AP Calculus Notes

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Main Contents Numeric Page Order:

• Limits and Continuity

o Finding Limits of Functions Graphically and Using Tables
o Limit Laws and Techniques for Finding Limits Part 1
o Limit Laws and Techniques for Finding Limits Part 2
o Continuity
o Average Rate of Change/Velocity vs Instantaneous Rate of Change/Velocity
• The Derivative
o The Definition of the Derivative
o The Derivative as a Function
o Shortcuts to Finding Derivatives
o Derivatives of Inverse Functions
• Applications of Differentiation
o Related Rates
o Finding Absolute Maximum & Minimum Values
o The Mean Value Theorem and the First Derivative Test
o The Second Derivative
o Linear Approximation (Linearization)
o Motion Revisited
o Indeterminant Forms and L’Hospital’s Rule
• Integration
o The Definite Integral
o Riemann Sums, The Definite Integral, and Properties of the Integral
o The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
o The Substitution Rule
• Basic Applications of Integration
o Areas Between Curves
o Finding Volumes of Figures Using Integration & Cross Sections
o Average Value of Functions and MVT for Integrals
• Advanced Techniques of Integration
o Integration by Parts
o Trigonometric Integration
o Trigonometric Substitution
o Integration by Partial Fractions
o Strategies for Integration
o Approximate Integration Revisited
o Improper Integrals
• Advanced Applications of Integration
o Arc Length
o Area of a Surface of Revolution
• Basic Differential Equations
o Slope Fields and Euler’s Method
o Separable Equations
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 o The Exponential Models For Word Problems
o The Logistic Model for Population Growth
• Parametric and Polar Equations
o Parametric Equations Review
o Calculus with Parametric Equations
o Vector Functions
o Polar Equations & Coordinates
o Calculus with Polar Equations
• Series
o Deriving Famous MacLaurin Power Series: ex, sin(x), and cos(x)
o Approximating Functions Using Known Taylor and MacLaurin Series
o The Formulas for Taylor and MacLaurin Series:
o The Alternating Error Bound and Lagrange Error Bound
o Finding Radius and Interval of Convergence for Power Series
o Other Tests For Testing For Convergence/Divergence

Example Sets:

• Examples Yunor
• Examples Sophia
• Examples Henry
• Examples Ken
• Examples Tom
• Examples George
• Examples Paul
• Examples Kenny
• Examples Mike
• Examples Michelle
• Examples John
• Examples Stan
• Examples Samantha
• Examples Randy
• Examples Blake
• Examples Carey
• Examples Stephanie
• Examples Jorie
• Examples Steve
• Examples Jiah
• Examples Carol
• Examples Aaron
• Examples Rajul
• Examples Anthony
• Examples Maurine
• Examples Jim
• Examples Georgia
• Examples Scott
• Examples George Washington
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 • Examples Adams
• Examples Jefferson
• Examples Madison
• Examples Monroe
• Examples Quincy Adams
• Examples Jackson
• Examples Van Buren
• Examples Harrison
• Examples Tyler
• Examples Polk
• Examples Taylor
• Examples Fillmore
• Examples Pierce
• Examples Buchanan
• Examples Lincoln
• Examples Johnson
• Examples Grant
• Examples Hayes
• Examples Garfield
• Examples Arthur
• Examples Cleveland
• Examples Ben Harrison
• Examples Cleveland Again?
• Examples McKinley
• Examples Teddy Roosevelt
• Examples Taft
• Examples Wilson
• Examples Harding
• Examples Coolidge
• Examples Hoover
• Examples FDR
• Examples Truman
• Examples Eisenhower
• Examples Kennedy (that’s our school’s name!)
• Examples LBJ
• Examples Nixon
• Examples Ford
• Examples Carter
• Examples Reagan
• Examples Bush
• Examples Clinton
• Examples W
• Examples Obama
• Examples Trump
• Examples Alabama
• Examples Alaska
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 • Examples Arizona
• Examples Arkansas
• Examples California
• Examples Colorado
• Examples Connecticut
• Examples Delaware
• Examples Florida
• Examples Hawaii
• Examples Idaho
• Examples Illinois
• Examples Indiana
• Examples Iowa
• Examples Kansas
• Examples Kentucky
• Examples Louisiana
• Examples Maine
• Examples Maryland
• Examples Massachusetts
• Examples Michigan
• Examples Minnesota
• Examples Mississippi
• Examples Missouri
• Examples Montana
• Examples Nebraska
• Examples Nevada
• Examples New Hampshire
• Examples New Jersey
• Examples New Mexico
• Examples New York
• Examples North Carolina
• Examples North Dakota
• Examples Ohio
• Examples Oklahoma
• Examples Oregon
• Examples Pennsylvania
• Examples Rhode Island
• Examples South Carolina
• Examples South Dakota
• Examples Tennessee
• Examples Texas
• Examples Utah
• Examples Vermont
• Examples Virginia
• Examples Washington
• Examples West Virginia
• Examples Wisconsin
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 • Examples Wyoming
• Examples Samoa
• Examples Guam
• Examples Northern Mariana Islands
• Examples Puerto Rico
• Examples Virgin Islands
• z

