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Chapter 19 - The Beginnings of Modernization

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Chapter 19 - The Beginnings of Modernization

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C H A P T E R 19

The Beginnings of
Modernization:
Industrialization and

SuperStock/SuperStock
Nationalism in the
Nineteenth Century A gathering of statesmen at the Congress of Vienna

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND FOCUS The European State, 1871–1914

QUESTIONS
The Industrial Revolution and Its Impact
Q What general political trends were evident in the
nations of western Europe in the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries, and to what degree were
Q What were the basic features of the new industrial
system created by the Industrial Revolution, and
those trends also apparent in the nations of central and
eastern Europe? How did the growth of nationalism
what effects did the new system have on urban life, affect international affairs during the same period?
social classes, family life, and standards of living?
CR ITICAL THIN KI NG
The Growth of Industrial Prosperity
Q What was the Second Industrial Revolution, and
what effects did it have on economic and social
Q In what ways was the development of
industrialization related to the growth of
nationalism?
life? What were the main ideas of Karl Marx, and
what role did they play in politics and the union
movement in the late nineteenth and early CONNECTIONS TO TODAY
twentieth centuries?
Q How do the locations of the centers of
industrialization today compare with those during
Reaction and Revolution: The Growth the Industrial Revolution, and how do you account
of Nationalism for any differences?

Q What were the major ideas associated with

conservatism, liberalism, and nationalism, and what
role did each ideology play in Europe between 1800
and 1850? What were the causes of the revolutions IN SE PT EMBER 1814 , hundreds of foreigners began to
of 1848, and why did these revolutions fail? converge on Vienna, the capital of the Austrian Empire.
Many were members of European royalty—kings,
National Unification and the National State, archdukes, princes, and their wives—accompanied by their
1848–1871 diplomatic advisers and scores of servants. Their congenial

Q What actions did Cavour and Bismarck take to bring

about unification in Italy and Germany, respectively,
host was the Austrian emperor, Francis I, who never tired
of regaling his guests with concerts, glittering balls, and
and what role did war play in their efforts? sumptuous feasts. One participant remembered, “Eating,
488

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fireworks, public illuminations. For eight or ten days, an enormous leap in industrial production that relied
I haven’t been able to work at all. What a life!” Of course, largely on coal and steam, which replaced wind and
not every waking hour was spent in pleasure during this water as new sources of energy to drive laborsaving
gathering of notables, known to history as the Congress of machines. In turn, these machines called for new ways
Vienna. The guests were also representatives of all the of organizing human labor to maximize the benefits and
states that had fought Napoleon, and their real business profits from the new machines. As factories replaced
was to arrange a peace settlement after almost a decade of shop and home workrooms, large numbers of people
war. On June 8, 1815, they finally completed their task. moved from the countryside to the cities to work in
The forces of upheaval unleashed during the French the new factories. The creation of a wealthy industrial
revolutionary and Napoleonic wars were temporarily middle class and a huge industrial working class (or pro-
quieted in 1815 as rulers sought to restore stability by letariat) substantially transformed traditional social rela-
reestablishing much of the old order to a Europe ravaged tionships. Finally, the Industrial Revolution altered how
by war. But the Western world had been changed, and people related to nature, ultimately creating an environ-
it would not readily go back to the old system. New mental crisis that in the twentieth century came to be
ideologies, especially liberalism and nationalism, products of recognized as a danger to human existence itself.
the upheaval initiated in France, had become too powerful
to be contained. The forces of change called forth revolts
that periodically shook the West and culminated in a
The Industrial Revolution
spate of revolutions in 1848. Some of the revolutions were in Great Britain
successful; most were not. And yet by 1870, many of the The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s.
goals sought by the liberals and nationalists during the first Improvements in agricultural practices in the eighteenth
half of the nineteenth century seemed to have been achieved. century led to a significant increase in food production.
National unity became a reality in Italy and Germany, and British agriculture could now feed more people at lower
many Western states developed parliamentary features. prices with less labor; even ordinary families did not
Between 1870 and 1914, these newly constituted states have to use most of their income to buy food, giving
experienced a time of great tension. Europeans engaged in them the wherewithal to purchase manufactured goods.
a race for colonies that intensified existing antagonisms At the same time, rapid population growth in the
among the European states, while the creation of huge second half of the eighteenth century provided a pool
conscript armies and enormous military establishments of surplus labor for the new factories of the emerging
heightened tensions among the major powers. British industry.
During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth In the course of its eighteenth-century wars, Great
centuries, another revolution—an industrial one— Britain had assembled a vast colonial empire at the
transformed the economic and social structure of Europe expense of its leading rivals, the Dutch Republic and
and spawned the industrial era that has characterized France. That empire’s many markets gave British indus-
modern world history. ! trialists a ready outlet for their manufactured goods.
British exports quadrupled from 1660 to 1760. Crucial
to Britain’s successful industrialization was the ability to
produce cheaply the articles in greatest demand. The tra-
The Industrial Revolution ditional methods of cottage industry could not keep up
and Its Impact with the growing demand for cotton clothes throughout
Britain and its vast colonial empire. Faced with this prob-
Q FOCUS QUESTION: What were the basic features
of the new industrial system created by the
lem, British cloth manufacturers readily adopted the new
methods of manufacturing that a series of inventions pro-
Industrial Revolution, and what effects did the vided. In so doing, these individuals ignited the Industrial
new system have on urban life, social classes, Revolution.
family life, and standards of living?
CHANGES IN TEXTILE PRODUCTION The invention of
During the Industrial Revolution, Europe shifted from the flying shuttle enabled weavers to weave faster on a
an economy based on agriculture and handicrafts to an loom, thereby doubling their output. This created short-
economy based on manufacturing by machines and ages of yarn until James Hargreaves’s spinning jenny,
automated factories. The Industrial Revolution triggered perfected by 1768, allowed spinners to produce more

The Industrial Revolution and Its Impact j 489

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yarn. Edmund Cartwright’s loom, powered by water and years, locomotives were traveling at 50 miles per hour.
invented in 1787, allowed the weaving of cloth to catch By 1840, Britain had almost 6,000 miles of railroads.
up with the spinning of yarn. It was now more efficient The railroad was important to the success and matur-
to bring workers to the machines and organize their ing of the Industrial Revolution. The availability of a
labor collectively in factories located next to rivers, the cheaper and faster means of transportation had a ripple
source of power for these early machines. effect on the growth of the industrial economy. As the
The invention of the steam engine pushed the cotton prices of goods fell, markets grew larger; increased sales
industry to even greater heights of productivity. In the meant more factories and more machinery, thereby rein-
1760s, a Scottish engineer, James Watt (1736–1819), built forcing the self-sustaining aspect of the Industrial Revolu-
an engine powered by steam that could pump water tion—a development that marked a fundamental break
from mines three times as quickly as previous engines. In with the traditional European economy. Continuous,
1782, Watt developed a rotary engine that could turn a self-sustaining economic growth came to be a fundamen-
shaft and thus drive machinery. Steam power could now tal characteristic of the new economy.
be applied to spinning and weaving cotton, and before
long, cotton mills using steam engines were multiplying THE INDUSTRIAL FACTORY Another visible symbol
across Britain. Fired by coal, these steam engines could of the Industrial Revolution was the factory (see the
be located anywhere. Comparative Illustration “Textile Factories, West and
The boost given to cotton textile production by these East” on p. 491). From its beginning, the factory created
technological changes was readily apparent. In 1760, Brit- a new labor system. Factory owners wanted to use
ain had imported 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton, their new machines constantly. Workers were therefore
which was farmed out to cottage industries. In 1787, the obliged to work regular hours and in shifts to keep the
British imported 22 million pounds of cotton; most of it machines producing at a steady rate. Early factory work-
was spun on machines, some powered by water in large ers, however, came from rural areas, where peasant
mills. By 1840, some 366 million pounds of cotton—now farmers were used to working hard at harvest time. But
Britain’s most important product in value—were being they were also used to periods of inactivity.
imported. By this time, British cotton goods were sold Early factory owners therefore had to institute a sys-
everywhere in the world. tem of work discipline that would accustom employees
to working regular hours and doing the same work over
OTHER TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES The British iron and over. Of course, such work was boring, and factory
industry was also radically transformed. Britain had owners resorted to detailed regulations and tough meth-
always had large deposits of iron ore, but at the begin- ods to accomplish their goals. Adult workers were fined
ning of the eighteenth century, iron production had for a wide variety of minor infractions, such as being a
changed little since the Middle Ages and still depended few minutes late for work, and dismissed for more seri-
heavily on charcoal. A better quality of iron was devel- ous misdoings, especially drunkenness, which courted
oped in the 1780s when Henry Cort developed a system disaster in the midst of dangerous machinery. Employers
called puddling, in which coke, derived from coal, was found that dismissals and fines worked well for adult
used to burn away impurities in pig iron (crude iron). employees; in a time when great population growth
A boom then ensued in the British iron industry. By had produced large masses of unskilled labor, dismissal
1852, Britain was producing almost 3 million tons of iron meant disaster. Children were less likely to understand
annually, more than the rest of the world combined. the implications of dismissal, so they were disciplined
The new high-quality wrought iron was in turn used more directly—often by beating. As the nineteenth cen-
to build new machines and ultimately new industries. In tury progressed, the second and third generations of
1804, Richard Trevithick (TREV-uh-thik) pioneered the workers came to view a regular workweek as a natural
first steam-powered locomotive on an industrial rail line way of life.
in southern Wales. It pulled 10 tons of ore and seventy By the mid-nineteenth century, Great Britain had
people at 5 miles per hour. Better locomotives soon fol- become the world’s first and richest industrial nation.
lowed. Engines built by George Stephenson and his son Britain was the “workshop, banker, and trader of the
proved superior, and it was Stephenson’s Rocket that was world.” It produced half of the world’s coal and manufac-
used on the first public railway line, which opened in tured goods; in 1850, its cotton industry alone was equal
1830, extending 32 miles from Liverpool to Manchester. in size to the industries of all other European countries
Rocket sped along at 16 miles per hour. Within twenty combined.

