Important terms to remember

Precision: refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other.

Accuracy: A result is said to be accurate if it is close to the actual value. A result can be accurate without being precise and vice
versa. The illustration below will help to distinguish the two concepts

Range: The range of a set of readings is the difference between the smallest and the largest values (max – min)

Uncertainty: The uncertainty of a measurement is the range in which the actual value is expected to exist.
The uncertainty from a measuring instrument is its resolution/2

Mathematically,

Uncertainty = max – min OR ½ range

2
At this point it should be mentioned that uncertainty and percentage uncertainty should never be confused

Percentage Uncertainty: _____Uncertainty______ x 100%

Average Measured value

Percentage Difference: Difference between the actual and measured value x 100%
Actual value

If both the values are experimental,

Difference between the two values x 100%

Average of the two values

While taking measurements several types of errors can contribute to an inaccurate result. The most common types of errors are
described below:

Random error: Random errors are errors with no pattern or bias. Readings with random errors vary in an unpredictable manner
with no discernable pattern or trend. The effect of random variations in measurements of a quantity is reduced by taking more
readings/repeating and finding a mean value. Some common examples of random errors include –
● The height a ball bounces to when dropped from the same height.
● The small variations in voltage when repeating a reading on the same length of wire

Systematic error: Systematic errors in measurements are errors which show a pattern or a trend. Systematic errors can result
from an instrument calibration error (eg zero errors), from incorrect use or reading of instruments (eg parallax errors) or be caused
by another factor changing the quantity in an unknown or unrecognised manner. Systematic errors can be minimized by drawing a
suitable graph. Some common examples of systematic errors include –
Zero error on an instrument making all readings too large or small by a set amount
● Not realising a 30cm ruler has an extra few mm before the scale starts.
● A set of scales that has not been zeroed first
Calibration of an instrument giving false readings
● An ammeter consistently giving reading that are too high
● A measuring tape becoming stretched over years of use
SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

Resolution of different instruments

Device Resolution
Metre rule 1mm
Vernier Caliper 0.1mm Resolution of all devices
Micrometer Screw Gauge 0.01mm must be memorized.
Stopwatch 0.01s
Protractor 1o
Electronic balance 0.01g
Voltmeter (analogue) 0.1V
Ammeter (analogue) 0.1A
Thermometer 1o

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
● All non-zero digits are significant
● Zeros are only significant if they have a non-zero digit to their left

Consider the number 3250.040

It is quoted to SEVEN significant figures
FURTHER EXAMPLES
SIX s.f. = 3250.04
FIVE s.f. = 3250.0
FOUR s.f. = 3250 (This is NOT 3 s.f.!)
THREE s.f. = 325 x 101 (as also is 3.25 x 103)
TWO s.f. = 33 x 102 (as also is 3.3 x 103)
ONE s.f. = 3 x 103 (3000 is FOUR s.f.)
103 is ZERO s.f.
PERCENTAGE UNCERTAINTY
* Uncertainty and percentage uncertainty should never be confused with one another!
In any measurement, the key objective is to reduce the percentage uncertainty, %U
If you take a look at the equation for %U,

%U = uncertainty x 100 %
measured value

For a specific measuring device, the uncertainty is half the resolution. Therefore if the measured value much larger
than the resolution of the instrument, the %U will be low. This is a key factor in choosing a measuring device. For
instance, for measuring the length of a piece of wire, we choose a metre rule because it has a resolution of 1mm and
the measured value is expected to be much larger than 1mm which will give a low %U
COMBINING UNCERTAINTIES AND PERCENTAGE UNCERTAINTY
● If two or (more quantities) are in a product form, their individual percentage uncertainties should be added
to get the final %U
EXAMPLE: Calculate the percentage uncertainty in force causing a mass of 50 kg ± 10% to accelerate by 20 ms -2 ± 5%
Since F = ma, the %U of F is given by adding the %U of m and a. Therefore %U in F is 10% +5% i.e. 15%

● If two or (more quantities) are in a division form, their individual percentage uncertainties should be
added to get the final %U
EXAMPLE: Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the density of a material of mass 300g ± 5% and volume 60cm3 ± 2%
Since ρ = m/v , the %U of ρ is given by adding the %U of m and v. Therefore %U in ρ is 5% + 2% i.e.7%

● When a quantity has a power on it, the %U is found out by multiplying power with the %U of the quantity
EXAMPLE: Calculate the percentage uncertainty in volume of a cube with each side of length 6 ± 2%
Since V = L3 , %U in V is 3 x %U in L. Therefore %U in V is 3 x 2% i.e 6 %

● The power should never be confused with a constant.

For instance, in 2x, 2 is a constant and in x2, 2 is the power
Constants do not affect percentage uncertainty, however they do affect uncertainty!
* x− 1 is the same as 1/x. So the percentage uncertainty in 1/x is the same as that in x.
* The percentage uncertainty in √x is half the percentage uncertainty in x
If the uncertainty in X is 2, the uncertainty in 2X is 4 and the uncertainty in X/2 is 1!

