FUNCTIONS

Calculus I
 2

Functions and Their Graphs

• Functions are a tool for describing the real world in
mathematical terms.
• A function can be represented by an equation, a graph, a
numerical table, or a verbal description;
• We will use all four representations throughout this book.
 3

Domain and Range

• Consider the following:
• The temperature at which water boils depends on the elevation
above sea level (the boiling point drops as you ascend).
• The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length of
time the investment is held.
• The area of a circle depends on the radius of the circle.
• The distance an object travels at constant speed along a straight-
line path depends on the elapsed time.
 4

• In each case, the value of one variable quantity, say 𝑦,

depends on the value of another variable quantity, which
we might call 𝑥.
• We say that "𝑦 is a function of 𝑥" and write this
symbolically as 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ("𝑦 equals f of 𝑥").
• In this notation, the symbol 𝑓 represents the function, the
letter 𝑥 is the independent variable representing the input
value of 𝑓, and 𝑦 is the dependent variable or output
value of 𝑓 at 𝑥.
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• The set 𝐷 of all possible input values is called the domain

of the function.
• The set of all values of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 varies throughout 𝐷 is
called the range of the function.
• The range may not include every element in the set 𝑌.

• The domain and range of a function can be any sets of

objects, but often in calculus they are sets of real
numbers interpreted as points of a coordinate line.
 6

• Often a function is given by a formula that describes how

to calculate the output value from the input variable.
• Example:
• The equation 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 is a rule that calculates the area 𝐴 of a circle
from its radius 𝑟 (so 𝑟, interpreted as a length, can only be positive
in this formula).
• When we define a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) with a formula and
the domain is not stated explicitly or restricted by context,
the domain is assumed to be the largest set of real 𝑥-
values for which the formula gives real 𝑦-values, the so-
called natural domain.
• If we want to restrict the domain in some way, we must
state it.
• Example:
• The domain of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is the entire set of real numbers. To restrict
the domain of the function to, say, positive values of x, we would
write 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 > 0.
 7

• Changing the domain to which we apply a formula usually

changes the range as well.
• Example:
• The range of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is [0, ∞).
• The range of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 2, is the set of all numbers obtained by
squaring numbers greater than or equal to 2. In set notation, the
range is 𝑥 2 𝑥 ≥ 2} or 𝑦 𝑦 ≥ 4} or [4, ∞).
• When the range of a function is a set of real numbers, the
function is said to be real-valued.
• The domains and ranges of many real-valued functions of
a real variable are intervals or combinations of intervals.
• The intervals may be open, closed, or half open, and may
be finite or infinite.
 8

• A function 𝑓 is like a machine that produces an output

value 𝑓(𝑥) in its range whenever we feed it an input value
𝑥 from its domain.

• A function can also be pictured as an arrow diagram.

• Each arrow associates an element of the domain 𝐷 with a unique
or single element in the set 𝑌.

• Notice that a function can have the same value at two

different input elements in the domain (as occurs with
𝑓(𝑎)), but each input element 𝑥 is assigned a single
output value 𝑓(𝑥).
 9

Example 1:
• Verify the natural domains and associated ranges of some
simple functions. The domains in each case are the
values of 𝑥 for which the formula makes sense.
 10

Graphs of Functions
• If 𝑓 is a function with domain 𝐷, its graph consists of the
points in the Cartesian plane whose coordinates are the
input-output pairs for 𝑓.
• In set notation. the graph is 𝑥, 𝑓 𝑥 |𝑥 ∈𝐷 .
• The graph of a function 𝑓 is a useful picture of its
behavior.
• If (𝑥, 𝑦) is a point on the graph, then 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is the height
of the graph above the point 𝑥.
• The height may be positive or negative, depending on the sign of
𝑓(𝑥).
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 12

Example 2:
• Graph the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 over the interval −2,2 .
• Solution:
• Make a table of 𝑥𝑦-pairs that satisfy the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
• Plot the points (𝑥, 𝑦) whose coordinates appear in the
table, and draw a smooth curve through the plotted
points. Label the plot with its equation.
 13

Representing a Function Numerically

• Another way to represent a function is numerically,
through a table of values.
• From an appropriate table of values, a graph of the
function can be obtained using the method illustrated in
Example 2, possibly with the aid of a computer.
• The graph consisting of only the points in the table is
called a scatterplot.
 14

