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Free 120-Hour TEFL Course arrow_forward_ios 1. The TEFL

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Domain

Remember

Remember: In this Module and the Modules to come, we will focus on the practical issues you need
to know. We will not take up your time by going on and on about some obscure, theoretical point. 

1.1. The English Language: Some Key Characteristics

Let’s explore some key characteristics of the English language. 

Why would you want to know and understand some characteristics of the English language? Well, we
imagine it's quite helpful and useful to know, but there are other reasons. 

For example, a native-Vietnamese teacher colleague may ask: What is special about the English
language? You need to try and answer this question. 

Your colleagues-to-be in some countries may view you as an expert and may think you know
everything about the English language. Again, this type of question may come up in an advanced
class. 

We have been in this situation, and it could happen to you. So, absorb this. It will enhance your
knowledge, and it will get you out of a possible tricky situation. 

However, there is also another critical reason. There will likely be differences in language structures
in the native/first language of the learners you will be teaching, compared to your native-English
language. 

You'll have grasped the importance of this already if you have studied a foreign language at school or
university. Or if you are a frequent traveller who likes to pick up a bit of the native language.

Specific Characteristics
Here are some specific characteristics of the English Language:

1. Fairly easy to learn

English is one of the easiest and simplest natural languages in the world. 
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Of course, it's all relative. It depends
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Nevertheless, it's fair to say that English is a relatively easy language to learn, understand and
speak when compared to very complex languages such as Arabic, Cantonese, Mandarin, Korean
and Japanese. 
 
2. Latin alphabet
The English language uses the Latin alphabet. It is the most universal, short and straightforward
alphabet (only the Greek alphabet is shorter and simpler). Also, in English, the Latin alphabet
presents its cleanest form as a true alphabet with only 26 basic letters.
 
3. Its simple inflection
Inflection is the name for the extra letters added to nouns, verbs and adjectives in their different
grammatical forms, e.g., cat, cats; eat, eats; big, bigger. 

English is considered to be a weakly inflected language when compared to, say, French or
Russian. Its nouns have only traces of inflection (plurals, the pronouns), and its regular verbs
have only four forms, e.g., look, looks, looked, looking. 

Even for irregular verbs, there is almost no variation in person (except the 3rd person singular in
the present tense, e.g., I eat, you eat, she eats). The English language can indicate the
relationship of words in a sentence with only the minimum of change in their structure. There are
other languages which do this, but this is a strong characteristic of English.
 
4. Receptiveness
A significant feature of the English language is its receptiveness to accepting and adopting
words from other languages. Here are a few examples:

From Spanish:
- Alligator: from el lagarto meaning the lizard
- Cargo: from the verb cargar, meaning to load

From Indian:
- Bungalow: from the Hindi word bangla, a type of cottage built for early European settlers in
Bengal. 
- Jungle: from Hindi jangal, a desert, forest, wasteland, uncultivated ground

From Chinese:
- Ketchup: from the Hokkien Chinese term kê-tsiap, a sauce made from fermented fish.
Europeans later added tomato as an ingredient.
- Gung ho: it means to show enthusiasm. From a Chinese word, meaning work together.

You can find out the derivation of many common English words at https://www.etymonline.com. 

English has accepted and adopted words from Asian, European, African, Indian, Japanese,
Chinese and other languages. Also, English has accepted words from classical languages like
Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit.
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5. Its (generally) fixed word order
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Another strong characteristic of the English language is its (typically) fixed word order. 
Most English sentences (clauses) conform to the SVO word order. This means that the Subject
comes before the Verb, which comes before the Object. Examples: 

I (S) bought (V) a new top (O). 

She (S) doesn't like (V) spiders (O). 

Why did you (S) do (V) that (O)? 

There are other word orders in English, but the SVO order is by far the most used, making it easy
for learners to grasp.
 
6. Pronunciation
The pronunciation of English words such as this, thin, clothes, thirteenth, months inevitably
causes problems for learners who do not need to use the tip of the tongue to produce words in
their language.
 
7. Continuous tense
Many languages do not have a continuous tense form, so English learners may make mistakes
such as: I had a bath when the phone rang; instead of I was having a bath when the phone rang.
 
8. Articles (a, an, the)
The article system is another feature of English grammar that causes some students enormous
difficulties; mainly, of course, those whose native language does not use articles.
 
9. Phrasal verbs
A phrasal verb is an idiomatic phrase consisting of a verb and another item, typically either an
adverb, as in break down, or a preposition, for example, see to, or a combination of both, such as
look down on. (An item is the word for small self-contained pieces of language which you can
teach or practise in a lesson.) 