● If two quantities are added or subtracted the absolute uncertainty is added. This situation does not arise very frequently as
most equations involve multiplication and division only. The e.m.f. / p.d. equation for a power supply is an exception

● When the validity or acceptability of an experimental value is to be determined, the %U should be

compared with the %D. if the %D is smaller than the %U, the value is valid/acceptable

GRAPHS
● Normally the dependent variable is shown on the y-axis.
● If you are asked to plot bananas against apples, bananas would be plotted on the y-axis and apples on the x-axis
● Each axis should be labelled with a quantity name (or symbol) and its unit
● Graph should cover more than ½ of the graph paper available and awkward scales [e.g. multiples of 3]
should be avoided. Rotation of the paper through π /4 [90°] may be employed to give better coverage of
the graph paper

GOOD POOR DISGUSTING

Semi-log and log-log graphs

Students will be expected to be familiar with plotting these graphs as follows:
Semi-log: to investigate relationships of the form: y = kax
Taking log or ln on both sides, we have
lny = lnk + xlna
So a plot of ln y against x has a gradient ln a and an intercept ln k

Best fit lines

Best fit lines can be curves!
The line should be drawn so that there are roughly the same number of points above and below.

The equation of a straight line

For any straight line:
y = mx + c where, m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept

if a graph passes through the origin, the value of c is zero

if a graph has a positive gradient, it is always upward sloping ( when seen from left)
if a graph has a negative gradient, it is always downward sloping ( when seen from left)

Linear relationships

Quantity P increases linearly with quantity Q.

This can be expressed by the equation: P = mQ + c

In this case, the gradient m is POSITIVE

Quantity W decreases linearly with quantity Z.

This can be expressed by the equation: W = mZ + c

In this case, the gradient m is NEGATIVE

In neither case should the word ‘proportional’ be used as neither line passes through the origin

Direct proportion
Physical quantities are directly proportional to each other if when one of them is doubled the other will also
double. The graphs of directly proportional quantities are always straight line through the origin
Inverse proportion
Physical quantities are inversely proportional to each other if when one of them is doubled the other will halve

A graph of two quantities are inversely proportional to if it:

– is a rectangular hyperbola

– has no y- or x-intercept

Inverse proportion can be verified by

drawing a graph of y against 1/x.

This should be:

– a straight line

– pass through the origin

EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

When the size (length) of a non uniform small object is to be measured, for instance, a cork, vernier calipers
should be used instead of a metre rule. While taking measurements of soft objects, it should be taken into
account that the object is not deformed

If the vertical height is to be measured with a metre rule, it has to be made sure that the metre rule is
vertical. This is done using a set square. The reading should be taken at eye level/perpendicular to the scale
to avoid parallax error.

To measure the circumference of a can using a metre rule, a string must be wound around the surface. The
length of the string can then be measured using a metre rule to give the circumference of the can.

In experiments to determine the time period of oscillation you should always measure the time for multiple
oscillations and divide by the number of oscillations. The experiment should be repeated and the mean
calculated. A timing marker should be used at the centre of the oscillations. Start timing after several
oscillations have completed.

The time period of oscillation can also be determined by setting up a light gate attached to a data logger.
Using a light gate would eliminate reaction time as there is no human intervention required.
Light gates remove parallax error since it is in a fixed position
A motion censor and a data logger is a more accurate method for finding the time period from an
oscilloscope because it can display the data graphically, eliminates error due to reaction time and measure
time more precisely compared to a stopwatch

The resolution of a stopwatch is 0.01s, and for instance it records a value of 4.13
It would be appropriate to record it to 2sf and quote the value as 4.1s because there is a human reaction time
in starting and stopping the stopwatch.

If the time period is to be determined from the traces of an oscilloscope, measure the number of divisions
for one complete oscillation and multiply with the time per division.

In experiments where the temperature of an object is required, a water bath should always be used. The heat
source should be removed before taking the reading. The water should be continuously stirred to ensure
uniform heating. The thermometer should be placed next to the object so that they are at the same
temperature. The thermometer should not touch any of the sides of the beaker

In specific heat capacity measuring experiment, the block can be cooled below room temperature and then
heated to a temperature above room temperature so that the energy transferred to the surrounding is
cancelled by the energy transferred from the surrounding.

The diameter of an object that may not be measured using calipers of screw gauge can be measured using a
metre rule and two set squares in this method illustrated below

When you are taking readings with a Vernier caliper or a micrometer screw gauge, The following concept
should be kept in mind at all times –

Repeat at different orientations and calculate a mean. This is done to reduce the effect of random errors
Check (and correct) for zero error. This would eliminate systematic error
OSCILLOSCOPE

The discovery of the electron led to great technological advances in electronics. Electrons moving at high
speed in a vacuum are called cathode rays, and twentieth century televisions and computer screens all
contained a cathode ray tube. The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is an important scientific instrument that
works in a similar way. The oscilloscope allows rapidly changing electrical signals to be analysed by
plotting a voltage–time graph on a screen. When a microphone is used to convert a sound wave into an
electrical signal, the waveform can be viewed directly on the oscilloscope screen. An oscilloscope can be
used as a voltmeter, to measure varying p.d.s, and also to measure intervals of time, enabling the frequency
of a signal to be found.

