metals

Article
Die Design and Finite Element Analysis of Welding Seams
during Aluminum Alloy Tube Extrusion
Yeong-Maw Hwang * and I-Peng Hsu

Department of Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University,

Kaohsiung 804, Taiwan; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +886-7-5252000 (ext. 4233)

Abstract: Hollow tubes are generally manufactured using porthole die extrusion. A finite element
software QForm is used to analyze the material flow of aluminum alloy A6061 tubes inside a specially
designed porthole die during tube extrusion. High welding pressure and shorter transverse seam
length are required for a sound product. Various extrusion conditions and die geometries and
dimensions affect the bonding strength of the products. In this paper, the effects of die geometries on
the welding pressure are discussed using the Taguchi method. The simulation results show that a
higher welding pressure is obtained with a larger porthole radius, a larger welding chamber height,
and a larger bearing length, while a larger bridge width increases the welding pressure slightly. For
transverse seam lengths, a shorter transverse seam length can be obtained with a smaller porthole
radius and a smaller welding chamber height, and a shorter bridge width and bearing length decrease
the transverse seam length slightly. The transverse seam region and flow patterns are observed. Tube
expanding tests were also conducted. From the expanding test results, it is known that the fracture
position did not occur at the welding line and the bonding strength could reach up to 160 MPa.

Keywords: aluminum alloy tube extrusion; porthole die; finite element analysis; welding pressure;
transverse seam length; expanding test; Taguchi method

1. Introduction
Citation: Hwang, Y.-M.; Hsu, I.-P.
Due to increasing demands of light-weight structures, various tubes, such as round
Die Design and Finite Element
tubes, thin tubes, square tubes, and asymmetrical-shaped tubes, are widely applied in
Analysis of Welding Seams during
various industries. Most of them are manufactured by extrusion processes. According to
Aluminum Alloy Tube Extrusion.
different extrusion die design methods, extruded tubes are divided into seam tubes and
Metals 2023, 13, 911. https://
doi.org/10.3390/met13050911
seamless tubes. Various tubes with complicated geometry and dimensional accuracy are
used in the automotive and bicycle industries. Different extrusion methods have been
Academic Editor: Diego Celentano proposed, such as isothermal extrusion, half-solid-state extrusion, high speed extrusion,
Received: 10 April 2023
and equal-channel angular pressing, etc. Extrusion die design is crucial for a successful
Revised: 30 April 2023 extrusion process [1]. In aluminum extrusion processes, friction behaviors at the work-
Accepted: 5 May 2023 piece/tooling interface are highly complex, which are affected by local temperature, relative
Published: 8 May 2023 velocity, contact pressure, geometry, and tooling surface roughness, etc. Wang et al. [2] and
Wang and Yang [3] summarized the recent developments of the friction testing techniques
for aluminum extrusion processes and detailed comparisons of these techniques. Among
the existing friction testing techniques, the combination of extrusion friction tests and short
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. sliding distance ball-on-disc tests were recommended.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. In aluminum hot extrusion processes, many forming parameters such as extrusion
This article is an open access article ratio, ram velocity, and billet temperature affect the extrusion load and the mechanical
distributed under the terms and
properties or the microstructures of the extruded products. Marín et al. [4] investigated the
conditions of the Creative Commons
influence of temperature in the extrusion process by finite element analysis. The required
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
load and the maximum exit velocity were discussed considering different temperatures.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
The optimized values of the temperatures in the billet and die were obtained to achieve a
4.0/).

Metals 2023, 13, 911. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13050911 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2023, 13, 911 2 of 16

good quality of the extruded products. Bandini et al. [5] used FE code QForm to predict the
microstructure evolution in 6XXX aluminum alloys. Preliminary simulations were carried
out to select optimal friction models and coefficients among the several formulations
available in the code. The numerical results were compared to grid-based visioplasticity
experiments. The optimized friction model and coefficient were then applied in a second
series of simulations to develop a prediction model of microstructure evolution. The
simulated grain size and shape of 6XXX aluminum alloys were compared with experimental
observations to validate the numerical model. Chen et al. [6] investigated the effects
of various forming conditions on the extrusion load and product shapes in multi-hole
extrusion of aluminum alloy tubes numerically and experimentally. The finite element
simulation results revealed that the most crucial process parameter is the number of holes
and their locations on the extrusion die. Liu et al. [7,8] used finite element simulation
to investigate the effects of ram speeds and billet temperatures on the extrusion load
in magnesium alloy AZ31 extrusion with an X-shaped cross-section. The correlations
between the process variables and the response of the extrusion temperature and the peak
extrusion pressure were established from the finite element simulations and verified by
experiments. Sikand et al. [9] conducted tube extrusion experiments of AM30 magnesium
alloy using a porthole die and a conical die with a mandrel attached at the ram. They
made comparisons of the microstructure and mechanical properties of the extruded tubes
using the porthole die and conical die. The tubes fabricated using the porthole die showed
significant refinement in microstructure with improved mechanical properties compared to
the tubes fabricated using the conical die. However, the extrusion loads using the porthole
die were higher compared to that using the conical die.
Transverse welds occur at the joint of the billet–billet parts in extrusion processes for
continuous production. Transverse welds introduce a discontinuity at the weld interface
in the extruded long tubes or rods. The strength at the transverse welds is much weaker
compared to the mother metal, thus, the transverse welding regions have to be cut off
after extrusion, which decreases the overall yield of the products. Therefore, the trans-
verse welding length should be controlled as short as possible. Li et al. [10] investigated
the formation and metal flow of transverse welds in aluminum extrusion processes us-
ing the finite element simulation. The simulation results revealed that inhomogeneous
metal flow and a transverse welding pattern occurred. The design parameters influencing
the transverse weld length were also discussed. Mahmoodkhani et al. [11] developed
a mathematical model of hot extrusion processes of aluminum alloy circular bars and
validated it by experiments. The transverse seam diagram and area percentage of two
materials in the cross-sections of the tubes were inspected. The results showed that the trans-
verse weld was significantly affected by the feeder geometry shape, but the effects of ram
speed, billet material, and temperature on the transverse weld dimensions were negligible.
Zhang et al. [12] experimentally and numerically investigated the extrusion transverse
welds of 7N01 aluminum alloy hollow asymmetric square tubes. The transient extrusion
process was simulated based on a finite element software HyperXtrude. The effects of
the process parameters on the cross-sectional area percentage of the transverse seam were
discussed. Bakker et al. [13] conducted a series of extrusion experiments of aluminum
alloy hollow rectangular tubes using a porthole die and investigated the effects of the
presence of a charge weld transition zone on the failure mode under tensile tests and
local effective mechanical properties of the extrudate. The evolutionary geometry of the
bonding plane was visualized by serial sectioning of the extrudate. They found that the
mechanical performance was largely controlled by the oxide particle density at the charge
weld boundary. Zhang et al. [14] investigated the transverse weld in 7N01 aluminum
alloy hollow tubes used in high-speed trains by experimental analysis coupled with finite
element simulations. Numerical models of transverse welds were also built to analyze
the evolution of transverse welds. The influences of extrusion process parameters and die
structure on the length of transverse welds were discussed. The transverse weld length
Metals 2023, 13, 911 3 of 16

