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Eye Witness Testimony Questions

The document contains 6 questions about eyewitness testimony and memory. Question 1 asks how psychologists could deal with ethical issues that may arise during research into cognitive interviews. Question 2 asks how a cognitive interview differs from a standard police interview. Question 3 asks about how one research study investigated the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. Question 4 asks about outlining and evaluating research into the effects of anxiety on eyewitness accuracy. Questions 5 asks about identifying and explaining two techniques used in cognitive interviews. Question 6 provides a scenario about a field experiment on eyewitness testimony conducted at a school concert.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

50 views39 pages

Eye Witness Testimony Questions

Uploaded by

Aki Rad

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as DOC, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Park High School

Eye Witness testimony memory questions

Q1.
Psychologists have carried out research into the use of cognitive interviews. One possible
ethical issue which might arise during this research is protection of participants from harm.
Explain how psychologists could deal with this ethical issue.

.................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................
(Total 3 marks)

Q2.
Traditionally, police have questioned eye witnesses using the standard interview
procedure. This involves a period of free recall about an event, followed by specific
questions. However, an increasing number of police forces are now using the cognitive
interview technique.

Explain how a cognitive interview differs from a standard interview.

.................................................................................................................................

(Extra space ) .........................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................
(Total 4 marks)

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Q3.
Outline how one research study investigated the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
(EWT).

.................................................................................................................................

(Extra space) .........................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................
(Total 4 marks)

Q4.
Outline and evaluate research into the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of eyewitness
testimony.
(Total 12 marks)

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Q5.
Cognitive interviews have been developed to improve witness recall. Identify and explain
two techniques used in the cognitive interview.

Technique 1 ..........................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................

Technique 2 ..........................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................
(Total 6 marks)

Q6.
A psychologist carried out a field experiment to investigate the accuracy of eyewitness
testimony. The participants were pupils and parents attending a school concert. Just
before the concert began, two professional actors had an argument on the stage. During
the argument, one actor pushed the other actor. Both actors then left the stage. Some of
the audience were approached as they left the concert and were asked to take part in an
experiment. Those who agreed were taken to a quiet room and were asked some
questions about the argument. For some participants, the questions included, “Did you
see the man in glasses push the other man?” In fact, neither man was wearing glasses.

The participants were then asked to describe the argument in their own words.

(a) What is a field experiment?

........................................................................................................................

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(2)

(b) Other than ethical issues, outline one weakness of using a field experiment in this
investigation.

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(2)

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

Q7.
Explain why it might be better to carry out research into eyewitness testimony in the real
world, rather than in a laboratory.

.................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................
(Total 3 marks)

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Q8.
An American space shuttle exploded soon after it was launched. All of the astronauts on
board were killed. Crowds of people were watching, including friends and relatives of the
astronauts. Six months after the explosion, a student decided to investigate the accuracy
of some of the eyewitnesses’ memory of this event.

(a) Outline how the student could have used a cognitive interview to investigate this
event. Include at least one example of what the participants would be asked to do.

........................................................................................................................

Extra space ...................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(4)

(b) Explain how anxiety might have affected eyewitness testimony of this event. Refer
to psychological research in your answer.

........................................................................................................................

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........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

Extra space ...................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(6)
(Total 10 marks)

Q9.
Jenny was standing at a bus stop talking on her mobile phone. The weather was wet and
cold. Two men in the bus queue started arguing. One of the men was stabbed and badly
injured. Later that day the police questioned Jenny, using a cognitive interview. They
asked her to report everything she could remember about the incident even if it seemed
unimportant.

Apart from ‘report everything’, explain how the police could use a cognitive interview to
investigate what Jenny could remember.

In your answer you must refer to details from the passage above.

.................................................................................................................................

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(Total 4 marks)

Q10.
A researcher carried out an experiment to investigate misleading information. Participants
were shown a photograph in which a man and a woman were talking. The photograph
was then taken away and the participants were asked questions about it. Participants
were randomly allocated to condition one or condition two.

Participants in condition one were asked:

Question A “How old was the youth in the photograph?”

Participants in condition two were asked:

Question B “How old was the man in the photograph?”

(a) Why is Question A an example of misleading information?

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(2)

(b) Name an appropriate experimental design which could be used in this experiment.
Explain why a repeated measures design would be unsuitable to use in this
experiment.

Experimental design ...................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

Explanation ..................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

Extra space ...................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

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........................................................................................................................
(4)

........................................................................................................................

Extra space ...................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(4)

(d) In this experiment, participants were asked to look at a photograph rather than
watch a live conversation. Explain one strength and one limitation of carrying out
the experiment in this way.

Strength .......................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

Extra space ...................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

Limitation ......................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

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........................................................................................................................
(4)

(e) Describe at least one other research study into misleading information. In your
answer you should include details of what participants were asked to do and what
results were found.

........................................................................................................................

Extra space ...................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(6)
(Total 20 marks)

Q11.
Some psychologists argue that there is always more information about an event in a
person’s memory than can be recalled at any one time. This means that eye-witness
recall can be improved by using certain techniques and methods.

Describe and evaluate at least one way of improving eye-witness recall. Refer to

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evidence in your answer.
(Total 12 marks)

Q12.
Some psychologists argue that there is always more information about an event in a
person’s memory than can be recalled at any one time. This means that eye-witness
recall can be improved by using certain techniques and methods.

