SQL INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

1. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DELETE AND TRUNCATE

STATEMENTS.
DELETE:
------------
• DELETE COMMAND IS USED TO DELETE A ROW IN A TABLE.
• YOU CAN ROLLBACK DATA AFTER USING DELETE STATEMENT.
• IT IS A DML COMMAND.
• IT IS SLOWER THAN TRUNCATE STATEMENT.

TRUNCATE:
--------------------------
• TRUNCATE IS USED TO DELETE ALL THE ROWS FROM A TABLE.
• YOU CANNOT ROLLBACK DATA.
• IT IS A DDL COMMAND.
• IT IS FASTER.

2. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT SUBSETS OF SQL.

• DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL)
• DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML)
• TRANSCATION CONTROL LANGUAGE (TCL)
• DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE (DCL)

3. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY DBMS? WHAT ARE ITS DIFFERENT TYPES?

DBMS:
--------
• DBMS STANDS FOR DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.
• IT IS USED TO MAINTAIN AND MANAGE THE DATABSE.
• IN DBMS WE ARE STORING THE DATA IN FILE FORMAT.
• SECURITY AND AUTHORIZATION ARE THE TWO
IMPORTANT FEATURES PROVIDED BY THE DBMS.
 • TO COMMUNICATE OR INTERACT WITH THE DBMS WE ARE
USING A LANGUAGE CALLED ‘QUERY LANGUAGE’.

TYPES OF DBMS:
--------------------------
• HIERARCHIAL DBMS
• NETWORK DBMS
• RELATIONAL DBMS
• OBJECT-ORIENTED DBMS
4. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY TABLE AND FIELD IN SQL.
TABLE:
-------------
THE LOGICAL ORGANISATION OF ROWS AND COLUMNS IS
CALLED TABLE.
FILED:
-------------
THE VERTICAL SECTORS IN A TABLE IS CALLED FIELDS.

5. WHAT ARE THE JOINS IN SQL.

JOINS:
-----------------------
THE PROCESS OF RETRIEVING THE DATA FROM MULTIPLE
TABLES IS KNOWN AS JOINS.

WHEN/ WHY WE USE JOINS:

-------------------------------------------
WHENEVER THE DATA TO BE SELECTED PRESENT IN DIFFERENT
TABLES WE USE JOINS.

TYPES OF JOINS:
----------------------------
--> CARTESIAN JOIN / CROSS JOIN
 --> INNER JOIN / EQUI JOIN
--> NATURAL JOIN
--> SELF JOIN
--> OUTER JOIN
--> LEFT OUTER JOIN
--> RIGHT OUTER JOIN
--> FULL OUTER JOIN

6. WHAT IS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHAR AND VARCHAR DATATYPE IN SQL.

CHAR:
----------
IT IS USED FOR STRINGS OF FIXED LENGTH.
VARCHAR:
----------------------
IT IS USED FOR STRINGS OF VARIABLE LENGTH.

7. WHAT IS A PRIMARY KEY.

PRIMARY KEY:
-----------------------------
IT IS USED TO IDENTIFY A RECORD UNIQUELY FROM THE TABLE.
CHARACTERISTICS:
-----------------------------------
--> WE SHOULD HAVE ONLY ONE PRIMARY KEY IN ATABLE.
--> IT CAN'T ACCEPT DUPLICATES VALUES.
--> IT CAN'T ACCEPT NULL VALUES.
--> IT IS THE COMBINATION OF UNIQUE AND NOT NULL.
--> IT IS NOT MANDATORY BUT HIGHLY RECOMMAND.
8. WHAT ARE CONSTRAINTS.
CONSTRAINTS:
-----------------------
IT IS A RULES GIVEN FOR A COLUMN FOR VALIDATION.
TYPES:
------------
--> UNIQUE:
IT CAN'T ACCEPT DUPLICATE / REPEATED VALUES.
--> NOT NULL:
IT CAN'T ACCEPT NULL VALUES
(OR)
IT REPRESENTS COLUMN IS MANDATORY.
--> CHECK:
IT IS A CONDITION WITH EXTRA VALIDATION. IF THE
CONDITION SATISFIED THEN ONLY IT WILL ACCEPT THE VALUE, ELSE IT
REJECTS.
--> PRIMARY KEY:
IT IS USED TO IDENTIFY A RECORD UNIQUELY FROM THE
TABLE.
--> FOREIGN KEY:
IT IS USED TO ESTABLISH A CONNECTION BETWEEN THE
TABLES.

9. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SQL AND MYSQL.