Vertical Line Test for a Function

• Not every curve in the coordinate plane can be the graph
of a function.
• A function 𝑓 can have only one value 𝑓(𝑥) for each 𝑥 in its
domain, so no vertical line can intersect the graph of a
function more than once.
• If 𝑎 is in the domain of the function 𝑓, then the vertical line
𝑥 = 𝑎 will intersect the graph of 𝑓 at the single point
𝑎, 𝑓 𝑎 .
 15

• Example:
• A circle cannot be the graph of a function since some vertical lines
intersect the circle twice.
• The circle, however, does contain the graphs of two
functions of 𝑥:
• the upper semicircle defined by the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 2 and
the lower semicircle defined by the function𝑔 𝑥 = − 1 − 𝑥 2 .
 16

Piecewise-Defined Functions
• Sometimes a function is described by using different
formulas on different parts of its domain.
• One example is the absolute value function:

• The right-hand side of the equation means that the

function equals 𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 0, and equals −𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0.
 17

Example 3:

Greatest Integer Function / Least Integer Function /

Integer Floor Function Integer Ceiling Function
 18

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

• If the graph of a function climbs or rises as you move from
left to right, we say that the function is increasing.
• If the graph descends or falls as you move from left to
right, the function is decreasing.
 19

• It is important to realize that the definitions of increasing

and decreasing functions must be satisfied for every pair
of points 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 in 𝐼 with 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 .
• Because we use the inequality < to compare the function
values, instead of ≤, it is sometimes said that 𝑓 is strictly
increasing or decreasing on 𝐼.
• The interval 𝐼 may be finite (also called bounded) or
infinite (unbounded) and by definition never consists of a
single point.
 20

Symmetry
• The graphs of even and odd functions have characteristic
symmetry properties.

• The names even and odd come from powers of 𝑥.

• If 𝑦 is an even power of 𝑥 (e.g. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 , it is an
even function of 𝑥 because −𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2 and −𝑥 4 = 𝑥 4 .
• If 𝑦 is an odd power of 𝑥 (e.g. 𝑦 = 𝑥 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 ), it is an odd
function of 𝑥 because −𝑥 1 = −𝑥 and −𝑥 3 = −𝑥 3 .
 21

• The graph of an even function is

symmetric about they-axis.
• Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) , a point (𝑥, 𝑦) lies on the
graph if and only if the point (−𝑥, 𝑦) lies on the
graph.
• A reflection across the 𝑦-axis leaves the graph
unchanged.
• The graph of an odd function is
symmetric about the origin.
• Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = − 𝑓(𝑥) , a point (𝑥, 𝑦) lies on the
graph if and only if the point (−𝑥, −𝑦) lies on
the graph.
• Equivalently, a graph is symmetric about the
origin if a rotation of 180° about the origin
leaves the graph unchanged.
• Notice that the definitions imply that both 𝑥 and
− 𝑥 must be in the domain of 𝑓.
 22

Example 4:
 23

Linear Functions
• A function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, for constants 𝑚 and
𝑏, is called a linear function.
• Here, 𝑚 represents the slope and 𝑏 is the intercept on the vertical
axis.
• The function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 where 𝑚 = 1 and 𝑏 = 0 is
• called the identity function.
• Constant functions result when the slope 𝑚 = 0.

Lines through A constant function

the origin with with slope m = 0.
slope m.
 24

• A linear function with positive slope whose graph passes

through the origin is called a proportionality relationship.

• If the variable 𝑦 is proportional to the reciprocal 1/𝑥, then

sometimes it is said that 𝑦 is inversely proportional to 𝑥
(because 1/𝑥 is the multiplicative inverse of 𝑥).
 25

Power Functions
• A function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑎 , where 𝑎 is a constant, is called a
power function.
• There are several important cases to consider.
• 𝑎 is a positive integer
 26

• These functions are defined for all real values of 𝑥.

• Notice that as the power 𝑛 gets larger, the curves tend to
flatten toward the 𝑥-axis on the interval (−1, 1), and also
rise more steeply for |𝑥| > 1.
• Each curve passes through the point (1,1) and through
the origin.
• The graphs of functions with even powers are symmetric
about the 𝑦-axis; those with odd powers are symmetric
about the origin.
• The even-powered functions are decreasing on the
interval (−∞, 0] and increasing on [0, ∞); the odd-
powered functions are increasing over the entire real line
(−∞, ∞).
 27

• For 𝑎 is negative

• Both functions are defined for all 𝑥 ≠ 0 (never divide by zero).

