Designation: D257 − 14

Standard Test Methods for

DC Resistance or Conductance of Insulating Materials1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D257; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the U.S. Department of Defense.

1. Scope* lation (Withdrawn 2013)3

1.1 These test methods cover direct-current procedures for D1169 Test Method for Specific Resistance (Resistivity) of
the measurement of dc insulation resistance, volume resistance, Electrical Insulating Liquids
and surface resistance. From such measurements and the D1711 Terminology Relating to Electrical Insulation
geometric dimensions of specimen and electrodes, both vol- D4496 Test Method for D-C Resistance or Conductance of
ume and surface resistivity of electrical insulating materials Moderately Conductive Materials
can be calculated, as well as the corresponding conductances D5032 Practice for Maintaining Constant Relative Humidity
and conductivities. by Means of Aqueous Glycerin Solutions
D6054 Practice for Conditioning Electrical Insulating Mate-
1.2 These test methods are not suitable for use in measuring rials for Testing (Withdrawn 2012)3
the electrical resistance/conductance of moderately conductive E104 Practice for Maintaining Constant Relative Humidity
materials. Use Test Method D4496 to evaluate such materials. by Means of Aqueous Solutions
1.3 This standard describes several general alternative
methodologies for measuring resistance (or conductance). 3. Terminology
Specific materials can be tested most appropriately by using 3.1 Definitions:
standard ASTM test methods applicable to the specific material 3.1.1 The following definitions are taken from Terminology
that define both voltage stress limits and finite electrification D1711 and apply to the terms used in the text of this standard.
times as well as specimen configuration and electrode geom- 3.1.2 conductance, insulation, n—the ratio of the total
etry. These individual specific test methodologies would be volume and surface current between two electrodes (on or in a
better able to define the precision and bias for the determina- specimen) to the dc voltage applied to the two electrodes.
tion. 3.1.2.1 Discussion—Insulation conductance is the recipro-
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the cal of insulation resistance.
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the 3.1.3 conductance, surface, n—the ratio of the current
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- between two electrodes (on the surface of a specimen) to the dc
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- voltage applied to the electrodes.
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. 3.1.3.1 Discussion—(Some volume conductance is unavoid-
ably included in the actual measurement.) Surface conductance
2. Referenced Documents is the reciprocal of surface resistance.
2.1 ASTM Standards:2 3.1.4 conductance, volume, n—the ratio of the current in the
D150 Test Methods for AC Loss Characteristics and Permit- volume of a specimen between two electrodes (on or in the
tivity (Dielectric Constant) of Solid Electrical Insulation specimen) to the dc voltage applied to the two electrodes.
D374 Test Methods for Thickness of Solid Electrical Insu- 3.1.4.1 Discussion—Volume conductance is the reciprocal
of volume resistance.
3.1.5 conductivity, surface, n—the surface conductance
1
These test methods are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D09 on multiplied by that ratio of specimen surface dimensions (dis-
Electrical and Electronic Insulating Materials and are the direct responsibility of tance between electrodes divided by the width of electrodes
Subcommittee D09.12 on Electrical Tests. defining the current path) which transforms the measured
Current edition approved April 1, 2014. Published May 2014. Originally
approved in 1925. Last previous edition approved in 2007 as D257 – 07. DOI: conductance to that obtained if the electrodes had formed the
10.1520/D0257-14. opposite sides of a square.
2
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM
3
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on
the ASTM website. www.astm.org.

*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States

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 D257 − 14
3.1.5.1 Discussion—Surface conductivity is expressed in conductivity is calculated with the known specimen and
siemens. It is popularly expressed as siemens/square (the size electrode dimensions are known.
of the square is immaterial). Surface conductivity is the
reciprocal of surface resistivity. 5. Significance and Use
3.1.6 conductivity, volume, n—the volume conductance 5.1 Insulating materials are used to isolate components of an
multiplied by that ratio of specimen volume dimensions electrical system from each other and from ground, as well as
(distance between electrodes divided by the cross-sectional to provide mechanical support for the components. For this
area of the electrodes) which transforms the measured conduc- purpose, it is generally desirable to have the insulation resis-
tance to that conductance obtained if the electrodes had formed tance as high as possible, consistent with acceptable
the opposite sides of a unit cube. mechanical, chemical, and heat-resisting properties. Since
3.1.6.1 Discussion—Volume conductivity is usually ex- insulation resistance or conductance combines both volume
pressed in siemens/centimetre or in siemens/metre and is the and surface resistance or conductance, its measured value is
reciprocal of volume resistivity. most useful when the test specimen and electrodes have the
3.1.7 moderately conductive, adj—describes a solid material same form as is required in actual use. Surface resistance or
having a volume resistivity between 1 and 10 000 000 Ω-cm. conductance changes rapidly with humidity, while volume
resistance or conductance changes slowly with the total change
3.1.8 resistance, insulation, (Ri), n—the ratio of the dc
being greater in some cases.
voltage applied to two electrodes (on or in a specimen) to the
total volume and surface current between them. 5.2 Resistivity or conductivity is used to predict, indirectly,
3.1.8.1 Discussion—Insulation resistance is the reciprocal the low-frequency dielectric breakdown and dissipation factor
of insulation conductance. properties of some materials. Resistivity or conductivity is
3.1.9 resistance, surface, (Rs), n—the ratio of the dc voltage often used as an indirect measure of: moisture content, degree
applied to two electrodes (on the surface of a specimen) to the of cure, mechanical continuity, or deterioration of various
current between them. types. The usefulness of these indirect measurements is depen-
3.1.9.1 Discussion—(Some volume resistance is unavoid- dent on the degree of correlation established by supporting
ably included in the actual measurement.) Surface resistance is theoretical or experimental investigations. A decrease of sur-
the reciprocal of surface conductance. face resistance results either in an increase of the dielectric
breakdown voltage because the electric field intensity is
3.1.10 resistance, volume, (Rv), n—the ratio of the dc reduced, or a decrease of the dielectric breakdown voltage
voltage applied to two electrodes (on or in a specimen) to the because the area under stress is increased.
current in the volume of the specimen between the electrodes.
3.1.10.1 Discussion—Volume resistance is the reciprocal of 5.3 All the dielectric resistances or conductances depend on
volume conductance. the length of time of electrification and on the value of applied
voltage (in addition to the usual environmental variables).
3.1.11 resistivity, surface, (ρs), n—the surface resistance These must be known and reported to make the measured value
multiplied by that ratio of specimen surface dimensions (width of resistance or conductance meaningful. Within the electrical
of electrodes defining the current path divided by the distance insulation materials industry, the adjective “apparent” is gen-
between electrodes) which transforms the measured resistance erally applied to resistivity values obtained under conditions of
to that obtained if the electrodes had formed the opposite sides arbitrarily selected electrification time. See X1.4.
of a square.
3.1.11.1 Discussion—Surface resistivity is expressed in 5.4 Volume resistivity or conductivity is calculated from
ohms. It is popularly expressed also as ohms/square (the size of resistance and dimensional data for use as an aid in designing
the square is immaterial). Surface resistivity is the reciprocal of an insulator for a specific application. Studies have shown
surface conductivity. changes of resistivity or conductivity with temperature and
humidity (1, 2, 3, 4).4 These changes must be known when
3.1.12 resistivity, volume, (ρv), n—the volume resistance
designing for operating conditions. Volume resistivity or con-
multiplied by that ratio of specimen volume dimensions
ductivity determinations are often used in checking the unifor-
(cross-sectional area of the specimen between the electrodes
mity of an insulating material, either with regard to processing
divided by the distance between electrodes) which transforms
or to detect conductive impurities that affect the quality of the
the measured resistance to that resistance obtained if the
material and that are not readily detectable by other methods.
electrodes had formed the opposite sides of a unit cube.
3.1.12.1 Discussion—Volume resistivity is usually ex- 5.5 Volume resistivities above 1021 Ω·cm (1019 Ω·m), cal-
pressed in ohm-centimetres (preferred) or in ohm-metres. culated from data obtained on specimens tested under usual
Volume resistivity is the reciprocal of volume conductivity. laboratory conditions, are of doubtful validity, considering the
limitations of commonly used measuring equipment.
4. Summary of Test Methods
5.6 Surface resistance or conductance cannot be measured
4.1 The resistance or conductance of a material specimen or accurately, only approximated, because some degree of volume
of a capacitor is determined from a measurement of current or
of voltage drop under specified conditions. By using the
appropriate electrode systems, surface and volume resistance 4
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references appended to
or conductance are measured separately. The resistivity or these test methods.