Describe and evaluate at least one way of improving eye-witness recall. Refer to
evidence in your answer.
(Total 16 marks)

Q13.
Outline one study that has investigated the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony.

.................................................................................................................................

Extra space..............................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................
(Total 4 marks)

Q14.
Outline and evaluate research into the effects of misleading information on eyewitness
testimony.
(Total 8 marks)

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Q15.
(a) One technique used in cognitive interviews is ‘report everything’. When using this
technique, the police officer in this investigation read the following instructions to the
participants:

“Please tell me everything you can remember about what you saw in the film. Do not
leave anything out, even the small details you think may be unimportant.”

Identify one other technique which could have been used by the police officer in this
cognitive interview. Write down the instructions that he could have read out to the
participants.

Technique ....................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

Instructions to participants ........................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(3)

(b) The psychologist also recorded the number of correct items recalled and the
number of incorrect items recalled in each type of interview. The following results
were obtained:

Cognitive Interview Standard Interview

Mean number of correct

45 32
items recalled

Mean number of
incorrect 8 8
items recalled

From these results, what might the psychologist conclude about the effectiveness of
cognitive interviews?

........................................................................................................................

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........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 5 marks)

Q16.
Outline how a cognitive interview can be used to improve the accuracy of eyewitness
testimony (EWT).

.................................................................................................................................

Extra space ............................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................
(Total 4 marks)

Q17.
Outline and evaluate research into the effects of leading questions on the accuracy of
eyewitness testimony.
(Total 8 marks)

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Q18.
Identify and outline two techniques that may be used in a cognitive interview.

.................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................
(Total 4 marks)

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M1.
AO3 = 3

Simply identifying or naming one or more potentially relevant ways of dealing with the
ethical issue – maximum 1 mark. For example, confidentiality, anonymity, debrief. Further
marks for explaining how psychologists could deal with this ethical issue.

For example:

Right to withdraw (1 mark)

Participants should be reminded of their right to withdraw from the research (2 marks)
If participants are showing signs of distress, the psychologist should remind the
participants of their right to withdraw (3 marks).

M2.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

AO2 = 4

Differences could include effectiveness of cognitive interviews and implications such as

cost of training required, time it takes, etc.

The main techniques used in a cognitive interview include context reinstatement (CR),
reporting everything (RE), recall from a changed perspective (CP) recall in reverse order.
Candidates who show some understanding of a cognitive interview, e.g. by naming /
outlining one or more of the techniques above, but make no attempt to explain a
difference should be awarded a maximum of 2 marks. Further marks for elaboration, eg a
standard interview might just ask witnesses to recall an event, but a cognitive interview
could ask them to recall the context in which the event occurred. This could include
environmental details (such as the weather) and emotional factors (such as how they felt
at the time).

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M3.
AO1 = 4

Answers can refer to any research study relating to eyewitness testimony. This may be by
naming a relevant study, or by identifying the study in some other way. Likely research
would include a number of studies by Loftus including those into the role of leading
questions, and Yuille & Cutshall (1986) who investigated evidence from an actual crime.
Studies into factors affecting the accuracy of EWT including anxiety (eg weapon focus) or
age of witnesses would also be relevant. Flin et al (1992) used a staged event and
compared deterioration of children’s and adults’ memories over time, while Karpel et al
(2001) showed a video of a robbery and compared information given by young adults (17
– 25) with that given by older adults (65 – 85). Allport and Postman’s (1947) study using a
picture of two men arguing is relevant to EWT. However, Bartlett’s research using a story
or simple drawings is not.
One mark for a basic outline of the method, eg in Loftus and Palmer’s study, participants
were asked questions about a film. Three further marks for accurate details, eg
participants were tested in a laboratory situation. They were asked how fast a car was
travelling when an accident occurred. Some questions included the words “smashed into”.
Others included collided with, bumped into, hit or contacted.
Whilst the question does not ask for findings, conclusions, or criticisms, candidates may
receive credit for procedural detail included in such material.

M4.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

•        A single set of numbered levels (formerly bands) to cover all skills
•        Content appears as a bulleted list
•        No IDA expectation in A Level essays, however, credit for references to issues,
debates and approaches where relevant.

AO1 = 6
Candidates must discuss research where the anxiety component is clear.

Candidates might refer to the Yerkes-Dodson law which suggests moderate anxiety is
associated with better recall than very high or very low anxiety.

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In Loftus’s (1979) weapon focus experiment more participants correctly identified a person
when they were holding a pen (49%) than when they were holding a knife covered in
blood (33%). Loftus and Burns (1982) found participants who saw a violent version of a
crime where a boy was shot in the face had impaired recall for events leading up to the
incident.

However, in a real life study Yuille and Cutshall (1986) found witnesses who had been
most distressed at the time of a shooting gave the most accurate account five months
later. Also Christianson and Hubinette (1993) found victims of genuine bank robberies
were more accurate in their recall than bystanders.

AO2 = 6
Evaluation might relate to the contradictory nature of the research, possibly linked to lack
of ecological validity in laboratory studies. Problems of control might also be relevant, eg
in Yuille & Cutshall’s study those who experienced the highest levels of stress were closer
to the event, which might have helped their recall. Ethical issues could also be relevant as
could the practical applications of research.