The vertical axis on an oscilloscope screen provides a measurement of p.d. and the horizontal axis is a measure of time. The
signal to be displayed or measured is connected to the Y-input terminal of the oscilloscope. The Y-gain control amplifies the
input p.d. to make it large enough to appear a suitable size on the screen. The Y-gain setting in volts per division or V/div allows
the size of the input p.d. to be measured. The timebase controls how fast the bright spot (the input signal) moves from left to
right. The distance moved by the spot is directly proportional to time and so the horizontal axis becomes a time axis. The
timebase setting in milliseconds per division or ms/div allows time intervals in a varying p.d. to be measured.

With the timebase switched on, the figures below show the display on an oscilloscope screen (called traces) for three different
input p.d.s. In a, the p.d. applied to the Y-input is zero, and there is a straight line across the centre of the screen. In b, the Y-input
is a constant d.c. signal and the trace is a horizontal line displaced upwards by an amount determined by the Y-gain setting. In c,
the Y-input is an a.c. signal, so the p.d. is alternately positive and negative

When the timebase is switched off, the trace is concentrated to a spot that does not move from left to right. Figure below shows
how the display appears for different inputs. In a, the input p.d. is zero and the spot remains at the centre of the screen. In b, the
input p.d. is a constant d.c. signal and the spot is displaced upwards. In c, the Y-input is an a.c. signal, so the p.d. is alternately
positive and negative and the trace appears as a continuous vertical line whose length increases when the Y-gain is increased.
USES OF AN OSCILLOSCOPE
Measuring p.d.s
An oscilloscope can be used as a d.c./a.c. voltmeter by connecting the p.d. to be measured to the Y-input terminals; the
displacement of the trace in the vertical direction is proportional to the p.d.
For example, if the Y-amp gain control is set on 1 V/div, a vertical displacement of one whole division on the screen would
be given by a 1 V d.c. input. A vertical line one division long (timebase off) would be produced by an a.c. input of 1 V peak to
trough (i.e. amplitude 0.5 V).
The vertical displacement can be measured with the timebase either on or off. To find the value of a d.c voltage, count the
number of whole divisions the trace (horizontal line or spot) is displaced vertically and multiply that number by the V/div setting.
For an a.c. input, count the number of divisions occupied by the vertical line (timebase off) or vertical peak-to-trough distance
(timebase on). The amplitude of the a.c. voltage can then be found by multiplying the V/div setting by half the number of vertical
divisions counted.

Displaying waveforms
When the timebase is on, the oscilloscope acts as a ‘graph-plotter’ to show the waveform, i.e. the variation with time, of the p.d.
applied to its Y-input. The displays in the diagram below are of alternating p.d.s with sine waveforms. For the trace in a, the
timebase frequency equals that of the input and one complete wave is obtained. For the trace in b, it is half that of the input and
two waves are formed. If the traces are obtained with the Y-amp gain control on, say, 0.5 V/ div, the vertical peak-to-trough
voltage of the a.c. = 3.0 divs × 0.5 V/div, that is, 1.5 V, and the amplitude of the signal = 0.75 V.
Sound waveforms can be displayed if a microphone is connected to the Y-input terminals

Measuring time intervals and frequency

These can be measured if the oscilloscope has a calibrated timebase. For example, when the timebase is set
on 10 ms/div, the spot takes 10 milliseconds to move one division horizontally across the screen. If this is
the timebase setting for the waveform in b then, since one complete wave occupies two horizontal divisions,
we can say
MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE: MAIN SCALE READING + (ROTATING SCALE READING X 0.01mm)
Example 1

The resolution of micrometer screw gauge is 0.01mm

The reading would therefore be 21 + (32 x 0.01) = 21.32

COMMENTS: Look at the divisions carefully. Each division on the main scale is 0.5mm. There are two visible divisions
after 20. You can see that there is a reading after 21. The reading is 21 “something”. That something is less than
0.5mm because the next marking is not visible. The reading after 21

Example 2

The reading will be 5.5 + (35 x 0.01) = 5.85mm

COMMENTS: Irrespective of whether it’s mentioned in the question, each division on a MSG is always 0.5mm. Now
look at the main scale the visible reading is 5.5mm but you can clearly see some more reading after 5.5. That’s what
the MSG will help to find out from the rotating scale
VERNIER SCALE: MAIN SCALE READING + (VERNIER SCALE READING X 0.1mm)
Example 1

Main scale ↗

↖Vernier Scale

Now the issue with vernier scale is that the main scale can be both in cm or mm. Regardless, the precision is always
0.1mm. So if you have to give the answer in cm, like in this case, convert the precision to cm.

The reading would be 10.2cm + (7 x 0.01cm) = 10.27cm

Example 2

Main scale reading is 16mm ↗

↑
Vernier Scale reading is 4

In this example, the main scale is in mm. Therefore you don’t need to convert the precision to cm. The calculations and
answers will be in mm all throughout.

Therefore the reading would be 16 + (4x0.1) = 16.4