2
 D257 − 14
resistance or conductance is always involved in the measure-
ment. The measured value is also affected by the surface
contamination. Surface contamination, and its rate of
accumulation, is affected by many factors including electro-
static charging and interfacial tension. These, in turn, affect the
surface resistivity. Surface resistivity or conductivity is con-
sidered to be related to material properties when contamination
is involved but is not a material property of electrical insulation
material in the usual sense.

6. Electrode Systems
6.1 The electrodes for insulating materials are to allow
intimate contact with the specimen surface, without introduc-
ing significant error because of electrode resistance or contami-
nation of the specimen (5). The electrode material is to be
corrosion-resistant under the conditions of the test. For tests of
fabricated specimens such as feed-through bushings, cables,
etc., the electrodes employed are a part of the specimen or its
mounting. In such cases, measurements of insulation resistance
or conductance include the contaminating effects of electrode
or mounting materials and are generally related to the perfor-
mance of the specimen in actual use.
6.1.1 Binding-Post and Taper-Pin Electrodes, Fig. 1 and
Fig. 2, provide a means of applying voltage to rigid insulating
materials to permit an evaluation of their resistive or conduc-
tive properties. These electrodes attempt to simulate the actual
conditions of use, such as binding posts on instrument panels
and terminal strips. In the case of laminated insulating mate-
rials having high-resin-content surfaces, lower insulation resis-
tance values are obtained with taper-pin than with binding FIG. 2 Taper-Pin Electrodes
posts, due to more intimate contact with the body of the
insulating material. Resistance or conductance values obtained
are highly influenced by the individual contact between each
pin and the dielectric material, the surface roughness of the
pins, and the smoothness of the hole in the dielectric material.
Reproducibility of results on different specimens is difficult to
obtain.
6.1.2 Metal Bars in the arrangement of Fig. 3 were primar-
ily devised to evaluate the insulation resistance or conductance
of flexible tapes and thin, solid specimens as a fairly simple
and convenient means of electrical quality control. This ar-
rangement is more satisfactory for obtaining approximate
values of surface resistance or conductance when the width of

FIG. 3 Strip Electrodes for Tapes and Flat, Solid Specimens

the insulating material is much greater than its thickness.

FIG. 1 Binding-Post Electrodes for Flat, Solid Specimens

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 D257 − 14
6.1.3 Silver Paint, Fig. 4, Fig. 5, and Fig. 6, is available
commercially with a high conductivity, either air-drying or
low-temperature-baking varieties, which are sufficiently po-
rous to permit diffusion of moisture through them and thereby
allow the test specimen to be conditioned after the application
of the electrodes. This is a particularly useful feature in
studying resistance-humidity effects, as well as change with
temperature. However, before conductive paint is used as an
electrode material, it shall be established that the solvent in the
paint does not attack the material changing its electrical
properties. Smooth edges of guard electrodes are obtained by
using a fine-bristle brush. However, for circular electrodes,
sharper edges are obtained by the use of a ruling compass and
silver paint for drawing the outline circles of the electrodes and
filling in the enclosed areas by brush.
6.1.4 Sprayed Metal, Fig. 4, Fig. 5, and Fig. 6, are used if
satisfactory adhesion to the test specimen can be obtained. it is
possible that thin sprayed electrodes will have certain advan-
tages in that they are ready for use as soon as applied.
6.1.5 Evaporated Metal are used under the same conditions
given in 6.1.4. FIG. 5 Tubular Specimen for Measuring Volume and Surface Re-
6.1.6 Metal Foil, Fig. 4, is applied to specimen surfaces as sistances or Conductances
electrodes. The thickness of metal foil used for resistance or
conductance studies of dielectrics ranges from 6 to 80 µm.
Lead or tin foil is in most common use, and is usually attached narrow roller (10 to 15 mm wide), and to roll outward on the
to the test specimen by a minimum quantity of petrolatum, surface until no visible imprint can be made on the foil with the
silicone grease, oil, or other suitable material, as an adhesive. roller. This technique is used satisfactorily only on specimens
Such electrodes shall be applied under a smoothing pressure that have very flat surfaces. With care, the adhesive film can be
sufficient to eliminate all wrinkles, and to work excess adhe- reduced to 2.5 µm. As this film is in series with the specimen,
sive toward the edge of the foil where it can be wiped off with it will always cause the measured resistance to be too high. It
a cleansing tissue. One very effective method is to use a hard is possible that this error will become excessive for the
lower-resistivity specimens of thickness less than 250 µm. Also
the hard roller can force sharp particles into or through thin
films (50 µm). Foil electrodes are not porous and will not allow
the test specimen to condition after the electrodes have been
applied. The adhesive loses its effectiveness at elevated tem-
peratures necessitating the use of flat metal back-up plates
under pressure. It is possible, with the aid of a suitable cutting
device, to cut a proper width strip from one electrode to form
a guarded and guard electrode. Such a three-terminal specimen
normally cannot be used for surface resistance or conductance
measurements because of the grease remaining on the gap
surface.
6.1.7 Colloidal Graphite, Fig. 4, dispersed in water or other
suitable vehicle, is brushed on nonporous, sheet insulating
materials to form an air-drying electrode. This electrode
material is recommended only if all of the following conditions
are met:
6.1.7.1 The material to be tested must accept a graphite
coating that will not flake before testing,
6.1.7.2 The material being tested must not absorb water
readily, and
6.1.7.3 Conditioning must be in a dry atmosphere (Proce-
dure B, Practice D6054), and measurements made in this same
atmosphere.
6.1.8 Liquid metal electrodes give satisfactory results and
are an alternate method to achieving the contact to the
FIG. 4 Flat Specimen for Measuring Volume and Surface Resis- specimen necessary for effective resistance measurements. The
tances or Conductances liquid metal forming the upper electrodes shall be confined by

4
 D257 − 14

FIG. 6 Conducting-Paint Electrodes

stainless steel rings, each of which shall have its lower rim
reduced to a sharp edge by beveling on the side away from the
liquid metal. Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 show two possible electrode
arrangements.
6.1.9 Flat Metal Plates, Fig. 4, (guarded) are used for
testing flexible and compressible materials, both at room
temperature and at elevated temperatures. For tapes, the flat
metal plates shall be circular or rectangular.

FIG. 8 Liquid Metal Cell for Thin Sheet Material

6.1.9.1 A variation of flat metal plate electrode systems is

found in certain cell designs used to measure greases or filling
compounds. Such cells are preassembled and the material to be
tested is either added to the cell between fixed electrodes or the
electrodes are forced into the material to a predetermined
electrode spacing. Because the configuration of the electrodes
in these cells is such that the effective electrode area and the
FIG. 7 Liquid Metal Electrodes for Flat, Solid Specimens distance between them is difficult to measure, each cell

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 D257 − 14
constant, K, (equivalent to the A/t factor from Table 1) is 6.1.11 Water is employed as one electrode in testing insu-
derived from the following equation: lation on wires and cables. Both ends of the specimen must be
K 5 3.6 π C 5 11.3 C (1) out of the water and of such length that leakage along the
where: insulation is negligible. Refer to specific wire and cable test
methods for the necessity to use guard at each end of a
K = has units of centimetres, and specimen. For standardization it is desirable to add sodium
C = has units of picofarads and is the capacitance of the chloride to the water to produce a sodium chloride concentra-
electrode system with air as the dielectric. See Test tion of 1.0 to 1.1 % NaCl to ensure adequate conductivity.
Methods D150 for methods of measurement for C Measurements at temperatures up to about 100 °C have been
6.1.10 Conducting Rubber has been used as electrode reported.
material, as in Fig. 4. The conductive-rubber material must be
backed by proper plates and be soft enough so that effective 7. Choice of Apparatus and Test Method
contact with the specimen is obtained when a reasonable 7.1 Power Supply—A source of steady direct voltage is
pressure is applied. required (see X1.7.3). Batteries or other stable direct voltage
NOTE 1—There is evidence that values of conductivity obtained using supplies have been proven suitable for use.
conductive-rubber electrodes are always smaller (20 to 70 %) than values 7.2 Guard Circuit—Whether measuring resistance of an
obtained with tinfoil electrodes (6). When only order-of-magnitude
accuracies are required, and these contact errors can be neglected, a insulating material with two electrodes (no guard) or with a
properly designed set of conductive-rubber electrodes can provide a rapid three-terminal system (two electrodes plus guard), consider
means for making conductivity and resistivity determinations. how the electrical connections are made between the test