1
• The graph of 𝑦 = is the hyperbola 𝑥𝑦 = 1, which approaches the
𝑥
coordinate axes far from the origin.
1
• The graph of 𝑦 = also approaches the coordinate axes.
𝑥2
• The graph of the function 𝑓 is symmetric about the origin; 𝑓 is
decreasing on the intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞).
• The graph of the function 𝑔 is symmetric about the 𝑦-axis; 𝑔 is
increasing on (−∞, 0) and decreasing on (0, ∞).
 28

• For 𝑎 is a fraction

1 1
• The functions 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 =
2 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 3 𝑥 are the square
3

root and cube root functions, respectively.

• The domain of the square root function is [0, ∞), but the cube root
function is defined for all real 𝑥.
 29

Polynomials
• A function 𝑝 is a polynomial if
𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
where 𝑛 is a nonnegative integer and the numbers
𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are real constants (called the coefficients of
the polynomial).
• All polynomials have domain (−∞, ∞).
• If the leading coefficient 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 and 𝑛 > 0, then 𝑛 is called
the degree of the polynomial.
• Linear functions with 𝑚 ≠ 0 are polynomials of degree 1.
• Polynomials of degree 2, usually written as 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐,
are called quadratic functions.
• Cubic functions are polynomials 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + + 𝑑 of
degree 3.
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 31

Rational Functions
• A rational function is a quotient or ratio 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑝(𝑥)/𝑞(𝑥),
where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are polynomials.
• The domain of a rational function is the set of all real 𝑥 for
which 𝑞 𝑥 ≠ 0.
 32

Algebraic Functions
• Any function constructed from polynomials using
algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and taking roots) lies within the class of
algebraic functions.
• All rational functions are algebraic, but also included are more
complicated functions
 33

Exponential Functions
• Functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , where the base 𝑎 > 0 is
a positive constant and 𝑎 ≠ 1, are called exponential
functions.
• All exponential functions have domain (−∞, ∞) and range
(0, ∞), so an exponential function never assumes the
value 0.
 34

Logarithmic Functions
• These are the functions 𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑥, where the base
𝑎 ≠ 1 is a positive constant.
• They are the inverse functions of the exponential
functions.
 35

Combining Functions
• Like numbers, functions can be added, subtracted,
multiplied, and divided (except where the denominator is
zero) to produce new functions.
• If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions, then for every 𝑥 that belongs to
the domains of both 𝑓 and 𝑔 (that is, for 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷(𝑓) ∩ 𝐷(𝑔)),
we define functions 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, and 𝑓𝑔 by the formula:

• Notice that the + sign on the left-hand side of the first

equation represents the operation of addition of functions,
whereas the + on the right-hand side of the equation
means addition of the real numbers 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔 𝑥 .
 36

• At any point of 𝐷 𝑓 ∩ 𝐷(𝑔) at which 𝑔 𝑥 ≠ 0, we can

also define the function 𝑓/𝑔 by the formula:

• Functions can also be multiplied by constants: If 𝑐 is a real

number, then the function 𝑐𝑓 is defined for all 𝑥 in the
domain of 𝑓 by:
 37

Example 5
• The functions defined by the formulas 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 and
𝑔 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 have domains 𝐷 𝑓 = [0, ∞) and 𝐷 𝑔 =
(−∞, 1].
 38

• The graph of the function 𝑓 + 𝑔 is obtained from the

graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 by adding the corresponding 𝑦-
coordinates 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) at each point 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷(𝑓) ∩ 𝐷(𝑔).
 39

Composite Functions

• The definition implies that 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 can be formed when the

range of 𝑔 lies in the domain of 𝑓.
• To find (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥), first find 𝑔(𝑥) and
second find 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 .
 40

• To evaluate the composite function 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 (when defined),

we find 𝑓(𝑥) first and then 𝑔(𝑓 𝑥 ).
• The domain of 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is the set of numbers x in the domain
of 𝑓 such that 𝑓(𝑥) lies in the domain of 𝑔.
• The functions 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 are usually quite different.
 41

Example 6:
• If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1, find:
a) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔
b) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓
c) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓
d) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑔
 42

Shifting a Graph of Function

• A common way to obtain a new function from an existing
one is by adding a constant to each output of the existing
function, or to its input variable.
• The graph of the new function is the graph of the original
function shifted vertically or horizontally, as follows.
 43

Example 7:

• Adding 1 to the right-hand side of

the formula 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 to get
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1 shifts the graph up 1
unit.
• Adding -2 to the right-hand side
of the formula 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 to get
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2 shifts the graph down
2 units
 44

• Adding 3 to 𝑥 in 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 to
get 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3 2 shifts the
graph 3 units to the left