SQL:
----------------
IT IS A STANDARD LANGUAGE WHICH STANDS FOR STRUCTURED
QUERY LANGUAGE. SQL IS THE CORE OF RELATIONAL DATABASE WHICH IS
USED FOR ACCESSING AND MANAGING DATABASE.
 MYSQL:
--------------
IT IS A OPEN-SOURCE RELATIONAL DATABSE MANAGEMNET
SYSTEM THAT WORKS ON MANY PLATFORMS. IT PROVIDES MULTI-USER
ACCESS TO SUPPORT MANY STORAGE
ENGINES AND IS BACKED BY ORACLE.

10. WHAT IS UNIQUE KEY.

UNIQUE KEY:
-----------------------
--> UNIQUELY IDENTIFIES A SINGLE ROW IN THE TABLE.
--> MULTIPLE VALUES ALLOWED PER TABLE.
--> NULL VALUES ARE ALLOWED.
--> DUPLICATE VALUES ARE NOT ALLOWED.

11. WHAT IS FOREIGN KEY.

FOREIGN KEY:
-------------------------
IT IS USED TO ESTABLISH A CONNECTION BETWEEN THE TABLES.
CHARACTERISTICS:
--> WE CAN HAVE ANY NUMBER OF FOREIGN KEYS IN A TABLE.
--> IT CAN ACCEPT DUPLICATE VALUES.
--> IT CAN ACCEPT NULL VALUES.
--> IT IS NOT THE COMBINATION OF UNIQUE AND NOT NULL.
--> FOR AN ATTRIBUTE TO BECOME A FOREIGN KEY IT SHOULD
BE PRIMARY KEY IN ITS OWN TABLE.
--> IT IS ALSO CALLED AS 'REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY
CONSTRAINT.
12. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY DATA INTEGRITY.
DATA INTEGRITY:
-----------------------------
IT DEFINES
--> ACCURACY OF DATA
--> CONSISTENCY OF DATA
--> INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS TO ENFORCE BUSINESS
RULES ON DATA.

13. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLUSTERED AND NON-CLUSTERED

INDEX IN SQL.
CLUSTERED INDEX:
---------------------------------
--> IT IS USED FOR EASY RETRIEVAL OF DATA FROM THE
DATABASE AND IS FASTER.
--> IT ALTERS THE WAY RECORDS ARE STORED IN A DATABASE
AS IT SORTS OUT ROWS BY THE COLUMN WHICH IS SET TO BE CLUSTERED
INDEX.
--> ONE TABLE CAN ONLY HAVE ONE CLUSTERED INDEX.

NON-CLUSTERED INDEX:
----------------------------------------
--> IT IS USED FOR EASY RETRIEVAL OF DATA FROM THE
DATABASE AND IS SLOWER.
--> IT DOESNOT ALTER THE WAY IT WAS STORED BUT IT CREATES
A SEPARATE OBJECT WITHIN A TABLE WHICH POINTS BACK TO THE ORIGINAL
TABLE ROWS AFTER RESEARCHING.
--> ONE TABLE CAN HAVE MANY NON-CLUSTERED INDEXES.
14. WRITE A SQL QUERY TO DISPLAY THE CURRENT DATE.
-->SELECT SYSDATE
FROM DUAL;
(OR)
--> SELECT CURRENT_DATE
FROM DUAL;
(OR)
--> SELECT SYSTIMESTAMP
FROM DUAL;

15. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF JOINS.

TYPES OF JOINS:
-----------------------
--> CARTESIAN JOIN / CROSS JOIN
--> INNER JOIN / EQUI JOIN
--> NATURAL JOIN
--> SELF JOIN
--> OUTER JOIN
--> LEFT OUTER JOIN
--> RIGHT OUTER JOIN
--> FULL OUTER JOIN

CARTESIAN JOIN:
-----------------------------
IN CARTESIAN JOIN A RECORD FROM TABLE1 IS MERGED WITH
ALL THE RECORDS OF TABLE2.

INNER JOIN:
----------------------
-->IT IS USED TO OBTAIN ONLY MATCHED RECORDS.
 --> IN ORDER TO OBTAIN MATCHED RECORDS WE HAVE TO
WRITE ONE CONDITION CALLED 'JOIN_CONDITION'.

NATURAL JOIN:
--------------------------
IT BEHAVES AS INNER JOIN IF THERE IS ANY RELATION BETWEEN
THE TABLE , ELSE IT ACTS CARTESIAN JOIN.

SELF JOIN:
------------------
IT IS USED TO JOIN THE TABLE BY ITSELF.
(OR)
IT IS USED TO JOIN THE SAME TABLES.

OUTER JOIN:
------------------------------
IT IS USED TO OBTAIN THE UNMATCHED RECORDS .

LEFT OUTER JOIN:

IT IS USED TO OBTAIN THE UNMATCHED RECORDS FROM
LEFT TABLE ALONG WITH THE MATCHED RECORDS.