TABLE 1 Calculation of Resistivity or ConductivityA

Effective Area of Measuring
Type of Electrodes or Specimen Volume Resistivity, Ω-cm Volume Conductivity, S/cm
Electrode
A t
ρ v5 R γ v5 G
t v A v
Circular (Fig. 4) A t π s D 1 1g d 2
ρ v5 R γ v5 G A5
t v A v 4
Rectangular A t A = (a + g) (b + g)
ρ v5 R γ v5 G
t v A v
A t 2
Square A = (a + g)
ρ v5 R γ v5 G
t v A v
Tubes (Fig. 5) A t A = πD0(L + g)
ρ v5 R γ v5 G
t v A v
Cables 2πLRv D2
ρ v5 ln
D2 D1
ln γ v5
D1 2πLRv

Surface Resistivity, Surface Conductivity, Effective Perimeter

Ω (per square) S (per square) of Guarded Electrode
P g
p s5 R s γ s5 G s
g P
Circular (Fig. 4) P g P = πD0
p s5 R s γ s5 G s
g P
Rectangular P g P = 2(a + b + 2g)
p s5 R s γ s5 G s
g P
Square P g P = 4(a + g)
p s5 R s γ s5 G s
g P
Tubes (Figs. 5 and 6) P g P = 2π D2
p s5 R s γ s5 G s
g P
Nomenclature:
A = the effective area of the measuring electrode for the particular arrangement employed,
P = the effective perimeter of the guarded electrode for the particular arrangement employed,
Rv = measured volume resistance in ohms,
Gv = measured volume conductance in siemens,
Rs = measured surface resistance in ohms,
Gs = measured surface conductance in siemens,
t = average thickness of the specimen,
D0, D1, D2, g, L = dimensions indicated in Fig. 4 and Fig. 6 (see Appendix X2 for correc-
tion to g),
a, b, = lengths of the sides of rectangular electrodes, and
ln = natural logarithm.
A
All dimensions are in centimetres.

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 D257 − 14
instrument and the test specimen. If the test specimen is at
some distance from the test instrument, or the test specimen is
tested under humid conditions, or if a relatively high (1010 to
1015 ohms) specimen resistance is expected, spurious resis-
tance paths can easily exist between the test instrument and test
specimen. A guard circuit must be used to minimize interfer-
ence from these spurious paths (see also X1.9).
7.2.1 With Guard Electrode—Use coaxial cable, with the
core lead to the guarded electrode and the shield to the guard
electrode, to make adequate guarded connections between the
test equipment and test specimen (see Fig. 9).
7.2.2 Without Guard Electrode—Use coaxial cable, with the
core lead to one electrode and the shield terminated about 1 cm
from the end of the core lead (see also Fig. 10).
7.3 Direct Measurements—The current through a specimen
at a fixed voltage is measured using equipment that has 610 %
sensitivity and accuracy. Current-measuring devices available
include electrometers, d-c amplifiers with indicating meters,
and galvanometers. Typical methods and circuits are given in
Appendix X3. When the measuring device scale is calibrated to
read ohms directly no calculations are required for resistance
measurements.
7.4 Comparison Methods—A Wheatstone-bridge circuit is
used to compare the resistance of the specimen with that of a FIG. 10 Connections to Unguarded Electrodes for Volume and
Surface Resistivity Measurements (Surface Resistance Hook-Up
standard resistor (see Appendix X3).
Shown)
7.5 Precision and Bias Considerations:
7.5.1 General—As a guide in the choice of apparatus, the
pertinent considerations are summarized in Table 2, but it is not applicable. This table is intended to indicate limits that are
implied that the examples enumerated are the only ones distinctly possible with modern apparatus. In any case, such
limits can be achieved or exceeded only through careful
selection and combination of the apparatus employed. It must
be emphasized, however, that the errors considered are those of
instrumentation only. Errors such as those discussed in Appen-
dix X1 are an entirely different matter. In this latter connection,
the last column of Table 2 lists the resistance that is shunted by
the insulation resistance between the guarded electrode and the
guard system for the various methods. In general, the lower
such resistance, the less probability of error from undue
shunting.
NOTE 2—No matter what measurement method is employed, the
highest precisions are achieved only with careful evaluation of all sources
of error. It is possible either to set up any of these methods from the
component parts, or to acquire a completely integrated apparatus. In
general, the methods using high-sensitivity galvanometers require a more
permanent installation than those using indicating meters or recorders. The
methods using indicating devices such as voltmeters, galvanometers, d-c
amplifiers, and electrometers require the minimum of manual adjustment
and are easy to read but the operator is required to make the reading at a
particular time. The Wheatstone bridge (Fig. X1.4) and the potentiometer
method (Fig. X1.2 (b)) require the undivided attention of the operator in
keeping a balance, but allow the setting at a particular time to be read at
leisure.
7.5.2 Direct Measurements:
7.5.2.1 Galvanometer-Voltmeter—The maximum percent-
age error in the measurement of resistance by the
galvanometer-voltmeter method is the sum of the percentage
errors of galvanometer indication, galvanometer readability,
FIG. 9 Connections to Guarded Electrode for Volume and Sur- and voltmeter indication. As an example: a galvanometer
face Resistivity Measurements (Volume Resistance hook-up shown) having a sensitivity of 500 pA/scale division will be deflected

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 D257 − 14
TABLE 2 Apparatus and Conditions for Use
Ohms Shunted by
Reference Maximum Ohms Maximum Ohms Insulation Resistance
Type of
Method Detectable Measurable to from Guard to
Measurement
Section Figure at 500 V ±6 % at 500 V Guarded
Electrode
Voltmeter-ammeter (galvanometer) X3.1 Fig. X1.1 10 12 1011 deflection 10 to 105
Comparison (galvanometer) X3.4 Fig. X1.3 10 12 1011 deflection 10 to 105
Voltmeter-ammeter (dc amplifica- X3.2 Fig. X1.2(a) deflection 102 to 109
tion, electrometer) (Position 1) 10 15 1013
Fig. X1.2(a) deflection 102 to 103
(Position 2) 10 15 1013 deflection 103 to 1011
Fig. X1.2(b) 10 17 1015 null 0 (effective)
Fig. X1.2(b) 10 17 1015
Comparison (Wheatstone bridge) X3.5 Fig. X1.4 10 15 1014 null 105 to 106
Voltage rate-of-change X3.3 Fig. X3.1 ;100 MΩ·F deflection unguarded
Megohmmeter (typical) commercial instruments 10 15 1014 direct-reading 104 to 1010