• Adding -2 to 𝑥 in 𝑦 = 𝑥 ,
and then adding -1 to the
result, gives 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 − 1
and shifts the graph 2 units
to the right and 1 unit
down.
 45

Scaling and Reflecting a Graph

• To scale the graph of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is to stretch or
compress it, vertically or horizontally.
• This is accomplished by multiplying the function 𝑓, or the
independent variable 𝑥, by an appropriate constant 𝑐.
• Reflections across the coordinate axes are special cases
where 𝑐 = −1.
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 47

Example 8:
• Vertical: Multiplying the right-hand side of 𝑦 =
𝑥 by 3 to
get 𝑦 = 3 𝑥 stretches the graph vertically by a factor of 3,
whereas multiplying by 1/3 compresses the graph by a
factor of 3.
 48

• Horizontal: The graph of 𝑦 = 3𝑥

is a horizontal compression of the
graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 by a factor of 3,
𝑥
and 𝑦 = is a horizontal
3
stretching by a factor of 3.
• Note that 𝑦 = 3𝑥 = 3 𝑥 so a
horizontal compression may
correspond to a vertical stretching by
a different scaling factor. Likewise, a
horizontal stretching may correspond
to a vertical compression by a different
scaling factor.
• Reflection: The graph of 𝑦 = − 𝑥
is a reflection of 𝑦 = 𝑥 across
the 𝑥-axis, and 𝑦 = −𝑥 is a
reflection across the 𝑦-axis.
 49

Example 9:
• Given the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 + 10, find formulas to
a) compress the graph horizontally by a factor of 2 followed by a
reflection across the 𝑦-axis.
b) compress the graph vertically by a factor of 2 followed by a
reflection across the 𝑥-axis.
 50

• Solution:
a) We multiply 𝑥 by 2 to get the horizontal compression, and by −1
to give reflection across the 𝑦-axis. The formula is obtained by
substituting −2𝑥 for 𝑥 in the right-hand side of the equation for 𝑓:
𝑦 = 𝑓 −2𝑥 = −2𝑥 4 − 4 −2𝑥 3 + 10
= 16𝑥 4 + 32𝑥 3 + 10

b) The formula is
1 1 4
𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 3 − 5
2 2
 51

Ellipses
• Although they are not the graphs of functions, circles can
be stretched horizontally or vertically in the same way as
the graphs of functions.
• The standard equation for a circle of radius 𝑟 centered at
the origin is
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
• Substituting 𝑐𝑥 for 𝑥 in the standard equation for a circle
gives
𝑐2𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
 52

• If 0 < 𝑐 < 1, the graph of the circle is stretched horizontally; if 𝑐 > 1

the circle is compressed horizontally.
• In either case, the graph is an ellipse.
• Notice that the 𝑦-intercepts of all three graphs are always −𝑟 and 𝑟.
• In Figure (b), the line segment joining the points (±𝑟/𝑐, 0) is called the
major axis of the ellipse; the minor axis is the line segment joining
(0, ±𝑟).
• The axes of the ellipse are reversed in Figure (c): The major axis is
the line segment joining the points (0, ±𝑟), and the minor axis is the
line segment joining the points (±𝑟/𝑐, 0).
• In both cases, the major axis is the longer line segment.
 53

• Ifwe divide both sides of 𝑐 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 by 𝑟 2 , we obtain

𝑥2 𝑦2
2
+ 2=1
𝑎 𝑏
where 𝑎 = 𝑟/𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑟.
• If 𝑎 > 𝑏, the major axis is horizontal; if 𝑎 < 𝑏, the major
axis is vertical.
• The center of the ellipse given in this equation is the
origin.
• Substituting 𝑥 − ℎ for 𝑥, and 𝑦 − 𝑘 for 𝑦:
𝑥−ℎ 2 𝑦−𝑘 2
2
+ 2
=1
𝑎 𝑏
• This equation is the standard equation of an ellipse with center at
(ℎ, 𝑘).
 54

Trigonometric Functions
• The number of radians in the central angle
A' CB' within a circle of radius 𝑟 is defined as
the number of ''radius units" contained in the
arc 𝑠 subtended by that central angle.
• If we denote this central angle by 𝜃 when
measured in radians, this means that 𝜃 = 𝑠/𝑟 or 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃,
for 𝜃 in radians.
• If the circle is a unit circle having radius 𝑟 =1, we see that
the central angle 𝜃 measured in radians is the length of
the arc that the angle cuts from the unit circle.
• Since one complete revolution of the unit circle is 360° or
2𝜋 radians, we have 𝜋 radians =180°.
 55