490 j CHAPTER 19 The Beginnings of Modernization: Industrialization and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

The Image Works

industrial factories in Japan, the Tomioka silk
factory, built in the 1870s. Note that although
women are doing the work in both factories, the
managers are men.

Q What do you think were the major

differences and similarities between
British and Japanese factories (see also
the box “Attitudes of the Industrial Middle
Class in Britain and Japan” on p. 494)? The Granger Collection, NYC

The Spread of Industrialization while nine U.S. cities had populations over 100,000. In
sharp contrast to Britain, the United States was a large
From Britain, industrialization spread to the continental
country. Thousands of miles of roads and canals were
countries of Europe and the United States, though at
built linking east and west. Most important in the devel-
different times and speeds. First to be industrialized opment of an American transportation system was the
on the European continent were Belgium, France, and railroad, which was needed to transport the abundant
the German states. Their governments actively encour- raw materials found throughout the country. Beginning
aged industrialization by, among other things, setting up with 100 miles in 1830, by 1865 the United States was
technical schools to train engineers and mechanics and crisscrossed by more than 35,000 miles of railroad track.
providing funds to build roads, canals, and railroads. By This transportation revolution turned the United States
1850, a network of iron rails had spread across Europe. into a single massive market for the manufactured goods
The Industrial Revolution also transformed the new of the Northeast, the early center of American industriali-
nation in North America, the United States. In 1800, six zation. By the end of the nineteenth century, with its
out of every seven American workers were farmers, and growing manufacturing sector, abundant raw materials,
there were no cities with more than 100,000 people. By and elaborate transportation system, the United States
1860, only 50 percent of American workers were farmers had become the world’s second-largest industrial nation.

The Industrial Revolution and Its Impact j 491

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Limiting the Spread of Thanks to the increase in the food supply, more people
were also better fed and more resistant to disease.
Industrialization to the Rest Throughout Europe, cities and towns grew dramati-
of the World cally in the first half of the nineteenth century, a phenom-
Before 1870, the industrialization that was transforming enon related to industrialization. By 1850, especially in
western and central Europe and the United States did Great Britain and Belgium, cities were rapidly becoming
not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world home to many industries. With the steam engine, facto-
(see the Comparative Essay “The Industrial Revolution” ries could be located in urban centers where they had
on p. 493). Even in eastern Europe, industrialization ready access to transportation facilities and large numbers
lagged far behind. Russia, for example, was still largely of new arrivals from the country looking for work.
rural and agricultural, ruled by an autocratic regime that In 1800, Great Britain had one major city, London,
preferred to keep the peasants in serfdom. with a population of 1 million, and six cities with popula-
In other parts of the world where they had estab- tions between 50,000 and 100,000. Fifty years later,
lished control (see Chapter 21), newly industrialized London’s population had swelled to 2,363,000, and there
European states pursued a deliberate policy of prevent- were nine cities with populations over 100,000 and eight-
ing the growth of mechanized industry. India provides een cities with populations between 50,000 and 100,000.
an excellent example. In the eighteenth century, India More than 50 percent of the British population lived in
had been one of the world’s greatest exporters of cotton towns and cities by 1850.
cloth produced by hand labor, producing over twenty- The dramatic growth of cities in the first half of the
five times as much cotton cloth per year as England. nineteenth century resulted in miserable living conditions
By 1850, however, much of India fell under the control for many of the inhabitants. Located in the center of
of the British East India Company. With British con- most industrial towns were the row houses of the indus-
trol came inexpensive textiles produced in British facto- trial workers. Rooms were small and frequently over-
ries. As the indigenous Indian textile industry declined, crowded. Sanitary conditions were appalling; sewers and
thousands of Indian spinners and handloom weavers open drains were common on city streets: “In the centre
lost their jobs, forcing many to turn to growing raw of this street is a gutter, into which the refuse of animal
materials, such as cotton, wheat, and tea, for export to and vegetable matters of all kinds, the dirty water from
Britain, while buying British-made finished goods. The the washing of clothes and of the houses, are all poured,
example of India was repeated elsewhere, as the rapidly and there they stagnate and putrefy.”1 Unable to deal
industrializing nations of Europe worked to thwart the with human excrement, early industrial cities smelled
spread of the Industrial Revolution to their colonial horrible and were extraordinarily unhealthy. Towns and
dominions. cities were death traps: deaths outnumbered births in
most large cities in the first half of the nineteenth cen-
tury; only a constant influx of people from the country
Social Impact of the kept them alive and growing.
Industrial Revolution
Eventually, the Industrial Revolution revolutionized the NEW SOCIAL CLASSES: THE INDUSTRIAL MIDDLE CLASS
social life of Europe and the world. This change was The rise of industrial capitalism produced a new middle-
already evident in the first half of the nineteenth century class group. The bourgeoisie was not new; it had existed
in the growth of cities and the emergence of new social since the emergence of cities in the Middle Ages. Origi-
classes. nally, the bourgeois or burgher was a town-dweller,
active as a merchant, official, artisan, lawyer, or man of
POPULATION GROWTH AND URBANIZATION The Eu- letters. As wealthy townspeople bought land, the original
ropean population had already begun to increase in the meaning of the word bourgeois became lost, and the term
eighteenth century, but the pace accelerated in the nine- came to include people involved in commerce, industry,
teenth century. Between 1750 and 1850, the total Euro- and banking as well as professionals such as teachers,
pean population almost doubled, rising from 140 million physicians, and government officials.
to 266 million. The key to this population growth was a The new industrial middle class was made up of
decline in death rates as wars and major epidemic dis- the people who constructed the factories, purchased
eases, such as plague and smallpox, became less frequent. the machines, and figured out where the markets were

492 j CHAPTER 19 The Beginnings of Modernization: Industrialization and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

The Industrial Revolution

Why some societies were able to embark Clearly, this debate has no single answer. In
on the road to industrialization during the any event, the coming of the industrial age had a
SCIENCE & nineteenth century and others were not number of lasting consequences for the world at
TECHNOLOGY
has long been debated. Some historians large. On the one hand, the material wealth of the
have pointed to the cultural characteristics of individ- nations that successfully passed through the process
ual societies, such as the Protestant work ethic in parts increased significantly. In many cases, the creation
of Europe or the tradition of social discipline and class of advanced industrial societies strengthened
hierarchy in Japan. Others have placed more emphasis democratic institutions and led to a higher standard
on practical reasons. To the historian Peter Stearns, of living for the majority of the population. It also
for example, the availability of capital, natural resour- helped reduce class barriers and bring about the
ces, a network of trade relations, and navigable rivers emancipation of women from many of the legal
all helped stimulate industrial growth in nineteenth- and social restrictions that had characterized the
century Britain. By contrast, the lack of urban markets previous era.
for agricultural goods On the other
(which reduced land- hand, not all the
owners’ incentives to consequences of the
introduce mechanized Industrial Revolution
farming) is sometimes were beneficial. In
cited as a reason for the industrializing
China’s failure to set societies themselves,
out on its own path to- rapid economic
ward industrialization. change often led to
To some widening disparities
observers, the ability in wealth and a sense
of western European of rootlessness and
countries to exploit alienation among
the resources of their much of the
colonies in Asia, The Steam Engine. Pictured here is an early steam engine developed population. Although
by James Watt. The steam engine revolutionized the production of
Africa, and Latin cotton goods and helped usher in the factory system. (HIP/Art Resource, NY)
some societies were
America was crucial able to manage
to their industrial success. In this view, the Age of these problems with a degree of success, others
Exploration led to the creation of a new “world experienced a breakdown of social values and
system” characterized by the emergence of global widespread political instability. In the meantime,
trade networks, propelled by the rising force of the transformation of Europe into a giant factory
European capitalism in pursuit of precious metals, sucking up raw materials and spewing manufactured
markets, and cheap raw materials. goods out to the entire world had a wrenching
These views are not mutually exclusive. In his impact on traditional societies, whose own
recent book The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and economic, social, and cultural foundations were
the Making of the Modern World Economy, Kenneth forever changed by absorption into the new
Pomeranz argued that coal resources and access to world order.
the cheap raw materials of the Americas were both
assets for Great Britain as it became the first to
industrialize.
What were the positive and negative
consequences of the Industrial Revolution? Q