These phrasal verbs are a VERY significant feature of the English language and can cause severe
difficulties for learners. Sentences such as I put it down to the weather, or I made it up with my
sister, are usually gobbledegook to beginner non-native-English speakers. 

Unfortunately for the English language learner, phrasal verbs are extremely common in colloquial
(informal, every day, conversational) English language. We’ll explore these in Module 5.
 
10. Non-tonal
English is a non-tonal language.

In tone languages, e.g., Chinese and Vietnamese, pitch (the degree of highness or lowness of a
tone) is used to distinguish word meaning. So, a word said with high pitch may have a different
meaning from the same word said with a low pitch. 
 In English, changes in pitch are used to emphasise or express emotion, not to give a different
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11. Sound and Spelling
A final feature of English that causes problems for non-native learners (and some native-English
speakers) is the lack of a connection between word sound and word spelling. 

It is difficult for non-native learners of English to predict the pronunciation of English words they
first come across in writing or the spelling of many English words they first hear. 

The critical point is that this happens with some of the most common words in the language:
Words containing ough: thought, although, rough,
Words which have different spellings but they sound the same: ate, eight; hear, here; their,
there
Words with silent letters, not pronounced: know, could, hour
Words that look the same but must be pronounced differently: read (present tense), read
(past tense); present (a gift), present (to give to); close (near); close (to shut)

1.2. Frequently Used Acronyms in the TEFL Domain

The TEFL domain is full of acronyms. We have listed some of the frequently-used acronyms. Try and
get to grips with these through time. 

ELT (English Language Teaching) has quite recently come into use as an umbrella term which aims to
include everything in the Teaching English field. 

TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) and EFL (English as a Foreign Language) are perhaps
the most common terms. 

TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) is another umbrella term, similar to ELT. In
the USA, Canada and Australia, the term TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) is
much more widely used than TEFL, but the concept is much the same. 

TEYL (Teaching English to Young Learners) is encompassed within TEFL and is geared, as you would
imagine, to teaching young learners of English. 

TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language) is teaching immigrants in English-speaking

countries, though this area is also, confusingly, referred to as TESOL. The students are studying an
ESL (English as a Second Language) course. 

CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) is an umbrella term for learner-centred, authentic and
meaningful language acquisition principles that inform the most widely practised language teaching
approach used in second language learning classrooms today. It is also referred to as the
Communicative Approach. Our course will follow this approach. 
 L1 is the term used for a student’s first language (the student’s native language). If someone asks
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L2 stands for the second language a student is learning. Your students’ L2 will be English. 

PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production) is a widely used model of classroom teaching for lesson
planning and lesson delivery. Some learning Providers call this the I do, We do, You do model of
teaching. However, we will adhere to our 5 Step Lesson Plan model, which will keep you firmly on
track all of the time. 

STT (Student Talking Time) is the amount of time that students spend talking in class (ideally as
much as possible). 

TTT (Teacher Talking Time) is the amount of time you spend talking during a class (ideally as little as
possible and much less than STT). 

There are more acronyms, but these will do us fine for the moment! 

Later, we’ll look at another small group of acronyms, representing different types of EFL courses that
students may be taking and the specific examinations that some students may be preparing for. 

This course will prepare you to help students to enhance their English Language level per se. 

But it will also prepare you to help those students who are aiming for a specific EFL qualification,
often for entry to university studies, for migration purposes or work reasons. All you will need to do is
familiarise yourself with the specific syllabus relating to the examination.

1.3. A Very Brief History of Some ELT Methods

Down through the years, there has been a wide range of approaches used to teach EFL. We will
summarise some of these ‘traditional' approaches. We'll leave it to you to decide if you want to
explore these in greater depth. 

The Grammar-Translation Approach

 Developed in the 19th century to teach Latin and Greek.

 The main aim of studying a foreign language is to be able to read its literature.
The emphasis in class is on reading/writing, not on listening/speaking.
The foreign language is explained and discussed in the students’ native language. 
Most lesson time is spent translating written sentences/texts, which have little resemblance to
spoken communication, from/into the foreign language.
 Despite having little to no theoretical basis underpinning it, this method is still used in some
institutions today.
 
The Direct Approach 
 Emerged in the late 19th century.
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It is based
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Language is acquired ‘directly', and exclusively, in the target language, e.g., English, via active
demonstration by the teacher.
The students' native language and all translation are excluded from the classroom.
 