RIGHT OUTER JOIN:

IT IS USED TO OBTAIN THE UNMATCHED RECORDS FROM
RIGHT TABLE ALONG WITH THE MATCHED RECORDS.

FULL OUTER JOIN:

IT IS USED TO OBTAIN THE UNMATCHED RECORDS FROM
BOTH THE TABLES ALONG WITH THE MATCHED RECORDS.
16. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY DENORMALIZATION.
DENORMALIZATION:
---------------------------------
IT REFERS TO A TECHNIQUE WHICH IS USED TO ACCESS DATA
FROM HIGHER TO LOWER FORMS OF A DATABASE.
--> INCREASE THE PERFORMANCE OF THE ENTIRE
INFRASTRUCTURE AS IT INTRODUCES REDUNDANCY INTO A TABLE.
--> ADDS THE REDUNDANT DATA INTO A TABLE BY
INCORPORATING DATABASE QUERIES THAT COMBINE DATA FROM VARIOUS
TABLES INTO A SINGLE TABLE.

17. WHAT ARE ENTITIES AND RELATIONSHIPS.

ENTITIES:
-------------------
A PERSON, PLACE OR THINGS IN THE REAL WORLD ABOUT
WHICH DATA CAN BE STORED IN A DATABASE. TABLES STORE DATA THAT
REPRESENTS ONE TYPE OF ENTITY.

RELATIONSHIPS:
----------------------------
RELATION OR LINKS BETWEEN ENTITIES THAT HAVE SOMETHING
TO DO WITH EACH OTHER. THERE CAN ALSO BE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
SEPARATE TABLES.

18. WHAT IS AN INDEX.

INDEX:
-------------
--> PERFORMANCE TUNING METHOD.
--> ALLOWS FASTER RETRIEVAL OF RECORDS FROM THE TABLE.
--> CREATES AN ENTRY FOR EACH VALUE.
19. EXPLAIN DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDEX.
UNIQUE INDEX:
--------------------------
THIS INDEX DOES NOT ALLOW THE FIELD TO HAVE DUPLICATE
VALUES IF THE COLUMN IS UNIQUE INDEXED. IF A PRIMARY KEY IS DEFINED,
A UNIQUE INDEX CAN BE APPLIED AUTOMATICALLY.

CLUSTERED INDEX:
------------------------------
THIS INDEX REORDERS THE PHYSICAL ORDER OF THE TABLE
AND SEARCHES BASED ON THE BASIS OF KEY VALUES. EACH TABLE CAN
ONLY HAVE ONE CLUSTERED INDEX.

NON-CLUSTERED INDEX:
---------------------------------------
IT DOES NOT ALTER THE PHYSICAL ORDER OF THE TABLE AND
MAINTAINS A LOGICAL ORDER OF THE DATA. EACH TABLE CAN HAVE MANY
NON-CLUSTERED INDEXES.

20. WHAT IS NORMALIZATION AND WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF IT.

NORMALIZATION:
------------------------------
IT IS THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZING DATA TO AVOID
DUPLICATION AND REDUNDANCY.

ADVANTAGES:
--------------------------
--> BETTER DATABASE ORGANIZATION.
--> MORE TABLES WITH SMALLER ROWS.
--> EFFICIENT DATA ACCESS.
--> GREATER FLEXIBILITY OF QUERIES.
--> QUICKLY FIND THE INFORMATION.
 --> EASIER TO IMPLEMENT SECURITY.
--> ALLOWS EASY MODIFICATION.
--> REDUCTION OF REDUNDANT AND DUPLICATE DATA.
--> MORE COMPACT DATABASE.
--> ENSURE CONSISTENT DATA AFTER MODIFICATION.

21. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DROP AND TRUNCATE.

DROP:
----------------
IT REMOVES A TABLE AND IT CAN BE ROLLBACKED.

TRUNCATE:
----------------------
IT REMOVES ALL THE RECORDS FROM THE TABLE AND IT
CANNOT BE ROLLBACKED.

22. EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF NORMALIZATION.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF NORMALIZATION:
--------------------------------------------------------------
1. FIRST NORMAL FORM
2. SECOND NORMAL FORM
3. THIRD NORMAL FORM
4. BOYCE-CODD NORMAL FORM

FIRST NORMAL FORM:

---------------------------------
• NO DUPLICATE RECORDS.
• MULTIVALUED DATA SHOULD NOT BE PRESENT.
SECOND NORMAL FORM:
--------------------------------------
• TABLE SHOULD BE IN FIRST NORMAL FORM.
• TABLE SHOULD NOT HAVE PARTIAL FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY.
THIRD NORMAL FORM:
-------------------------------------
• TABLE SHOULD BE IN SECOND NORMAL FORM.
• TABLE SHOULD NOT HAVE TRANSITIVE FUNCTIONAL
DEPENDENCY.
BOYCE-CODD NORMAL FORM:
----------------------------------------------
IF YOUR DATABASE IS IN THIRD NORMAL FORM, THERE WOULD BE
SOME SCENARIOS WHERE ANOMALIES WOULD BE PRESENT, IF YOU HAVE
MORE THAN CANDIDATE KEY. THEN BCNF COMES INTO ROLE, WHERE YOU
DIVIDE YOUR TABLES FURTHER SO THAT THERE WOULD BE ONLY ONE
CANDIDATE KEY PRESENT.