was reduced effectively by adjusting the extrusion ratio, ram speed, height of baffle plate,
and sinking depth of the port bridge.
Longitudinal welding seams are an intrinsic characteristic in the extrusion of hol-
low products using a porthole die. The bonding strength at the welding seams affected
by the porthole die design dominates the whole material properties of the extrudate.
Bakker et al. [15] investigated the occurrence of defects inside the extrudate in a direct hot
extrusion process of AW-6060 and AW-6082 aluminum alloy billets with an obstacle at the
center of the die. The effects of different geometries of the weld-chamber and the processing
conditions on the quality of the welding seams were discussed. Through computer simula-
tions, conditions related to welding seam formation were modelled and correlated with
the experimental results. Kim et al. [16] investigated the effects of an improved porthole
die on the welding pressure using finite element analysis of aluminum tube extrusion. The
expanding test results showed that the welding strength of tubes extruded by the modi-
fied porthole die was improved compared to that made by a conventional porthole die.
Zhao et al. [17] conducted experiments and numerical simulations to analyze the metal flow
and welding process during the continuous extrusion of AA6063 aluminum alloys with dou-
ble billets. The results revealed that the oxides on the billet surface affected the microstruc-
ture and mechanical properties of the extrusion welds. The welding lines were mixed with
fine grains of several microns and the surrounding area contained grains with a size of
several hundred microns. They also found that the extrusion welds slightly affected the
tensile strength, but markedly influenced extrudate elongation. Donati and Tomesani [18]
conducted a series of extrusion experiments of I-shape AA6082 aluminum alloy products
using a two-hole die and investigated the correlation between the die design and the
mechanical properties of the extrudate. The workability area without tearing defects in
the extrusion process was also discussed. The tensile strength and equivalent fracture
strain were evaluated to assess the effectiveness of welding on the extruded products.
Jo et al. [19] investigated the effects of process parameters, such as billet temperature and
bearing length, on the welding strength during Al7003 seam extrusion with a porthole
die. The welding pressures were examined through non-steady-state finite element simula-
tions and compared with experimental results. The experimental results showed that the
largest bonding stress could be obtained with a bearing length of 6 mm and an extrusion
temperature of 460 ◦ C.
Choi et al. [20] proposed a porthole die design with six inlet ports and two die caps
around the die mandrel and used finite element analysis to simulate the material flow of
aluminum alloys inside the die chamber. The position of the welding lines between the
inner and outer tubes was discussed. Extrusion experiments were carried out and the
mechanical properties of the extrudate were improved compared to the general porthole
extrusion tubes. Liu et al. [21] used DEFORM 3D software to conduct finite element simu-
lations of tube extrusion processes of AZ31 magnesium alloys. The metal flow behavior
and formation process of welding seams in the porthole die were investigated. They found
as the extrusion speed increases, the temperature, welding pressure, and effective stress
on the welding plane increase simultaneously and the optimal extrusion speed is about
0.5 mm/s for tube extrusion of AZ31 magnesium alloy at forming temperature of
400 ◦ C. Lin et al. [22] fabricated Zn–10Al–2Cu–0.05Ti (ZA10) alloy tubes by one-pass
and double-pass conform continuous extrusion processes. Heat treatment was also applied
to the double-pass extruded tubes to improve their yield strength, ultimate tensile strength,
elongation, and welding seam quality. A superior yield strength of 283.9 MPa, an ultimate
tensile strength of 328.5 MPa, a lower elongation of 10.2%, and an expansion ratio of 10.3%
were obtained.
Up to now, studies on the welding behavior in tube extrusion were mostly focused on
experimental investigations. In this paper, finite element analysis was used to investigate
the welding behaviors during tube extrusion of aluminum alloys using a specially designed
porthole die. The effects of the die geometries such as welding chamber height, porthole
radius, bridge width, bearing length, etc., on the transverse welding length distributions
 Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

designed porthole die. The effects of the die geometries such as welding chamber height,
Metals 2023, 13, 911 4 of 16
porthole radius, bridge width, bearing length, etc., on the transverse welding length dis-
tributions and welding pressures at the die exit are systematically discussed. An objective
function with double weighting coefficients combined with the Taguchi method is pro-
and
posedwelding pressures
to determine anat the die exitdie
appropriate aregeometry
systematically discussed. for
and dimension An obtaining
objective function
a sound
with double
product withweighting coefficients
better mechanical combined
properties with
at the the Taguchi
longitudinal method
welds. is proposed
Finally, tube extru-to
determine an appropriate
sion experiments die geometry
were conducted and dimension
to validate forelement
the finite obtaining a sound product
modelling witha
and obtain
better
soundmechanical properties
product with a largerat the longitudinal
bonding strength atwelds. Finally, tubewelds.
the longitudinal extrusion experiments
were conducted to validate the finite element modelling and obtain a sound product with a
larger bonding
2. Design strength Porthole
of Extrusion at the longitudinal
Dies welds.
2.1. Definitions of Longitudinal and Transverse Welding Seams
2. Design of Extrusion Porthole Dies
Longitudinal
2.1. Definitions welding seams
of Longitudinal occur as the
and Transverse billet materials
Welding Seams flow separately through the
bridge and join together in the welding chamber. The joined interfaces inside the tube
Longitudinal welding seams occur as the billet materials flow separately through the
product are called longitudinal welding seams. During continuous extrusion, as the front
bridge and join together in the welding chamber. The joined interfaces inside the tube
billet is extruded out and the rear billet is input into the container and extruded forward,
product are called longitudinal welding seams. During continuous extrusion, as the front
the interfaces
billet is extrudedbetween
out and the front
the rearand rear
billet billetsinto
is input are the
called transverse
container and welding
extrudedseams.
forward, When
the
the extrusion
interfaces process
between the is suspended
front and reartobillets
refill are
a new billet,
called a circle mark
transverse weldingis generated
seams. When in front
the
of the bearing
extrusion part,
process which is called
is suspended to refilla astop-mark.
new billet, The transverse
a circle seam length,
mark is generated Ltw, of
in front is the
the
distance between the stop-mark and joined interface at the front and
bearing part, which is called a stop-mark. The transverse seam length, Ltw , is the distance rear billets. A sche-
matic figure
between for longitudinal
the stop-mark and interface
and joined transverse welding
at the seams
front and and
rear stop-mark
billets. is shown
A schematic figurein
Figure 1.
for longitudinal and transverse welding seams and stop-mark is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Schematic
Schematic for
for transverse
transverse and
and longitudinal
longitudinal welding
welding seams.
seams.

