Sources of Error in Leveling

SOURCES OF ERROR IN LEVELING
The accuracy of leveling work may be affected by numerous factors. The

principal sources of error in leveling work may emanate from either instrumental,
personal, or natural errors.

1. Instrumental Errors - These are errors due to a defective tripod, a leveling
rod not of the standard length, or when the instrument used is out of
adjustment.
a. Instrument out of adjustment
b. Rod not standard length
c. Defective tripod
2. Personal Errors - These errors are caused by erroneous manipulations and
careless handling of the instruments when making observations.
a. Bubble not centered
b. Parallax
c. Faulty rod readings
d. Rod not held plumb
e. Incorrect setting of target
f. Unequal backsight and foresight distances
3. Natural Errors - These errors are due to natural sources and could not be
totally removed but their effects can be reduced by applying corrections and
good judgment.
a. Curvature of the earth - The effect of the curvature of the earth is to
increase the rod reading. The error amounts to around 0.07 cm per 100
meters. It, however, only occurs in extra long sights and when
backsight and foresight distances are not made equal.
b. Atmospheric refraction - Reading errors are likely to occur when
heat waves are present since it makes the rod appear unsteady when a
sight is taken on it.
c. Temperature variations - Changes in temperature causes the
leveling rods to either expand or contract introducing errors when
taking rod readings.
d. Wind - A strong wind can shake the leveling instrument making it
difficult to center the bubble in the level vial. It can also exert a
sufficient amount of force to cause an extended rod to vibrate making
it stand unsteady and hard to read or plumb.
e. Settlement of the instrument - In soft or thawing ground, mud, and
swamps, the instruments may settle in the interval of time between rod
readings.
f. Faulty turning point - A poorly chosen turning point may be a
source of error. This condition is similar from settlement of the
instrument.
COMMON MISTAKES IN LEVELING

1. Misreading The Rod
2. Incorrect Recording
3. Erroneous Computations
4. Rod Not Fully Extended
5. Moving Turning Points
ADJUSTMENT OF THE DUMPY LEVEL

The dumpy level won’t always remain in perfect adjustment. Its moving parts will
become loose and worn out after continued use in the field.
1. Adjustment of the Cross Hairs - The reticle or the cross hair ring is
adjusted to see to it that the horizontal cross hair lies in a plane
perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument.
a. Procedure of Testing
The instrument is first approximately leveled then one end of the
horizontal cross hair is focused and sighted on some well defined
stationary point. The telescope is slowly turned about the vertical axis
using the tangent screw to see if the point sighted appears to move
along the hair throughout its length. If the point sighted remains on
the horizontal hair, the cross hairs are in adjustment; if it departs from
the cross hairs, an adjustment is necessary.
b. Making the Adjustment
The adjustment is made by loosening two pairs of capstan headed
screws which hold the reticle. An adjustment pin is inserted into one
of the holes of the screws to turn it slowly while using the pin as a
lever. The reticle is then turned as necessary by trial or tapped lightly
with a light object to allow it to move into a correct position. The
testing procedure and the process of adjustment are repeated until the
point no longer departs from the horizontal cross hair. The screws are
tightened upon completion of the adjustment.
2. Adjustment of the Level Vial - The purpose of this adjustment is to make

the axis of the level vial perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument.
Align the level along an opposite pair of leveling screws and carefully
center the bubble. Rotate the telescope through 90 degrees and again
center the bubble by manipulating the other opposite pair of leveling
screws. Then turn the telescope through another 90 degrees (in the
same direction as the first rotation) such that this time it is positioned
again along the first pair of opposite screws. After the bubble is
brought exactly to center, turn the telescope about (end for end). If the
level vial is in adjustment, the bubble will remain centered; if not, a
field adjustment is necessary.
b. Making the Adjustment
This time, bring the bubble halfway back to the center by raising or
lowering one end of the level vial by means of a capstan screw. By
manipulating the leveling screws, now bring the bubble exactly to
center. Repeat the procedure of testing and continue undertaking the
corresponding adjustment until the bubble remains centered at any
time the telescope is rotated end for end. If the adjustment has been
performed correctly, the bubble should remain centered before and
after reversal of the telescope. Three or four trials may be necessary to
finally adjust the level vial.
3. Adjustment of the Line of Sight - The line of sight is adjusted to make it