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 Finding Limits of Functions Graphically and Using Tables
Limit: The limit of a function, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, written as “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, equals 𝐿”, means that 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
will get arbitrarily closer to 𝐿 as 𝑥 gets closer to 𝑎 on either side of 𝑎, but that 𝑥 is never equal to 𝑎.

Examples Yunor:
Example 1:

Using your calculator with 4 decimal place accuracy, complete the chart for the above function:

𝑥 3 −8
As 𝑥 gets closer to 2, 𝑓(𝑥) gets closer to _________. We write this as lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2
= __________.
𝑥→2

QUESTION: Could you have found the same answer by factoring and identifying a hole (also called a removable
continuity)? Show your work for finding the hole to this graph.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Example 2: MEMORIZE FOR AP EXAM!!!!

Find the following using a table. Graph the corresponding function as well:
sin 𝑥
lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

x -0.4 -0.25 -0.2 -0. 1 0 0. 1 0.2 0.25 0.4

f(x)

sin 𝑥
Based on our data, lim = ____________. NOTE: You must memorize this specific limit for the AP exam.
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥 cos 𝑥−1
EXPANSIONS: Find the following: lim =_____________. Show that: lim =0 (memorize for AP).
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
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In order for a limit to exist, we must be approaching the same y-value as x gets close to a number, a. If this doesn’t
occur, we say that the limit does not exist (DNE). Other possibilities are that the limit goes to infinity or negative infinity.

One-Sided Limits:

• Limits approaching from the left: lim− 𝑓(𝑥) means that we approach from the left of a.
𝑥→𝑎

• Limits approaching from the right: lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) means that we approach from the right of a.
𝑥→𝑎

• NOTE: In order for the limit, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, to exist at a, the limit from the left and right must exist. In other
𝑥→𝑎
words, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Examples Sophia:

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Example 9:
1
𝑓(𝑥) = sin
𝑥

lim sin 1/𝑥 = _____________ . NOTE: This occurs because the function infinitesimally oscillates between -1 and 1 as x
𝑥→0
approaches 0.
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Limits at Infinity:

• lim 𝑓(𝑥) is used to find out what happens as the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) travels to the right.
𝑥→∞
• lim 𝑓(𝑥) is used to find out what happens as the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) travels to the left.
𝑥→−∞
• There are 5 possible outcomes for 𝑓(𝑥) as it travels to the left or right

Possibilities:
Example 1 / Case 1: The curve goes up forever: Example 2/ Case 2: The curve goes down forever:

Find the following: lim 𝑥 2 = ____________ Find the following: lim 𝑥 3 = ____________
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞

Example 3/ Case 3: Horizontal Asymptotes exist: Example 4/ Case 4 & 5: The curve has a dampened
For f(x) below, oscillation meaning that the function is
approaching a value, or the oscillation is not dampened,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ______________and so the function does not approach any value (DNE).
𝑥→∞
For g(x) below, lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ______________ and
𝑥→∞
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ______________. lim 𝑔(𝑥) = _______________.
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞

Extra Examples / Homework:

+Rogawski Calculus: 2.2: 1-7 odd, 17-27 odd, 39, 41, 47, 49, 51
2𝑥+1
+ Be Prepared: #3: Graph the function 𝑓(𝑥) = , find a.) lim 𝑓(𝑥), b.) lim 𝑓(𝑥), c.) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥), d.) lim− 𝑓(𝑥),
|𝑥| 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
e.) all horizontal asymptotes, f.) all vertical asymptotes

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 Limit Laws and Techniques for Finding Limits Part 1
Limit Laws:

Examples Henry:
Using the graph below, find the limits of the following (NOTE: f(x) has a solid line, g(x) has a dotted line):

a.) lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = ______________________

𝑥→−2

b.) lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] =________________________

𝑥→1

𝑓(𝑥)
c.) lim = ____________________________
𝑥→0 𝑔(𝑥)

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The limit laws are useful for problems such as the one above, and for justifying Algebraic steps, which will be used
below. Most of the time we will find limits for lim 𝑓(𝑥), we will do so geometrically (as with lesson 1), or by using the
𝑥→𝑎
following steps in order:

1. Plug in a. (this works only if the function is continuous at a. In other words, we know the limit exists at a)
2. If step 1 fails, use Algebra or trigonometry to simplify, then go back to step 1 (trigonometry will often use the
sin 𝑥
fact that lim = 1)
𝑥→0 𝑥
3. If neither steps 1 or 2 work, the answer is most likely ∞, −∞, or DNE (for now, verify this Geometrically)
a. Find lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
b. Find lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
c. If steps a and b give you ∞, then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞. If steps a and b give you −∞, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
d. If neither of part c is true, then we usually have the general form of DNE

NOTE: Remember that in order for lim 𝑓(𝑥) to exist, both lim− 𝑓(𝑥) and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) must be the same.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Examples Ken:
Find the limits of the following:

𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1
1.) lim 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 1 2.) lim −𝑥 3 − 𝜋𝑥 2 + 3 3.) lim 4.) lim
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−1 𝑥→2 𝑥−1 𝑥→4 𝑥−1

2𝑥 2 −8 𝑥 3 −4𝑥 2 −𝑥+4 𝑥 2 −8𝑥+7 𝑥 2 +7𝑥−8

5.) lim 6.) lim 7.) lim 8.) lim
𝑥→−2 𝑥 3 +8 𝑥→1 𝑥 3 −1 𝑥→−2 𝑥+2 𝑥→4 𝑥 2 −8𝑥+ 16

9.) 10.)

11.) 12.)

13.) 14.)

15.) 16.)

(3+ℎ)2 −9 √𝑡 2 +9−3
17.) lim 18.) lim
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑡→0 𝑡
3
√𝑥−2 √𝑥+2
19.) lim 20.) lim
𝑥→4 𝑥−4 𝑥→−8 𝑥+8

21.) lim (√𝑥 2 + 1 − 𝑥) 22.) lim (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥)

𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞
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HOMEWORK:

Rogawski Calculus: 2.3: 1-15 odd, 2.5: 5-25 odd, 37, 39

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 Limit Laws and Techniques for Finding Limits Part 2
Examples Tom:
Trig Limits:

Examples:

tan 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 tan 2𝑥 1−cos2 𝑥

1.) lim 2.) lim 3.) lim 4.) lim
𝑥→0 3𝑥 𝑥→0 4𝑥 𝑥→0 6𝑥 𝑥→0 5𝑥 2

cos2 𝑥−2 cos 𝑥+1 1−(cos2 𝑥−sin2 𝑥)2

5.) lim 6.) lim 7.) lim tan−1 √𝑥 5 8.) lim tan−1 (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 4 )
𝑥→0 sin2 𝑥 𝑥→0 tan2 2𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞

𝜋 1 𝜋
cos(𝑡+ )− sin(𝑚 − ) + 1 sin 5𝑥 sin 5𝑥
3 2 2
9.) .) lim 10.) lim 11.) lim 12.) .) lim
𝑡→0 𝑡 𝑚→0 𝑚 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 3𝑥

The Squeeze Theorem:

• If 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) when x is near a (except possibly a) and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿, then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
• Often, but not always, this is used with trig functions sine and cosine. Remember, −1 ≤ sin 𝑥 ≤ 1.

Examples George:
Use the squeeze theorem to find the following limits. Graph to verify
1 sin 𝑥
1.) lim 𝑥 2 sin
𝜋
2.) lim 3.) lim √𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 sin
𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→0

Two Special Functions:

• Absolute Value Function

−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
o Definition of the Absolute Value: |𝑥 | = {
𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
• Greatest Integer Function (also called the floor function):
o Definition: floor(x) = ⌊𝑥⌋ = the largest integer that is less than or equal to x.
o Graph:

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Examples Paul:
(using the definitions above)

|𝑥|
1.) Show that lim |𝑥| = 0 2) Prove that lim DNE 3.) Find lim+⌊𝑥⌋ 4.) Find lim−⌊𝑥⌋
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6

5.) Find lim− 6.) Find lim+ 7.) Find lim
𝑥→3 |𝑥−3| 𝑥→3 |𝑥−3| 𝑥→3 |𝑥−3|

Tricky Limits (From “Be Prepared”):

1 1 𝑥 2 −𝑥+𝑘
1.) lim 𝑥 2 ( − ) 2.) For what value(s) of k does lim exist?
𝑥→∞ 𝑥−2 𝑥−3 𝑥→4 𝑥−4

