging from .50.60 would be acceptable, but in the second edition of his book
(Nunally, 1967) he suggests a value .70 without further justification. Moreover, the
minimally required degree of reliability is a function of the research purpose; for
 168 W.B. Schaufeli et al.

individual-level, diagnostic research, a should be much higher than for the basic,
group-level research reported in our study (Peterson, 1994).
The most important limitation, however, is the cross-sectional nature of our
study that precludes causeeffect relationships being uncovered. We employed
structural equation modelling analyses because it is a feasible way to examine
simultaneously a set of structural associations between latent factors that are
constituted by various indicators. Despite the use of arrows in Figures 1 and 2, our
strategy of analysis should not be taken to suggest that we actually investigated
causal relationships. So this would mean that future longitudinal research should
replicate the cross-sectional findings that are reported in the current study. Clearly, a
longitudinal study spanning a relatively long period of 2 years or so would be
necessary because it is likely that the processes involved unfold only gradually.
Workaholics do not burn out instantaneously.

Practical implications
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The current study suggests that workaholism and job demands are associated (via
role problems) with burnout. This means that, eventually, workaholism in
combination with high job demands may lead to burnout though increased inter-
and intra-role conflict. Burned-out junior doctors are exhausted, relate to their
patients in a more callous and cynical way (depersonalization) and accomplish less,
medically speaking. These are serious indications that patient care might suffer when
junior doctors feel burned out (Thomas, 2004). Hence, it is important to prevent and
combat burnout, by targeting workaholic behaviour, role problems and job demands
among junior doctors in hospital settings. We will focus next on how to reduce
workaholism because individual-based and organizational-based interventions to
reduce burnout in health care, such as stress-management training and job-redesign,
have been discussed elsewhere (Schaufeli, 2007).
Following Fassel and Schaef (1989), supervisors should pay attention to the
performance and work habits of junior doctors and be alert to early warning signs of
workaholism. Instead of rewarding excess work they should try to encourage living a
balanced life, for instance by doing their best to ensure that junior doctors regularly
take time off work. Insecurity, self-doubt, work overload and career opportunities
may make junior doctors feel compelled to put more time and effort into their work.
In that case, their supervisors should try to minimize their impact on the atmosphere
in the work setting. Alternatively, workaholic junior doctors could be referred to an
employee assistance program or a recovery program for treatment. However, based
on a survey among American employee assistance programs, Porter and Herring
(2007) conclude that it is not very likely that workaholics will be referred to employee
assistance programs, at least not under a referral labelled ‘‘workaholism.’’ However,
once they find their way to an employee assistance program there is some chance that
their symptoms will be interpreted as possibly part of a larger workaholic pattern.
Furthermore, Haas (1991) formulated some interesting ideas on the role of
supervisors that it may be possible to apply to hospital settings as well. For instance,
supervisors should help junior doctors to prioritize and encourage them to delegate
their work whenever possible. Also, junior doctors should be given specific times to
take breaks and to leave work. Finally, supervisors should coach junior doctors in
changing their harmful workaholic behaviours and cognitions as part of their
 Work & Stress 169

medical training. The importance of supervisory coaching is underlined by a recent

study that found that many junior doctors were more dissatisfied with the emotional,
appreciative and informative social support from their supervisor, compared with
fellow junior doctors and nurses (Prins et al., 2007b). Supervisory coaching should
also include putting into perspective the prevailing medical ethos that fosters rather
than discourages workaholism. Working excessively hard is a crucial ingredient of
the heroic medical ethos and it is usually perceived as synonymous with proper
patient care. But when hard work results from a strong inner drive that cannot be
resisted this might be detrimental for junior doctors and their patients alike.

Acknowledgements
This study was supported by unrestricted grants of SWG Arts en Werk, Stichting
Capaciteitsorgaan, Dutch Association of Medical Residents (LVAG) and University Medical
Center Groningen.
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