23. WHAT IS ACID PROPERTY IN A DATABASE.

A---- ATOMICITY
C---- CONSISTENCY
I---- ISOLATION
D---- DURABILITY

24. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY TRIGGER IN SQL.

TRIGGER:
---------------
TRIGGERS ARE A SPECIAL TYPE OF STORED PROCEDURES THAT
ARE DEFINED TO EXECUTE AUTOMATICALLY IN PLACE OR AFTER DATA
MODIFICATIONS. IT ALLOWS YOU TO EXECUTE A BATCH OF CODE WHEN AN
INSERT, UPDATE OR ANY OTHER QUERY IS EXECUTED AGAINST A SPECIFIC
TABLE.
BEFORE INSERT--- ACTIVATED BEFORE DATA IS INSERTED INTO THE
TABLE.
AFTER INSERT--- ACTIVATED AFTER DATA IS INSERTED INTO THE
TABLE.
BEFORE UPDATE--- ACTIVATED BEFORE DATA IN THE TABLE IS
UPDATED.
 AFTER UPDATE--- ACTIVATED AFTER THE DATA IN THE TABLE IS
UPDATED.
BEFORE DELETE--- ACTIVATED BEFORE DATA IS REMOVED FROM THE
TABLE.
AFTER DELETE--- ACTIVATED AFTER DATA IS REMOVED FROM THE
TABLE.

25. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT OPERATORS AVAILABLE IN SQL.

➢ ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
➢ BITWISE OPERATORS
➢ COMPARISON OPERATORS
➢ COMPOUND OPERATORS
➢ LOGICAL OPERATORS

26. ARE NULL VALUES SAME AS THAT OF ZERO OR A BLANK SPACE.

➢ A NULL VALUE IS NOT AT ALL SAME AS THAT OF ZERO OR A
BLANK SPACE.
(OR)
➢ NULL VALUE REPRESENTS A VALUE WHICH IS UNAVAILABLE,
UNKNOWN, ASSIGNED OR NOT APPLICABLE WHEREAS A ZERO IS
A NUMBER AND BLANK SPACE IS A CHARACTER.

27. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CROSS JOIN AND NATURAL JOIN.
CROSS JOIN:
-----------------
➢ A RECORD FROM TABLE IS MERGED WITH ALL THE RECORDS OF
TABLE2.
➢ IT IS ALSO CALLED AS ‘CARTESIAN JOIN’.
NATURAL JOIN:
-----------------------
➢ IT BEHAVES AS INNER JOIN IF THERE IS A RELATION BETWEEN
THE TABLES ELSE, IT BEHAVES AS CROSS JOIN.
28. WHAT IS SUB QUERY IN SQL.
SUB QUERY:
------------------
A QUERY WRITTEN INSIDE A QUERY IS KNOWN AS SUB QUERY.
WORKING PROCEDURE OF SUB QUERY:
------------------------------------------------
• LET US CONSIDER TWO QUERIES, OUTER QUERY AND INNER
QUERY.
• FIRST INNER QUERY STARTS THE EXECUTION AND PRODUCES
ONE OUTPUT.
• THAT OUTPUT IS FED/ GIVEN AS AN INPUT TO THE OUTER QUERY.
• NOW, OUTER QUERY WILL STARTS THE EXECUTION AND
PRODUCES THE RESULT.
• BY SEEING THIS, WE CAN SAY THAT OUTER QUERY IS
DEPENDENT ON INNER QUERY.
• THIS IS THE WORKING PROCEDURE OF SUB QUERY.
29. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF A SUB QUERY.
TYPES OF SUB QUERIES:
-----------------------------------
➔ CORELATED SUB QUERY
➔ NON- CORELATED SUB QUERY
CORELATED SUB QUERY:
------------------------------------
THESE ARE QUERIES WHICH SELECT THE DATA FROM A TABLE
REFERENCED IN THE OUTER QUERY. IT IS NOT CONSIDERED AS AN
INDEPENDENT QUERY AS IT REFERS TO ANOTHER TABLE AND REFERS
THE COLUMN IN A TABLE.