AO1 AO2
Knowledge and understanding Analysis and evaluation

5 marks Accurate and reasonably

5 marks Effective evaluation
detailed
Effective use of material to address the
Accurate and reasonably detailed answer
question and provide informed commentary.
that demonstrates sound knowledge and
Effective evaluation of research.
understanding of one or more
Broad range of issues and/or evidence in
physiological methods of stress
reasonable depth, or a narrower range in
management.
greater depth.
There is appropriate selection of material
A coherent answer
to address the question.

4-3 marks Less detailed but generally 4-3 marks Reasonable evaluationMaterial
accurate is not always used effectively but produces a
Less detailed but generally accurate reasonable commentary.
answer that demonstrates relevant Reasonable evaluation of research.
knowledge and understanding. A range of issues and/or evidence in limited
There is some evidence of selection of depth, or a narrower range in greater depth.
material to address the question. A reasonably coherent answer.

2 marks Basic 2 marks Basic evaluation

Basic answer that demonstrates some The use of material provides only a basic

relevant knowledge and understanding commentary. Basic evaluation of research.
but lacks detail and may be muddled. Superficial consideration of a restricted range
There is little evidence of selection of of issues and/or evidence. Answer lacks
material to address the question. some coherence.

1 mark Very brief/flawed or 1 mark Rudimentary evaluation
inappropriate The use of material provides only a

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Very brief or flawed answer rudimentary commentary.

demonstrating very little knowledge. Evaluation of research is just discernible or
Selection and presentation of information absent.
is largely or wholly inappropriate. Answer is not coherent.

0 marks 0 marks
No creditworthy material. No creditworthy material.

M5.
AO1 = 6

The main techniques used in the cognitive interview are summarised below.

Context reinstatement – trying to mentally recreate an image of the situation, including

details of the environment, such as the weather conditions and the individual’s emotional
state including their feelings at the time of the incident.

Recall from changed perspective – trying to mentally recreate the situation from different
points of view eg describing what another witness present at the scene would have seen.

Recall in reverse order – the witness is asked to recall the scene in a different
chronological order eg from the end to the beginning.

Report everything – the interviewer encourages the witness to report all details about the
event, even though these details may seem to be unimportant.

Other techniques, including those used in enhanced cognitive interviews, should be

credited.
In both cases, 1 mark for identifying an appropriate technique and 2 further marks for
accurate elaboration.

M6.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

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(a) AO3 = 2

A field experiment takes place in the real world rather than in a carefully controlled
environment.
The IV is manipulated by the experimenter.
One mark for reference to the environment, real world, naturally occurring, etc.
One mark for reference to manipulating / changing an independent variable.
Candidates who simply restate the words – an experiment carried out in a field –
should receive no credit.

(b) AO3 = 2

One weakness of using a field experiment is lack of control of variables. In this case,
the participants would be different distances from the staged argument.
It would be difficult to replicate the experiment precisely. Sampling difficulties.
One mark for brief identification of a relevant weakness.
Second mark for some elaboration.

This is an example of misleading information, because neither man was wearing

glasses. The psychologist could see whether participants’ description of the event
was influenced by the question about the man in glasses.
One mark for identification of misleading information or a leading question / trick
question.
Second mark for some elaboration.
For example: it was a leading question (1 mark); the psychologist wanted to see
whether including misleading information would affect the participant’s memory of
the event
(2 marks).

M7.
AO3 = 3

Candidates are likely to refer to the fact that in real life settings research has high validity
because the findings can be generalised to other similar situations. It is therefore more
likely to be relevant eg to eyewitness testimony in court cases. There are often real
consequences / emotional impact in real life which do not occur in laboratory
investigations.
In a laboratory participants may show demand characteristics because they know they are
in an experiment. This is less likely in real world settings.
Answers which refer to advantages of laboratory research or disadvantages of real world
research are not relevant and should not receive credit.

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1 mark for a brief explanation eg higher ecological validity.
Further marks for some elaboration as above.

M8.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

(a) AO2 = 4

The main techniques used in the cognitive interview are summarised below.
Context reinstatement – trying to mentally recreate an image of the situation,
including details of the environment, such as the weather conditions and the
individual’s emotional state including their feelings at the time of the incident.
Recall from changed perspective – trying to mentally recreate the situation from
different points of view eg describing what another witness present at the scene
would have seen.
Recall in reverse order – the witness is asked to recall the scene in a different
chronological order eg from the end to the beginning.
Report everything – the interviewer encourages the witness to report all details
about the event, even though these details may seem to be unimportant.
1 mark for naming one relevant technique.
2 marks for naming two or more relevant techniques or for a very brief outline of how
one technique could be used.
Further marks for elaboration. Candidates who refer to only one technique should
include more detail than those who refer to more than one.
3 or 4 marks can be awarded if the outline could relate to this event.

(b) AO2 = 6

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Candidates must refer to research where the anxiety component is clear.
Candidates might refer to the Yerkes-Dodson law which suggests moderate anxiety
is associated with better recall than very high or very low anxiety. In this case friends
and relatives might show worse recall than other people in the crowd.
Laboratory based research has generally shown impaired recall in high anxiety
conditions. In Loftus’s (1979) weapon focus experiment more participants correctly
identified a person when they were holding a pen (49%) than when they were
holding a knife covered in blood (33%).
Loftus and Burns (1982) found participants who saw a violent version of a crime
where a boy was shot in the face had impaired recall for events leading up to the
incident.
However, in a real life study Yuille and Cutshill (1986) found witnesses who had
been most distressed at the time of a shooting gave the most accurate account five
months later. Also Christianson and Hubinette (1993) found victims of genuine bank
robberies were more accurate in their recall than bystanders.
There is a range of acceptable answers to this question and marks should be given
for effective use of the material.
Answers which do not make explicit reference to this event should be awarded a
maximum of 4 marks.