The Industrial Revolution and Its Impact j 493

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Attitudes of the Industrial Middle Class in Britain
and Japan
In the nineteenth century, a new industrial and modifying institutions as in helping and
middle class in Great Britain took the stimulating men to elevate and improve themselves
SCIENCE & lead in creating the Industrial Revolution. by their own free and independent action as
TECHNOLOGY
Japan did not begin to industrialize until individuals.…
after 1870 (see Chapter 22). There, too, an industrial Many popular books have been written for the
middle class emerged, although there were also purpose of communicating to the public the grand
important differences in the attitudes of business secret of making money. But there is no secret
leaders in Britain and Japan. Some of these differen- whatever about it, as the proverbs of every nation
ces can be seen in these documents. The first is an abundantly testify.… “A penny saved is a penny
excerpt from the book Self-Help (1859) by Samuel gained.”—“Diligence is the mother of good-luck.”—
Smiles, who believed that people succeed through “No pains no gains.”—“No sweat no sweet.”—“Sloth,
“individual industry, energy, and uprightness.” the key of poverty”—“Work, and thou shalt have.”—
The other two selections are by Shibuzawa Eiichi “He who will not work, neither shall he eat.”—“The
(shih-boo-ZAH-wah EH-ee-chee), a Japanese world is his, who has patience and industry.”
industrialist who supervised textile factories. Although
his business career began in 1873, he did not write Shibuzawa Eiichi on Progress
his autobiography, the source of his first excerpt, One must beware of the tendency of some to argue
until 1927. that it is through individualism or egoism that the
State and society can progress most rapidly. They
Samuel Smiles, Self-Help claim that under individualism, each individual
“Heaven helps those who help themselves” is a well- competes with the others, and progress results
worn maxim, embodying in a small compass the from this competition. But this is to see merely the
results of vast human experience. The spirit of self- advantages and ignore the disadvantages, and I cannot
help is the root of all genuine growth in the support such a theory. Society exists, and a State has
individual; and, exhibited in the lives of many, it been founded. Although people desire to rise to
constitutes the true source of national vigor and positions of wealth and honor, the social order and
strength. Help from without is often enfeebling in its the tranquillity of the State will be disrupted if this
effects, but help from within invariably invigorates. is done egoistically. Men should not do battle in
Whatever is done for men or classes, to a certain competition with their fellow men. Therefore,
extent takes away the stimulus and necessity of doing I believe that in order to get along together in society
for themselves; and where men are subjected to and serve the State, we must by all means abandon
overguidance and overgovernment, the inevitable this idea of independence and self-reliance and reject
tendency is to render them comparatively helpless.… egoism completely.
National progress is the sum of individual industry,
energy, and uprightness, as national decay is of
individual idleness, selfishness, and vice.… If this view Q What are the major similarities and differences
between the business attitudes of Samuel
be correct, then it follows that the highest patriotism Smiles and Shibuzawa Eiichi? How do you
and philanthropy consist, not so much in altering laws explain the differences?

Sources: Samuel Smiles, Self-Help, London, 1859. Shibuzawa Eiichi, The Autobiography of Shibusawa Eiichi: From Peasant to Entrepreneur, 1927 (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1994).

(see the box “Attitudes of the Industrial Middle Class Strutt, a cotton manufacturer said, “Getting of money …
in Britain and Japan” above). Their qualities included is the main business of the life of men.” By 1850, in Brit-
resourcefulness, single-mindedness, resolution, initiative, ain at least, these entrepreneurs had formed a new busi-
vision, ambition, and often, of course, greed. As Jedediah ness aristocracy that stemmed from the professional and

494 j CHAPTER 19 The Beginnings of Modernization: Industrialization and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
industrial middle classes, especially as sons inherited the 1833, however, which prohibited employment of children
successful businesses established by their fathers. As the under the age of nine and restricted the working hours
new bourgeois bought great estates and acquired social of those under eighteen, child labor declined but did not
respectability, they also sought political power, and in disappear. In 1838, children under the age of eighteen
the course of the nineteenth century, their wealthiest still made up 29 percent of the total workforce in the cot-
members would merge with the old elites. ton mills. As the number of children employed declined,
Members of the industrial middle class sought both to women came to dominate the labor forces of the early
reduce the barriers between themselves and the landed factories, making up 50 percent of the labor force in tex-
elite and at the same time to separate themselves from tile (cotton and woolen) factories before 1870. They were
the laboring classes below. In the first half of the nine- mostly unskilled laborers and were paid half or less of
teenth century, the working class was actually a mixture what men received.
of different groups, but in the course of the century, fac-
tory workers came to form an industrial proletariat that DID INDUSTRIALIZATION BRING AN IMPROVED STAND-
constituted a majority of the working class. ARD OF LIVING? During the first half of the nineteenth
century, industrialization altered the lives of Europeans,
NEW SOCIAL CLASSES: THE INDUSTRIAL WORKING especially the British, as they left their farms and moved
CLASS Early industrial workers faced wretched work- to cities to work in factories. But did they experience
ing conditions. Work shifts ranged from twelve to six- a higher standard of living during this time? Some his-
teen hours a day, six days a week, with a half hour for torians argue that industrialization increased employ-
lunch and dinner. Workers had no security of employment and lowered the price of consumer goods, thus
ment and no minimum wage. The worst conditions improving the way people lived. They also maintain that
were in the cotton mills, where temperatures were espe- household income rose because several family members
cially debilitating. One report noted that “in the cotton- could now hold wage-paying jobs. Other historians
spinning work, these creatures are kept, fourteen hours argue that wage labor initially made life worse for many
in each day, locked up, summer and winter, in a heat of families and that employment in the early factories was
from eighty to eighty-four degrees.” Mills were also highly volatile as employers quickly dismissed workers
dirty, dusty, and unhealthy. whenever demand declined. Families lived in cramped
Conditions in the coal mines were also harsh. and unsanitary conditions in the early industrial cities and
Although steam-powered engines were used to lift coal continued to spend most of their income on food and
to the top of the mines, inside the mines, men still had to clothing. Most historians agree that members of the mid-
dig the coal out while horses, mules, women, and chil- dle class were the real gainers in the early Industrial Rev-
dren pulled coal carts on rails to the lift. Cave-ins, explo- olution and that industrial workers had to wait until the
sions, and gas fumes were a way of life. The cramped second half of the nineteenth century to begin to reap
conditions—tunnels were often only three or four feet the benefits of industrialization.
high—and constant dampness led to deformed bodies
and ruined lungs.
Both children and women worked in large numbers The Growth of Industrial
in early factories and mines. Children had been an impor-
tant part of the family economy in preindustrial times,
Prosperity
working in the fields or carding and spinning wool at
home. In the Industrial Revolution, however, child labor Q FOCUS QUESTIONS: What was the Second
Industrial Revolution, and what effects did it have
was exploited more than ever. The owners of cotton fac- on economic and social life? What were the main
tories found child labor very helpful. Children had a par- ideas of Karl Marx, and what role did they play in
ticular delicate touch as spinners of cotton, and their politics and the union movement in the late
small size enabled them to crawl under machines to nineteenth and early twentieth centuries?
gather loose cotton. Moreover, children were more easily
trained to do factory work. Children made up an abun- After 1870, the Western world experienced a dynamic
dant and cheap supply of labor: they were paid only age of material prosperity. The new industries, new sour-
about one-sixth to one-third of what a man was paid. ces of energy, and new goods of the Second Industrial
By 1830, women and children made up two-thirds of Revolution led people to believe that their material pro-
the cotton industry’s labor. Under the Factory Act of gress reflected human progress.

The Growth of Industrial Prosperity j 495

homes and cities to be illuminated by electric lights.

By the 1880s, streetcars and subways powered by electric-
ity had appeared in major European cities. Electricity
also transformed the factory. Conveyor belts, cranes,
machines, and machine tools could all be powered by
electricity and located anywhere. Similarly, a revolution
in communications began when Alexander Graham Bell An Age of Progress. Between 1871 and 1914, the Second
invented the telephone in 1876 and Guglielmo Marconi Industrial Revolution led many Europeans to believe that they
(gool-YEL-moh mahr-KOH-nee) sent the first radio were living in an age of progress when science would solve most
waves across the Atlantic in 1901. human problems. This illustration is taken from a special issue of
The Illustrated London News celebrating the Diamond Jubilee of
The development of the internal combustion engine, Queen Victoria in 1897. On the left are scenes from 1837, when
fired by oil and gasoline, provided a new source of power Victoria came to the British throne; on the right are scenes from
and gave rise to ocean liners as well as to the airplane 1897. The vivid contrast underscored the magazine’s conclusion:
and the automobile. In 1900, world production stood at “The most striking … evidence of progress during the reign is the
9,000 cars, but an American, Henry Ford, revolutionized ever increasing speed which the discoveries of physical science have
forced into everyday life. Steam and electricity have conquered
the automotive industry with the mass production of time and space to a greater extent during the last sixty years than
the Model T. By 1916, Ford’s factories were producing all the preceding six hundred years witnessed.”
735,000 cars a year. In 1903, at Kitty Hawk, North Caro-
lina, brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first
flight in a fixed-wing airplane. The first regular passenger goods made possible by the development of the steel and
air service was established in 1919. electrical industries. The desire to own sewing machines,
clocks, bicycles, electric lights, and typewriters was rap-
idly generating a new consumer ethic that has been a
New Patterns crucial part of the modern economy.
Industrial production grew rapidly at this time because of Not all nations benefited from the Second Industrial
the greatly increased sales of manufactured goods. An Revolution. Between 1870 and 1914, Germany replaced
increase in real wages for workers after 1870, combined Great Britain as the industrial leader of Europe. More-
with lower prices for manufactured goods because of over, by 1900, Europe was divided into two economic
reduced transportation costs, made it easier for Euro- zones. Great Britain, Belgium, France, the Netherlands,
peans to buy consumer products. In the cities, the first Germany, the western part of the Austro-Hungarian
department stores began to sell a host of new consumer Empire, and northern Italy constituted an advanced