NON- CORELATED SUB QUERY:

-------------------------------------------------
THIS QUERY IS AN INDEPENDENT QUERY WHERE THE OUTPUT OF
SUBQUERY IS SUBSTITUED IN THE MAIN QUERY.
30. CAN YOU LIST THE WAYS TO GET THE COUNT OF RECORDS IN A TABLE.
TO COUNT THE NUMBER OF RECORDS IN A TABLE, YOU CAN USE THE
BELOW COMMANDS:
SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM TABLE_NAME;
31. WRITE A SQL QUERY TO FIND THE NAMES OF EMPLOYEES THAT BEGIN
WITH ‘A’.
TO DISPLAY NAME OF THE EMPLOYEES THAT BEGIN WITH ‘A’, USE THE
BELOW COMMAND:
SELECT EMPLOYEE_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME
WHERE EMPLOYEE_NAME LIKE ‘A%’;

32. WRITE A SQL QUERY TO GET THE THIRD HIGHEST SALARY OF AN

EMPLOYEE FROM EMPLOYEE_TABLE.
TO DISPLAY THE THIRD HIGHEST SALARY, USE THE BELOW COMMAND.

SELECT MAX(SALARY)
FROM TABLE_NAME
WHERE SALARY<(SELECT MAX(SALARY)
FROM TABLE_NAME
WHERE SALARY<(SELECT MAX(SALARY)
FROM TABLE_NAME));

(OR)

SELECT T1.SALARY
FROM TABLE_NAME T1
WHERE (SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT T2.SALARY)
FROM TABLE_NAME T2
WHERE TABLE_NAME T1<TABLE_NAME T2)=2;
33. WHAT IS THE NEED OF GROUP FUNCTIONS IN SQL.
GROUP FUNCTION:
----------------------------
➔ IT WORKS ON THE SET OF ROWS AND RETURNS ONE OUTPUT .
(OR)
➔ IT TAKES ALL THE INPUTS AND EXECUTES AND PRODUCES ONLY
ONE OUTPUT.
➔ IT IS ALSO CALLED AS ‘MULTI ROW FUNCTION’/ AGGREGRATE
FUNCTION.
➔ SOME COMMONLY USED GROUP FUNCTIONS ARE:
o AVG()
o COUNT()
o MAX()
o MIN()
o SUM()
34. WHAT IS A RELATIONSHIP AND WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF
REALTIONSHIPS.
RELATIONSHIP:
----------------------
RELATION OR LINKS ARE BETWEEN ENTITIES THAT HAVE
SOMETHING TO DO WITH EACH OTHER. RELATIONSHIPS ARE DEFINED AS THE
CONNECTION BETWEEN THE TABLES IN A DATABASE.
TYPES OF RELATIONSHIP:
----------------------------------------
➔ ONE TO ONE RELATIONSHIP
➔ ONE TO MANY RELATIONSHIP
➔ MANY TO ONE RELATIONSHIP
➔ SELF-REFERENCING RELATIONSHIP

35. HOW CAN YOU INSERT NULL VALUES IN A COLUMN WHILE INSERTING THE
DATA.
NULL VALUES CAN BE INSERTED IN THE FOLLOWING WAYS:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
➔ IMPLICITLY BY OMITTING COLUMN FROM COLUMN LIST.
➔ EXPLICITLY BY SPECIFYING NULL KEYWORD IN THE
VALUES CLAUSE.
36. WHAT IS THE MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN “BETWEEN” AND “IN”
OPERATORS.
BETWEEN:
----------------
➔ IT IS USED WHENEVER WE HAVE A RANGES OF VALUES
(LOWER_RANGE & HIGHER_RANGE OR STARTING_VALUE &
ENDING_VALUE).
➔ SYNTAX:
o COLUMN_NAME/ EXPRESSION BETWEEN LOWER_RANGE
AND HIGHER_RANGE

IN:
---
➔ IT IS USED TO PASS MULTIPLE VALUES AT THE R.H.S
➔ SYNTAX:
o COLUMN_NAME/ EXPRESSION IN (V1,V2,V3,……..Vn)

37. WHY ARE SQL FUNCTIONS USED.

SQL FUNCTIONS ARE USED FOR THE FOLLOWING PURPOSES:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
➔ TO PERFORM SOME CALCULATIONS ON THE DATA.
➔ TO MODIFY INDIVIDUAL DATA ITEMS.
➔ TO MANIPULATE THE OUTPUT.
➔ TO FORMAT DATES AND NUMBERS.
➔ TO CONVERT THE DATATYPES.