25 divisions with 500 V applied to a resistance of 40 GΩ scale deflection for a dc current amplifier). The error in Rs
(conductance of 25 pS). If the deflection is read to the nearest depends on the type of resistor used, but resistances of 1 MΩ
0.5 division, and the calibration error (including Ayrton Shunt with a limit of error as low as 0.1 % are available. With a
error) is 62 % of the observed value, the resultant galvanom- galvanometer or d-c current amplifier having a sensitivity of 10
eter error will not exceed 64 %. If the voltmeter has an error nA for full-scale deflection, 500 V applied to a resistance of 5
of 62 % of full scale, this resistance is measured with a TΩ will produce a 1 % deflection. At this voltage, with the
maximum error of 66 % when the voltmeter reads full scale, preceding noted standard resistor, and with Fs = 105, ds would
and 610 % when it reads one-third full scale. The desirability be about half of full-scale deflection, with a readability error
of readings near full scale are readily apparent. not more than 61 %. If dx is approximately 1⁄4 of full-scale
7.5.2.2 Voltmeter-Ammeter—The maximum percentage er- deflection, the readability error would not exceed 64 %, and a
ror in the computed value is the sum of the percentage errors resistance of the order of 200 GΩ is measured with a maximum
in the voltages, V x and Vs, and the resistance, Rs. The errors in error of 651⁄2 %.
Vs and Rs dependent more on the characteristics of the 7.5.2.4 Voltage Rate-of-Change—The accuracy of the mea-
apparatus used than on the particular method. The most surement is directly proportional to the accuracy of the
significant factors that determine the errors in Vs are indicator measurement of applied voltage and time rate of change of the
errors, amplifier zero drift, and amplifier gain stability. With electrometer reading. The length of time that the electrometer
modern, well-designed amplifiers or electrometers, gain stabil- switch is open and the scale used shall allow for obtaining an
ity is usually not a matter of concern. With existing techniques, accurate and full-scale reading obtained. Under these
the zero drift of direct voltage amplifiers or electrometers conditions, the accuracy will be comparable with that of the
cannot be eliminated but it can be made slow enough to be other methods of measuring current.
relatively insignificant for these measurements. The zero drift 7.5.2.5 Comparison Bridge—When the detector has ad-
is virtually nonexistent for carefully designed converter-type equate sensitivity, the maximum percentage error in the com-
amplifiers. Consequently, the null method of Fig. X1.2 (b) is puter resistance is the sum of the percentage errors in the arms,
theoretically less subject to error than those methods employ- A, B, and N. With a detector sensitivity of 1 mV/scale division,
ing an indicating instrument, provided, however, that the 500 V applied to the bridge, and RN = 1 GΩ, a resistance of
potentiometer voltage is accurately known. The error in Rs is 1000 TΩ will produce a detector deflection of one scale
dependent on the amplifier sensitivity. For measurement of a division. Assuming negligible errors in RA and RB, with RN = 1
given current, the higher the amplifier sensitivity, the greater GΩ known to within 62 % and with the bridge balanced to one
likelihood that lower valued, highly precise wire-wound stan- detector-scale division, a resistance of 100 TΩ is measured
dard resistors are acceptable for use. Standard resistances of with a maximum error of 66 %.
100 GΩ known to 62 %, are available. If 10-mV input to the 7.6 Several manufacturers supply the necessary components
amplifier or electrometer gives full-scale deflection with an or dedicated systems that meet the requirements of this
error not greater than 2 % of full scale, with 500 V applied, a methodology.
resistance of 5000 TΩ is measured with a maximum error of
6 % when the voltmeter reads full scale, and 10 % when it 8. Sampling
reads 1⁄3 scale.
7.5.2.3 Comparison-Galvanometer—The maximum per- 8.1 Refer to applicable materials specifications for sam-
centage error in the computed resistance or conductance is pling instructions.
given by the sum of the percentage errors in Rs, the galvanom-
eter deflections or amplifier readings, and the assumption that 9. Test Specimens
the current sensitivities are independent of the deflections. The 9.1 Insulation Resistance or Conductance Determination:
latter assumption is correct within 62 % over the useful range 9.1.1 The measurement is of greatest value when the speci-
(above 1⁄10 full-scale deflection) of a modern galvanometer (1⁄3 men has the form, electrodes, and mounting required in actual

8
 D257 − 14
use. Bushings, cables, and capacitors are typical examples for of the tube, the two parts being electrically connected by
which the test electrodes are a part of the specimen and its external means. The axial length of each of these parts is to be
normal mounting means. at least twice the wall thickness of the specimen. Electrode No.
9.1.2 For solid materials, the specimen forms most com- 3 must cover the inside surface of the specimen for an axial
monly used are flat plates, tapes, rods, and tubes. The electrode length extending beyond the outside gap edges by at least twice
arrangements of Fig. 2 are applicable for flat plates, rods, or the wall thickness. The tubular specimen (Fig. 5) is to take the
rigid tubes whose inner diameter is about 20 mm or more. The form of an insulated wire or cable. If the length of electrode is
electrode arrangement of Fig. 3 is applicable for strips of sheet more than 100 times the thickness of the insulation, the effects
material or for flexible tape. For rigid strip specimens the metal of the ends of the guarded electrode become negligible, and
support is not required. The electrode arrangements of Fig. 6 careful spacing of the guard electrodes is not required. Thus,
are applicable for flat plates, rods, or tubes. the gap between electrodes No. 1 and No. 2 is to be several
centimetres to permit sufficient surface resistance between
9.2 Volume Resistance or Conductance Determination:
these electrodes when water is used as electrode No. 1. In this
9.2.1 The test specimen form shall allow the use of a third case, no correction is made for the gap width.
electrode, when necessary, to guard against error from surface
effects. Test specimens in the form of flat plates, tapes, or tubes 9.3 Surface Resistance or Conductance Determination:
are acceptable for use. Fig. 4, Fig. 7, and Fig. 8 illustrate the 9.3.1 The test specimen form is to be consistent with the
application and arrangement of electrodes for plate or sheet particular objective, such as flat plates, tapes, or tubes.
specimens. Fig. 5 is a diametral cross section of three elec- 9.3.2 The arrangements of Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 were devised for
trodes applied to a tubular specimen, in which electrode No. 1 those cases where the volume resistance is known to be high
is the guarded electrode; electrode No. 2 is a guard electrode relative to that of the surface (2). However, the combination of
consisting of a ring at each end of electrode No. 1, the two molded and machined surfaces makes the result obtained
rings being electrically connected; and electrode No. 3 is the generally inconclusive for rigid strip specimens. The arrange-
unguarded electrode (7, 8). For those materials that have ment of Fig. 3 is more effective when applied to specimens for
negligible surface leakage and are being examined for volume which the width is greater than the thickness, with the cut edge
resistance only, omit the use of guard rings. Specimen dimen- effect becoming smaller. Hence, this arrangement is more
sions applicable to Fig. 4 for 3 mm thick specimens are as suitable for testing thin specimens such as tape. The arrange-
follows: D3 = 100 mm, D2 = 88 mm, and D1 = 76 mm, or ments of Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 must not be used for surface
alternatively, D3 = 50 mm, D2 = 38 mm, and D1 = 25 mm. For resistance or conductance determinations without due consid-
a given sensitivity, the larger specimen allows more accurate erations of the limitations noted.
measurements on materials of higher resistivity. 9.3.3 The three electrode arrangements of Fig. 4, Fig. 6, and
9.2.2 Measure the average thickness of the specimens in Fig. 7 shall be used for purposes of material comparison. The
accordance with one of the methods in Test Methods D374 resistance or conductance of the surface gap between elec-
pertaining to the material being tested. The actual points of trodes No. 1 and No. 2 is determined directly by using
measurement shall be uniformly distributed over the area to be electrode No. 1 as the guarded electrode, electrode No. 3 as the
covered by the measuring electrodes. guard electrode, and electrode No. 2 as the unguarded electrode
9.2.3 The guarded electrode (No. 1) shall allow ready (7, 8). The resistance or conductance is the resultant of the
computation of the guarded electrode effective area for volume surface resistance or conductance between electrodes No. 1
resistivity or conductivity determination. The diameter of a and No. 2 in parallel with some volume resistance or conduc-
circular electrode, the side of a square electrode, or the shortest tance between the same two electrodes. For this arrangement
side of a rectangular electrode, shall be at least four times the the surface gap width, g, is to be approximately twice the
specimen thickness. The gap width shall be large enough so the specimen thickness, t, except for thin specimens, where g is to
surface leakage between electrodes No. 1 and No. 2 does not be greater than twice the material thickness.
cause an error in the measurement (this is particularly impor- 9.3.4 Special techniques and electrode dimensions are re-
tant for high-input-impedance instruments, such as electrom- quired for very thin specimens having such a low volume
eters). If the gap is made equal to twice the specimen thickness, resistivity that the resultant low resistance between the guarded
as suggested in 9.3.3, so the specimen is used also for surface electrode and the guard system causes excessive error.
resistance or conductance determinations, the effective area of 9.4 Liquid Insulation Resistance—The sampling of liquid
electrode No. 1 is to be determined extending to the center of insulating materials, the test cells employed, and the methods
the gap. If a more accurate value for the effective area of of cleaning the cells shall be in accordance with Test Method
electrode No. 1 is needed, the correction for the gap width can D1169.
be obtained from Appendix X2. Electrode No. 3 shall extend at
all points beyond the inner edge of electrode No. 2 by at least 10. Specimen Mounting
twice the specimen thickness. 10.1 In mounting the specimens for measurements, it is
9.2.4 For tubular specimens, electrode No. 1 shall encircle important that no conductive paths exist between the electrodes
the outside of the specimen and its axial length shall be at least or between the measuring electrodes and ground (9). Avoid
four times the specimen wall thickness. Considerations regard- handling insulating surfaces with bare fingers by wearing
ing the gap width are the same as those given in 9.2.3. acetate rayon gloves. For referee tests of volume resistance or
Electrode No. 2 consists of an encircling electrode at each end conductance, clean the surfaces with a suitable solvent before