6 marks Effective explanation

Accurate and reasonably detailed explanation of how anxiety might affect eye-
witness testimony of this event that demonstrates sound knowledge and
understanding of relevant research.

5 – 4 marks Less detailed but generally accurate

Less detailed but generally accurate explanation of how anxiety might affect eye-
witness testimony of this event that demonstrates knowledge and understanding of
relevant research.

3 – 2 marks Basic

Basic explanation of how anxiety might affect eye-witness testimony of this event
has that demonstrates some knowledge of relevant research but detail may be
muddled.

1 mark Very brief/flawed

Very brief or flawed explanation of how anxiety might affect eye-witness testimony of
this event has that demonstrates very little knowledge of relevant research.

0 marks
No creditworthy information.

M9.
AO2 = 4

The answer should clearly relate to one or more of the main techniques used in a
cognitive interview (other than report everything):

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Context reinstatement.
Recall from a changed perspective.
Recall in reverse order.
And / or the main additional features of the enhanced cognitive interview:
Encourage to relax and speak slowly.
Offer comments to help clarify their statements.
Adapt questions to suit the understanding of individual witnesses.
1 mark for simple identification of a relevant cognitive technique, or a very brief suggestion
eg “tell me what you saw in reverse order.”
2 marks for naming two or more relevant techniques or for a very brief outline of how one
technique could be used eg “tell me what you saw in reverse order, starting with when the
man was stabbed. A maximum of 2 marks can be awarded if there is no reference to
details in the passage.
Further marks for accurate elaboration including reference to details in the passage.
Candidates who refer to only one technique should include more detail than those who
refer to more than one.

M10.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

(a) AO2 = 2

This is an example of misleading information because the word “youth” suggests the
man was young.
1 mark for a brief or muddled answer eg identifying the use of the word “youth” or “it
refers to age”.
2 marks for some accurate elaboration eg the answer clearly states that the man
was young or a youth or suggests that his age may influence the answer.
Credit answers which state that the information is misleading because the question
suggests there was a youth in the picture, when in fact there was only a man and a

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woman.

(b) AO3 = 1 mark + 3

1 mark for independent (groups, measures, participants or subjects or between

subjects or participants) design or unrelated design. 0 marks for individual.
1 mark for matched (groups, measures, participants, subjects).
A repeated measures design could not be used because participants would take
part in both conditions. This would be inappropriate because their answer to one
question would affect their answer to the other question. Candidates may point out
this would make it easy to work out the aim of the experiment and so could lead to
demand characteristics.
1 mark for a very brief / muddled answer eg “they couldn’t answer both questions.”
“It could lead to demand characteristics.”
Further marks for accurate detail. “It could lead to demand characteristics because
they would know what the experiment was about.” 2 marks
“Participants couldn’t take part in both conditions because their answer to one
question would affect their answer to the other question.” 3 marks

In this experiment it could be used to check how long the participant should be given
to look at the picture so that the timing could be changed if it was too long or too
short. It could check the participants understand the questions asked and what they
are required to do. It could also be used to ask a few participants about their
experience of taking part.

Credit any appropriate answer which could apply to this investigation. No marks are
awarded for a definition of a pilot study. Explanations which do not relate to this
investigation maximum 2 marks.

AO3 Application of knowledge of research methods

4 marks Accurate and reasonably detailed

Accurate and reasonably detailed explanation that demonstrates sound
understanding of why a pilot study would be appropriate in this study.

3 marks Less detailed but generally accurate

Less detailed but generally accurate answer that demonstrates sound understanding
of why a pilot study would be appropriate in this study.

2 marks Basic
Basic answer that demonstrates some understanding of why a pilot study would be
appropriate in this study, but lacks detail and may be muddled.

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1 mark Very brief/flawed
Very brief or flawed answer demonstrating very little understanding of why a pilot
study would be appropriate in this study.

0 marks
No creditworthy material.

(d) AO3 = 4

One strength of using photographs in the investigation would be control of variables

eg the same pictures could be shown for the same amount of time. Candidates may
refer to a limitation of the live conversation.
One limitation is lack of validity. The findings cannot be generalised to real life
situations where other factors such as changing facial expressions and gestures
could be relevant.
For each strength and limitation 1 mark for stating a strength / limitation. 2 mark for
nd

accurate elaboration.

(e) AO1 = 6

Candidates must select a research study (studies) which relates to misleading

information / leading questions, so research into weapon focus should not be
credited.
Candidates are likely to refer to Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) experiment where the
verb in the critical question was changed (smashed, collided, bumped, hit or
contacted.) Other relevant research would be Loftus and Palmer asking participants
“Did you see any broken glass?” and Loftus et al’s (1978) study using a red Datsun
and Stop or Yield signs.
Research into anxiety and EWT is not relevant unless the candidate refers to
misleading information such as Yuille and Cutshall where the witnesses to a real-life
shooting appeared resistant to misleading information.
Research relating to age could also be relevant. Eg Warren et al (2005) found
children were more likely to be influenced by misleading information than adults.
Credit any relevant research.

Examiners are reminded that there is a depth / breadth trade-off.