496 j CHAPTER 19 The Beginnings of Modernization: Industrialization and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

0 250 500 750 Kilometers FINLAND

SWEDEN Saint Petersburg
0 250 500 Miles NORWAY Stockholm

ea
North Moscow

cS
Sea ti
Bal
GREAT DENMARK
BRITAIN
RUSSIA
Berlin

London NETHERLANDS Breslau

Dn
BELGIUM

ieper
GERMANY

Sei Nuremberg R.
ne R.
Paris Dan be Vienna
u
R. AUSTRIA-
Atlantic SWITZERLAND HUNGARY
FRANCE Laibach
Ocean Limoges
Belgrade
Saint Étienne
Toulouse
Marseilles
Black
Ebr
o
ITALY Sea
R.
Corsica Rome
Constantinople
Naples
Barcelona
PORTUGAL Madrid
Sardinia Salerno
SPAIN
s
d

sl
an

Lisbon cI
e ari
Bal
Mediterran GREECE
ea Sicily
n
Sea
Railroad development Steel Low-grade coal Oil production
Lines completed by 1848
Engineering High-grade coal Industrial concentration:
Area of main railroad
completed by1870 Chemicals Iron ore deposits Cities

Other major lines Electrical industry Petroleum deposits Areas

MAP 19.1 The Industrial Regions of Europe at the End of the Nineteenth Century. By the end of
the nineteenth century, the Second Industrial Revolution—in steelmaking, electricity, petroleum, and
chemicals—had spurred substantial economic growth and prosperity in western and central Europe;
it also sparked economic and political competition between Great Britain and Germany.

Q What correlation, if any, was there between industrial growth and political developments in the
nineteenth century?

The Growth of Industrial Prosperity j 497

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
had imported more from Asia than they had exported, employers to hire women. Women found new opportuni-
but now foreign countries provided markets for the sur- ties as telephone operators, typists, secretaries, file clerks,
plus manufactured goods of Europe. European capital and salesclerks. Compulsory education necessitated more
was also invested abroad to develop railways, mines, teachers, and the development of modern hospital services
electrical power plants, and banks. High rates of return, opened the way for an increase in nurses.
such as 11.3 percent on Latin American banking shares
that were floated in London, provided plenty of incentive Organizing the Working Classes
for investors. With its capital, industries, and military
The desire to improve their working and living condi-
might, Europe dominated the world economy by the
tions led many industrial workers to form socialist politi-
beginning of the twentieth century.
cal parties and socialist trade unions. These emerged
after 1870, but the theory that made them possible had
The Spread of Industrialization been developed more than two decades earlier in the
After 1870, industrialization began to spread beyond work of Karl Marx. Marxism made its first appearance
western and central Europe and North America. Espe- on the eve of the revolutions of 1848 with the publica-
cially noticeable was its rapid development, fostered by tion of a short treatise titled The Communist Manifesto,
governments, in Russia and Japan. A surge of industriali- written by two Germans, Karl Marx (1818–1883) and
zation began in Russia in the 1890s under the guiding Friedrich Engels (FREE-drikh ENG-ulz) (1820–1895).
hand of Sergei Witte (syir-GYAY VIT-uh), the minister
MARXIST THEORY Marx and Engels began their treatise
of finance. Under Witte’s direction, the government built
with the statement that “the history of all hitherto exist-
35,000 miles of railroad track by 1900 and produced
ing society is the history of class struggles.” Throughout
a modern steel and coal industry, making Russia the
history, oppressor and oppressed have “stood in constant
fourth-largest producer of steel, behind the United States,
opposition to one another.”2 One group of people—the
Germany, and Great Britain. At the same time, Russia
oppressors—owned the means of production and thus
was also turning out half of the world’s oil production.
had the power to control government and society.
In Japan, the imperial government took the lead in
Indeed, government itself was but an instrument of the
promoting industry (see Chapter 22). The government
ruling class. The other group, which depended on the
financed industries, built railroads, brought foreign
owners of the means of production, were the oppressed.
experts to train Japanese employees in new industrial
The class struggle continued in the industrialized
techniques, and instituted a universal educational system
societies of Marx’s day. According to Marx, “Society as a
based on applied science. By the end of the nineteenth
whole is more and more splitting up into two great hos-
century, Japan had developed key industries in tea, silk,
tile camps, into two great classes directly facing each
armaments, and shipbuilding.
other: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.” Marx predicted that
the struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
Women and Work: New Job would ultimately break into open revolution, “where
the violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie lays the foun-
Opportunities dation for the sway of the proletariat.” The fall of the
During the nineteenth century, working-class organiza- bourgeoisie “and the victory of the proletariat are equally
tions maintained that women should remain at home inevitable.”3 For a while, the proletariat would form a
to bear and nurture children. Working-class men argued dictatorship to reorganize the means of production, but
that keeping women out of industrial work would ensure then the state—itself an instrument of the bourgeois
the moral and physical well-being of families. In reality, interests—would wither away. Since classes had arisen
however, when their husbands were unemployed, from the economic differences that would have been
women had to do low-wage work at home or labor part- abolished, the end result would be a classless society (see
time in sweatshops to support their families. the box “The Classless Society” on p. 499).
The Second Industrial Revolution opened the door
to new jobs for women. The development of larger indus- SOCIALIST PARTIES In time, Marx’s ideas were picked
trial plants and the expansion of government services cre- up by working-class leaders who formed socialist parties.
ated a large number of service and white-collar jobs. The Most important was the German Social Democratic Party
increased demand for white-collar workers at relatively (SPD), which emerged in 1875 and espoused revolution-
low wages coupled with a shortage of male workers led ary Marxist rhetoric while organizing itself as a mass

498 j CHAPTER 19 The Beginnings of Modernization: Industrialization and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

Source: From The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

political party competing in elections for the Reichstag became the largest single party in Germany. Socialist par-
(RYKHSS-tahk), the lower house of parliament. Once in ties also emerged in other European states.
the Reichstag, SPD delegates worked to achieve legisla- Marxist parties divided over the issue of revisionism.
tion to improve the condition of the working class. When Pure Marxists believed in violent revolution that would
it received 4 million votes in the 1912 elections, the SPD bring the collapse of capitalism and socialist ownership of

The Growth of Industrial Prosperity j 499

Q FOCUS QUESTIONS: What were the major ideas

associated with conservatism, liberalism, and
periodically to take steps that would maintain the peace
in Europe. Eventually, the Great Powers adopted a prin-
nationalism, and what role did each ideology play ciple of intervention, asserting that they had the right to
in Europe between 1800 and 1850? What were send armies into countries where there were revolutions
the causes of the revolutions of 1848, and why to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones.
did these revolutions fail?

Industrialization was a major force for change as it led Forces for Change
the West into the machine-dependent modern world. Although conservative governments throughout Europe
Another major force for change was nationalism, which strived to restore the old order after 1815, powerful
transformed the political map of Europe in the nine- forces for change—liberalism and nationalism—were
teenth century. also at work. Liberalism owed much to the eighteenth-
century Enlightenment and the American and French
Revolutions; it was based on the idea that people should
The Conservative Order be as free from restraint as possible.
After the defeat of Napoleon, European rulers moved to Politically, liberals came to hold a common set of
restore much of the old order. This was the goal of the beliefs. Chief among them was the protection of civil
Great Powers—Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Rus- liberties, or the basic rights of all people, which included
sia—when they met at the Congress of Vienna in 1814 to equality before the law; freedom of assembly, speech,
arrange a final peace settlement after the Napoleonic and the press; and freedom from arbitrary arrest. All
wars. The leader of the congress was the Austrian foreign of these freedoms should be guaranteed by a written
minister, Prince Klemens von Metternich (KLAY-menss document, such as the American Bill of Rights. In addi-
fun MET-ayr-nikh) (1773–1859), who claimed that he tion to religious toleration for all, most liberals advo-
was guided at Vienna by the principle of legitimacy. To cated separation of church and state. Liberals also
reestablish peace and stability in Europe, he considered demanded the right of peaceful opposition to the gov-
it necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs who ernment in and out of parliament and the making of
would preserve traditional institutions. This had already laws by a representative assembly (legislature) elected
been done in France with the restoration of the Bourbon by qualified voters. Thus, many liberals believed in a

500 j CHAPTER 19 The Beginnings of Modernization: Industrialization and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

Sea
0 250 500 750 Kilometers NORWAY AND SWEDEN

North

ltic
0 250 500 Miles
Moscow

Ba
GREAT Sea DENMARK
BRITAIN
A RUSSIAN EMPIRE
London Rhine P R U S S I
Berlin Warsaw
GERMANIC

R.
n

Do
NETH. KINGDOM R.
Atlantic Paris
SAXONY OF POLAND
CONFEDERATION
Dn
ie per
Ocean FRANCE Danu
be R.
Vienna Dnieste
r
R.

RE
Lyons SWITZ. Buda

PI
VENETIA
EM

R.
LOMBARDY N
lps PARMA Verona
Laibach
T R IA
o R. AU S

A
E Py MODENA

P
ro
ren KINGDOM OF TUSCANY .
b

Danube R
PORTUGAL ees Elba PAPAL Black Sea
R.