• The equivalence between degree and radian measures

for some basic angles.
 56

• An angle in the 𝑥𝑦-plane is said to be in standard position

if its vertex lies at the origin and its initial ray lies along the
positive 𝑥-axis.
• Angles measured counter-clockwise from the positive 𝑥-
axis are assigned positive measures; angles measured
clockwise are assigned negative measures.
 57

• Angles describing counter-clockwise rotations can go

arbitrarily far beyond 2𝜋 radians or 360°.
• Similarly, angles describing clockwise rotations can have
negative measures of all sizes.
 58

Trigonometric ratios of an acute angle

• We extend the definition of

trigonometric ratios of an acute
angle to obtuse and negative
angles by first placing the angle in
standard position in a circle of
radius 𝑟.
• We then define the trigonometric
functions in terms of the coordinates
of the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) where the
angle's terminal ray intersects the
circle
 59

• Whenever quotients are defined:

• The CAST rule is useful for remembering when the basic

trigonometric functions are positive or negative.
60
 61

Periodicity and Graphs of the

Trigonometric Functions
• When an angle of measure 𝜃 and an angle of measure
𝜃 + 2𝜋 are in standard position, their terminal rays
coincide.
• The two angles therefore have the same trigonometric
function values: sin 𝜃 + 2𝜋 = sin 𝜃, tan 𝜃 + 2𝜋 = tan 𝜃,
cos(𝜃 − 2𝜋) = cos 𝜃, sin(𝜃 − 2𝜋) = sin\theta,…
• This repeating behavior is described by saying that the six
basic trigonometric functions are periodic.
62
 63

Trigonometric Identities
• The coordinates of any point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) in
the plane can be expressed in terms of
the point's distance 𝑟 from the origin
and the angle 𝜃 that ray OP makes
with the positive 𝑥-axis.
𝑥 𝑦
• Since = cos 𝜃 and = sin 𝜃,
𝑟 𝑟
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
• When 𝑟 = 1, we apply the
Pythagorean theorem to the reference
right triangle and obtain the equation
cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = 1
 64

• Dividing this identity in turn by cos 2 𝜃 and sin2 𝜃 gives:

• Other commonly used identities:

 65

The Law of Cosines

• We introduce coordinate axes with
the origin at 𝐶 and the positive 𝑥-axis
along one side of the triangle.
• The coordinates of 𝐴 are (𝑏, 0); the
coordinates of 𝐵 are 𝑎 cos 𝜃 , 𝑎 sin 𝜃 .
• The square of the distance between
A and B is therefore
The law of cosines 𝑐 2 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 − 𝑏 2 + 𝑎 sin 𝜃 2
= 𝑎2 cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 + 𝑏 2
− 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜃
= 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜃
• The law of cosines generalizes the
Pythagorean theorem
 66

Transformations of Trigonometric Graphs

• The rules for shifting, stretching, compressing, and
reflecting the graph of a function summarized in the
following diagram
 67

• The transformation rules applied to the sine function give the

general sine function or sinusoid formula
2𝜋
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝑥−𝐶 +𝐷
𝐵
Where,
|𝐴| is amplitude
|𝐵| is period
𝐶 is the horizontal shift
𝐷 is the vertical shift
 68

Two Special Inequalities

• To establish these inequalities, we picture
𝜃 as a nonzero angle in standard
position.
• The circle in the figure is a unit circle, so
|𝜃| equals the length of the circular arc
AP.
• The length of line segment AP is
therefore less than |𝜃|.
• Triangle APQ is a right triangle with sides
of length
𝑄𝑃 = sin 𝜃 𝐴𝑄 = 1 − cos 𝜃
• From Pythagorean theorem and we know
that 𝐴𝑃 < |𝜃|,
sin2 𝜃 + 1 − cos 𝜃 2 = 𝐴𝑃 2 ≤ 𝜃 2
 69

• The terms on the left-hand side are both positive, so each

is smaller than their sum and hence is less than or equal
to 𝜃 2 :
sin2 𝜃 ≤ 𝜃 1 − cos 𝜃 2 ≤ 𝜃 2
• Taking square roots,
sin 𝜃 ≤ 𝜃 1 − cos 𝜃 ≤ 𝜃
• So,
− 𝜃 ≤ sin 𝜃 ≤ |𝜃 − 𝜃 ≤ 1 − cos 𝜃 ≤ |𝜃|