AO1 Knowledge and understanding

6 marks Accurate and reasonably detailed

Accurate and reasonably detailed answer that demonstrates sound knowledge and
understanding of the procedures and findings of one or more relevant research
studies.

5 – 4 marks Less detailed but generally accurate
Less detailed but generally accurate answer that demonstrates relevant knowledge

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and understanding of the procedures and findings of one or more relevant research
studies.

3 – 2 marks Basic

Basic answer that demonstrates some relevant knowledge and understanding of the
procedures and findings of one or more relevant research studies but lacks detail
and may be muddled.

1 mark Very brief/flawed
Very brief or flawed answer demonstrating very little knowledge of the procedures
and findings of one or more relevant research studies.

0 marks
No creditworthy material.

M11.
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 6

Level Marks Description

Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

Evidence is clear.
Discussion / evaluation / application is effective. The
4 10 – 12
answer is clear, coherent.
Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail
and / or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.

Knowledge is evident. Evidence is presented. There are

occasional inaccuracies. There is some effective
3 7–9 Discussion / evaluation / application. The answer is
mostly clear and organised. Specialist terminology is
mostly used appropriately.

Knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on description.

Any discussion / evaluation / application is of limited
2 4–6 effectiveness. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and
organisation in places. Specialist terminology is used
inappropriately on occasions.

Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation /

application is limited, poorly focused or absent. The
1 1–3 answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies
and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology is either
absent or inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most

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mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a
bulleted list.

AO1

Most answers will focus on the cognitive interview technique but any method /
technique with a psychological basis should be credited (eg avoiding leading
questions). Likely content: the original cognitive interview – 4 features: restore
context; recall everything even trivial detail; recall in reverse order; recall from
another perspective. Credit also features of the enhanced cognitive interview eg
relax, speak slowly. Likely evidence: Geiselman (1985).

AO3

How / why recall is enhanced: eg role of context reinstatement; work on

reconstructive memory; use of context; makes the event more meaningful.
Limitations: eg usefulness of the cognitive interview with children; less useful when
there is increased time between event and recall.

Relative effectiveness of individual features of the cognitive interview; better for

recall of peripheral detail than central detail.

Use of relevant evidence to support / refute argument.

M12.
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10

Level Marks Description

Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

Discussion / evaluation / application is thorough and
4 13 – 16 effective. The answer is clear, coherent and focused.
Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail
and / or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.

Knowledge is evident. There are occasional

inaccuracies. Discussion / evaluation / application is
3 9 – 12 apparent and mostly effective. The answer is mostly
clear and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly
used effectively. Lacks focus in places.

Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on

description. Any Discussion / evaluation / application is
2 5–8 only partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy
and organisation in places. Specialist terminology is
used inappropriately on occasions.

Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation /

application is limited, poorly focused or absent. The
1 1–4 answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies
and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology either
absent or inappropriately used.

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0 No relevant content.

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most
mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a
bulleted list

AO1

AO3

How / why recall is enhanced: eg role of context reinstatement; work on

Relative effectiveness of individual features of the cognitive interview; better for

recall of peripheral detail than central detail.

Use of relevant evidence to support / refute argument.

M13.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

AO1 = 4

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Candidates must select a study which clearly relates to both anxiety and eyewitness
testimony. For full marks there must be some reference to what was done and what was
found.
In Loftus's (1979) weapon focus experiment more participants correctly identified a person
holding a pen (49%) than a person holding a knife covered in blood. Loftus and Burns
(1982) found participants who saw a violent version of a crime where a boy was shot in
the face had impaired recall for events leading up to the accident. Peters (1988) found
participants who visited a healthcare centre were better able to recognise a researcher
than a nurse who gave an injection. However, in a real life study Yuille and Cutshall
(1986) found witnesses who had been most distressed at the time of a shooting gave the
most accurate account five months later. Also Christianson and Hubinette (1993) found
victims of genuine bank robberies were more accurate in their recall than bystanders.

4 marks Accurate and reasonably detailed

Accurate and reasonably detailed answer that demonstrates sound knowledge and
understanding of one study into the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony.
There is appropriate selection of material to address the question.

3 marks Less detailed but generally accurate

Generally accurate but less detailed answer that demonstrates relevant knowledge
and understanding of one study into the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony.
There is some evidence of selection of material to address the question.

2 marks Basic
Basic answer that demonstrates some relevant knowledge and understanding of
one study into the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony, but lacks detail and
may be muddled.
There is little evidence of selection of material to address the question.

1 mark Very brief and or flawed

Very brief or flawed answer that demonstrates very little knowledge of one study into
the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony.
Selection of material is largely inappropriate.

0 marks
No creditworthy material.

M14.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Page 27
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Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

AO1 = 4
AO2 = 4

Students must select research which relates to misleading information, so research

into weapon focus should not be credited.

Students are likely to refer to Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) experiment where the verb
in the critical question was changed (smashed, collided, bumped, hit or contacted.)
Other relevant research would be Loftus and Palmer asking participants “Did you
see any broken glass?” and Loftus et al’s (1978) study using a red Datsun and Stop
or Yield signs.

Research into anxiety and EWT is not relevant unless the student refers to leading
questions such as Yuille and Cutshall where the witnesses to a real-life shooting
appeared resistant to leading questions.

Research relating to age in relation to misleading information could also be relevant.

Eg Warren et al (2005) found children were more likely to be influenced by leading
questions than adults.

Credit any relevant research, studies and / or theories.