Audiolingual Approach 

Language learning is all to do with habit formation. Language classes should, therefore,
concentrate on the formation of speech habits by using a series of mechanical and repetitive oral
drills.
The learning consists mainly of the accurate imitation and memorisation by students of
sentences or dialogues modelled by the teacher.
 Language is a matter of speech, and so classroom work concentrates almost exclusively on
speaking.
 
From the 1970s onwards, other approaches arose, principally to counter the mimic-heavy, pattern-
based teaching approaches of the previous decades. These include Total Physical Response (which
we'll touch on in a later Module), The Silent Way, Suggestopedia, and the Natural Approach. All these
approaches have had different degrees of success. 

Remember this! It would be silly not to recognise that all of these approaches have included some
teaching elements that have been useful at some time or another for teaching. Beware of anyone
who dismisses all these approaches. It's maybe because they do not know enough about them! 

When reflecting on teaching approaches, one thing that should spark our interest is when a profound
and notable transformation takes place – a sea change or paradigm shift (a shift from one way of
thinking to another). 

One such sea change in the approach to teaching took place in the 1970s and 1980s, and it is still
gathering strength at this moment. This period saw the introduction of what is commonly known as
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) or the Communicative Approach. 

We'll come to this in a few moments.

1.4. Teaching Approaches, Methods, and Techniques

1.4.1. Approaches, Methods, Techniques

 

We will view an ‘approach’ as a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any language
teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be learned. It contains
a set of theoretical principles about teaching with practical applications. 
 An approach gives rise to ‘methods', the way of teaching language items, e.g., via classroom
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A method is how a language is taught. A method is made up of a set of techniques that usually
reflect a particular view of language teaching. 

Example: 

The Communicative Approach is the most popular and most current approach to language teaching.
Task-based teaching is a methodology associated with teaching the Communicative Approach. Other
methods are also associated with teaching the Communicative Approach. 

However, to confuse matters, some methods have also been labelled ‘approaches’.

1.4.2. Most Recent Methods/Techniques

Here is a list of some of the most popular methods of teaching ELT:

1. Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP)

In this method, the teacher presents the new language item for learning, using a situation
(presentation stage). Then the teacher gets the learners to practise the new language via
exercises or other controlled practice activities (practice stage). And then he asks learners to use
or produce the same language in a communicative and less controlled way (production stage).
 
2. Audiolingual Method (mentioned above)
In this method, language learning is all about habit formation, mainly by repetitive drilling. Error
correction is considered essential to prevent bad habits. 

The Audiolingual Method is largely discredited in academic circles, though in some places it is
still practised. 
 
3. Lexical method (often termed 'lexical approach')
The word lexis is used to signify both the teaching of vocabulary and areas of grammar together.
Vocabulary is typically seen as individual words, whereas lexis is a somewhat broader concept
and consists of words, phrases, collocations, chunks, and formulaic grammatical expressions.
For example, If I were you …; Do you mind if ...; I’d like to …, etc. 

These words, chunks, and patterns are now often called lexical items. 

Instruction focuses on fixed expressions that frequently occur in dialogues. 

We’ll explore lexis further in Module 5.

 
4. Task-based method
In Task-Based Learning, the learning is designed around a series of authentic tasks which give
learners experience of using the language in ways in which it is used in the 'real world' outside the
classroom. In this method, there is no predetermined language syllabus, and the aim is for
learners to learn from the tasks the language they need to participate successfully in them. 

A task could be working out the itinerary of a journey from a timetable or requesting information
 from a travel agent.
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5. Principled Eclecticism Method
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This method involves the use of a variety of language learning activities, a mix of all the different
activities above and other teaching methods. Proponents (supporters) of this method say that
there are weaknesses as well as strengths in other methods. Thus, it's best to use a mix of
methods to ensure the learning does not become mechanical and, therefore, the learners will
benefit from several methods.
 
6. Communicative Method (often termed the 'Communicative Approach')
In this method, the focus is on authentic, meaningful communication, not structure.
Students accomplish tasks using language. They do not study the language, as happened in
the past.
The syllabus focuses on functions (e.g., asking permission, asking directions, etc.), not
grammatical/structural development (tenses, conditionals, etc.).
Fluency and communication are more important than accuracy.
The class becomes more student-centred (or learner-centred). Students accomplish their
tasks with other students, while the teacher plays more of a facilitator/observer role.

This is the method/approach we will be majoring on throughout the course.

 

1.5. Total Focus on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), also known as the Communicative Approach, is the
approach we will major on throughout the course. 