2.2.
2.2. Configurations
Configurations ofof Porthole
Porthole Dies
Dies
The
The porthole channels and welding
porthole channels and welding chambers
chambers of of aa porthole
porthole diedie used
used inin this
this study
study
were slightly different from those of a traditional die. The porthole channels
were slightly different from those of a traditional die. The porthole channels of traditionalof traditional
dies
dies are
are vertically
vertically downward
downward to to the
the welding
welding chambers.
chambers. In In this
this paper,
paper, the
the porthole
porthole channel
channel
Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
was designed to extend outward from the die entrance to its exit,
was designed to extend outward from the die entrance to its exit, as shown as shown in
in Figure
5 of Figure 2.
16 2. In
In
addition, a blocker protruding from the mandrel inside the porthole channel
addition, a blocker protruding from the mandrel inside the porthole channel was designed was designed
to prevent the billet material flowing directly to the die exit as shown in Figure 2b.
to prevent the billet material flowing directly to the die exit as shown in Figure 2b.
An extrusion die is composed of two parts: (a) a bridge with a mandrel (upper die);
and (b) an outer die with a welding camber (lower die), as shown in Figure 3a,b, respec-
tively. Generally, the outer contour of the welding chamber on the bridge part was de-
signed as a circle. In this paper, circular arcs and straight lines were designed for the outer
contour on the bridge part. A cylindrical surface was designed on the outer die.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. Geometric
Figure 2. configurations of porthole channels
Geometric configurations of porthole
of porthole channelsdies. (a) Traditional
of porthole die
dies. (a) and (b) die and
Traditional
modified die.
(b) modified die.
Metals 2023, 13, 911 5 of 16

An extrusion die is composed of two parts: (a) a bridge with a mandrel (upper die);
and (b) an outer die with(a) a welding camber (lower die), as shown in Figure
(b) 3a,b, respectively.
(a) (b)
Generally, the outer contour of the welding chamber on the bridge part was designed as a
Figure In
circle. 2. Geometric
Figure 2. Geometric this paper,configurations
configurations arcs of
of porthole
circular porthole
channels
and channels
of
straight ofdies.
porthole porthole
lines were dies.for
(a) the
(a) Traditional
designed Traditional
dieouter die and on
and (b)
contour (b)
modified die.
modified the
die. bridge part. A cylindrical surface was designed on the outer die.

(a) (a) (b) (b)

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Components
Figure 3. ComponentsComponents ofdies.
of porthole
of porthole dies. (a)
(a) Bridge
porthole dies. (a)
andBridge andpart,
mandrel
Bridge and mandrel part,
and part,
mandrel (b) and
the (b) the
outer
and (b) the outer
die outer die
part. die part.
part.

The cross-sectional
The cross-sectional
The dimensionsdimensions of
ofthe
theextruded
of the extruded
dimensions extrudedproducts
products were were
set as
products 56.2set
were mm asas
set 56.2
and mm
80
56.2 mmand 80
and
mm in the mm
80 mmin in
inner thethe
and inner
inner
outer and
andouter
outerdiameters,
diameters, diameters, respectively.
respectively.
respectively. The
Thegeometric
The geometric geometric
parametersparameters
parameters
or variables variables
or variables
at the
at
at the bridge the bridge
bridge
part part are
part
are shown are shown
inshown in
Figurein Figure
Figure
4a, where 4a,
4a, Dwhere
is theDD
Dwhere isdiameter,
DD is
die the die
the die diameter,
diameter,
RP is the RRPP is
is the
the porthole
porthole porthole
radius,
radius, Wradius,
B is theW W is
bridge
BB the bridge width, and Rc is the corner
width, and Rc is the corner radius. The radius.
radius. The corresponding
corresponding
corresponding parameter parameter
parameter
dimensionsdimensions
dimensions
are shown are
are shown
inshown in Table
in
Table 1. Table1.1.

(a) (a) (b) (b)

Figure 4.
4. Geometric
Figure 4. Geometric
Figure Geometric parameters
parameters in the
in the whole
parameters in the whole
die;whole die;
(a) top view
die; (a)and
(a) top view
top view
(b) and(b)
(b)longitudinal
longitudinal
longitudinal
and sectionview.
section view.
section view.

Table 1. Dimensions of geometric parameters at the bridge part.

Die diameter, DD [mm] 238

Porthole radius, RP [mm] 67.5
Bridge width, WB [mm] 31
Corner radius, Rc [mm] 12
 Table 1. Dimensions of geometric parameters at the bridge part.

Die diameter, DD [mm] 238

Porthole radius, RP [mm] 67.5
Metals 2023, 13, 911 Bridge width, WB [mm] 31 6 of 16
Corner radius, Rc [mm] 12

The
Thegeometric
geometricparameters
parameters ororvariables
variablesatatthe
thewelding
welding chamber ofof
chamber a aporthole
portholedie
dieare
are
shown in Figure 5, where H I and HO are the inner and outer bearing heights, respectively;
shown in Figure 5, where HI and HO are the inner and outer bearing heights, respectively;
HHP is the porthole height; HM is the die height; and HC is the welding chamber height. The
P is the porthole height; HM is the die height; and HC is the welding chamber height. The
corresponding
correspondingparameter
parameterdimensions
dimensionsareareshown
shownininTable
Table2.2.

Figure 5. 5.
Figure Geometric parameters
Geometric atat
parameters the welding
the chamber
welding ofof
chamber the porthole
the dies.
porthole dies.

Table
Table2.2.Dimensions
Dimensionsofof
the geometric
the geometricparameters
parametersatatthe
thewelding
weldingchamber.
chamber.

Inner Inner bearing

bearing height
height HI [mm]HI [mm] 7.5 7.5
OuterOuter
bearingbearing height
height H HO [mm]
O [mm] 7 7
Porthole height HP [mm]
Porthole height HP [mm] 65
65
Die height HD [mm] 140
Die height HD [mm] 140
Welding chamber height HC [mm] 25
Welding chamber height HC [mm] 25