Evaluation might refer to lack of ecological validity in laboratory studies or lack of

control in real life situations. Other methodological issues including sampling,
possible replication and corroboration with other studies could be included. Ethical
issues could be relevant as could practical applications of the research.

Examiners are reminded this is an 8 mark question. Students can focus on one
study in reasonable detail or more than one study in less detail.

AO1 AO2
Knowledge and understanding Evaluation / commentary

4 marks Accurate and reasonably 4 marks Effective commentary /
detailed evaluation
Accurate and reasonably detailed Effective use of material to address the
description that demonstrates sound question and provide informed
knowledge and understanding of commentary / evaluation. Broad range
research into misleading information. of issues in reasonable depth or a
There is appropriate selection of

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Park High School

material to address the question. narrower range in greater depth.

3 marks Less detailed but generally 3 marks Reasonable commentary /

accurate evaluation
Less detailed but generally accurate Material is not always used effectively

answer that demonstrates relevant but produces a reasonable
knowledge and understanding of commentary / evaluation. A range of
research into misleading information. issues in limited depth, or a narrower
There is some evidence of selection of range in greater depth.
material to address the question.

2 marks Basic 2 marks Basic commentary /

Basic answer that demonstrates some evaluation
relevant knowledge and understanding The use of material provides only basic
of research into misleading information, commentary / evaluation demonstrates
but lacks detail and may be muddled. basic analysis. Superficial
There is little evidence of selection of consideration of a restricted range of
material to address the question. issues.

1 mark Very brief and or flawed 1 mark Rudimentary commentary /

Very brief or flawed answer that evaluation

demonstrates very little knowledge of The use of material provides only a
research into misleading information. rudimentary commentary. Evaluation of
Selection of material is largely research is just discernible or absent.
inappropriate.

0 marks 0 marks
No creditworthy material. No creditworthy material.

M15.
(a) AO2 = 3

The answer must clearly relate to one or more of the main techniques used in
a cognitive interview (other than report everything):-

Context reinstatement
Recall from a changed perspective
Recall in reverse order

Some of the main additional features of the enhanced cognitive interview

could be relevant, as long as it could be explained to the participant: – eg
Encourage to relax

1 mark for identification of a relevant cognitive technique.

1 mark for very brief statement eg “tell me what you saw in reverse order”.
Second mark for appropriate elaboration eg “Tell me what you saw on the film
in a different order to how it actually happened.” If instructions are not suitable
to be read out maximum 1 mark for this part.
For 3 marks technique and instructions must match.

(b) AO3 = 2

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The researcher might conclude that the cognitive interview was effective
because more correct items were recalled, but it did not affect the number of
incorrect items recalled.

0 mark - the cognitive interview was effective with no explanation.

1 mark - it was effective because there were more correct items recalled or it
was not effective because the number of incorrect items stayed the same.
2 marks - it was effective because there were more correct items recalled and
the number of incorrect items stayed the same / didn’t increase.

1 mark for stating there were more correct items recalled with the cognitive
interview than with the standard interview and the number of incorrect items
recalled was the same. (There is no reference to effectiveness).

M16.
Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have
changed. Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for
the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

AO1 = 4

Note – There is a breadth / depth trade off here. Accurate answers which describe 1
technique in detail can be awarded full marks, as can answers which outline 4
techniques.

The main techniques used in a cognitive interview are:–

Context reinstatement – trying to mentally recreate an image of the situation,
including details of the environment, such as the weather conditions, and the
individual’s emotional state including their feelings at the time of the incident.
Recall from a changed perspective – trying to mentally recreate the situation from
different points of view e.g. describing what another witness present at the scene
would have seen.
Recall in reverse order – the witness is asked to describe the scene in a different

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chronological order e.g. from the end to the beginning.
Report everything – the interviewer encourages the witness to report all details
about the event, even though these details may seem unimportant.

The main additional features of the enhanced cognitive interview are:–

Encourage the witness to relax and speak slowly.
Offer comments to help clarify witness statements.
Adapt questions to suit the understanding of individual witnesses.

AO1 Knowledge of the cognitive interview

4 marks Accurate and reasonably detailed

Accurate and reasonably detailed answer that demonstrates sound knowledge of the
cognitive interview.

3 marks Less detailed but generally accurate

Less detailed but generally accurate answer that demonstrates relevant knowledge of the
cognitive interview.

2 marks Basic
Basic answer that demonstrates some relevant knowledge of the cognitive interview, but
lacks detail and may be muddled.

1 mark Very brief / flawed
Very brief or flawed answer demonstrating very little knowledge of the cognitive interview.

0 marks
No creditworthy material.

M17.
[AO1 = 4 and AO3 = 4]

Level Marks Description

Knowledge of research into effects of leading questions is accurate and

generally well detailed. Evaluation is effective. The answer is clear,
4 7–8 coherent and focused on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. Specialist
terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion of
argument sometimes lacking.

Knowledge of research into effects of leading questions is evident and

there is some focus on accuracy of eyewitness testimony. There are
3 5–6
occasional inaccuracies. There is some effective evaluation. The answer is
mostly clear and organised. Specialist terminology mostly used effectively.

Knowledge of research into effects of leading questions is present

although links to accuracy of eyewitness testimony are limited. Focus is
2 3–4 mainly on description. Any evaluation is of limited effectiveness. The
answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist
terminology used inappropriately on occasions.

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Knowledge of research into effects of leading questions is limited.