It's not easy to define CLT in a few words as many teachers and linguists stress different elements
within this approach. However, it's safe to say that this definition from Richards and Schmidt (2002)
will serve us well: 

It is an approach which emphasises that the goal of language learning is communicative

competence. Communicative competence aims to make meaningful communication and language
use the focus of all classroom activities. 

CLT is a broad term for learner-centred, authentic and meaningful language acquisition principles
that inform the most widely practised language teaching approach used in second language learning
classrooms today.

That’s quite a bit to take on board. For the moment, all you need to grasp is that in the 1970s and
1980s there was a paradigm shift in the approach to teaching EFL.

This shift witnessed a move away from and reaction against what are often now termed as
‘traditional' approaches, e.g., the Grammar-Translation Approach. ‘Traditional' isn't an easy word to
describe precisely, but for our purposes here we will use it to describe the teaching approaches
 which were commonly in use before the Communicative Approach reared its head in the 1970s and
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The main principles of the Communicative Approach you will be using can be summarised as
follows:

Communication
Classroom work aims to help students reach an effective standard of communication outside the
classroom.
Accuracy in grammar and pronunciation is important, but it is less important than the ability to
communicate meaningfully in real life (even if there are some mistakes in the language).
There is a strong emphasis on listening and speaking, but lessons can include reading and
writing. This depends on school policy and learner needs.
The principal achievement goal of Communicative Language Teaching is to enable students to
communicate knowledge and opinions surrounding a topic in the target language (English).
Remember this: The target language is the language learners are studying (i.e. English). 
Attempts to communicate are encouraged from the very first lesson.
Practice activities are put in communicative contexts, wherever possible. So, there is frequent
use of role-plays, discussions, etc. at all levels.
 
Meaning and use
Language learning is mainly about learning to communicate effectively. So, the primary emphasis is
always on the meaning and use of language items.

Context
New language items are presented and practised in realistic and meaningful contexts which show
their meaning and use. It is the context which gives language meaning. 

Simply put, the language necessary for buying a train ticket would be set in a train station (the
context).

Fluency
It is assumed that the ability to communicate effectively in a language will result from a combination
of formal learning of rules and holistic acquisition.

Creativity
Language learning and acquisition are creative processes, and they involve trial and error on the part
of the student. The learner should be encouraged to try out language items in a supportive classroom
environment and, with your help, he will learn from his mistakes.

Functions
To do this, the underlying premise is that students need to be able to go beyond the learning of the
grammatical structure of a language and into the functions (e.g. buying a bus ticket; ordering a meal;
applying for a job) or areas and ways such utterances are used in communication in the real world.

Form
Linguistic competence is only part of the whole picture of language acquisition. Students must
be able to choose the most appropriate form for a situation, such as when to use could you or
would you as an issue of register or politeness.
 Register is a variety of a language or a level of usage, as determined by the degree of formality
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and choice of vocabulary, pronunciation,
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and syntax (grammar), according to the communicative
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purpose, social context, and standing of the user. For example, we generally use a different
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variety of language when we speak to our doctor than we do when speaking to our friends
(unless the doctor is a close friend).
Learners must also recognise that a variety of forms can be used to achieve the same end or
function such as It may rain and Perhaps it will rain, each of which achieves the same
communicative purpose which is the possibility of rain.
 
Teacher role
This is very important.

Your emphasis must always be on communication in English. Your role is to facilitate, help, and
advise your students and also to be a language resource. The core principle is that you do not
‘teach' (as in the past) but instead help and facilitate your students to learn or acquire.
The classroom is student-centred, with many activities taking place in pairs or groups, monitored
and unobtrusively facilitated by you.
 
Individual learning preferences
Your students will have different learning needs and different learning preferences. You will,
therefore, need to use whichever techniques you feel will help your students most. That is, on
occasion, you may discuss grammar rules if this helps your students. Remember this: grammar is
never taught in isolation unless it is absolutely necessary.

Real English
In some parts of lessons, students will be exposed to fine-tuned input (language at or within the
students' knowledge). In other parts, they will be exposed to rough-tuned input (language which is a
little above the students' level). Even in Beginner classes, students will be exposed to examples of
authentic English: newspaper articles, etc.