9
 D257 − 14
conditioning. When surface resistance is to be measured, 13. Calculation
mutually agree whether or not the surfaces need to be cleaned.
13.1 Calculate the volume resistivity, ρv, and the volume
If cleaning is required, record details of any surface cleaning.
conductivity, γv, using the equations in Table 1.
11. Conditioning 13.2 Calculate the surface resistivity, ρs, and the surface
11.1 Condition the specimens in accordance with Practice conductivity, γs, using the equations in Table 1.
D6054.
11.2 Circulating-air environmental chambers or the methods 14. Report
described in Practices E104 or D5032 are useful for controlling 14.1 Report all of the following information:
the relative humidity. 14.1.1 A description and identification of the material
12. Procedure (name, grade, color, manufacturer, etc.),
12.1 Insulation Resistance or Conductance—Properly 14.1.2 Shape and dimensions of the test specimen,
mount the specimen in the test chamber. If the test chamber and 14.1.3 Type and dimensions of electrodes,
the conditioning chamber are the same (recommended 14.1.4 Conditioning of the specimen (cleaning, predrying,
procedure), the specimens shall be mounted before the condi- hours at humidity and temperature, etc.),
tioning is started. Make the measurement with a device having 14.1.5 Test conditions (specimen temperature, relative
the required sensitivity and accuracy (see Appendix X3). humidity, etc., at time of measurement),
Unless otherwise specified, use 60 s as the time of electrifica- 14.1.6 Method of measurement (see Appendix X3),
tion and 500 6 5 V as the applied voltage. 14.1.7 Applied voltage,
12.2 Volume Resistivity or Conductivity—Measure and re- 14.1.8 Time of electrification of measurement,
cord the dimensions of the electrodes and width of guard gap, 14.1.9 Measured values of the appropriate resistances in
g. Calculate the effective area of the electrode. Make the ohms or conductances in siemens,
resistance measurement with a device having the required 14.1.10 Computed values when required, of volume resis-
sensitivity and accuracy. Unless otherwise specified, use 60 s tivity in ohm-centimetres, volume conductivity in siemens per
as the time of electrification, and 500 6 5 V as the applied centimetre, surface resistivity in ohms (per square), or surface
direct voltage. conductivity in siemens (per square), and
12.3 Surface Resistance or Conductance: 14.1.11 Statement as to whether the reported values are
12.3.1 Measure the electrode dimensions and the distance “apparent” or “steady-state.”
between the electrodes, g. Measure the surface resistance or 14.1.11.1 A “steady-state” value is obtained only if the
conductance between electrodes No. 1 and 2 with a device variation in the magnitude of the electric current in a circuit
having the required sensitivity and accuracy. Unless otherwise remains within 6 5 % during the latter 75 % of the specific
specified, use 60 s as the time of electrification, and 500 6 5 electrification time used for testing. Tests made under any other
V as the applied direct voltage. circumstances are to be considered as “apparent.”
12.3.2 When the electrode arrangement of Fig. 3 is used, P
is taken as the perimeter of the cross section of the specimen. 15. Precision and Bias
For thin specimens, such as tapes, this perimeter effectively
reduces to twice the specimen width. 15.1 Precision and bias are inherently affected by the choice
12.3.3 When the electrode arrangements of Fig. 6 are used, of method, apparatus, and specimen. For analysis and details
and if the volume resistance is known to be high compared to see Sections 7 and 9, and particularly 7.5.1 – 7.5.2.5.
the surface resistance (such as moisture contaminating the
surface of a good insulation material), P is taken to be two 16. Keywords
times the length of the electrode or two times the circumfer- 16.1 DC resistance; insulation resistance; surface resistance;
ence of the cylinder. surface resistivity; volume resistance; volume resistivity

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 D257 − 14
APPENDIXES

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. FACTORS AFFECTING INSULATION RESISTANCE OR CONDUCTANCE MEASUREMENTS

X1.1 Inherent Variation in Materials—Because of the vari- NOTE X1.1—The resistance of an electrical insulating material may be
ability of the resistance of a given specimen under similar test affected by the time of temperature exposure. Therefore, equivalent
temperature conditioning periods are essential for comparative measure-
conditions and the nonuniformity of the same material from ments.
specimen to specimen, determinations are usually not repro- NOTE X1.2—If the insulating material shows signs of deterioration after
ducible to closer than 10 % and often are even more widely conditioning at elevated temperatures, this information must be included
divergent (a range of values from 10 to 1 may be obtained with the test data.
under apparently identical conditions). X1.3 Temperature and Humidity—The insulation resistance
X1.2 Temperature—The resistance of electrical insulating of solid dielectric materials decreases both with increasing
materials is known to change with temperature, and the temperature as described in X1.2 and with increasing humidity
variation often can be represented by a function of the form: (1, 2, 3, 4). Volume resistance is particularly sensitive to
(10) temperature changes, while surface resistance changes widely
and very rapidly with humidity changes (2, 3). In both cases the
R 5 Bem/T (X1.1) change is exponential. For some materials a change from 25 to
where: 100 °C may change insulation resistance or conductance by a
factor of 100 000, often due to the combined effects of
R = resistance (or resistivity) of an insulating material or
temperature and moisture content change; the effect of tem-
system,
perature change alone is usually much smaller. A change from
B = proportionality constant,
m = activation constant, and 25 to 90 % relative humidity may change insulation resistance
T = absolute temperature in kelvin (K). or conductance by as much as a factor of 1 000 000 or more.
Insulation resistance or conductance is a function of both the
This equation is a simplified form of the Arrhenius equation volume and surface resistance or conductance of the specimen,
relating the activation energy of a chemical reaction to the and surface resistance changes almost instantaneously with
absolute temperature; and the Boltzmann principle, a general change of relative humidity. It is, therefore, absolutely essential
law dealing with the statistical distribution of energy among to maintain both temperature and relative humidity within
large numbers of minute particles subject to thermal agitation. close limits during the conditioning period and to make the
The activation constant, m, has a value that is characteristic of insulation resistance or conductance measurements in the
a particular energy absorption process. Several such processes specified conditioning environment. Another point not to be
may exist within the material, each with a different effective overlooked is that at relative humidities above 90 %, surface
temperature range, so that several values of m would be needed condensation may result from inadvertant fluctuations in hu-
to fully characterize the material. These values of m can be midity or temperature produced by the conditioning system.
determined experimentally by plotting the natural logarithm of This problem can be avoided by the use of equivalent absolute
resistance against the reciprocal of the absolute temperature. humidity at a slightly higher temperature, as equilibrium
The desired values of m are obtained from such a plot by moisture content remains nearly the same for a small tempera-
measuring the slopes of the straight-line sections of the plot. ture change. In determining the effect of humidity on volume
This derives from (Eq X1.1), for it follows that by taking the resistance or conductance, extended periods of conditioning
natural logarithm of both sides: are required, since the absorption of water into the body of the
1 dielectric is a relatively slow process (11). Some specimens
1n R 5 lnB1m (X1.2) require months to come to equilibrium. When such long
T
The change in resistance (or resistivity) corresponding to a periods of conditioning are prohibitive, use of thinner speci-
change in absolute temperature from T 1 to T2, based on Eq mens or comparative measurements near equilibrium may be
X1.1, and expressed in logarithmic form, is: reasonable alternatives, but the details must be included in the
test report.
ln~ R 2 /R 1 ! 5 m S 1
2
1
T2 T1
5mD S D∆T
T 1T 2
(X1.3)
X1.4 Time of Electrification—Measurement of a dielectric
These equations are valid over a temperature range only if material is not fundamentally different from that of a conductor
the material does not undergo a transition within this tempera- except that an additional parameter, time of electrification, (and
ture range. Extrapolations are seldom safe since transitions are in some cases the voltage gradient) is involved. The relation-
seldom obvious or predictable. As a corollary, deviation of a ship between the applied voltage and the current is involved in
plot of the logarithm of R against 1/T from a straight line is both cases. For dielectric materials, the standard resistance
evidence that a transition is occurring. Furthermore, in making placed in series with the unknown resistance must have a
comparisons between materials, it is essential that measure- relatively low value, so that essentially full voltage will be
ments be made over the entire range of interest for all applied across the unknown resistance. When a potential
materials. difference is applied to a specimen, the current through it