The objective of this study was to design the die parameters to obtain a higher weld-
The objective
ing pressure of this study
and a shorter was toseam
transverse design the die
length. Toparameters to obtain aextrusion
ensure a successful higher welding
pro-
pressure
cess, and adistributions
the stress shorter transverse
inside seam length.
the die To ensureloads
and extrusion a successful
have toextrusion
be smallerprocess, the
than the
stress distributions
yielding inside the
stress and machine die andrespectively.
capacity, extrusion loads have to be smaller than the yielding
stress and machine capacity, respectively.
3. Finite Element Simulations of Hot Extrusion of Aluminum Alloy Tubes
3. Finite Element Simulations of Hot Extrusion of Aluminum Alloy Tubes
3.1. Finite Element Modelling and Simulation Parameters
3.1. Finite Element Modelling and Simulation Parameters
An explicit and dynamic finite element code “QForm” was adopted to analyze the
An explicit and dynamic finite element code “QForm” was adopted to analyze the
plastic flow pattern of the aluminum alloy billet within the porthole die cavity during tube
plastic flow pattern of the aluminum alloy billet within the porthole die cavity during tube
extrusion. During the simulations, it is assumed that the billet is rigid plastic, and the die,
extrusion. During the simulations, it is assumed that the billet is rigid plastic, and the die,
the container, as well as the flow guide are all rigid. Auto-mesh division was chosen and
the container, as well as the flow guide are all rigid. Auto-mesh division was chosen and
finer meshes were set around the exit of the die to avoid element crush or fracture after
finer meshes were set around the exit of the die to avoid element crush or fracture after
the tube material flowed out from the die. The Levanov friction mode was adopted at the
the tube material flowed out from the die. The Levanov friction mode was adopted at the
interfaces
interfacesbetween
between thethebillet and
billet andthe
thedie,
die,container,
container,and
andthe
theram
ram[5].
[5].The
Theflow
flowstresses
stressesofof
aluminum
aluminum alloy A6061 from the QForm database at a temperature of 500 C andunder
alloy A6061 from the QForm database at a temperature of 500 °C◦ and under
different
differentstrain
strainrates
ratesare
areshown
shownininFigure
Figure6.6.
Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16
Metals
Metals2023,
2023,13,
13,x911
FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of
7 of1616

Figure 6. Flow stresses of aluminum alloys used in finite element simulations.

Flowstresses
Figure6.6.Flow
Figure stressesofofaluminum
aluminumalloys
alloysused
usedininfinite
finiteelement
elementsimulations.
simulations.
The dimensions of the extruded tube products were 11.9 mm thick and 80 mm in
diameter. The The
dimensions
structure of the extruded tube products werea 11.9 mm thick and 80 mm in
The dimensions ofofthe
a die set was tube
extruded composed of a were
products ram, container,
11.9 mm thick a die,anda die
80 holder,
mm in
diameter. The structure of a die set was composed of a ram, a container, a die, a die holder,
adiameter.
bolster, aThe sub-bolster,
structure of and a pressure
a die ring, as shown
set was composed of a ram,in Figure 7. Thea front
a container, die, athree parts
die holder,
a bolster, a sub-bolster, and a pressure ring, as shown in Figure 7. The front three parts
were usedatosub-bolster,
a bolster, deform theand billet material and
a pressure ring,obtain
as shown a desired product
in Figure geometry.
7. The front threeTheparts
rear
were used to deform the billet material and obtain a desired product geometry. The rear
four
werepartsused were used the
to deform to support the die and
billet material holder andamake
obtain desiredtheproduct
die holder fix easily
geometry. Theinrear
the
four parts were used to support the die holder and make the die holder fix easily in the
extrusion
four partsmachine.
were used Thetoinner
support diameter
the dieofholder
the container
and make wasthe183.5
diemm. Thefix
holder dimensions
easily in the of
extrusion machine. The inner diameter of the container was 183.5 mm. The dimensions
the billets were 177.8 mm in diameter and 740 mm long. They
extrusion machine. The inner diameter of the container was 183.5 mm. The dimensions of were cut off by a hot cutting
of the billets were 177.8 mm in diameter and 740 mm long. They were cut off by a hot
machine.
the billetsThewere diameter
177.8 mm of in
thediameter
ram wasand slightly smaller
740 mm long.than
Theythewere
innercutdiameter
off by a hotof the con-
cutting
cutting machine. The diameter of the ram was slightly smaller than the inner diameter
tainer.
machine. TheThedimensions
diameter of the ram die were 238 mmsmaller
was slightly in diameter
than theandinner
140 mm high.of
diameter Although
the con-
of the container. The dimensions of the die were 238 mm in diameter and 140 mm high.
the die The
tainer. holder, bolster, sub-bolster,
dimensions of the die were and238 pressure
mm inring do notand
diameter influence
140 mm thehigh.
material flow
Although
Although the die holder, bolster, sub-bolster, and pressure ring do not influence the material
of
the the
diebillet,
holder,theybolster,
were still set up in the
sub-bolster, and finite element
pressure ring simulations.
do not The dimensions
influence the material offlow
the
flow of the billet, they were still set up in the finite element simulations. The dimensions
bolster
ofofthe are 300 and 96 mm in the outer and inner diameters, respectively, and 120 mm in
thebillet, they
bolster arewere
300still
andset 96upmmin the finite
in the element
outer and simulations.
inner diameters, The dimensions
respectively, of the
and
height.
bolster
120 mm The
are sub-bolster
in 300
height.andThe96 mmhad in anthe
sub-bolsterouter diameter
outer
had anand ofdiameter
inner
outer 350 mm,of
diameters, an350
internal geometry
respectively,
mm, an andof
internal 120210mm
geometrymm, inof
and
height.a width
The of 120
sub-bolster mm. hadThere
an was
outer a rectangular
diameter of 350 hole
mm, inside
an the
internal
210 mm, and a width of 120 mm. There was a rectangular hole inside the sub-bolster which sub-bolster
geometry which
of 210 was
mm,
210
wasmm
and a210 inmm
widthlength
of
in 120and 120
mm.
length and mm 120inmm
There width.
was The pressure
a rectangular
in width. holering
The pressure was
ringplaced
inside the
was in the in
sub-bolster
placed extruder,
which
the and
was
extruder,
the
210 dimensions
mm in length were
and determined
120 mm in by the
width. capacity
The of
pressure the extruder.
ring
and the dimensions were determined by the capacity of the extruder. An extruder was An
placed extruder
in the of 2100
extruder, tons
and of
was
the
2100 used
tonsin
dimensionswas theused
FE simulations
were indetermined and experiments
by the
the FE simulations capacity ofofthe
and experiments aluminum
extruder. alloy tube
alloyextrusion.
An extruder
of aluminum of 2100
tube The
tons
extrusion.
material
was
Theused parameters
in the
material and forming
FE simulations
parameters parameters
and
and forming experimentsusedof
parameters inaluminum
usedtheinFEthesimulations
FEalloy tubeareextrusion.
simulations shown in The
are shown Ta-in
bles 3
material and 4, respectively.
parameters
Tables 3 and 4, respectively.and forming parameters used in the FE simulations are shown in Ta-
bles 3 and 4, respectively.

Figure 7. Components of complete die set.

Figure 7. Components of complete die set.
Figure 7. Components of complete die set.
 Metals 2023, 13, 911 8 of 16

Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

Table 3. Material parameters used in FE simulations.