Occasional structured drills

Remember this! Drilling means repetition. It involves your learners, either individually or as a
group, repeating whatever you say. Drilling is a way for your students to practise new language,
e.g., vocabulary, grammatical structures, and pronunciation, in a controlled setting.
Oral drilling and classroom-type exercises may occupy a small proportion of lesson time.
They are ways of helping students with pronunciation, grammar patterns, etc

In summary, to obtain communicative competence via the communicative approach, lessons need
integration of the following:

1. Situation/context: The situations one encounters in life, e.g., meeting a new friend; going to the
doctor. A meaningful context is set.
 
2. Functions:  Functions are speech acts that students are likely to face, e.g., seeking advice,
requesting information, expressing gratitude, complimenting someone, expressing requests,
asking permission, complaining, etc.
 
3. Form: Socio-linguistic-language used in a social setting, social niceties, social situations, formal v
informal expressions, etc. You will integrate socio-linguistic competence (such as acceptable and
 unacceptable ways to complain) as well as strategies and methods to overcome communication
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4. Meaning and use: These will be linked to the form
 
5. Grammar: Always taught in context. It is linked to materials related to conversation, reading,
listening, and writing. It is never taught in isolation unless it is necessary.
 
6. Notions: Days of the week, dates, months, should be introduced in context.
 

For example, in lesson planning, you will determine how to adapt these competencies to student
needs. To do this, you could:

Choose a situation such as a visit to a doctor.

Present the language functions such as giving formal greetings, requesting advice, giving advice,
demonstrating gratitude.
Present the form related to the situation and its meaning and usage.
Choose the necessary grammar and vocabulary to complete the exercise.
Construct and choose communicative activities for the students to practise and produce.
 
So, this integrated communicative approach is the one we will focus on. It’s an exciting approach
where skills are integrated. Each of your lessons may include a bit of speaking, listening, writing and
reading, where possible.

The achievement goal at all times is to enable students to communicate knowledge and opinions
surrounding a topic in the target language - English. There’ll be very few standalone grammar
lessons, but you will still need a sound grasp of basic grammar so that you can handle queries and
questions seamlessly. 

We’ll be tackling bits of grammar in various parts of the course. It’s not too stretching!

1.6.1. L1 and L2 and Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

 
Remember! Repetition is an excellent teaching attribute so, now and again, we’ll remind you of a few
things mentioned earlier in the course. 

As mentioned before, L1 is the label given to a person’s first language (the student’s native language,
e.g., Mandarin). When this person learns a second or foreign language (e.g., English), this additional
language is labelled the person’s L2 language. 

So, all the students you will be teaching will have a non-English language, e.g., Mandarin, as their
native/first language (L1) and you will be teaching them English which will be a second or foreign
language for them, known as L2. 
 Now, let’s explore the critical area of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). SLA is the term used for
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There's no doubt that L1 learners learn differently from L2 learners. It's vital that you reflect on the
key differences. 

You can probably work out for yourself the key points relating to L1 learning as you have been an L1
learner. Let's reflect on this.

Time to reflect
Can you identify any differences there may be between an L1 learner learning her native language
and an L2 learner learning his second or foreign language? Try and do this without looking at the
next Section. 

Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this. 

Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below.

Well done! 

L1 learner

Generally immersed in language at all times from birth

Wants, needs and is motivated to communicate by signs or baby words, with meaning, e.g., I want
some food!
Adults often praise and encourage the child's use of language, spurring her on to more significant
linguistic achievements
Gets a lot of attention to aid the learning
Learns by playing and experimenting with the new language, and lots of time to do so
Not often corrected
 

Let's now consider the L2 learner's learning situation

L2 learner

Not intensively exposed to the L2

Most often exposed by being taught the English language in the classroom; often limited
exposure outside the classroom
May not be motivated, but could be, though
Often only learns through interaction with you and his classmates – may not be motivated to try
out functions outside of the classroom.
Often learns by using language in a controlled setting with you and other students and often with
lots of controlled practice activities
Teachers vary in the amount they praise or encourage L2 learners – some teachers may not do
this effectively, certainly not as effectively and frequently as a mother/father/caregiver would do
in an L1 situation. When you see good, specific examples of positive behaviour, praise your
students.
The learner typically receives limited attention from the teacher.
Many teachers regularly correct learners for accuracy; this can be demotivating for some
learners.
  
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L1 and L2 learning. Remember these and another piece
will be in place in your ‘Good Teacher Jigsaw'.
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1.7. Key Influences on L2 Learning

Why do some L2 learners learn faster and better than others? Here are some vital points for you to
remember and reflect on regularly when you are on the job. They are not in any specific order.

1. Degree of intellect
Some L2 learners are just brighter than others. If they are motivated to learn, they will achieve
higher levels of learning.
 