parallel to the axis of the level vial. To check the line of sight, a procedure
known as the “two-peg” test is employed.
Two pegs, 60 to 90 meters apart are established on the ground
(Figure above). It is preferable that the two pegs have a considerable
difference in elevation in order to arrive at more accurate test results.
The instrument is set up and leveled in a location such that the
eyepiece is 20 cm or less in front of the rod held on one of the pegs as
at A. A rod reading, a, is taken on the rod held at point A by sighting
through the objective end of the telescope. In this procedure the cross
hairs will not be visible, but the field of view will be so small that its
center may be determined easily by holding a pointed pencil on the
rod. The telescope is then turned toward the rod now held over the
other peg at B and a rod reading, b, is taken on it.
The instrument is next moved, set up, and leveled near B where
a second set of rod readings, c and d, are taken on the rod held at B
and A, respectively. The computed difference in elevation for the two
setups are:
DEa = (a - b) and DEb = (d - c)
If the two differences in elevation are equal, the line of sight is
in adjustment. When the line of sight is inclined from the horizontal,
the error in the line of sight for the distance AB is e or the difference
between d and d’ as shown in the figure, Considering the rod readings
taken with the instrument set up neat A and also near B, the true
difference in elevation between A and B for each set up would be:
TDEa = a = (b - e) and TDEb = (d - e) = c

Also,
TDE=TDEa + TDEb 2=a - (b-a) + (d-e) - c 2
=a - b + e + d - e - c 2
=(a - b) + (d - c)2
If DEa is not equal to DEb, the correct rod reading at A with the
instrument still set up near B is
d' =c+TDE =c +(a - b) + (d - c)2
If d > d’: the line of sight is inclined upward
If d < d’: the line of sight is inclined downward
b. Making the Adjustment - Before making any adjustment, the bubble

is first brought to the center of the level vial. The adjustment is then
made by moving the cross hair ring vertically until the line of sight
cuts the rod screw on top at the reticle is loosened and the capstan
screw at the bottom is tightened. The opposite is done if the line of
sight is inclined downward. Two or three trials may be necessary to
obtain the final adjustment.
TWO-PEG TEST
In the two-peg test of a dumpy level the following observations are taken:
ROD READING INSTRUMENT SET UP NEAR A INSTRUMENT SET UP NEAR B
On Point A 1.505 0.938

On Point B 2.054 1.499
Requirements:
a. Determine if the line of sight is in adjustment and explain your answer
b. If the line of sight is not in adjustment, determine the correct rod reading on
A with the instrument still set up near B.
c. Determine the error in the line of sight for the net distance AB.
d. Explain how the line of sight of the instrument should be adjusted.
Solution:
a. DEa = a - b = 1.505 - 2.054
= -0.549m (Difference in elevation between A and B determined with instrument set up near A)
DEb = a - b = 0.938 - 1.499
= -0.511m (Difference in elevation between A and B determined with instrument set up near B)
Since DEa DEb, the line of sight is not in adjustment
b. TDE=DEa + DEb 2=-0.549 + (-0.511) 2
= -0.0511m (true difference in elevation between A and B)
d’ = c + TDE = 1.499 + (-0.530)
= 0.919m (Correct rod reading on A for a horizontal line of sight with instrument set up near B)
c. e = d - d’ = 0.938 - 0.919
= 0.019m (Error in line of sight)
Since d > d’, the line of sight is inclined upward. To adjust the line of sight, loosen
the upper capstan-headed screw and tighten the lower screw until the horizontal
cross hairs reads 0.9 | 9m (or d’) on the rod held at A while the instrument is still
set up near B.

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SOURCES OF ERROR IN LEVELING

The accuracy of leveling work may be affected by numerous factors. The

COMMON MISTAKES IN LEVELING

ADJUSTMENT OF THE DUMPY LEVEL

2. Adjustment of the Level Vial - The purpose of this adjustment is to make

3. Adjustment of the Line of Sight - The line of sight is adjusted to make it

TDEa = a = (b - e) and TDEb = (d - e) = c

b. Making the Adjustment - Before making any adjustment, the bubble

ROD READING INSTRUMENT SET UP NEAR A INSTRUMENT SET UP NEAR B

On Point A 1.505 0.938

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