Material
Table 3. Material parameters used in FE simulations. Al 6061
Extrusion type Direct extrusion (die is filled)
Material Al 6061
Ram speed 4.1 mm/s
Extrusion type Direct extrusion (die is filled)
◦
Ram Billet
speedtemperature 4.1 mm/s510 C
Billet length
Billet temperature 510 °C 740 mm
Billet diameter
Billet length 740 mm177.8 mm
Billet diameter 177.8 mm
Table 4. Forming conditions used in FE Simulations.
Table 4. Forming conditions used in FE Simulations.
Die material AISI H-13
Die material AISI H-13
Die temperature 480 ◦ C
Die temperature 480 °C
Bolster, Sub-bolster temperature 25 ◦ C
Bolster, Sub-bolster temperature 25 °C
Ram temperature 420°C◦C
Ram temperature 420
Containertemperature
temperature 420°C◦C
Container 420
Frictionmodel
model
Default
Default
Friction (Revanov friction)
(Revanov friction)
Extrusionratio
Extrusion ratio 9.7
9.7

FigureFigure
8a,b show
8a,b the
show flow
thepatterns of the new
flow patterns of theand
newold materials
and on the on
old materials cross-sections
the cross-sections
of the of
extrude at positions
the extrude of 320 of
at positions mm320and
mm 650
andmm,650respectively, from the
mm, respectively, fromstop-mark. As a As a
the stop-mark.
three-porthole die was used, a three-hold flow pattern of new material appeared
three-porthole die was used, a three-hold flow pattern of new material appeared inside the inside
the oldold
material.
material.Clearly,
Clearly,the area
the arearatio
ratioofofthe
thenew
newmaterial
materialononthe
thecross-section
cross-sectionatataaposi-
position of
tion of650
650mmmmaway
awayfrom
fromthethestop-mark
stop-mark is is larger
larger than
than that
that at at a position
a position of of
320320
mm mm away
away from the
from the stop-mark.
stop-mark. TheThe dimensions
dimensions of extruded
of the the extruded tube tube products
products were were
11.9 mm11.9thick
mm and
thick80 mm
and 80inmm in diameter.
diameter.

(a) (b)
Figure Figure
8. Flow 8.patterns
Flowof patterns
new material at different
of new materialcross-sections
at differentfrom the stop-mark.
cross-sections from(a)the
X = stop-mark.
320
mm, (b) X = 650 mm.
(a) X = 320 mm, (b) X = 650 mm.

3.2. Control
3.2. Control FactorsFactors and Levels
and Levels in Die in Die Parameters
Parameters
The dimensions
The dimensions of the of
diethe die kept
were wereaskept
238asmm238inmm in outer
outer diameter
diameter and 140andmm140inmm in
height.height. The parameters
The parameters on theon the porthole
porthole and bridge
and bridge partsporthole
parts were were porthole
radiusradius (RP ), bridge
(RP), bridge
widthwidth (WBporthole
(WB), and ), and porthole corner(Rc),
corner radius radius (Rc), asinshown
as shown Figurein4a.Figure 4a. The longitudinal
The longitudinal sec-
section view of the whole die is shown in Figure 4b. The
tion view of the whole die is shown in Figure 4b. The parameters in the whole parameters indie
thewere
whole die
were the
the porthole porthole
height (HP), height
welding (Hchamber
P ), welding chamber
height height
(HC), outer (HC ), height
bearing outer bearing height (HO ),
(HO), welding
welding chamber diameter (D ), and porthole channel inclination
chamber diameter (DC), and portholeCchannel inclination angle (ϕ). Only the parameters angle (ϕ). Only the
parameters
that influence that influence
material flow andmaterial
weldingflow and welding
behavior behavior
significantly weresignificantly were
selected as the selected
con-
trol factors and are discussed below. The selected control factors and levels are shown in
Table 5.
Metals 2023, 13, 911 9 of 16

as the control factors and are discussed below. The selected control factors and levels are
shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Control factors and levels used in the Taguchi method.

Factors Levels
1 2 3
A Bridge width WB (mm) 31 34 37
B Porthole radius Rp (mm) 67.5 72.5 77.5
C Welding chamber height Hc (mm) 25 35 45
D Outer bearing height Ho (mm) 3 7 11

3.3. Simulation Results and Objective Function

The simulation results of the average welding pressure (PLW ) and transverse welding
seam length (LTW ) for Taguchi cases are shown in Table 6. The responses of each fac-
tor on the average welding pressure and transverse welding seam length are shown in
Figures 9 and 10, respectively. For the welding pressure, the larger the better case. A
higher welding pressure can be obtained with a higher value of every factor. For transverse
welding seam length, the smaller the better case. A shorter length can be obtained with a
smaller welding chamber height and porthole radius and with a larger bridge width and
outer bearing length. The bridge width and outer bearing length influence the transverse
welding seam length slightly. The responses of welding chamber height and porthole ra-
dius to the welding pressure and transverse welding seam length are contradictory, which
means as these factors increase, both the welding pressure and transverse welding seam
length increase simultaneously. The objective of this study was to make the welding pres-
sure of the product over a required value and reduce the transverse welding seam length
as much as possible. Therefore, a compromising objective function has to be proposed
to consider the responses to the welding pressure and transverse welding seam length
simultaneously. If only the maximum welding pressure is considered, the optimized levels
for each factor are 77.5 mm for the porthole radius, 37 mm for the bridge width, 45 mm for
the welding chamber height, and 11 mm for the outer bearing length. All the simulation
results including the original die design are shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Simulation results by the Taguchi method.

Transverse
Average Welding
Welding Seam
L9 A B C D Pressure
Length
PLW (MPa)
LTW (mm)
1 1 1 1 1 63.6 739
2 1 2 2 2 76.8 882
3 1 3 3 3 88.0 1133
4 2 1 2 3 74.1 750
5 2 2 3 1 74.7 1043
6 2 3 1 2 78.7 857
7 3 1 3 2 74.9 808
8 3 2 1 3 80.4 730
9 3 3 2 1 78.8 1064
PMax 3 3 3 3 88.6 1082
Original 1 1 1 2 72.0 664
Metals 2023,13,
Metals2023,
Metals 2023, 13,911
13, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 10 of
10
10 of 16
16
16

Figure
Figure 9. Responses
9. Responses
Figure 9. of
Responses of each
of each factor
each factor on
factor on the
on the welding
the welding pressure.
welding pressure.
pressure.

Figure 10.
Figure 10.
Figure Responses
10. Responses of
Responses of each
of each factor
each factor on
factor on the
on the transverse
thetransverse welding
transverse welding seam
welding seam length.
seam length.
length.