2. Age
So many studies have been carried out to prove or disprove that age is or isn’t a key influence on
learning. None have achieved their purpose successfully. When we compare SLA with, say,
learners at age 6, 16, 26, or 56, there are so many other variables involved. How can the
acquisition of a 6- year-old with an open mind and no cares in the world be compared to the
acquisition of a 26-yearold who is learning part-time and has lots of concerns?

There is no definitive answer. 

However, our experience tells us that, generally, the older a person becomes, the more difficult it
is to acquire a second language. Even although that older person has a broader view of the world
and more extensive experiences, he also has many more things requiring his focus and
concentration. 
 
3. Learning preferences
If the teaching is not carried out in line with the student's preferred learning preference, e.g., lots
of visuals or lots of audio or lots of discussions and activities, etc., learning may very well be
curtailed. We will explore ‘learning preferences’ in-depth in Module 3.
 
4. Motivation
Whether this is intrinsic (learning for its own sake) or extrinsic (for some goal or reward, e.g.,
securing a new job), every student has varying degrees of motivation. It's also challenging to keep
students motivated all of the time.
 
Remember this! The whole person comes to school, be it your students or you. Students have
their ups and downs. They come with all their personal baggage, e.g., worrying about a sick
parent/caregiver/child, or upset due to a breakdown in some personal relationship. So, the
motivated person yesterday may not be the motivated person today. Help and show empathy
wherever you can. 

And the same applies to you. 

 You may feel a little bit down due to some personal issue. Alternatively, you may have had just
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and full of life all the time.
 
5. Language proficiency in L1
There's no doubt that a learner who is proficient in her L1 language (grammar, structure, mood,
etc.) and understands all of this, has a great head start when learning an L2.
 
6. Awareness of L2
Again, a student will have a great head start on others if she already has an awareness of the L2,
perhaps through living in a bi-lingual environment.
 
7. Autonomy
Some educators say that students should play a more active role in designing or selecting
learning experiences in schools.

This approach can encourage students to be more interested in school, more motivated to learn,
and more likely to take responsibility for their education.

That is, students should be given some degree of autonomy. There is no doubt that most learners
thrive on autonomy. Studies have shown that as learner autonomy increases, so does learner
motivation. And, thus, so do learning results. 

An example of autonomy would be to let students pick from a list of topics to debate instead of
being told what to do.

Of course, there are those students who shy away from autonomy. These students want the
teacher to lead them. However, generally, the more autonomy there is, the better the learning
results will be.
 
8. Prior learning
Learners may bring to class their expectations regarding teacher relationships, teacher behaviour
and teacher approaches to learning that prevailed in their home countries, especially if they had
extensive schooling there. 

Therefore, some learners from more traditional educational systems may expect you to behave in
a more formal and authoritarian fashion during classes. They may be displeased, puzzled, or
offended if you use an informal instructional style, such as using their first names in class or
allowing the students to move freely around the room. They may believe that this will affect their
learning.

When teaching students, you must try to find out how they have learned previously and how they
would prefer to learn in your classroom. Simply put, you need to ask them.
 
9. Pattern of classroom activity
Some learners may also want you to maintain a clearly ordered pattern of classroom activity and,
perhaps, engage in extensive correction of grammatical form or pronunciation during all activities
rather than at irregular points in a lesson or not at all. 
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10. Your behaviour
You, similarly, bring to the classroom your expectations regarding teacher behaviour. This
includes your views on appropriate behaviour within society in general, as well as in the
classroom.

For example, if you come from a culture of self-reliance, are at ease in expressing and defending
personal opinions, and are interested in personal advancement, you will likely provide instruction
that addresses these goals. You may unconsciously attribute these same goals to your students.

The potential for conflicting expectations and evaluations of behaviour between you and your
learners is evident.
 
11. Gender
Find out whether learners have ever experienced mixed educational groupings, whether they
expect male and female teachers to behave differently, and how different classroom activities,
e.g., role-plays or dialogue practice, might affect learners adversely because of their native
cultural constraints.

Failure on your part to take this into account may affect student learning.
 
12. Female participation
In encouraging women students to speak up and take an active role in class, you may sometimes
encounter reluctance from both men and women from cultures in which women have historically
been constrained by social roles that do not promote active participation in mixed-sex settings.

You must reflect on this point continuously.

 
13. Culture: Appropriate topics for learning
Cultural expectations regarding the nature of education and what is appropriate to talk about may
also affect the kinds of topics students are willing to pursue in class and their motivation to
learn. Cultural as well as personal sensitivity is vital in knowing if, when, and how to introduce
topics or lessons that may be inappropriate (for some) or complicated.
 