11
 D257 − 14
generally decreases asymptotically toward a limiting value X1.6.1 The measured value of the insulation resistance or
which may be less than 0.01 of the current observed at the end conductance of a specimen results from the composite effect of
of 1 min (9, 12) . This decrease of current with time is due to its volume and surface resistances or conductances. Since the
dielectric absorption (interfacial polarization, volume charge, relative values of the components vary from material to
etc.) and the sweep of mobile ions to the electrodes. In general, material, comparison of different materials by the use of the
the relation of current and time is of the form I(t) = At − m, after electrode systems of Fig. 1, Fig. 2, and Fig. 3 is generally
the initial charge is completed and until the true leakage current inconclusive. There is no assurance that, if material A has a
becomes a significant factor (13, 14). In this relation A is a higher insulation resistance than material B as measured by the
constant, numerically the current at unit time, and m usually, use of one of these electrode systems, it will also have a higher
but not always, has a value between 0 and 1. Depending upon resistance than B in the application for which it is intended.
the characteristics of the specimen material, the time required X1.6.2 It is possible to devise specimen and electrode
for the current to decrease to within 1 % of this minimum value configurations suitable for the separate evaluation of the
may be from a few seconds to many hours. Thus, in order to volume resistance or conductance and the approximate surface
ensure that measurements on a given material will be resistance or conductance of the same specimen. In general,
comparable, it is necessary to specify the time of electrifica- this requires at least three electrodes so arranged that one may
tion. The conventional arbitrary time of electrification has been select electrode pairs for which the resistance or conductance
1 min. For some materials, misleading conclusions may be measured is primarily that of either a volume current path or a
drawn from the test results obtained at this arbitrary time. A surface current path, not both (7).
resistance-time or conductance-time curve should be obtained
under the conditions of test for a given material as a basis for X1.7 Deficiencies in the Measuring Circuit:
selection of a suitable time of electrification, which must be X1.7.1 The insulation resistance of many solid dielectric
specified in the test method for that material, or such curves specimens is extremely high at standard laboratory conditions,
should be used for comparative purposes. Occasionally, a approaching or exceeding the maximum measurable limits
material will be found for which the current increases with given in Table 2. Unless extreme care is taken with the
time. In this case either the time curves must be used or a insulation of the measuring circuit, the values obtained are
special study undertaken, and arbitrary decisions made as to more a measure of apparatus limitations than of the material
the time of electrification. itself. Thus errors in the measurement of the specimen may
X1.5 Magnitude of Voltage: arise from undue shunting of the specimen, reference resistors,
or the current-measuring device, by leakage resistances or
X1.5.1 Both volume and surface resistance or conductance
conductances of unknown, and possibly variable, magnitude.
of a specimen may be voltage-sensitive (4). In that case, it is
necessary that the same voltage gradient be used if measure- X1.7.2 Electrolytic, contact, or thermal emf’s may exist in
ments on similar specimens are to be comparable. Also, the the measuring circuit itself; or spurious emf’s may be caused
applied voltage should be within at least 5 % of the specified by leakage from external sources. Thermal emf’s are normally
voltage. This is a separate requirement from that given in insignificant except in the low resistance circuit of a galva-
X1.7.3, which discusses voltage regulation and stability where nometer and shunt. When thermal emf’s are present, random
appreciable specimen capacitance is involved. drifts in the galvanometer zero occur. Slow drifts due to air
currents may be troublesome. Electrolytic emf’s are usually
X1.5.2 Commonly specified test voltages to be applied to
associated with moist specimens and dissimilar metals, but
the complete specimen are 100, 250, 500, 1000, 2500, 5000,
emf’s of 20 mV or more can be obtained in the guard circuit of
10 000 and 15 000 V. Of these, the most frequently used are
a high-resistance detector when pieces of the same metal are in
100 and 500 V. The higher voltages are used either to study the
contact with moist specimens. If a voltage is applied between
voltage-resistance or voltage-conductance characteristics of
the guard and the guarded electrodes a polarization emf may
materials (to make tests at or near the operating voltage
remain after the voltage is removed. True contact emf’s can be
gradients), or to increase the sensitivity of measurement.
detected only with an electrometer and are not a source of
X1.5.3 Specimen resistance or conductance of some mate- error. The term “spurious emf” is sometimes applied to
rials may, depending upon the moisture content, be affected by electrolytic emf’s. To ensure the absence of spurious emf’s of
the polarity of the applied voltage. This effect, caused by whatever origin, the deflection of the detecting device should
electrolysis or ionic migration, or both, particularly in the be observed before the application of voltage to the specimen
presence of nonuniform fields, may be particularly noticeable and after the voltage has been removed. If the two deflections
in insulation configurations such as those found in cables are the same, or nearly the same, a correction can be made to
where the test-voltage gradient is greater at the inner conductor the measured resistance or conductance, provided the correc-
than at the outer surface. Where electrolysis or ionic migration tion is small. If the deflections differ widely, or approach the
does exist in specimens, the electrical resistance will be lower deflection of the measurement, it will be necessary to find and
when the smaller test electrode is made negative with respect eliminate the source of the spurious emf (5). Capacitance
to the larger. In such cases, the polarity of the applied voltage changes in the connecting shielded cables can cause serious
shall be specified according to the requirements of the speci- difficulties.
men under test.
X1.7.3 Where appreciable specimen capacitance is
X1.6 Contour of Specimen: involved, both the regulation and transient stability of the

12
 D257 − 14
applied voltage should be such that resistance or conductance is to be made to prevent any build-up of charge from the
measurements can be made to prescribed accuracy. Short-time surroundings.
transients, as well as relatively long-time drifts in the applied
X1.9 Guarding:
voltage may cause spurious capacitive charge and discharge
currents which can significantly affect the accuracy of mea- X1.9.1 Guarding depends on interposing, in all critical
surement. In the case of current-measuring methods insulated paths, guard conductors which intercept all stray
particularly, this can be a serious problem. The current in the currents that might otherwise cause errors. The guard conduc-
measuring instrument due to a voltage transient is I0 = CxdV/dt. tors are connected together, constituting the guard system and
The amplitude and rate of pointer excursions depend upon the forming, with the measuring terminals, a three-terminal net-
following factors: work. When suitable connections are made, stray currents from
X1.7.3.1 The capacitance of the specimen, spurious external voltages are shunted away from the measur-
ing circuit by the guard system.
X1.7.3.2 The magnitude of the current being measured,
X1.7.3.3 The magnitude and duration of the incoming X1.9.2 Proper use of the guard system for the methods
voltage transient, and its rate of change, involving current measurement is illustrated in Figs. X1.1-
X1.3, inclusive, where the guard system is shown connected to
X1.7.3.4 The ability of the stabilizing circuit used to pro-
the junction of the voltage source and current-measuring
vide a constant voltage with incoming transients of various
instrument or standard resistor. In Fig. X1.4 for the
characteristics, and
Wheatstone-bridge method, the guard system is shown con-
X1.7.3.5 The time-constant of the complete test circuit as nected to the junction of the two lower-valued-resistance arms.
compared to the period and damping of the current-measuring In all cases, to be effective, guarding must be complete, and
instrument. must include any controls operated by the observer in making
X1.7.4 Changes of range of a current-measuring instrument the measurement. The guard system is generally maintained at
may introduce a current transient. When Rm [Lt] Rx and Cm [Lt] a potential close to that of the guarded terminal, but insulated
Cx, the equation of this transient is from it. This is because, among other things, the resistance of
I 5 ~ V 0 /R x ! @ I 2 e 2t/RmCx# (X1.4)
many insulating materials is voltage-dependent. Otherwise, the
direct resistances or conductances of a three-terminal network
where: are independent of the electrode potentials. It is usual to ground
V0 = applied voltage, the guard system and hence one side of the voltage source and
Rx = apparent resistance of the specimen, current-measuring device. This places both terminals of the
Rm = effective input resistance of the measuring instrument, specimen above ground. Sometimes, one terminal of the
specimen is permanently grounded. The current-measuring
Cx = capacitance of the specimen at 1000 Hz, device usually is then connected to this terminal, requiring that
Cm = input capacitance of the measuring instrument, and the voltage source be well insulated from ground.
t = time after Rm is switched into the circuit.
X1.9.3 Errors in current measurements may result from the
For not more than 5 % error due to this transient, fact that the current-measuring device is shunted by the
R m C x # t/3 (X1.5) resistance or conductance between the guarded terminal and
the guard system. This resistance should be at least 10 to 100
Microammeters employing feedback are usually free of this times the input resistance of the current measuring device. In
source of error as the actual input resistance is divided, some bridge techniques, the guard and measuring terminals are
effectively, by the amount of feedback, usually at least by 1000. brought to nearly the same potentials, but a standard resistor in
the bridge is shunted between the unguarded terminal and the
X1.8 Residual Charge—In X1.4 it was pointed out that the guard system. This resistance should be at least 1000 times that
current continues for a long time after the application of a of the reference resistor.
potential difference to the electrodes. Conversely, current will
continue for a long time after the electrodes of a charged
specimen are connected together. It should be established that
the test specimen is completely discharged before attempting
the first measurement, a repeat measurement, a measurement of
volume resistance following a measurement of surface
resistance, or a measurement with reversed voltage (9). The
time of discharge before making a measurement should be at
least four times any previous charging time. The specimen
electrodes should be connected together until the measurement FIG. X1.1 Voltmeter-Ammeter Method Using a Galvanometer