A
A compromising
A compromising objective
compromising objective function
function JJJ was
objective function was proposed
was proposed to
proposed to consider
to consider the
consider the responses
the responses to
responses to the
to the
the
welding
welding pressure
welding pressure and
pressureand transverse
andtransverse welding
transversewelding
weldingseamseam length
seamlength simultaneously
lengthsimultaneously
simultaneouslyasas below:
asbelow:
below:
0 𝑃′ 𝐿′
J P 𝑃′ 𝛼 L0𝐿′ 𝛼 (1)
J =J LW 𝑃
𝑃 × α 1
𝛼 − 𝐿𝐿 × α𝛼2
TW (1)
(1)
PLW L TW
where
where P’ LW and
P’0 LW and P LW are
PLW are the
the welding
welding pressures
pressures with with the the modified
modified die die design
design andand the
the origi-
origi-
where
nal P LW and P LW are the welding pressures with the modified die design and the
nal die
die design,
design, respectively.
respectively. L’ TW and
L’TW and
0
L
L TW
TW are
are the
the transverse
transverse weld
weld lengths
lengths with
with the
the modi-
modi-
original
fied die design, respectively. L TW and L1TW are 2the transverse weld lengths with the
fied die
die and
and the the original
original die, die, respectively.
respectively. α α1 andand α α2 (=0~1)
(=0~1) are are weighting
weighting coefficients
coefficients for for
modified
welding die and
pressure the
and original
transversedie, respectively.
seam length, α 1 and α
respectively. 2 (=0~1) As are
the weightingon
response coefficients
the trans-
welding
for welding pressure andand
pressure transverse seamseam
transverse length,
length,respectively.
respectively. As the Asresponse on theon
the response trans-
the
verse
verse seam
seam length
length is
is the
the smaller
smaller the
the better,
better, aa minus
minus sign
sign is
is attached
attached on
on the
the term
term of
of the
the
transverse seam length is the smaller the better, a minus sign is attached on the term of the
transverse
transverse seam
seam length.
length.
transverse seam length.
There
There areare two
are two simulation
two simulation results
simulation results
results in in the
in the formulation
the formulation
formulation of of
of J.J. One
J. One
One isis the
is the welding
the welding pressure
welding pressure
pressure
There
at
at the
the longitudinal
longitudinal weld
weld seam
seam and
and the
the other
other is
is the
the length
length of
of the
the transverse
transverse weld
weld seam.
seam. The
The
at the longitudinal weld seam and the other is the length of the transverse weld seam.
welding
welding pressure
pressure at the
at the longitudinal weld seam is the larger the better, whereas the lon-
The welding pressure at longitudinal
the longitudinal weldweld seamseam is the is larger
the largerthe better, whereas
the better, whereasthe lon-
the
gitudinal
gitudinal weld
weld seam
seam length
length is
is the
the smaller
smaller the
the better,
better, therefore,
therefore, there
there is
is aa minus
minus sign
sign inin
in
longitudinal weld seam length is the smaller the better, therefore, there is a minus sign
Metals 2023, 13, 911 11 of 16

front of the term of L0 TW /LTW . The extent of importance for these two factors is dependent
on the ratio of weighting coefficients, α1 /α2 .
Several different weighting coefficients are set, and the corresponding objective func-
tion values J are shown in Table 7. For the largest welding pressure case PMax , the corre-
sponding transverse seam length, L0 TW , is larger than the original case by about 400 mm.
The J value for case PMax is not a maximal value among all the cases. The maximum J value
occurred at case 8. The J value becomes larger for a larger weighting coefficient α1 . If the
welding pressure is more important than the transverse seam length, α1 should be larger
and α2 should be smaller. Clearly, case 8 with A3B2C1D3 is the best combination from the
Taguchi analysis.

Table 7. Objective function values with variable weighting coefficients.

J α1 /α2
P0 LW L0 TW
Case (MPa) (mm) 0.5/0.5 0.6/0.4 0.7/0.3 0.8/0.2
1 63.6 739 −0.11 0.08 0.28 0.48
2 76.8 882 −0.13 0.11 0.35 0.59
3 88.0 1133 −0.24 0.05 0.34 0.64
4 74.1 750 −0.05 0.17 0.38 0.60
5 74.7 1043 −0.27 −0.01 0.26 0.52
6 78.7 857 −0.10 0.14 0.38 0.62
7 74.9 808 −0.09 0.14 0.36 0.59
8 80.4 730 0.01 0.23 0.45 0.67
9 78.8 1064 −0.25 0.02 0.29 0.55
PMax 88.6 1082 −0.20 0.09 0.37 0.66
Original 72.0 664 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60

3.4. Discussion
With the modified die design, the effects of various die design factors on the welding
pressure and transverse welding seam length obtained by finite element simulations are
summarized in Table 6. For a good design factor combination, a sound product with a
large welding pressure at the longitudinal welding seam and a small transverse weld-
ing seam length is desired in a continuous extrusion process with a porthole die design.
Sometimes these two objectives are conflicting, which means it is difficult to obtain a
maximal welding pressure and a minimal transverse welding seam length simultaneously
using a die factor combination. Therefore, sometimes trade-offs have to be made. For
example, if welding pressure is more important, as long as the welding pressure value
reaches a certain required level, the transverse welding seam length could act as a sacrifice.
In this paper, an objective function with double weighting coefficients combined with
the Taguchi method was proposed to determine the extent of importance between the
welding pressure and transverse welding seam length. From Table 6, it is known that the
maximal welding pressure occurred in the case with a combination of A3B3C3D3, whereas
the minimal transverse welding seam length occurred in the case with a combination
of A1B1C1D2. The extent of importance for welding pressure and transverse welding
seam length is dependent on the weighting coefficient ratio, α1 /α2 , as shown in Table 7.
α1 /α2 = 0.5 denotes equal importance between the welding pressure and transverse weld-
ing seam length. From Table 7, it is known that the maximal objective function J value
occurred in case 8 for all the α1 /α2 ratios of 0.5/0.5, 0.6/0.4, 0.7/0.3, and 0.8/0.2, which
means if welding pressure is more important, then the combination of case 8 is an appro-
priate die geometry and dimension for obtaining a sound product with better mechanical
properties at the longitudinal welds.
 ing
4. seams.ofAHot
Experiments solution
Extrusion of sodiumAlloy
of Aluminum hydroxide
Tubes (NaOH) with a conce
wasTheused to corrode
extrusion experimentsaluminumof aluminum alloy alloy
A6061 attubes
longitudinal
were conductedand usingtransve
a
2100-ton extrusion machine. The experimental extrusion conditions are the same as those
tubes at room temperature for a period of 50 min. Corrosion tes
in the finite element simulations and are shown in Tables 3 and 4. The compositions of the
Metals 2023, 13, 911
serve the
aluminum interface
alloy A6061 usedof thetube
in the transverse welding
extrusion experiments are seam. The8.12boundarie
given in Table
of 16
ing 8.seam
Table on a oflongitudinal
Compositions the aluminum alloysectionA6061. of the extruded tube is shown
the startingSiandMgending points of the Cr transverse seam length
Al can
4.Ingredients
Experiments of Hot Extrusion Cuof Aluminum
Zn FeAlloy Tubes Mn Ti Other
aries The at
Composition the
extrusion transverse
0.7–
experiments
0.5–0.8
welding
of aluminum
0.15–0.4 0.25 alloy
seam
0.7 A6061
on a cross-section
tubes
0.02–0.35 were
0.15 conducted
0.15 0.15using
of
Bala
the ex
(wt%) 1.2
Figureextrusion
2100-ton 12, from which
machine. the cross-sectional
The experimental areaareratio
extrusion conditions of as
the same the new ma
those
in the finite element simulations and are shown in Tables 3 and 4. The compositions of the
canMeasurements
4.1.
aluminum be alloy
calculated.
of Transverse
A6061 used in theSeam Length
tube extrusion experiments are given in Table 8.