38. WHAT IS THE NEED OF MERGE STATEMENT.

➢ ALLOWS CONDITIONAL UPDATE OR INSERTION OF DATA INTO A
TABLE.
➢ IT PERFORMS AN UPDATE IF A ROW EXISTS, OR AN INSERT IF THE
ROW DOES NOT EXIST.
39. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY RECURSIVE STORED PROCEDURE.
➢ RECURSIVE STORED PROCEDURE REFERS TO A STORED
PROCEDURE WHICH CALLS BY ITSELF UNTIL IT RESEARCHES
SOME BOUNDARY CONDITION.
➢ THIS RECURSIVE FUNCTION OR PROCEDURE HELPS THE
PROGRAMMERS TO USE THE SAME SET OF CODE ‘N’ NUMBER OF
ITEMS.

40. WHAT IS CLAUSE IN SQL.

SQL CLAUSE HELPS TO LIMIT THE RESULT SET BY PROVIDING A
CONDITION TO THE QUERY. A CLAUSE HELPS TO FILTER THE ROWS FROM THE
ENTIRE SET OF RECORDS.

41. WHAT IS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HAVING AND WHERE CLAUSE.

WHERE CLAUSE:
------------------------
✓ IT IS USED TO FILTER THE RECORDS.
✓ IT EXECUTE ROW BY ROW.
✓ WE CAN’T WRITE MULTI ROW FUNCTIONS IN WHERE CLAUSE.
✓ WHERE CLAUSE EXECUTES AFTER THE EXECUTION OF FROM
CLAUSE (OR) BEFORE THE EXECUTION OF GROUP BY CLAUSE.
HAVING CLAUSE:
-------------------------
✓ IT IS USED TO FILTER THE GROUPS.
✓ IT EXECUTES GROUP BY GROUP.
✓ WE CAN WRITE MULTI ROW FUNCTIONS IN HAVING CLAUSE.
✓ HAVING CLAUSE EXECUTES AFTER THE EXECUTION OF GROUP
BY CLAUSE.

42. LIST THE WAYS IN WHICH DYNAMIC SQL CAN BE EXECUTED.

FOLLOWING ARE THE WAYS IN WHICH DYNAMIC SQL CAN BE
EXECUTED:
▪ WRITE A QUERY WITH PARAMETERS.
▪ USING EXEC
▪ USING SO_EXECUTESQL
43. WHAT ARE THE VARIOUS LEVELS OF CONSTRAINTS.
LEVELS OF CONSTRAINTS:
▪ COLUMN LEVEL CONSTRAINT
▪ TABLE LEVEL CONSTRAINT
44. LIST SOME CASE MANIPULATION FUNCTIONS IN SQL.
LOWER:
-----------
THIS FUNCTION RETURNS THE STRING IN LOWERCASE. IT TAKES
A STRING AS AN ARGUMENT AND RETURNS IT BY CONVERTING IT INTO
LOWER CASE.
SYNATX: LOWER(‘STRING’)

UPPER:
---------
THIS FUNCTION RETURNS THE STRING IN UPPERCASE. IT TAKES
A STRING AS AN ARGUMENT AND RETURNS IT BY CONVERTING IT INTO
UPPERCASE.
SYNTAX: UPPER(‘STRING’)

INITCAP:
------------
THIS FUNCTION RETURNS THE STRING WITH THE FIRST LETTER
IN UPPERCASE AND REST OF THE LETTERS IN LOWERCASE.
SYNTAX: INITCAP(‘STRING’)

45. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT SET OPERATORS AVAILABLE IN SQL.

SET OPERATORS:
------------------------
UNION:
COMBINES ROWS FROM BOTH THE QUERIES.
INTERSECT:
KEEPS ONLY THOSE ROWS WHICH ARE COMMON IN BOTH
THE QUERIES.
 MINUS:
KEEPS ROWS FROM THE LEFT QUERY WHICH ARE NOT
INCLUDED IN THE RIGHT QUERY.

46. WHAT IS ALIAS.

ALIAS:
-------------
→IT IS A ALTERNATIVE NAME GIVEN FOR A COLUMN IN THE
RESULT TABLE.
→WE CAN ASSIGN ALIAS NAME WITH/ WITHOUT USING A
KEYWORD CALLED ‘AS’.
→ALIAS NAME MUST BE A SINGLE STRING WHICH IS ENCLOSED
BY USING DOUBLE QUOTES OR SEPERATED BY AN UNDERSCORE.

47.WHAT ARE AGGREGRATE AND SCALAR FUNCTION.

AGGREGRATE FUNCTION:
------------------------------------------
→IT TAKES ALL THE INPUTS AT A SORT EXECUTES AND
PRODUCES SINGLE OUTPUT.
→IT IS ALSO KNOWN AS ‘MULTI ROW FUNCTION/ GROUP
FUNC’ION'.