Madrid SARDINIA
(PIEDMONT) Corsica STATES
Lisbon SPAIN Rome
OTTOMAN
Naples
n ds
ic Isla
Balear KINGDOM OF EMPIRE
THE TWO
Prussia SICILIES
Austrian Empire Taurus Mts.

Kingdom of Sardinia
M edi t erranean Crete
Cyprus
Boundary of the Germanic Confederation
Sea

MAP 19.2 Europe After the Congress of Vienna, 1815. The Congress of Vienna imposed order on
Europe based on the principles of monarchical government and a balance of power. Monarchs were
restored in France, Spain, and other states recently under Napoleon’s control, and much territory
changed hands, often at the expense of the small, weak states.

Q How did Europe’s major powers manipulate territory to decrease the probability that France
could again threaten the European continent’s stability?

constitutional monarchy or constitutional state with From then on, nationalists came to believe that each
limits on the powers of government to prevent despot- nationality should have its own government. Thus, the
ism and in written constitutions that would guarantee Germans, who were not united, wanted national unity in
these rights. Liberals were not democrats, however. a German nation-state with one central government. Sub-
They thought that the right to vote and hold office ject peoples, such as the Hungarians, wanted to establish
should be open only to men of property. Liberals their own autonomy rather than be subject to a German
also believed in laissez-faire economic principles that minority in the multinational Austrian Empire.
rejected state interference in the regulation of wages Nationalism thus posed a threat to the existing politi-
and work hours. As a political philosophy, liberalism cal order. A united Germany, for example, would upset
was adopted by middle-class men, especially industrial the balance of power established at Vienna in 1815,
middle-class men, who favored voting rights for them- and an independent Hungarian state would mean the
selves so that they could share power with the landown- breakup of the Austrian Empire. Because many European
ing classes. states were multinational, conservatives tried hard to
Nationalism was an even more powerful ideology for repress the radical threat of nationalism. The conserva-
change. Nationalism arose out of an awareness of being tive order dominated much of Europe after 1815, but the
part of a community that has common institutions, tradi- forces of liberalism and nationalism, first generated by
tions, language, and customs. This community consti- the French Revolution, continued to grow as that second
tutes a “nation,” and it would be the focus of the great revolution, the Industrial Revolution, expanded and
individual’s primary loyalty. Nationalism did not become brought in new groups of people who wanted change. In
a popular force for change until the French Revolution. 1848, these forces for change erupted.

Reaction and Revolution: The Growth of Nationalism j 501

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
The Revolutions of 1848 least eleven ethnically distinct peoples, including Ger-
mans, Czechs, Magyars (Hungarians), Slovaks, Roma-
Revolution in France was the spark for revolts in other
nians, Serbians, and Italians. The Germans, though only
countries. While the lower middle class, workers, and
a quarter of the population, were economically dominant
peasants were suffering from a severe industrial and agri-
and played a leading role in government. The Hungar-
cultural depression, the government’s persistent refusal
ians, however, wanted their own legislature. In March,
to lower the property qualification for voting angered the
demonstrations in Buda, Prague, and Vienna led to the
disenfranchised members of the middle class. When the
dismissal of Metternich, the Austrian foreign minister and
government of King Louis-Philippe (1830–1848) refused
archsymbol of the conservative order, who fled abroad.
to make changes, opposition grew and finally overthrew
In Vienna, revolutionary forces took control of the capital
the monarchy on February 24, 1848. A group of moder-
and demanded a liberal constitution. Hungary was given
ate and radical republicans established a provisional gov- its own legislature and a separate national army.
ernment and called for the election by universal male Austrian officials had made concessions to appease the
suffrage of a “constituent assembly” to draw up a new revolutionaries, but they were determined to reestablish
constitution. firm control. As in the German states, they were increas-
The new constitution, ratified on November 4, 1848, ingly encouraged by the divisions between radical and
established the Second Republic, with a single legislature moderate revolutionaries. By the end of October 1848,
elected to three-year terms by universal male suffrage Austrian military forces had crushed the rebels in Vienna,
and a president, also elected by universal male suffrage but it was only with the assistance of a Russian army
to a four-year term. In the elections for the presidency of 140,000 men that the Hungarian revolution was finally
held in December 1848, Charles Louis Napoleon Bona- put down in 1849. The revolutions in the Austrian
parte (1808–1873), the nephew of the famous French Empire had failed.
ruler, won a resounding victory. Within four years, Presi- Revolutions in Italy also failed. The Congress of
dent Louis Napoleon would become Emperor Napoleon Vienna had established nine states in Italy, including
III and establish an authoritarian regime. the kingdom of Sardinia in the north, ruled by the house
News of the 1848 revolution in France led to upheaval of Savoy; the kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples
in central Europe as well (see Opposing Viewpoints and Sicily); the Papal States; a handful of small duchies;
“Response to Revolution: Two Perspectives” on p. 503). and the important northern provinces of Lombardy and
The Vienna settlement in 1815 had recognized the exis- Venetia (vuh-NEE-shuh), which were part of the Aus-
tence of thirty-eight sovereign states (called the Germanic trian Empire. Italy was largely under Austrian domina-
Confederation) in what had once been the Holy Roman tion, but a new movement for Italian unity known as
Empire. Austria and Prussia were the two Great Powers; Young Italy led to initially successful revolts in 1848. By
the other states varied considerably in size. In 1848, cries 1849, however, the Austrians had reestablished complete
for change caused many German rulers to promise consti- control over Lombardy and Venetia, and the old order
tutions, a free press, jury trials, and other liberal reforms. also prevailed in the rest of Italy.
In Prussia, King Frederick William IV (1840–1861) agreed Throughout Europe in 1848–1849, moderate, middle-
to establish a new constitution and work for a united class liberals and radical workers soon divided over their
Germany. aims, and the failure of the revolutionaries to stay united
The promise of unity reverberated throughout the soon led to the reestablishment of authoritarian regimes.
German states as governments allowed elections by uni- In other parts of the Western world, revolutions took
versal male suffrage for deputies to an all-German parlia- somewhat different directions (see Chapter 20).
ment called the Frankfurt Assembly. Its purpose was to
fulfill a liberal and nationalist dream—the preparation of
a constitution for a new united Germany. But the assem- Nationalism in the Balkans:
bly failed to achieve its goal. The members had no real
means of compelling the German rulers to accept the
The Ottoman Empire and the
constitution they had drawn up. German unification was Eastern Question
not achieved; the revolution had failed. The Ottoman Empire had long been in control of much
The Austrian Empire needed only the news of the of the Balkans in southeastern Europe. By the beginning
revolution in Paris to erupt in flames in March 1848. The of the nineteenth century, however, the Ottoman Empire
Austrian Empire was a multinational state, containing at was in decline, and authority over its outlying territories

502 j CHAPTER 19 The Beginnings of Modernization: Industrialization and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
Response to Revolution: Two Perspectives
Based on their political beliefs, people can be promoted by a form of government in
Europeans responded differently to which the middle classes place no confidence.… But,
POLITICS & the specter of revolution that haunted sir, I am fully convinced that the middle classes sin-
GOVERNMENT
Europe in the first half of the nineteenth cerely wish to uphold the royal prerogatives, and the
century. The first excerpt is taken from a speech constitutional rights of the Peers.…
by Thomas Babington Macaulay (muh-KAHL-lee) But let us know our interest and our duty better.
(1800–1859), a historian and a member of the British Turn where we may—within, around—the voice of
Parliament. Macaulay spoke in Parliament on behalf great events is proclaiming to us, “Reform, that you
of the Reform Act of 1832, which extended the right may preserve.” Now, therefore, while everything at
to vote to the industrial middle classes of Britain. home and abroad forebodes ruin to those who persist
A revolution in France in 1830 that had resulted in in a hopeless struggle against the spirit of the age;
some gains for the upper bourgeoisie had influenced now, … take counsel, not of prejudice, not of party
his belief that it was better to reform than to have a spirit … but of history, of reason.… If this Bill should
political revolution. be rejected, I pray to God that none of those who con-
The second excerpt is taken from the cur in rejecting it may ever remember their votes with
Reminiscences of Carl Schurz (SHOORTS) unavailing regret, amidst the wreck of laws, the confu-
(1829–1906). Like many liberals and nationalists in sion of ranks, the spoliation of property, and the disso-
Germany, Schurz received the news of the 1848 lution of social order.
revolution in France with great expectations for
change in the German states. After the failure of the Carl Schurz, Reminiscences
German revolution, Schurz emigrated to the United
One morning, toward the end of February, 1848,
States and eventually became a U.S. senator.
I sat quietly in my attic-chamber,… when suddenly
a friend rushed breathlessly into the room, exclaiming:
Thomas Babington Macaulay, Speech “What, you sitting here! Do you not know what has
of March 2, 1831 happened?”
My hon[orable] friend the member of the University of “No; what?”
Oxford tells us that, if we pass this law, England will “The French have driven away Louis Philippe and
soon be a Republic. The reformed House of Commons proclaimed the republic.”
will, according to him, before it has sat ten years, … We tore down the stairs, into the street, to the
depose the King, and expel the Lords from their market-square.… Although it was still forenoon, the
House.… His proposition is, in fact, this—that our market was already crowded with young men talking
monarchical and aristocratical institutions have no hold excitedly.… What did we want there? This probably
on the public mind of England; that these institutions no one knew. But since the French had driven away
are regarded with aversion by a decided majority of the Louis Philippe and proclaimed the republic, some-
middle class.… Now, sir, if I were convinced that the thing of course must happen here, too.…
great body of the middle class in England look with The next morning … [we were] impelled by a feel-
aversion on monarchy and aristocracy, I should be ing that now we had something more important [than
forced, much against my will, to come to this conclu- our classes] to do—to devote ourselves to the affairs of
sion, that monarchical and aristocratical institutions are the fatherland. And this we did by seeking as quickly as
unsuited to this country. Monarchy and aristocracy, val- possible again the company of our friends, in order to
uable and useful as I think them, are still valuable and discuss what had happened and what was to come.
useful as means, and not as ends. The end of govern- In these conversations, excited as they were, cer-
ment is the happiness of the people; and I do not con- tain ideas and catchwords worked themselves to the
ceive that, in a country like this, the happiness of the surface, which expressed more or less the feelings of
(continued)