13
 D257 − 14

FIG. X1.2 Voltmeter-Ammeter Method Using DC Amplification

FIG. X1.3 Comparison Method Using a Galvanometer

FIG. X1.4 Comparison Method Using a Wheatstone Bridge

X2. EFFECTIVE AREA OF GUARDED ELECTRODE

X2.1 General—Calculation of volume resistivity from the X2.1.2 If plane electrodes are not parallel, or if tubular
measured volume resistance involves the quantity A, the electrodes are not coaxial, the current density in the specimen
effective area of the guarded electrode. Depending on the will not be uniform, and an error may result. This error is
material properties and the electrode configuration, A differs usually small and may be ignored.
from the actual area of the guarded electrode for either, or both,
of the following reasons. X2.2 Fringing:
X2.1.1 Fringing of the lines of current in the region of the X2.2.1 If the specimen material is homogeneous and
electrode edges may effectively increase the electrode dimen- isotropic, fringing effectively extends the guarded electrode
sions. edge by an amount (15, 16):

14
 D257 − 14
~ g/2 ! 2 δ (X2.1) g/t B g/t B
0.1 0.96 1.0 0.64
where: 0.2 0.92 1.2 0.59
0.3 0.88 1.5 0.51
δ 5 t $ ~ 2/π ! ln cosh @ ~ π/4 !~ g/t ! # % , (X2.2) 0.4 0.85 2.0 0.41
0.5 0.81 2.5 0.34
and g and t are the dimensions indicated in Fig. 4 and Fig. 6. 0.6 0.77 3.0 0.29
The correction may also be written 0.8 0.71

g @ 1 2 ~ 2δ/g ! # 5 Bg (X2.3) NOTE X2.1—The symbol “ln” designates logarithm to the base
e = 2.718. ... When g is approximately equal to 2t, δ is determined with
where B is the fraction of the gap width to be added to the
sufficient approximation by the equation:
diameter of circular electrodes or to the dimensions of rectan-
gular or cylindrical electrodes. δ 5 0.586t (X2.4)
X2.2.2 Laminated materials, however, are somewhat aniso- NOTE X2.2—For tests on thin films when t << g, or when a guard
electrode is not used and one electrode extends beyond the other by a
tropic after volume absorption of moisture. Volume resistivity distance which is large compared with t, 0.883t should be added to the
parallel to the laminations is then lower than that in the diameter of circular electrodes or to the dimensions of rectangular
perpendicular direction, and the fringing effect is increased. electrodes.
With such moist laminates, δ approaches zero, and the guarded NOTE X2.3—During the transition between complete dryness and
electrode effectively extends to the center of the gap between subsequent relatively uniform volume distribution of moisture, a laminate
guarded and unguarded electrodes (15). is neither homogeneous nor isotropic. Volume resistivity is of questionable
significance during this transition and accurate equations are neither
X2.2.3 The fraction of the gap width g to be added to the possible nor justified, calculations within an order of magnitude being
diameter of circular electrodes or to the electrode dimensions more than sufficient.
of rectangular or cylindrical electrodes, B, AS DETERMINED
BY THE PRECEDING EQUATION FOR δ, IS AS FOL-
LOWS:

X3. TYPICAL MEASUREMENT METHODS

X3.1 Voltmeter-Ammeter Method Using a Galvanometer: X3.2 Voltmeter-Ammeter Method Using DC Amplification
or Electrometer:
X3.1.1 A dc voltmeter and a galvanometer with a suitable
shunt are connected to the voltage source and to the test X3.2.1 The voltmeter-ammeter method can be extended to
specimen as shown in Fig. X1.1. The applied voltage is measure higher resistances by using dc amplification or an
measured by a dc voltmeter, having a range and accuracy that electrometer to increase the sensitivity of the current measuring
will give minimum error in voltage indication. In no case shall device (6, 17, 18). Generally, but not necessarily, this is
a voltmeter be used that has an error greater than 62 % of full achieved only with some sacrifice in precision, depending on
scale, nor a range such that the deflection is less than one third the apparatus used. The dc voltmeter and the dc amplifier or
of full scale (for a pivot-type instrument). The current is electrometer are connected to the voltage source and the
measured by a galvanometer having a high current sensitivity specimen as illustrated in Fig. X1.2. The applied voltage is
(a scale length of 0.5 m is assumed, as shorter scale lengths will measured by a dc voltmeter having the same characteristics as
lead to proportionately higher errors) and provided with a prescribed in X3.1.1. The current is measured in terms of the
precision Ayrton universal shunt for so adjusting its deflection voltage drop across a standard resistance, Rs.
that the readability error does not, in general, exceed 62 % of
the observed value. The galvanometer should be calibrated to X3.2.2 In the circuit shown in Fig. X1.2(a) the specimen
within 62 %. Current can be read directly if the galvanometer current, Ix, produces across the standard resistance, Rs, a
is provided with an additional suitable fixed shunt. voltage drop which is amplified by the dc amplifier, and read
on an indicating meter or galvanometer. The net gain of the
X3.1.2 The unknown resistance, Rx, or conductance, Gx , is amplifier usually is stabilized by means of a feedback
calculated as follows: resistance, Rf, from the output of the amplifier. The indicating
R x 5 1/G x 5 V x /I x 5 V x /KdF (X3.1) meter can be calibrated to read directly in terms of the feedback
voltage, Vf, which is determined from the known value of the
where: resistance of Rf, and the feedback current passing through it.
K = galvanometer sensitivity, in amperes per scale division, When the amplifier has sufficient intrinsic gain, the feedback
voltage, Vs, differs from the voltage, IxRs, by a negligible
d = deflection in scale divisions, amount. As shown in Fig. X1.2 (a) the return lead from the
F = ratio of the total current, Ix, to the galvanometer voltage source, Vx, can be connected to either end of the
current, and feedback resistor, Rf. With the connection made to the junction
Vx = applied voltage. of Rs and Rf (switch in dotted position l), the entire resistance