14. Classroom Participation
The communicative classroom creates a lively, vibrant environment. This is generally a motivating
learning environment for those who enjoy working with others. But not always.

What about the student who prefers to work alone? Verbally expressing ideas and asking
questions during class can prove difficult for students who are unaccustomed to this form of
active and lively pair and group participation. 

And what about the situation where a student loves to be with the same partner all of the time, in
a pair? She may not like being moved into a group.

There are communicative approach proponents who see pair work and group work as the answer
 to everything. This is not the case. We need to observe well and consider our students’
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15. Communication styles
There are patterns of expression and rules of interaction that reflect the norms and values of a
culture. 

If you lack understanding of these communication styles, this could lead to confusion, anxiety
and conflict – and a reduction in learning. Let’s consider just two of these styles.
 
A. Direct Style v Indirect Style

Direct style

Here are the key indicators of a direct style of communication presented by the teacher and, perhaps,
some students in the classroom:

Straightforward talking
No beating about the bush – straight and to the point
Directness means there is respect for the other person.
Avoiding ambiguity
 
Here are the key indicators of an indirect style of communication presented by the teacher and,
perhaps, some students in the classroom:

Indirect style

Meaning is conveyed by subtle means, stories, implication – not getting to the point
Indirectness means politeness and respect for the other person.
Frequent use of implication – not directness
 

B. Idea-Focused Style V Person-Focused Style

Idea-focused style

Ideas and person are separate

Open disagreement is acceptable
Disagreement with a person's views is not seen as a personal attack
 
Person-focused style

Ideas and person are not separate

Feelings are important
Disagreement is handled very carefully
Disagreement is an attack on the person
 
So, here we have conflicting ways of looking at communication. This is a potential boiling pot.
Learning will be affected, and your critical task will be to find a balance. It's not your role to try and
change people's cultural ways of working. It is your role to find a solution to this.
 So, there are lots of ways an L2 student’s learning can be influenced.
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1.8. Effective L2 Learning Strategies

Language learning strategies are the conscious steps or behaviours used by language learners to
enhance the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of new information. 

The more proficient learners use learning strategies that are appropriate to the material, to the task,
and their own goals, needs, and stage of learning.

For example, strategies could be techniques such as diaries, think-aloud procedures, observations,
and surveys.

More proficient learners appear to use a broader range of strategies in a significant number of
situations than less skilled learners. For example, more proficient learners:

employ appropriate language learning strategies that often result in improved proficiency or
achievement overall or in specific skill areas.
tend to use strategies that work well together and which are tailored to the requirements of the
language task. These learners can easily explain the strategies they use and why they employ
them.
use metacognitive strategies, such as translating and analysing, and other strategies, such as
planning and organising. Using combinations of strategies often has more impact than relying on
a single strategy.
use specific strategies or clusters of strategies that are linked to particular language skills or
tasks.
Learners may have created their own strategies or may have picked up some strategies from their
teachers, their parents/caregivers or siblings, or their friends. They may also have gained some
useful strategies from a library or internet search.

There are many different and preferred strategies that learners may use. The following list is not
definitive but it will give you a good idea of the commonly-used types of strategies that some
students use. Note that no definitive list of strategies has been agreed on by language researchers.

Anyhow, you can pass on some of these ideas to those of your students who have no concrete
strategies for learning and studying.

1. Circumlocution

This is best explained via an example. The more proficient learner doesn’t know the word ‘nephew’
but she doesn’t give up. So, she uses different words or phrases to express the intended meaning,
e.g. my brother’s son.

2. Avoidance
 Avoidance is where a more proficient learner may learn to avoid talking about topics for which she
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3. Word coinage

This is the term for more proficient learners creating new words or phrases for words that they do
not know. For example, the learner doesn’t know the word freezer and she constructs and uses a new
word ice cabinet instead.

4. Language switching, also called ‘code switching’

This is where a more proficient learner doesn’t know a word and uses a word with the same meaning
from her first language, hoping that her communication partner will understand. For example: My
aunt and uncle are coming for Christmas. They will be staying chez nous.

5. Clarification and comprehension checks

Some learners are often too shy or embarrassed to say anything when they do not understand the
other speaker. More proficient learners, however, use clarification and comprehension checks. For
example:

For clarification check:

Do you mean ...?