SCALAR FUNCTION:
------------------------------------
IT RETURNS A SINGLE VALUE BASED ON THE INPUT VALUE.
EX: UCASE(), NOW()

48. HOW CAN YOU FETCH ALTERNATE RECORDS FROM THE TABLE.
YOU CAN FETCH ALTERNATE RECORDS i.e.., BOTH ODD AND EVEN
NUMBERS.
EXAMPLE1: TO DISPLAY EVEN NUMBER, USE THE FOLLOWING
COMMAND:
 SELECT STUDENTID
FROM (SELECT ROWNO,STUDENTID
FROM STUDENT)
WHERE MOD(ROWNO,2)=0;

EXAMPLE2: TO DISPLAY ODD NUMBER, USE THE FOLLOWING COMMAND:

SELECT STUDENTID
FROM (SELECT ROWNO,STUDENTID
FROM STUDENT)
WHERE MOD(ROWNO,2)=1;

49. NAME THE OPERATOR WHICH IS USED IN THE QUERY FOR PATTERN
MATCHING.
OPERATORS USED FOR PATTERN MATCHING:
LIKE:
*IT IS USED FOR PATTERN MATCHING.
*TO ACHIEVE PATTERN MATCHING WE HAVE TO TWO
SPECIAL OPERATORS, THEY ARE:
→PERCENTILE
→UNDERSCORE
PERCENTILE:
IT CAN ACCEPT ANY NUMBER OF CHARACTERS, ANY
NUMBER OF TIMES, AND NO CHARACTERS.

UNDERSCORE:
IT CAN ACCEPT ONLY ONE CHARACTER BUT ANY
CHARACTER.

50. HOW CAN YOU SELECT UNIQUE RECORDS FROM A TABLE.

YOU CAN SELECT UNIQUE RECORDS FROM A TABLE BY USING THE
DISTINCT KEYWORD.
EXAMPLE:
SELECT DISTINCT STUDENTID
FROM STUDENT;

51. HOW CAN YOU FETCH FIRST 5 CHARACTERS OF THE STRING.

THERE ARE A LOT OF WAYS TO FETCH CHARCTERS FROM A STRING.
EXAMPLE:
USE SUBSTRING()
SELECT SUBSTRING(STUDENT_NAME,1,5)
FROM STUDENT ;
USE RIGHT()
SELECT RIGHT(STUDENT_NAME,5)
FROM STUDENT;

52. WHAT IS THE MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SQL AND PL/SQL.

SQL:
--------------
IT IS A QUERY LANGUAGE THAT ALLOWS YOU TO ISSUE A
SINGLE QUERY OR EXECUTE A SINGLE INSERT/ UPDATE/ DELETE.

PL/SQL:
---------------
IT IS A PROCEDURAL LANGUAGE WHICH ALLOWS YOU TO WRITE
A FULL PROGRAM TO ACCOMPLISH MULTIPLE OPERATIONS SUCH AS
SELECTS/ INSERTS/ UPDATES/ DELETES.

53. WHAT IS A VIEW.

VIEW:
----------
IT IS A VIRTUAL TABLE WHICH CONSISTS OF A SUBSET OF DATA
CONTAINED IN A TABLE. SINCE VIEWS ARE NOT PRESENT, IT TAKES LESS
SPACE TO STORE. VIEW CAN HAVE DATA OF ONE OR MORE TABLES
COMBINED AND IT DEPENDS ON THE RELATIONSHIP.

54. WHAT ARE VIEWS USED FOR.

→A VIEW REFERS TO A LOGICAL SNAPSHOT BASED ON A TABLE OR
ANOTHER VIEW.
→IT IS USED FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:
• RESTRICTING ACCESS TO DATA.
• MAKING COMPLEX QUERIES SIMPLE.
• ENSURING DATA INDEPENDENCE.
• PROVIDING DIFFERENT VIEWS OF SAME DATA.

55. WHAT IS A STORED PROCEDURE.

STORED PROCEDURES:
-----------------------------------
→A FUNCTION WHICH CONSISTS OF MANY SQL STATEMENTS TO
ACCESS THE DATABSE SYSTEM.
→SEVERAL SQL STATEMENTS ARE CONSOLIDATED INTO A
STORED PROCEDURE AND ARE EXECUTED WHENEVER AND WHEREEVER
REQUIRED.
→THIS SAVES TIME AND AVOID WRITING CODE AGAIN AND
AGAIN.