Reaction and Revolution: The Growth of Nationalism j 503

Sources: Thomas Babington Macaulay, Speech of March 2, 1831. From Speeches, Parliamentary and Miscellaneous by Thomas B. Macaulay (New York: Hurst Co., 1853), vol. 1, pp. 20–21, 25–26. From
The Reminiscences of Carl Schurz by Carl Schurz (New York: The McClure Co., 1907), vol. 1, pp. 112–113.

in the Balkans waned. As a result, European govern- was now without friends among the Great Powers. This
ments, especially those of Russia and Austria, began to new international situation opened the door for the unifi-
take an active interest in the disintegration of the empire. cation of Italy and Germany.
The “Eastern Question,” as it came to be called, troubled
European diplomats throughout the century.
When the Russians invaded the Ottoman provinces of National Unification and the
Moldavia (mohl-DAY-vee-uh) and Wallachia (wah-LAY-
kee-uh), the Ottoman Turks declared war on Russia on National State, 1848–1871
October 4, 1853. The following year, on March 28, Great
Britain and France, fearful of Russian gains, declared war Q FOCUS QUESTION: What actions did Cavour and
Bismarck take to bring about unification in Italy
on Russia. The Crimean War, as the conflict came to be and Germany, respectively, and what role did war
called, was poorly planned and poorly fought. Heavy play in their efforts?
losses caused the Russians to sue for peace. By the Treaty
of Paris in 1856, Russia agreed to allow Moldavia and The revolutions of 1848 had failed, but within twenty-
Wallachia to be placed under the protection of all the five years, many of the goals sought by liberals and
Great Powers. nationalists during the first half of the nineteenth century
The Crimean War destroyed the Concert of Europe. were achieved. Italy and Germany became nations, and
Austria and Russia, the chief powers maintaining the sta- constitutional monarchs now led many European states.
tus quo in the first half of the nineteenth century, were
now enemies because Austria had failed to support
Russia in the war. Russia, defeated and humiliated by the The Unification of Italy
obvious failure of its armies, withdrew from European The Italians were the first to benefit from the breakdown
affairs for the next two decades. Great Britain, disillu- of the Concert of Europe. In 1850, Austria was still the
sioned by its role in the war, also pulled back from conti- dominant power on the Italian Peninsula. After the fail-
nental affairs. Austria, paying the price for its neutrality, ure of the revolution of 1848–1849, more and more

504 j CHAPTER 19 The Beginnings of Modernization: Industrialization and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

MA
Florence RC
TUSCANY HE
until King Victor Emmanuel II KINGDOM OF
S proclaimed under a centralized

UM
(1849–1878; 1861–1878 as king PIEDMONT RI PAPAL government subordinated to the

B
A Ad
ri
of Italy) named Count Camillo Corsica Rome at
ic
control of Piedmont and King
STATES
di Cavour (kuh-MEEL-oh dee Se
a
Victor Emmanuel II. The task of
kuh-VOOR) (1810–1861) prime Naples
unification was not yet com-
Sardinia
minister in 1852. Mediterranean plete, however. Venetia in the
Cavour pursued a policy of Sea north was taken from Austria in
KINGDOM
economic expansion that in- 1866. The Italian army annexed
Kingdom of Piedmont, before 1859
creased government revenues OF THE the city of Rome on September
To Kingdom of Piedmont, 1859 Messina
and enabled Piedmont to equip To Kingdom of Piedmont, 1860 TWO SICILIES 20, 1870, and it became the new
a large army. Then, allied with To Kingdom of Italy, 1866, 1870 Sicily capital of the united Italian state.
the French emperor, Napoleon
III, Cavour defeated the Austri- The Unification of Italy
ans and gained control of
The Unification
Lombardy. Cavour’s success of Germany
caused nationalists in some 0 100 200 Kilo
Kilomete
meters rs DENM MAR
AR
ARKRKK SWEDEN
SWED EN N After the failure of the
northern Italian states (Parma, 0 50 10 1000 Miles
Miles
a Frankfurt Assembly to
Modena, and Tuscany) to SC CH
C HLE ESWI
SW
WG Se
lti
c achieve German unification
overthrow their governments HOLSTEI
HOLS TEI
EIN
E
EI I
Ba in 1848–1849, Germans in-
Hamburg
Hamb urg
and join Piedmont. OLDENBUR
OLDE NBURG RG creasingly looked to Prussia
W eser R.

Amsterda
Amst erdamm MECKLENB
MECK BU URG G WEST
HANOVER
HANO VER
Meanwhile, in southern NETH
NET
NE HE
ERLA
RLANDS PRUSSIA for leadership in the cause of
Be lin
Berl in
n
Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi German unification. Prussia
Elb e P R U S S I A
(joo-ZEP-pay gar-uh- B sels
Brus s l
Cologne HESS
HE
H E
ESSE- E- Od had become a strong, pros-
B
BELGIUM
BELG
BAHL-dee) (1807–1882), a CASS
C
CA A E EL L Leeeippzi
Leip
L zig
zig
er

perous, and authoritarian

Rh i

R
R.
n Weim
W eiimar
eeim .
HESSE-
HESS E- Dres
res
eessd
den
de
d en
en
dedicated Italian patriot, state, with the Prussian king
e

Trie
rie
ier
ier DARMSTAD
DARM STADT T Prag
P ague
Sedan Mai
raised an army of a thousand in firm control of both the
n

LUXEMBOURG G Main nz Fran

ran
rra
aannkfuur
urt
R.

Prussia, 1862
R.

volunteers called Red Shirts Verdun LORR

LO
L O AINE NE
NE
Str
tra
tr
rraasbou
s rg
Nurember
Nu erg
g
United in 1866–1867 government and the army.
BAVARIA
BAVA RIA
IA AUSTRIAN
because of the color of their with Prussia E MasPNorth
IRE In 1862, King William I
DEN

ALSAC CEE WÜR

WÜRT
WÜ
W ÜR
ÜR RTTTE TEMB
T .
EMB ERG
RG German Confederation
uniforms. Garibaldi’s forces n u b e R (1861–1888) appointed a
BA

FRANCE Da South German Vien ien

enn
en na
Mun chh
Muni
swept through Sicily and then Confederation new prime minister, Count
Annexed in 1871 after
crossed over to the mainland SWITZERLAND
Franco-Prussian War Otto von Bismarck (OT-toh
and began a victorious march fun BIZ-mark) (1815–1898).
up the Italian Peninsula. The Unification of Germany Bismarck has often been
portrayed as the ultimate realist, the foremost nine-
teenth-century practitioner of Realpolitik (ray-AHL-poh-
CHRONOLOGY The Unification of Italy
lee-teek)—the “politics of reality.” He said, “Not by
speeches and majorities will the great questions of the
Victor Emmanuel II 1849–1878
day be decided—that was the mistake of 1848–1849—but
Count Cavour becomes prime minister 1852
of Piedmont by iron and blood.”4 Opposition to his domestic policy
Garibaldi’s invasion of the Two Sicilies 1860 determined Bismarck on an active foreign policy, which
Kingdom of Italy is proclaimed March 17, 1861 led to war and German unification.
Italy’s annexation of Venetia 1866 After defeating Denmark with Austrian help in 1864
Italy’s annexation of Rome 1870 and gaining control over the duchies of Schleswig
(SHLESS-vik) and Holstein (HOHL-shtyn), Bismarck

National Unification and the National State, 1848–1871 j 505

Nationalism and Reform:

The European National State
at Midcentury
Unlike nations on the European continent, Great Britain
managed to avoid the revolutionary upheavals of the first
half of the nineteenth century. In the early part of the
century, Great Britain was governed by the aristocratic
landowning classes that dominated both houses of Parlia-
ment. But in 1832, to avoid turmoil like that on the conti-
nent of Europe, Parliament passed a reform bill that
increased the number of male voters, chiefly by adding
members of the industrial middle class (see Opposing
Viewpoints “Response to Revolution: Two Perspectives”
bpk, Berlin/Bismarck Museum//Art Resource, NY

on p. 503). By allowing the industrial middle class to join

the landed interests in ruling Britain, Britain avoided
revolution in 1848.
In the 1850s and 1860s, the British liberal parliamentary
system made both social and political reforms that enabled
the country to remain stable. Another reason for Britain’s
stability was its continued economic growth coupled with
middle-class prosperity and improvements for the working
classes as real wages for laborers increased more than
The Unification of Germany. Under Prussian leadership, a new 25 percent between 1850 and 1870. The British sense of
German empire was proclaimed on January 18, 1871, in the Hall of national pride was well reflected in Queen Victoria
Mirrors in the palace of Versailles. King William of Prussia became (1837–1901), whose sense of duty and moral respectability
Emperor William I of the Second German Empire. Otto von
Bismarck, who had been so instrumental in creating the new reflected the attitudes of her age, which has ever since
German state, is shown here, resplendently attired in his white been known as the Victorian Age (see the Film & History
uniform, standing at the foot of the throne. feature “The Young Victoria [2009]” on p. 507).