Table
The comparisons
Corrosion tests
8. Compositions
are
of of
usually
thesodium
aluminum
usedof cross-sectional
for area ratios
observations of longitudinal
alloy A6061.
using
or transverse weld-origin
ing seams. A solution hydroxide (NaOH) with a concentration of 1:10 to water
signs
was usedare shown
to corrode in Figure
aluminum alloy at13. The numerical
longitudinal and transverse and experimental
sections of extruded ne
Ingredients Si Mg Cu Zn Fe Cr Mn Ti Other Al
agesatat
tubes roomdifferent
temperature positions
for a period from the
of 50 min. stop-mark
Corrosion tests werebetween
conducted to theob- origi
Composition serve the interface of the transverse welding seam. The boundaries at the transverse weld-
0.5–0.8 0.7–1.2 0.15–0.4
(wt%) signs
ing seam are shown0.25in
on a longitudinal the
section
0.7 0.02–0.35
of figure.
the extrudedFrom 0.15
tube is the
0.15
shownfigure,
0.15
in Figure 11,it is
from
Bal
known
which tha
percentage
the at the
starting and ending pointsposition of about
of the transverse 250can
seam length mm from the
be observed. stop-mar
The bound-
4.1. Measurements of Transverse Seam Length
aries at the transverse welding seam on a cross-section of the extruded tube is shown in
and
Figure gradually
12, fromtests
Corrosion which reaches
are the cross-sectional
usually
100% areaat
ratioabout
used for observations of
ofthe new 700 mm
material
longitudinal
from
to the
or transverse
the stop-m
oldwelding
material
shorter
can
seams. be A transverse
calculated.
solution welding
of sodium hydroxide seam
(NaOH) withlength is obtained
a concentration using
of 1:10 to water was the m
The comparisons of cross-sectional area ratios using original
used to corrode aluminum alloy at longitudinal and transverse sections of extruded tubesand modified die de-
at room temperature for a period of 50 min. Corrosion tests were conducted to observe the expe
tendency
signs are shown of
in the
Figure simulation
13. The numerical results
and is the
experimental same
new as
materialthat
area of the
percent-
ages at different
interface positionswelding
of the transverse from theseam.
stop-mark between the
The boundaries at original and modified
the transverse weldingdie de-
seam
signs
on are shownsection
a longitudinal in the of
figure. From the
the extruded tubefigure, it isinknown
is shown Figurethat the new
11, from whichmaterial area
the starting
percentage
and at the of
ending points position of aboutseam
the transverse 250 mm from
length canthebe stop-mark
observed. Theincreases dramatically
boundaries at the
and gradually
transverse reaches
welding seam100%
on a at about 700 mm
cross-section from
of the the stop-mark.
extruded Clearly,
tube is shown a slightly
in Figure 12,
shorter
from transverse
which welding seam
the cross-sectional length
area ratioisof
obtained
the newusing the modified
material to the olddiematerial
design. can
The
tendency
be Head results is the same
of the simulation
calculated. Head as thatpart
of the experimental values. Head part

Head Head part Head part

Figure 11. Boundaries at transverse welding seams on a longitudinal sec

Figure11.
11.Boundaries
Boundariesatattransverse
transversewelding
weldingseams
seamson
onaalongitudinal
longitudinalsection
sectionofofan
anextruded
extrudedtube.
tube.
Figure

Figure 12. Boundaries at a transverse welding seam on the cross-section of an extruded tube.

Figure
Figure12. Boundaries at a transverse
12. Boundaries atwelding seam on thewelding
a transverse cross-sectionseam
of an extruded
on thetube.
cross-section
The comparisons of cross-sectional area ratios using original and modified die designs
are shown in Figure 13. The numerical and experimental new material area percentages at
 Metals 2023, 13, 911 13 of 16

different positions from the stop-mark between the original and modified die designs are
shown in the figure. From the figure, it is known that the new material area percentage
at the position of about 250 mm from the stop-mark increases dramatically and gradually
reaches 100% at about 700 mm from the stop-mark. Clearly, a slightly shorter transverse
Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16
welding seam length is obtained using the modified die design. The tendency of the
Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW simulation results is the same as that of the experimental values. 13 of 16

Figure 13.
Figure 13.Comparisons
Comparisonsof of
cross-sectional areaarea
cross-sectional ratiosratios
usingusing
original and modified
original die designs.
and modified die designs.
Figure 13. Comparisons of cross-sectional area ratios using original and modified die designs.
4.2. TubeExpansion
4.2. Tube ExpansionTests
Tests
The
The extrusion
4.2. Tube Expansion Tests experiments
extrusion experiments were conducted
were conducted with with
the modified
the modified die anddie optimized
and optimized
forming
forming
The conditions.
conditions.
extrusion The
experiments welding
Thewere
welding strength of
strength
conducted the extruded
of the
with the extrudedtube
modified die at the
tubeandlongitudinal
at the welding welding
longitudinal
optimized
forming seams
seams were
weredetermined
conditions. The weldingbystrength
determined byexpansion
expansion tests.
of the TheThe
tests.
extruded expansion
expansion
tube at thetest results of the
test results
longitudinal oftube
welding thesection
tube section at
at
seams the the position
wereposition
determined within
within the transverse
the transverse
by expansion welding
welding
tests. The zone
zonetest
expansion are shown
areresults
shown ofinin Figures
theFigures 14 and 15,
14 and
tube section 15, whereas
whereas
at the those
position those out of the transverse welding zone are shown in Figures 16 and 17. A cone-
outwithin
of thethe transverse
transverse weldingzone
welding zoneare areshown
shownininFigures
Figures16 14and
and17. 15,A cone-shaped
whereas shaped
those die of
was thedesigned and a universal testing machine was 16used to conduct
A cone-tube ex-
die wasoutdesigned transverse welding
and a universal zone are
testing shown
machine in Figures
was used andto 17.
conduct tube expansion
pansion
shapedtests.
die was tests.
designedTube sections
and that
a universal 100 mm
testing long were
machine taken
was from
usedthe the extruded
to extruded
conduct tube tubes and
ex- and were used
were Tube
used assections that
the specimens. 100 mm
The long curve
loading were taken
during from
thethe
expansion tests tubes
was recorded.
pansionas tests.
thethe Tube sections
specimens. Thethat 100
loading mm long were
curve during taken from
thesection
expansion extruded
tests tubes
was and
recorded. After the
were used as the specimens. The loading curve during the expansion tests was recorded. of 300
After expansion tests, the appearance of a tube taken with a distance
expansion
mm from tests,
the the appearance
stop-mark is shown in of a tube
Figure 14. section
Clearly, taken
the new with
and aold distance
materials of on
300themm from
After the expansion tests, the appearance of a tube section taken with a distance of 300
the stop-mark
cross-section have is not
shownbonded in completely.
Figure 14. The Clearly, the newduring
and old materialstest on isthe cross-
mm from the stop-mark is shown in Figure 14. Clearly,loading
the new curve
and old materialsthe expansion
on the
section
shown have
in Figurenot bonded
15. completely. The loading curve
cross-section have not bonded completely. The loading curve during the expansion test is
during the expansion test is shown
shownin
in Figure 15.
Figure 15.