15
 D257 − 14
of Rs is placed in the measuring circuit and any alternating
voltage appearing across the specimen resistance is amplified
only as much as the direct voltage Ix Rs , across Rs. With the
connection made to the other end of Rf (switch position 2), the
apparent resistance placed in the measuring circuit is Rs times
the ratio of the degenerated gain to the intrinsic gain of the
amplifier; any alternating voltage appearing across the speci-
men resistance is then amplified by the intrinsic amplifier gain.
X3.2.3 In the circuit shown in Fig. X1.2(b), the specimen FIG. X3.1 Voltage Rate-of-Change Method
current, Ix, produces a voltage drop across the standard
resistance, Rs which may or may not be balanced out by When S1 is subsequently opened, the voltage across the
adjustment of an opposing voltage, Vs, from a calibrated specimen will fall because the leakage and absorption currents
potentiometer. If no opposing voltage is used, the voltage drop must then be supplied by the capacitance C0 rather than by V0.
across the standard resistance, Rs, is amplified by the dc The drop in voltage across the specimen will be shown by the
amplifier or electrometer and read on an indicating meter or electrometer. If a recorder is connected to the output of the
galvanometer. This produces a voltage drop between the electrometer, the rate of change of voltage, dV/dt, can be read
measuring electrode and the guard electrode which may cause from the recorder trace at any desired time after S2 is closed (60
an error in the current measurement unless the resistance s usually specified). Alternatively, the voltage, ∆V, appearing
between the measuring electrode and the guard electrode is at on the electrometer in a time, ∆t, can be used. Since this gives
least 10 to 100 times that of Rs. If an opposing voltage, Vs, is an average of the rate-of-change of voltage during ∆t, the time
used, the dc amplifier or electrometer serves only as a very ∆t should be centered at the specified electrification time (time
sensitive, high-resistance null detector. The return lead from since closing S2).
the voltage source, Vx, is connected as shown, to include the
X3.3.2 If the input resistance of the electrometer is greater
potentiometer in the measuring circuit. When connections are
than the apparent specimen resistance and the input capaci-
made in this manner, no resistance is placed in the measuring
tance is 0.01 or less of that of the specimen, the apparent
circuit at balance and thus no voltage drop appears between the
resistance at the time at which dV/dt or ∆V/∆t is determined is
measuring electrode and the guard electrode. However, a
steeply increasing fraction of Rs is included in the measuring R x 5 V 0 /I x 5 V 0 dt/C 0 dV m or, V 0 ∆t/C 0 ∆V m (X3.3)
circuit, as the potentiometer is moved off balance. Any depending on whether or not a recorder is used. When the
alternating voltage appearing across the specimen resistance is electrometer input resistance or capacitance cannot be ignored
amplified by the net amplifier gain. The amplifier may be either or when Vm is more than a small fraction of V0 the complete
a direct voltage amplifier or an alternating voltage amplifier equation should be used.
provided with input and output converters. Induced alternating
R s 5 $ V 0 @ ~ R x 1R m ! /R m # V m % / ~ C 0 1C m ! dV m /dt (X3.4)
voltages across the specimen often are sufficiently troublesome
that a resistance-capacitance filter preceding the amplifier is where:
required. The input resistance of this filter should be at least C0 = capacitance of Cx at 1000 Hz,
100 times greater than the effect resistance that is placed in the Rm = input resistance of the electrometer,
measurement circuit by resistance Rs. Cm = input capacitance of the electrometer,
X3.2.4 The resistance Rx, or the conductance, Gx, is calcu- V0 = applied voltage, and
lated as follows: Vm = electrometer reading = voltage decrease on Cx.
R x 5 1/G x 5 V x /I x 5 ~ V x /V s ! R s (X3.2) X3.4 Comparison Method Using a Galvanometer or DC
Amplifier (1):
where:
Vx = applied voltage, X3.4.1 A standard resistance, Rs, and a galvanometer or dc
Ix = specimen current, amplifier are connected to the voltage source and to the test
Rs = standard resistance, and specimen as shown in Fig. X3.1. The galvanometer and its
Vs = voltage drop across Rs, indicated by the amplifier associated Ayrton shunt is the same as described in X3.1.1. An
output meter, the electrometer or the calibrated poten- amplifier of equivalent direct current sensitivity with an
tiometer. appropriate indicator may be used in place of the galvanometer.
It is convenient, but not necessary, and not desirable if batteries
X3.3 Voltage Rate-of-Change Method: are used as the voltage source (unless a high-input resistance
X3.3.1 If the specimen capacitance is relatively large, or voltmeter is used), to connect a voltmeter across the source for
capacitors are to be measured, the apparent resistant, Rx, can be a continuous check of its voltage. The switch is provided for
determined from the charging voltage, V0, the specimen shorting the unknown resistance in the process of measure-
capacitance value, C0 (capacitance of Cx at 1000 Hz), and the ment. Sometimes provision is made to short either the un-
rate-of-change of voltage, dV/dt, using the circuit of Fig. X3.1 known or standard resistance but not both at the same time.
(19). To make a measurement the specimen is charged by X3.4.2 In general, it is preferable to leave the standard
closing S2, with the electrometer shorting switch S1 closed. resistance in the circuit at all times to prevent damage to the

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 D257 − 14
current measuring instrument in case of specimen failure. With X3.6 Recordings—It is possible to record continuously
the shunt set to the least sensitive position and with the switch against time the values of the unknown resistance or the
open, the voltage is applied. The Ayrton shunt is then adjusted corresponding value of current at a known voltage. Generally,
to give as near maximum scale reading as possible. At the end this is accomplished by an adaptation of the voltmeter-ammeter
of the electrification time the deflection, dx, and the shunt ratio, method, using dc amplification (X3.2). The zero drift of direct
Fx, are noted. The shunt is then set to the least sensitive coupled dc amplifiers, while slow enough for the measure-
position and the switch is closed to short the unknown ments of X3.2, may be too fast for continuous recording. This
resistance. Again the shunt is adjusted to give as near maxi- problem can be resolved by periodic checks of the zero, or by
mum scale reading as possible and the galvanometer or meter using an ac amplifier with input and output converter. The
deflection, ds, and the shunt ratio, Fs, are noted. It is assumed indicating meter of Fig. X1.2(a) can be replaced by a recording
that the current sensitivities of the galvanometer or amplifier milliammeter or millivoltmeter as appropriate for the amplifier
are equal for nearly equal deflections dx and ds. used. The recorder may be either the deflection type or the
X3.4.3 The unknown resistance, Rx, or conductance, Gx, is null-balance type, the latter usually having a smaller error.
calculated as follows: Null-balance-type recorders also can be employed to perform
the function of automatically adjusting the potentiometer
R 5 1/G x 5 R s @ ~ d s F s /d x F x ! 2 1 # (X3.5)
shown in Fig. X1.2(b) and thereby indicating and recording the
where: quantity under measurement. The characteristics of amplifier,
Fx and Fs = ratios of the total current to the galvanometer recorder balancing mechanism, and potentiometer can be made
or dc amplifier with Rx in the circuit, and such as to constitute a well integrated, stable,
shorted, respectively. electromechanical, feedback system of high sensitivity and low
error. Such systems also can be arranged with the potentiom-
X3.4.4 In case Rs is shorted when Rx is in the circuit or the
eter fed from the same source of stable voltage as the
ratio of Fs to Fx is greater than 100, the value of Rx or Gx is
specimen, thereby eliminating the voltmeter error, and allow-
computed as follows:
ing a sensitivity and precision comparable with those of the
R x 5 1/G x 5 R ~ d s F s /d x F x ! (X3.6) Wheatstone-Bridge Method (X3.5).
X3.5 Comparison Methods Using a Wheatstone Bridge (2): X3.7 Direct-Reading Instruments—There are available, and
X3.5.1 The test specimen is connected into one arm of a in general use, instruments that indicate resistance directly, by
Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. X1.4. The three known a determination of the ratio of voltage and current in bridge
arms shall be of as high resistance as practicable, limited by the methods or related modes. Some units incorporate various
errors inherent in such resistors. Usually, the lowest resistance, advanced features and refinements such as digital readout.
RA, is used for convenient balance adjustment, with either RB Most direct reading instruments are self-contained, portable,
or RN being changed in decade steps. The detector shall be a dc and comprise a stable dc power supply with multi-test voltage
amplifier, with an input resistance high compared to any of capability, a null detector or an indicator, and all relevant
these arms. auxiliaries. Measurement accuracies vary somewhat with type
X3.5.2 The unknown resistance, Rx, or conductance, Gx , is of equipment and range of resistances covered; for the more
calculated as follows: elaborate instruments accuracies are comparable to those
obtained with the voltmeter-ammeter method using a galva-
R x 5 1/G x 5 R B R N /R A (X3.7)
nometer (X3.1). The direct-reading instruments do not neces-
where RA , RB, and RN are as shown in Fig. X1.4. When arm sarily supplant any of the other typical measurement methods
A is a rheostat, its dial can be calibrated to read directly in described in this Appendix, but do offer simplicity and conve-
megohms after multiplying by the factor RBRN which for nience for both routine and investigative resistance measure-
convenience can be varied in decade steps. ments.

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 D257 − 14
REFERENCES

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(4) Herou, R., and LaCoste, R., “Sur La Mésure Des Resistivities et
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(15) Lauritzen, J. I., “The Effective Area of a Guarded Electrode,” Annual
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1945, p. 287. (16) Endicott, H. S., “Guard-Gap Correction for Guarded-Electrode
(6) Scott, A. H., “Anomalous Conductance Behavior in Polymers,” Measurements and Exact Equations for the Two-Fluid Method of
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(8) Witt, R. K., Chapman, J. J., and Raskin, B. L.,“ Measuring of Surface (18) Dorcas, D. S., and Scott, R. N., “Instrumentation for Measuring the
and Volume Resistance,” Modern Plastics, Vol 24, No. 8, April 1947, D-C Conductivity of Very High Resistivity Materials,” Review of
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(9) Scott, A. H.,“ Insulation Resistance Measurements,” Fourth Electrical (19) Endicott, H. S., “Insulation Resistance, Absorption, and Their
Insulation Conference, Washington, DC, February 19–22, 1962. Measurement,” Annual Report, Conference on Electrical Insulation,
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March 1967.

SUMMARY OF CHANGES

Committee D09 has identified the location of selected changes to these test methods since the last issue,
D257 – 07, that may impact the use of these test methods. (Approved April 1, 2014)

(1) Revised text throughout.

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