506 j CHAPTER 19 The Beginnings of Modernization: Industrialization and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

but broke into tears. Finally, except for

a passing reference to Victoria’s concern
for workers’ housing conditions, this
romantic movie makes no attempt to
portray the political and social issues of
The coronation of Victoria (Emily Blunt) as queen of England Victoria’s time.

After the revolution of 1848, France moved toward Paris of broad boulevards, spacious buildings, an under-
the restoration of monarchy. Four years after his election ground sewage system, a new public water supply, and
as president, Louis Napoleon restored an authoritarian gas streetlights.
empire. On December 2, 1852, he assumed the title of Na- In the 1860s, as opposition to his rule began to mount,
poleon III (the first Napoleon had abdicated in favor of his Napoleon III began to liberalize his regime. He gave the
son, Napoleon II, in 1814). The Second Empire had begun. Legislative Corps more say in affairs of state, including
The first five years of Napoleon III’s reign were a debate over the budget. Liberalization policies worked
spectacular success. He took many steps to expand indus- initially; in a plebiscite in May 1870 on whether to accept
trial growth. Government subsidies fostered the rapid a new constitution that might have inaugurated a parlia-
construction of railroads as well as harbors, roads, and mentary regime, the French people gave Napoleon III
canals. The major French railway lines were completed a resounding victory. This triumph was short-lived, how-
during Napoleon III’s reign, and iron production tripled. ever. War with Prussia in 1870 brought Napoleon III’s
Napoleon III also undertook a vast reconstruction of the ouster, and a republic was proclaimed.
city of Paris. The medieval Paris of narrow streets and Although nationalism was a major force in nineteenth-
old city walls was destroyed and replaced by a modern century Europe, one of the most powerful states, the

National Unification and the National State, 1848–1871 j 507

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Austrian Empire, managed to frustrate the desire of its
numerous ethnic groups for self-determination. After the
The European State, 1871–1914
Habsburgs had crushed the revolutions of 1848–1849,
they restored centralized, autocratic government. But Q FOCUS QUESTIONS: What general political trends
were evident in the nations of western Europe in
Austria’s defeat at the hands of the Prussians in 1866 the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
forced the Austrians to deal with the fiercely nationalistic and to what degree were those trends also
Hungarians. apparent in the nations of central and eastern
The result was the negotiated Ausgleich (OWSS- Europe? How did the growth of nationalism affect
glykh), or Compromise, of 1867, which created the dual international affairs during the same period?
monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Each part of the empire
now had its own constitution, its own legislature, its own Throughout much of Europe by 1870, the national state
governmental bureaucracy, and its own capital (Vienna had become the focus of people’s loyalties. Only in Rus-
for Austria and Budapest for Hungary). Holding the two sia, eastern Europe, Austria-Hungary, and Ireland did
states together were a single monarch—Francis Joseph national groups still struggle for independence.
(1848–1916) was emperor of Austria and king of Hun- Within the major European states, considerable pro-
gary—and a common army, foreign policy, and system gress was made in achieving such liberal practices as con-
of finances. The Ausgleich did not, however, satisfy the stitutions and parliaments, but it was largely in the
other nationalities that made up the Austro-Hungarian western European states that mass politics became a
Empire. reality with the expansion of voting rights for men and
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Russia the creation of mass political parties. At the same time,
was overwhelmingly rural, agricultural, and autocratic. however, similar reforms were strongly resisted in parts
The Russian imperial autocracy, based on soldiers, secret of Europe where the old political forces remained strong.
police, and repression, withstood the revolutionary fervor
of the first half of the nineteenth century. But defeat in
the Crimean War in 1856 led even staunch conservatives
Western Europe: The Growth
to realize that Russia was falling hopelessly behind the of Political Democracy
western European powers. Tsar Alexander II (1855–1881) By 1871, Great Britain had a functioning two-party parlia-
decided to make serious reforms. mentary system. For the next fifty years, Liberals and
Serfdom was Russia’s most burdensome problem. On Conservatives alternated in power. Aristocratic land-
March 3, 1861, Alexander issued his emancipation edict owners and upper-middle-class business people domi-
(see the box “Emancipation: Serfs and Slaves” on p. 509). nated both parties. The parties competed in passing laws
Peasants were now free to own property and marry as that expanded the right to vote. By 1918, all males over
they chose. But the redistribution of land instituted after twenty-one and women over thirty could vote. Political
emancipation was not favorable to them. The govern- democracy was soon accompanied by social welfare
ment provided land for the peasants by purchasing it measures for the working class.
from the landlords, but the landowners often kept the The growth of trade unions, which advocated more
best lands. The peasants soon found that they had inad- radical economic change, and the emergence in 1900 of
equate amounts of arable land to support themselves. the Labour Party, which dedicated itself to workers’
Nor were the peasants completely free. The state interests, caused the Liberals, who held the government
compensated the landowners for the land given to the from 1906 to 1914, to realize that they would have to cre-
peasants, but the peasants were to repay the state in ate a program of social welfare or lose the workers’ sup-
long-term installments. To ensure that the payments port. Therefore, they voted for a series of social reforms.
were made, peasants were subjected to the authority of The National Insurance Act of 1911 provided benefits for
their mir (MEER), or village commune, which was collec- workers in case of sickness and unemployment. Addi-
tively responsible for the payments to the government. tional legislation provided a small pension for those over
Since the communes were responsible for the payments, seventy. Although both the benefits and the tax increase
they were reluctant to allow peasants to leave. Emancipa- were modest, they were the first hesitant steps toward
tion, then, led not to free, landowning peasants on the future British welfare state.
the Western model but to unhappy, land-starved pea- In France, the confusion that ensued after the collapse
sants who largely followed the old ways of agricultural of the Second Empire finally ended in 1875 when an
production. improvised constitution established the Third Republic,

508 j CHAPTER 19 The Beginnings of Modernization: Industrialization and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

Sources: From Annual Register (New York: Longmans, Green, 1861), p. 207. From U.S. Statutes at Large (Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, 1875), vol. 12, pp. 1268–1269.

which lasted sixty-five years. France’s parliamentary sys- Central and Eastern Europe:
tem was weak, however, because the existence of a
dozen political parties forced the premier (or prime min-
Persistence of the Old Order
ister) to depend on a coalition of parties to stay in power. The constitution of the new imperial Germany begun by
The Third Republic was notorious for its changes of gov- Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1871 provided for a
ernment. Nevertheless, by 1914, the Third Republic com- bicameral legislature. The lower house of the German par-
manded the loyalty of most French people. liament, the Reichstag, was elected by universal male

The European State, 1871–1914 j 509

muh), elected directly by a broad franchise. But real con-

stitutional monarchy proved short-lived. By 1907, the tsar
had curtailed the power of the Duma and relied again on
the army and bureaucracy to rule Russia.

International Rivalries and the

Nicholas II. The last tsar of Russia hoped to preserve the
traditional autocratic ways of his predecessors. In this photograph,
Winds of War
Nicholas II and his wife, Alexandra, are shown around 1907 with Between 1871 and 1914, Europe was mostly at peace. Wars
their four daughters and son on holiday on the deck of a ship. did occur (including wars of conquest in the non-Western

510 j CHAPTER 19 The Beginnings of Modernization: Industrialization and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

Arctt i c O c e a n
German Empire France
Austria-Hungary Ottoman Empire

Italy
FINLAN
A D
0 250
50 5000
50 750 Ki
Kilom
lomete
eters
rs
NORW
NO WAYA
0 250 5000 Mile
50 Mile
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an RUS IAN
RUSS N
S WE
SW EDEN
ED EN Helsingfors E PIIRE
EM
Kri
ristiani
stt ani
sti aniaa
an Vo
Sto
S
St
t ckh
ckholm
olm lga R.
Saint Peters
rsbur
burgg
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Sea Mo cow
Mos o
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Berlin
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RLAN AUST USTRI
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Ocean s HUNGAR ARY

Y
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BOOSNSNIA A SE ROMA
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om MONT NTEN
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Tun
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Cre
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Me diterranean Sea Cyyp
C
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yprrus
ru

MAP 19.3 Europe in 1871. German unification in 1871 upset the balance of power established
at Vienna in 1815 and eventually led to a realignment of European alliances. By 1907, Europe was
divided into two opposing camps: the Triple Entente of Great Britain, Russia, and France and the
Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.

Q How was Germany affected by the formation of the Triple Entente?