(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 14. Appearances of a tube section after expansion tests. (a)(b)
Top view, and (b) perspective
view.
Figure 14. Appearances
Figure of a tube section
14. Appearances after
of a tube expansion
section aftertests. (a) Toptests.
expansion view,(a)
and (b)view,
Top perspective
and (b) perspective view.
view.
Metals 2023,13,
Metals2023, 13,911
x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16
14 16

Figure 15. Loading curve during the expansion test for a tube section with a 300 mm distance from
the stop-mark.

Figures 16 and 17 show the appearance of the tested tube and the loading curve dur-
ing the expansion test, respectively, for tube section at a position of 500 mm in front of the
stop-mark. The expansion tests were used to understand the welding strength at the lon-
gitudinal welding seams. Clearly, fracture occurs at the tube itself not at the longitudinal
welding seams, which means the welded materials have bonded completely and the
bonding strength at the longitudinal welding seams is stronger than the tube itself. The
loading curve during the expansion test is shown in Figure 16. Clearly, two anaclastic
Figure
Figure
points 15. Loading
15.
were Loading curve
curve
observed. during the
during thetests
The expansion expansion
expansion testcompleted,
test
were not for aa tube
for tube section
section
and thewith
with aa 300
maximum300 mm
mm distance from
distance
load from
the
forthe stop-mark.
thestop-mark.
fracture point was much higher than 500 kN.

Figures 16 and 17 show the appearance of the tested tube and the loading curve dur-
ing the expansion test, respectively, for tube section at a position of 500 mm in front of the
stop-mark. The expansion tests were used to understand the welding strength at the lon-
gitudinal welding seams. Clearly, fracture occurs at the tube itself not at the longitudinal
welding seams, which means the welded materials have bonded completely and the
bonding strength
Tail at the longitudinal welding seams is stronger than the tube itself. The
Tail part
loading curve during the expansion test is shown in Figure 16. Clearly, two anaclastic
points were observed. The expansion tests were not completed, and the maximum load
for the fracture point was much higher than 500 kN.

(a) (b)
Figure
Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16.16.
Figure Appearances for a for
Appearances tubea section taken attaken
tube section a position of 500 mm
at a position ofin500
front
mm of in
thefront
stop-mark.
of
15the stop-mark.
of 16
(a) Top view, and (b) side view.
(a) Top view, and (b) side view.
Tail
Tail part

Tube section at 500 mm in front of stop-mark

(a) (b)
Figure 16. Appearances for a tube section taken at a position of 500 mm in front of the stop-mark.
(a) Top view, and (b) side view.

Figure 17.
Figure 17. Loading
Loadingcurve
curveduring an an
during expansion test for
expansion testa for
tubea section with a 500
tube section withmm distance
a 500 from
mm distance from
the stop-mark.
the stop-mark.
From the expansion tests, it is known that there are two kinds of loading curves dur-
ing the expansion tests. The strength of the tube product with a curve of two anaclastic
points is higher than that with a monotonic curve. The tube sections behind the stop-mark
are weaker than those far in front of the stop-mark, because the tube sections in front of
the stop-mark are the joining sections of new and old materials. The tube sections 500 mm
ahead from the stop-mark show a curve of two anaclastic points and have a stronger
Metals 2023, 13, 911 15 of 16

Figures 16 and 17 show the appearance of the tested tube and the loading curve
during the expansion test, respectively, for tube section at a position of 500 mm in front
of the stop-mark. The expansion tests were used to understand the welding strength
at the longitudinal welding seams. Clearly, fracture occurs at the tube itself not at the
longitudinal welding seams, which means the welded materials have bonded completely
and the bonding strength at the longitudinal welding seams is stronger than the tube itself.
The loading curve during the expansion test is shown in Figure 16. Clearly, two anaclastic
points were observed. The expansion tests were not completed, and the maximum load for
the fracture point was much higher than 500 kN.
From the expansion tests, it is known that there are two kinds of loading curves
during the expansion tests. The strength of the tube product with a curve of two anaclastic
points is higher than that with a monotonic curve. The tube sections behind the stop-mark
are weaker than those far in front of the stop-mark, because the tube sections in front
of the stop-mark are the joining sections of new and old materials. The tube sections
500 mm ahead from the stop-mark show a curve of two anaclastic points and have a
stronger strength.
The simulated mean welding pressure using the case of Pmax is 88.6 MPa, as shown
in Table 6. The present authors have derived a formula for calculating the mean welding
pressure. From the expansion test results of pushing force, the experimental mean welding
pressure could be obtained as 89.1 MPa. The comparison between these two values could
validate the simulation results of welding pressures.

5. Conclusions
The finite element software QForm was used to analyze the flow pattern of billets
during hot extrusion of aluminum alloy A6061 tubes. The effects of the die geometries
such as welding chamber height, porthole radius, bridge width, bearing length, etc., on
the welding pressure and transverse seam length were discussed. The simulation results
showed higher welding pressures were obtained as all the geometric factors increased. For
the effects on the transverse seam length, larger bridge widths and outer bearing lengths,
and smaller porthole radii and welding chamber heights decreased the transverse weld
seam length. Porthole radii and welding chamber heights had different effects on the
welding pressure and transverse seam length. An objective equation J was proposed to
evaluate the effects of the welding pressure and transverse seam length simultaneously.
The maximal value J was obtained with the forming conditions of 37 mm in bridge width,
72.5 mm in porthole radius, 25 mm in welding chamber height, and 11 mm in outer bearing
length. The transverse welding seam length with the revised die design was 1300 mm,
which is 300 mm shorter than that with the original die design.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.-M.H.; formal analysis, I.-P.H.; writing—review and

editing, Y.-M.H.; Figure drawing, I.-P.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Science and Technology Council of the Republic of
China under Grant no. MOST 106-2622-E-110-006-CC3.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to extend their thanks to the National Science and
Technology Council of the Republic of China under Grant no. MOST 106-2622-E-110-006 -CC3. The
advice and financial support of NSTC are greatly acknowledged.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Metals 2023, 13, 911 16 of 16

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