56. LIST SOME ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STORED PROCEDURE.

ADVANTAGES OF STORED PROCEDURES:
----------------------------------------------------------
• IT CAN BE USED AS A MODULAR PROGRAMMING WHICH
MEANS CREATE ONCE, STORE AND CALL FOR SEVERAL
TIMES WHENEVER IT IS REQUIRED.
• THIS SUPPORTS FASTER EXECUTION.
• IT ALSO REDUCES NETWORK TRAFFIC AND PROVIDES
BETTER SECURITY TO THE DATA.
 DISADVANTAGES OF STORED PROCEDURES:
--------------------------------------------------------------------
• THE ONLY DISADVANTAGE OF STORED PROCEDURE IS
THAT IT CAN BE EXECUTED ONLY IN THE DATABASE AND
UTILIZES MORE MEMORY IN THE DATABSE SERVER.

57. LIST ALL THE TYPES OF USER-DEFINED FUNCTIONS.

THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF USER-DEFINED FUNCTIONS.
→SCALAR FUNCTIONS
→MUTI-STATEMENT VALUED FUNCTIONS
→INLINE TABLE-VALUED FUNCTIONS

58. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY COLLATION.

COLLATION:
--------------------
IT IS DEFINED AS A SET OF RULES THAT DETERMINE HOW DATA
CAN BE SORTED AS WELL AS COMPARED.
CHARACTER DATA IS SORTED USING THE RULES THAT DEFINE THE
CORRECT CHARCTER SEQUENCE ALONG WITH OPTIONS FOR SPECIFYING
CASE-SENSITIVITY, CHARACTER WIDTH etc..,

59. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF COLLATION SENSITIVITY.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF COLLATION SENSITIVITY ARE AS FOLLOWS;
→CASE SENSITIVITY
→KANA SENSITIVITY
→WIDTH SENSITIVITY
→ACCENT SENSITIVITY.
60. WHAT ARE LOCAL AND GLOBAL VARIABLES.
LOCAL VARIABLES:
----------------------------------
THESE VARIABLES CAN BE USED OR EXIST ONLY INSIDE THE
FUNCTION. THESE VARIABLES ARE NOT USED OR REFERRED BY ANY OTHER
FUNCTION.
GLOBAL VARIABLES:
-----------------------------------
THESE VARIABLES ARE THE VARIABLES WHICH CAN BE
ACCESSED THROUGHOUT THE PROGRAM. GLOBAL VARIABLES CANNOT BE
CREATED WHENEVER THAT FUNCTION IS CALLED.

61. WHAT IS AUTO INCREMENT IN SQL.

AUTO INCREMENT:
-------------------------------
→ALLOWS THE USER TO CREATE A UNIQUE NUMBER TO GET
GENERATED WHWNEVER A NEW RECORD IS INSERTED INTO THE TABLE.
→THIS KEYWORD IS USUALLY REQUIRED WHENEVER PRIMARY
KEY IS USED.
→AUTO INCREMENT KEYWORD CAN BE USED IN ORACLE AND
IDENTITY KEYWORD CAN BE USED IN SQL SERVER.

62. WHAT IS A DATAWAREHOUSE.

DATAWAREHOUSE:
-------------------------------
• DATAWAREHOUSE REFERS TO A CENTRAL REPOSITORY OF
DATA WHERE THE DATA IS ASSEMBLED FROM MULTIPLE
SOURCES OF INFORMATION.
• THOSE DATA ARE CONSOLIDATED, TRANSFORMED AND
MADE AVAILABLE FOR THE MINING AS WELL AS ONLINE
PROCESSING.
• WAREHOUSE DATA ALSO HAVE A SUBSET OF DATA
CALLED DATA MARTS.
63. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT AUTHENTICATION MODES IN SQL SERVER.
HOW CAN IT BE CHANGED.
AUTHENTICATION MODES:
----------------------------------------
→WINDOWS MODE
→MIXED MODE

STEPS TO CHANGE AUTHENTICATION MODE IN SQL SERVER:

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• CLICK START ->PROGRAMS-> MICROSOFT SQL SERVER AND
CLICK SQL ENTERPRISE MANAGE TO RUN SQL ENTERPRISE
MANAGER FROM THE MICROSOFT SQL SERVER PROGRAM
GROUP.
• THEN SELECT THE SERVER FROM THE TOOLS MENU.
• SELECT SQL SERVER CONFIGURATION PROPERTIES, AND CHOOSE
THE SECURITY PAGE.

64. WHAT ARE STUFF AND REPLACE FUNCTION.

STUFF FUNCTION:
--------------------------
THIS FUNCTION IS USED TO OVERWRITE EXISTING CHARACTER
OR INSERTS A STRING INTO ANOTHER STRING.
EX;
STUFF(STRING_EXPRESSION,
START,LENGTH,REPLACEMENT_CHARACTERS)
REPLACE FUNCTION:
--------------------------------
THIS FUNCTION IS USED TO REPLACE THE EXISTING
CHARACTERS OF ALL THE OCCURANCES.
EX;

REPLACE(STRING_EXPRESSION,SEARCH_STRING,REPLACEMENT_STRIN
G)