The European State, 1871–1914 j 511

Pr
Mts.

ut
Budapest
inflexible and unwilling to compro- against Austria. At this point, Wil-

h
mise. A series of crises in the Bal- liam II intervened and demanded

R.
TRANSYLVANIA
kans between 1908 and 1913 set ROMANIA A
that the Russians accept Austria’s
Belgrade
g e
the stage for World War I. BOSNIA AND D Buchar
h resest
est annexation of Bosnia and Herze-
HERZEGOVINA
RZ N Danube R. govina or face war with Germany.
A Sar
Sa
S arajevo SERBIA A
CRISIS IN THE BALKANS Dur- dr
ia BULGARIA Black Weakened from their defeat in
ti MON
MO
M ONTTENEGRO
NEG Sea
ing the nineteenth century, the c Sofia the Russo-Japanese War in 1904–
Se Con
onnstantiin
ino
nop
nop
ople
le
Balkan provinces of the Ottoman IITALY Y
Tirana
ana
naa
MACEDONIA
EDONIA
ED 1905, the Russians backed down

OTTO
Empire had gradually gained A BA
AL A
AN NIAA Gallip
Ga
G lip
ipoli
ip li
li
but vowed revenge. Two wars
their freedom, although the ri- between the Balkan states in

MA
N E
valry between Austria and Russia 1912–1913 further embittered the
GREE E CE
C
ECE E

M
complicated the process. By 1878, inhabitants of the region and gen-

PI
Ath
At
Athens
Ath
theens E

R
Greece, Serbia, Romania, and Sicily M e d
iterrane erated more tensions among the
an Se
Montenegro (mahn-tuh-NEE- a Great Powers.
groh) had become independent. 0 100 200 300 Kilometers Serbia’s desire to create a large
Bulgaria, though not totally inde- 0 1000
10 200 Mil
Miles
es Cre
C te
e
rete Serbian kingdom remained unful-
pendent, was allowed to operate filled. In their frustration, Serbian
The Balkans in 1913
autonomously under Russian nationalists blamed the Austrians.
protection. Bosnia and Herzegovina (HAYRT-suh-guh- Austria-Hungary was convinced that Serbia was a mortal
VEE-nuh) were placed under Austrian protection; Austria threat to its empire and must at some point be crushed. As
could occupy but not annex them. Serbia’s chief supporters, the Russians were determined not to
Nevertheless, in 1908, Austria did annex the two Slavic- back down again in the event of a confrontation with Austria
speaking territories. Serbia was outraged because the or Germany in the Balkans. The allies of Austria-Hungary and
annexation dashed the Serbs’ hopes of creating a large Ser- Russia were also determined to be more supportive of their
bian kingdom that would unite most of the southern Slavs. respective allies in another crisis. By the beginning of 1914,
The Russians, as protectors of their fellow Slavs, supported two armed camps viewed each other with suspicion.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
In 1815, a conservative order had threatened the status quo in divided Germany and
been reestablished through- Italy and the multiethnic Austrian Empire.
out Europe, but the forces of In 1848, revolutions erupted across the European
liberalism and nationalism, continent. A republic with universal manhood suffrage
unleashed by the French Rev- was established in France, but within four years, it had
olution and now reinforced given way to the Second Empire. The Frankfurt Assem-
by the spread of industrialization, were pushing bly worked to create a unified Germany, but it also
Europe into a new era of political and social change. failed. In the Austrian Empire, the liberal demands of
Industrialization spread rapidly from Great Britain to the Hungarians and other nationalities were eventually
the European continent and the United States. As cities put down. In Italy, too, uprisings against Austrian rule
grew, the plight of Europe’s new working class failed when conservatives regained control.
became the focus of new political philosophies, notably By 1871, nationalist forces had prevailed in Ger-
the work of Karl Marx, who sought to liberate the many and Italy. The combined activities of Count Cav-
oppressed proletariat. At the same time, middle-class our and Giuseppe Garibaldi finally led to the
industrialists adopted the political philosophy of liberal- unification of Italy in 1870. Under the guidance of Otto
ism, espousing freedom in politics and in economic ac- von Bismarck, Prussia engaged in wars with Denmark,
tivity. By the mid-nineteenth century, nationalism Austria, and France before it finally achieved the goal

512 j CHAPTER 19 The Beginnings of Modernization: Industrialization and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

CHAPTER TIMELINE

Stephenson's Rocket

Bell invents the telephone

Mass production of
Beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain Ford's Model T

Congress of Vienna

Revolutions of 1848

Unification of Italy

Emancipation of Russian serfs

Unification of Germany

Bismarck as chancellor of Germany

Beginning of Third Republic in France

Triple Alliance

Triple Entente

CHAPTER REVIEW

Upon Reflection
Q What were the major similarities and differences Q To what extent were the major goals of
between the First and Second Industrial Revolutions? establishing liberal practices and achieving the growth
of political democracy realized in Great Britain,
Q What were the chief ideas associated with liberalism
France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia
and nationalism, and how were these ideas put into
between 1871 and 1914?
practice in the first half of the nineteenth century?

Chapter Summary j 513

Suggested Reading
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND ITS IMPACT A 2000). For a survey of the period 1814–1848, see M.
good introduction to the Industrial Revolution is Lyons, Postrevolutionary Europe, 1815–1856 (New
J. Horn, The Industrial Revolution (Westport, Conn., York, 2006). The best introduction to the revolutions
2007). On the role of the British, see K. Morgan, The of 1848 is J. Sperber, The European Revolutions,
Birth of Industrial Britain: Social Change, 1750–1850 1848–1851, 2d ed. (New York, 2005).
(New York, 2004). A work on female labor patterns
NATIONAL UNIFICATION AND THE NATIONAL
is J. Rendall, Women in an Industrializing Society:
STATE, 1848–1871 The unification of Italy can be
England, 1750–1880 (Oxford, 2002).
examined in B. Derek and E. F. Biagini, The Risorgi-
For a global approach to the modern economy, see
mento and the Unification of Italy, 2d ed. (London,
K. Pomeranz, The Great Deliverance: China, Europe,
2002). The unification of Germany can be pursued
and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Prince-
first in a biography of Bismarck, E. Feuchtwanger,
ton, N.J., 2002).
Bismarck (London, 2002).
THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRIAL PROSPERITY The Louis Napoleon’s role can be examined in J. F.
impact of the new technology on European thought is McMillan, Napoleon III (New York, 1991). On the
imaginatively discussed in S. Kern, The Culture of Time Austrian Empire, see R. Okey, The Habsburg Mon-
and Space, 1880–1914, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass., archy (New York, 2001). Imperial Russia is covered in
2003). On Marx, the standard work is D. McLellan, Karl T. Chapman, Imperial Russia, 1801–1905 (London,
Marx: His Life and Thought, 4th ed. (New York, 2006). 2001). On Victorian Britain, see W. L. Arnstein,
Queen Victoria (New York, 2005).
THE GROWTH OF NATIONALISM, 1814–1848 For
a good survey of the nineteenth century, see R. Gil- THE EUROPEAN STATE, 1871–1914 The domestic
dea, Barricades and Borders: Europe, 1800–1914, 3d ed. politics of the period can be examined in the general
(Oxford, 2003). Also valuable is T. C. W. Blanning, works listed above. See also J. Sperber, Europe
ed., Nineteenth Century: Europe, 1789–1914 (Oxford, 1850–1914 (New York, 2009).

Notes
1. Quoted in E. Royston Pike, Human Documents of the 3. Ibid., pp. 91, 94.
Industrial Revolution in Britain (London, 1966), p. 315. 4. Quoted in L. L. Snyder, ed., Documents of German History
2. K. Marx and F. Engels, The Communist Manifesto (New Brunswick, N.J., 1958), p. 202.
(Harmondsworth, England, 1967), p. 80. Originally 5. Quoted in S. Galai, The Liberation Movement in Russia,
published in 1848. 1900–1905 (Cambridge, 1973), p. 26.

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514 j CHAPTER 19 The Beginnings of Modernization: Industrialization and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century

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Chapter 19 - The Beginnings of Modernization

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Chapter 19 - The Beginnings of Modernization

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C H A P T E R 19

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND FOCUS The European State, 1871–1914

Q What were the major ideas associated with

Q What actions did Cavour and Bismarck take to bring

The Industrial Revolution and Its Impact j 489

The Image Works

Q What do you think were the major

The Industrial Revolution and Its Impact j 491

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution and Its Impact j 493

The Growth of Industrial Prosperity j 495

homes and cities to be illuminated by electric lights.

0 250 500 750 Kilometers FINLAND

London NETHERLANDS Breslau

Other major lines Electrical industry Petroleum deposits Areas

The Growth of Industrial Prosperity j 497

The Growth of Industrial Prosperity j 499

Q FOCUS QUESTIONS: What were the major ideas

Reaction and Revolution: The Growth of Nationalism j 501

Reaction and Revolution: The Growth of Nationalism j 503

perous, and authoritarian

LUXEMBOURG G Main nz Fran

volunteers called Red Shirts Verdun LORR

ALSAC CEE WÜR

FRANCE Da South German Vien ien

National Unification and the National State, 1848–1871 j 505

Nationalism and Reform:

on p. 503). By allowing the industrial middle class to join

but broke into tears. Finally, except for

National Unification and the National State, 1848–1871 j 507

The European State, 1871–1914 j 509

muh), elected directly by a broad franchise. But real con-

International Rivalries and the

Ocean s HUNGAR ARY

Q How was Germany affected by the formation of the Triple Entente?

The European State, 1871–1914 j 511

Bell invents the telephone

Emancipation of Russian serfs

Bismarck as chancellor of Germany

Beginning of Third Republic in France

Chapter Summary j 513

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