UNIT 5

1) SWAPPING: swapping is a memory management technique for swapping data

between main memory and secondary memory for better memory utilization.
This article explains swapping concept in detail with real-life example. Swapping is a
memory management technique that can be used to increase the operating system's
performance

Advantages
• If there is low main memory so some processes may has to wait for
much long but by using swapping process do not have to wait long
for execution on CPU.>It utilize the main memory.>Using only single
main memory, multiple process can be run by CPU using swap
partition.>The concept of virtual memory start from here and it utilize
it in better way..This concept can be useful in priority based
scheduling to optimize the swapping process.
Disadvantages
• If there is low main memory resource and user is executing too many
processes and suddenly the power of system goes off there might be
a scenario where data get erase of the processes which are took
parts in swapping.
• Chances of number of page faults occur
• Low processing performance

2) CONTIGUOUS MEMORY ALLOCATION: Contiguous memory allocation refers to a

memory management technique in which whenever there occurs a request by a user
process for the memory, one of the sections of the contiguous memory block would be
given to that process, in accordance with its requirement
 3) FILE CONCEPTS: Files are used for all input and output (I/O) of information in the
operating system, to standardize access to both software and hardware. Input
occurs when the contents of a file is modified or written to. Output occurs when the
contents of one file is read or transferred to another file.
Types of files The types of files recognized by the system are either regular, directory,
or special. However, the operating system uses many variations of these basic types.

Administering files
There are many ways to work with the files on your system. Usually you create a
text file with a text editor.

File and directory links

Links are connections between a file name and an index node reference number
(i-node number), the internal representation of a file. Because directory entries
contain file names paired with i-node numbers, every directory entry is a link.>
DOS files The AIX operating system allows you to work with DOS files on your
system.

Command summary for files The following are commands for files, file
handling procedures, and DOS files. There is also a list of commands for linking
files and directories.

4)FILE SYSTEMS STRUCTURE: File System provide efficient access to the disk by
allowing data to be stored, located and retrieved in a convenient way. A file System
must be able to store the file, locate the file and retrieve the file. Most of the Operating
Systems use layering approach for every task including file systems. Every layer of the
file system is responsible for some activities.

The image shown below, elaborates how the file system is divided in different layers,
and also the functionality of each layer
5.) FILE SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION: A file is a collection of related information. The
file system resides on secondary storage and provides efficient and
convenient access to the disk by allowing data to be stored, located, and
retrieved.

➢ I/O Control level –

➢ Basic file system
➢ File organization Module
➢ Logical file system

6.FILE SHARING: File sharing, also known as file-swapping is the accessing or

sharing of files by one or more users. It is performed on computer networks as
a quick way to transmit data. Generally, a file-sharing system usually has more
than one administrator, where the users may have the same or different access
privileges.
 7.DISK SCHEDULINGDisk scheduling is done by operating systems to schedule I/O
requests arriving for the disk. Disk scheduling is also known as I/O scheduling.

Disk scheduling is important because:>Multiple I/O requests may arrive by different

processes and only one I/O request can be served at a time by the disk controller. Thus
other I/O requests need to wait in the waiting queue and need to be scheduled.
>Two or more request may be far from each other so can result in greater disk arm
movement.>Hard drives are one of the slowest parts of the computer system and thus
need to be accessed in an efficient manner.
There are many Disk Scheduling Algorithms
• Seek Time:Seek time is the time taken to locate the disk arm to a specified
track where the data is to be read or write. So the disk scheduling algorithm that
gives minimum average seek time is better.
• Rotational Latency: Rotational Latency is the time taken by the desired sector
of disk to rotate into a position so that it can access the read/write heads. So
the disk scheduling algorithm that gives minimum rotational latency is better.
• Transfer Time: Transfer time is the time to transfer the data. It depends on the
rotating speed of the disk and number of bytes to be transferred.
• Disk Access Time: Disk Access Time is:

8.DISK STRUCTURE: Disk Structure in Operating System: The actual physical

details of a modern hard disk may be quite complicated. Simply, there are one or
more surfaces, each of which contains several tracks, each of which is
divided into sectors. There is one read/write head for every surface of the disk

9.ALLOCATION METHODS: There are various methods which can be used to allocate disk
space to the files. Selection of an appropriate allocation method will significantly affect the
performance and efficiency of the system. Allocation method provides a way in which the disk
will be utilized and the files will be accessed. There are following methods which can be used
for allocation. >1Contiguous Allocation 2.Extents 3.Linked Allocation 3.Clustering 4.FAT
5.Indexed Allocation 6.Linked Indexed Allocation 6.Multilevel Indexed Allocation
7.Inode