Evaluation is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole
1 1–2
lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist
terminology either absent or inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

Possible content:

•        Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) study changing verb in critical question was
changed (smashed, collided, bumped, hit or contacted)
•        Loftus and Palmer “Did you see any broken glass?”
•        Loftus et al’s (1978) study using a red Datsun and Stop or Yield signs
•        research into anxiety and EWT is not relevant without reference to leading
questions, eg Yuille and Cutshall study of a real-life shooting and resistance to
leading questions
•        research into age of witness and misleading information may be relevant, eg
Warren et al (2005) found children more likely to be influenced by leading
questions than adults
•        credit any other relevant research, studies and / or theories, eg post-event
contamination; confabulation; reconstructive memory.

Possible evaluation points:

Will depend on research chosen but might include:

• question of validity in laboratory studies or lack of control in real-life situations

•        methodological issues including sampling, replication and corroboration with
other studies
•        ethical issues
•        practical applications / implications of the research.

Credit other relevant evaluation points.

M18.
[AO1 = 4]

Level Marks Description

Two techniques are clearly identified and outlined. Minor detail of outline is
2 3–4 sometimes lacking or there is slight inaccuracy. The answer as a whole is
clear with use of specialist terminology.

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Two techniques are identified. The outline lacks detail / accuracy.

The answer as a whole lacks clarity. Specialist terminology is either absent
1 1–2
or inappropriately used.
OR one technique at Level 2.

0 No relevant content.

Possible content:

• reinstating the context – interviewee mentally reinstates the environmental and

personal context of the incident, eg sights, sounds, weather etc
•        report everything – interviewer encourages the reporting of every single detail
of the event, even though it may seem irrelevant
•        changing order – interviewer tries alternative ways through the timeline of the
incident
•        changing perspective – interviewee recalls from different perspectives, eg how
it would have appeared to other witnesses.

Credit other relevant cognitive interview techniques.

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Park High School

E1.
Some candidates tackled this question well and were able to offer sensible suggestions
for protecting research participants from harm. Weaker answers were very brief, eg
‘confidentiality’, ‘debrief them’, etc without making it clear how this strategy would protect
the participant from harm.

E2.
There were some very good answers to this question. Many candidates had a clear
understanding of methods used in the cognitive interview technique and were able to
contrast them with the standard interview techniques. However, some weaker answers
showed poor understanding of the concepts of leading, open and closed questions and
there were some misunderstandings about the nature of cognitive interviews. Candidates
who ignored the requirement to address at least one difference could not access full
marks.

E3.
This was, again, a very straightforward question, but some candidates failed to notice the
word “how” and wasted time in writing unnecessary detail about findings and conclusions.
Most candidates chose an appropriate study but a common difficulty was disentangling
one Loftus study from another. It is advisable for students to practise writing out
summaries of studies in their own words in preparation for the exam. It was often clear
that candidates had a reasonable idea of how the study had been conducted but key
details were omitted (eg that it was a film / video / slide-show of an accident and not a real
one; that participants were divided into groups and each group had a different misleading
question, etc). The weapons focus study was a perfectly acceptable choice for this
question, but many candidates had a rather confused idea about the way this study was
conducted. Very few inappropriate studies were provided.

E4.
There were some excellent answers to this question. Candidates generally knew one or
more relevant studies and were able to give detailed and accurate descriptions. This often
included reference to the type of experiment used. Many candidates were also able to
make good use of theory, eg Yerkes-Dodson law, weapon focus, etc. Evaluation was
often better when competing findings were discussed, rather than when it was solely
based on judgements of reliability, validity and ethical issues in the research. Some
candidates focused on irrelevant Loftus research, schema theory and age, with no
reference to anxiety.

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Park High School

E5.
This question was answered well by most candidates. The majority of candidates could
identify two specific techniques and describe them adequately. Examples were often used
effectively. Some candidates identified relevant features of the enhanced cognitive
interview but failed to give the elaboration needed for full marks.

E6.
(a) Most candidates could identify the real world setting of a field experiment but a
substantial number of answers were unclear when referring to the manipulation of
the independent variable by the experimenter. It was common for candidates to
write that the independent variable was controlled but not to add that it was varied or
manipulated.

(b) Most answers referred to lack of control over extraneous variables as a

weakness.Better responses gave an example of an appropriate uncontrolled
variable. A few answers inappropriately focused on an ethical issue.

(c) Substantial numbers of candidates were able to say that the question about ‘the
man in glasses’ was a leading / misleading question and it had been presented
because the effect on EWT was being assessed. Some answers incorrectly alluded
to its inclusion on the basis of its effect on anxiety.

E7.
This question was generally answered well. Most candidates focused on the higher
ecological validity provided by real-world studies. Weaker answers simply made this point
without any elaboration. Better answers explained why a real-world setting would provide
more ecological validity – usually in terms of heightened anxiety and / or consequentiality
associated with real-life events. The best answers made reference to EWT studies rather
than simply stating the general advantages of real-life studies over laboratory studies.

E8.

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Park High School
(a) This question was generally answered well with candidates showing good
understanding of the techniques used in the cognitive interview. Although
candidates could score full marks by giving outlines that could relate to the event in
the stem. It would generally be beneficial to candidates if they could engage
explicitly with the stem in questions requiring application of knowledge.