Could you explain what you mean by ...?
Could you give me an example, please?
For comprehension check:

Sorry, I don’t understand.

Sorry, I don’t know what you mean.
Sorry, I’m not sure I’m following you.
Note that this appeal for assistance may also be done indirectly via a puzzled expression, raising the
eyebrows, etc.

6. Non-verbal strategies

This refers to strategies such as the use of body language, gestures, mime, facial expressions, sound
imitation to support or replace verbal communication. 

7. Approximation

This is where the more proficient learner uses an alternative term which approximates to the
meaning of the target word or phrase as closely as possible. For example, she may say ship instead
of (the more difficult) word yacht.

8. Use of all-purpose words

When the more proficient learner lacks a specific word in a conversation, she may use a general,
empty lexical word or phrase to replace it; for example, stuff, thingie.

9. Using minimal responses 

 More proficient learners build up a stock of minimal responses, to help them engage.
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understanding, agreement, doubt, and other responses to what another speaker is saying; for
example: Oh, I see. Is that so? That’s good. Oh, sorry. I didn’t catch that. 

These minimal responses enable a learner to concentrate on what the other participant is saying,
without having to plan a reply simultaneously.

10. Recognising scripts/patterns opportunities

More proficient learners understand  that many communication situations are associated with a
predictable set of spoken exchanges. For example, greetings, compliments, apologies, invitations,
and other functions that are influenced by social and cultural norms often follow scripts or patterns.
For example:

Can I help you?

Yes, please.

It's the same with exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining information and making a
purchase. In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker's turn and the one that follows it can
often be anticipated.

11. Fillers and hesitation devices

This is where the more proficient learner uses fillers or hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain a
bit of time to think.

Fillers: 

em …
er …
mm …
uh …
As a matter of fact, …
Well, …
Actually, …
To be honest/frank, …
Hesitation devices/stalling for time to think

Let’s see, …

Wow, that’s a difficult one.

Now, let me think.

Now, just a minute.

That’s a good question.

I’ll have to think about that for a moment.

 What I’m trying to say is…
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How can I best explain this?

Let’s put it this way.

Where should I start?

12. SMART goals

More proficient learners know how to set SMART goals:

Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Realistic
Time-based
Smart goals provide the benchmark, focus and plan for surging ahead. The more proficient learner
also knows and understands what it is to be too ambitious. It will take lots of practice and lots of
time before she can consider how fluent she is. But it will all be worth it in the end.

13. Using authentic material and practising in authentic situations

The more proficient learner listens to the teacher’s advice that the best route to fluency is through
consuming lots of authentic material. What is learned and practised in the classroom is not enough.
Consuming lots of authentic material outside the classroom, in different formats, is vital for fluency
success. As is practising the language in real-life situations with native speakers.

14. Self-monitoring

The more proficient learner does not just rely on teacher comments and the institution’s
assessments to tell her how she is doing. She assesses her own capabilities frequently by taking
relevant, external proficiency tests and quizzes. This helps her to further determine what areas she
needs to develop.

She knows that another way to assess her own skills without a proficiency test/quiz is to think
through what she’s most comfortable with. If she had to communicate with a native speaker, would
she feel more comfortable with:

Listening to the native speaker, then responding in speech

Speaking with the native speaker and responding in speech
Writing to the native speaker
Reading about the native speaker and then responding to some questions
It’s likely that the option she chooses is her strongest skill and, thus, she knows what other skills she
needs to focus on.

15. The four skills (listening, speaking, writing, reading)

Finally, with regard to the four skills, the more proficient learner will likely demonstrate a cocktail of
some of these strategies:
 1. Listening: Comprehension gains from strategies of elaboration, inference, selective attention, and
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2. Speaking: Speaking demands strategies such as risk-taking, paraphrasing, circumlocution, self-
monitoring, and self-evaluation.

3. Writing: Writing benefits from the learning strategies of planning, self-monitoring, deduction, and
substitution. 

4. Reading: Comprehension benefits from using strategies like reading aloud, guessing, deduction,
and summarising.

Help your students to develop and enhance their learning strategies so that, eventually, they will
become independent learners with the ability to use robust strategies in a variety of contexts.
 

That was a breeze! Well done! You have learned a lot already. Every piece of information above will
help you become a competent and effective EFL teacher. And there’s lots more to come!

Assessment

Time for a break. Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 1. 

It’s not difficult. Good luck!

After that, we’ll move on to Module 2, where we will focus in-depth on what it takes to become a
competent EFL Teacher. Absorb everything!

COMPLETE QUIZ