A few candidates showed a surprising lack of knowledge about the cognitive

interview and either left the space in the answer booklet blank or wrote about the
use of misleading questions, as in ‘how fast was the shuttle going when it exploded,
broke up etc’.

(b) There were some impressive responses where candidates effectively used a range
of research evidence on the effects of anxiety on EWT to answer this question.
Some candidates, however, failed to access top marks because they simply
described research without applying their knowledge to this particular event. This
was particularly true when candidates just described the Loftus ‘weapon focus’ study
without making it relevant to the shuttle explosion and, in some cases, without even
explaining its relevance to anxiety.

E9.
There were a high proportion of good answers to this question. Students who failed to
score full marks sometimes described the ‘report everything’ technique (not required)
under the heading ‘re-instate the context’. Some answers made no reference to the
context despite an explicit requirement to refer to details from the passage. Other students
remembered to refer to details from the passage for the first technique but forgot to do so
when describing a second or third technique.

E10.
(a) Mostly appropriate answers were provided. Many answers referred to the term
‘youth’ misleading participants as it suggested the man in the photograph was young
and this could influence the answer. Others said the reference to ‘youth’ was
misleading because it suggested an extra person, a ‘youth’, was part of the
photograph. Some answers suffered from poor expression resulting in a muddled
answer.

(b) There were still a number of students who did not seem to understand the term
‘experimental design’ and who tried to answer by stating types of experiments such
as laboratory or field. Even amongst students who understood the concept, there
was some difficulty when it came to identifying the appropriate design. The
explanation of why a repeated measures design was unsuitable was in some
instances prefaced by unnecessary time wasting explanations of why an

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Park High School
independent groups design would be a good idea.

(c) Although most students could explain the benefits of a pilot study, far fewer students
gave an explanation in the context of this experiment, as required.

(d) There were some clear and effective answers to this question where students
showed understanding and could apply this to the scenario. Some students
however, failed to understand the question and perhaps would have benefited from
re-reading the stem.

(e) Although there were some ‘accurate and reasonably detailed answers’ there were
many more that were just ‘generally accurate’. As in previous exam series, when
asked to describe a research study, some students did not even know one study
sufficiently well to access the top mark band. Some students had a little muddled
knowledge of several (usually Loftus’ studies) and produced answers where the
research was so poorly described it was difficult to identify. There were, however,
some good answers which accurately described one or more studies. Some
students wasted time evaluating the research.

E11.
Most successful answers to this question focused on the cognitive interview, although
more general strategies such as ‘avoiding leading questions’ were also credited. Weaker
responses were those where students answered a rather different question and discussed
‘factors affecting eye-witness testimony’. In such cases, credit was fairly minimal. Material
on line-up procedures gained credit as long as it was used to address the question set.

E12.
Most successful answers to this question focused on the cognitive interview, although
more general strategies such as ‘avoiding leading questions’ were also credited. Weaker
responses were those where students answered a rather different question and discussed
‘factors affecting eye-witness testimony’. In such cases, credit was fairly minimal. Material
on line-up procedures gained credit as long as it was used to address the question set.

Page 37
Park High School
E13.
This was also answered well. Many students produced an accurate and reasonably
detailed answer, often describing Loftus’s (1979) weapon focus experiment. Students who
did not score full marks usually failed to accurately identify the dependent variable in this
study. Less impressive answers tried to use the Yerkes-Dodson curve to explain
apparently contradictory findings in the area. Few of these outlined a study at all. Another
problem was the failure to focus on one study even though this was stressed in the
question.

E14.
There were many good answers to this question, mostly focused on the work of Loftus
and her colleagues. There were some inaccuracies with the figures, eg speeds of the cars
and percentages, and who saw non-existent broken glass, etc, but on the whole answers
demonstrated good knowledge. It was evident that students usually scored better marks
where they outlined one or two research studies accurately and in reasonable detail,
rather than when they outlined several studies less accurately. A substantial number did
not see the ‘outline and evaluate’ instruction. They tended to outline studies in great detail,
but included no evaluation. Therefore, despite showing very good knowledge of the topic
they were limited to four out of eight marks.

Evaluation was often effective where issues such as ecological validity, sampling
issues or applications of the research were addressed. However, evaluation points
were not always sustained or developed, meaning much of the commentary was
basic, and some evaluation was more speculative where students referred to the
trauma of watching a short video clip or looking at slides demonstrating two cars
hitting each other. Comments about an independent groups design allowing
individual differences to affect results were also marginal.

E15.
Some students failed to read the stem carefully and found it difficult to answer the
question. It was insufficient to identify a technique as 'mental re-instatement'. Students
were required to suggest the context was being mentally re-instated. Where students
chose to write about mental re-instatement of the context, they needed to remember that
they should refer to the context of watching a film of a violent crime. Many focussed on
creating mental context within the film rather than of watching the film. Students who
chose 're-instate the context' sometimes muddled their instructions to give instructions to
'recall everything'. Generally those who chose to focus on 'recall from a changed
perspective', or 'recall in reverse order' found it easier to write instructions for the
participants. A few students did not write instructions in direct speech and were limited to
a maximum of one mark for the instructions.

Where students did not score full marks for this question, they had usually failed to refer to
all of the figures in the table, or to draw any conclusion from the figures.

E16.
This question was answered well. A lot of students scored full marks by outlining a range
of techniques or by focussing on fewer techniques in more detail. Context re-instatement
was sometimes referred to as mental re-instatement which begs the question of what is
being mentally re-instated.

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Page 39

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