𝑥 2 −𝑎2
3.) For what value(s) of a will lim exist?
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 4 −𝑎4
3𝑥 2 −12
4.) For which of the following values of a does lim exist?
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 3 −8
I.) a = 2 II.) a is infinity III.) a = -2
A.) I only B.) II only C.) III only D.) I and II only E.) I, II, and III

HOMEWORK:

• Rogawski Calculus: 2.6: 1-23 odd, 31-41 odd, 49, 2.7: 1-29 odd, 35, 37, 38

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 Continuity
The function, f(x), is continuous at a point, (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)) if and only if the following are true:

Types of Discontinuities:

a.) and b.) removable, c.) jump, d,) infinite, e.) oscillation

Examples Kenny:
Determine if the function f(x) is continuous at the marked value of c, and if not, determine which of the 3 rules of
continuity the function fails. State which type of discontinuity you have.

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Algebraically Thinking About Discontinuities:

The following is true for the below algebraic functions:

Examples Mike:
a.) State the domain of the function. b.) Find the discontinuities in the following functions and state the intervals of
continuity. c.) If the discontinuity is removable, suggest a replacement function such that the discontinuity would be
removed and show that the limit at the removable discontinuity exists. d.) Graph using a graphing calculator and check
your answers.
𝑥−3
1.) 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 + 5 2.)𝑓(𝑥) = 3.) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 4.) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6
𝑥 2 −9

√𝑥 2 −9 𝑥−2 𝑥 2 −9
5.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 6.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 7.) 8.) 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2 √𝑥 2 −9 𝑥−3

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 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6
9.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 10.) 11.)
𝑥−3

|𝑥+1| 𝑥
12.) 13.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 14.) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos ( )
𝑥+1 𝑥−1

Examples Michelle:
(Similar to AP Exam)

Find the value f the constant, k, that will make the function continuous. Verify by calculator.

4𝑥 − 11, 𝑥 ≤ 3
14.𝑓(𝑥) = { 15.) 16.)
𝑘𝑥 2 , 𝑥>3

ln(𝑥 + 𝑘) 0 < 𝑥 < 3

17.) 18.)𝑓(𝑥) = { on interval (−∞, 3)
cos(𝑘𝑥) 𝑥≤0

Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT): A function, f that is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] takes on every value
between f(a) and f(b).
Example: Draw a graph illustrating IVT:

Examples John:
1.)

t (sec) 0 5 7 9 14
v(t) (meters/sec) 3.35 4.25 2.75 2.55 4.70

The table above gives several measurements of the velocity of a particle moving along a straight line. What is the
smallest number of times that v(t) is exactly 4 m/s on the interval 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 14? Note that v(t) is a continuous function.

2.) Show that there is a root to the equation, 4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2 = 0 between 1 and 2.

HW: Rogawski 2.4: 17, 19, 27, 55-59 odd, 63, 65, 2.8: 1-5 odd, 21

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 Average Rate of Change & Average Velocity
vs
Instantaneous Rate of Change & Instantaneous Velocity

Tangent Line: A line that has the same slope as the curve with which it is intersecting. Note that the curve must have a
single definable slope at this point. We call such a curve differentiable at the point.

NOTE: To find a tangent line at a point, you can find the slope of secant lines that pass through the given point, and
another point near the point given. We call the slope of the tangent line the limit of the slopes of the secant lines near
it. The below illustration gives an idea of how to locate a tangent line.

Desmos Examples of Secant Lines vs. Tangent Lines:

• Example 1
• Example 2
• Tangent Line Following A Graph

Examples Stan:
1.) Draw the circle (𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 16. Draw 3 tangent lines through points in the circle. Find the equation
of the tangent line through the point (-1, -1). Check out other tangents to the circle here.

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 Equation: ___________________________________________________

2.) Estimate the tangent line of the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 through point P(1,1) by using secant lines. Let R be the other
point on the secant line graph. State the limit of the secant lines using limit notation. Draw the function and its
tangent line.

Point R Near P(1,1) __mPR__

R(2, 4)

R(1.5, 2.25)

R(1.1, 1.21)

R(1.01, 1.0201)

R(1.001, 1.002001)

𝑦 −𝑦 𝑥 2 −1
Slope of tangent: m=lim 𝑚𝑃𝑅 = lim 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = lim =
𝑅→𝑃 𝑥→1 2 1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1
__________

Equation of tangent line: ________________________________________________

Check Work Here

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 3.) Estimate the tangent line of the cubic function 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 5)3 + 1 when x = 4. State the limit of the secant
lines using limit notation. Draw the function and its tangent line.

___x near 4___ __m__

5
4.5
4.1
4.01
4.001

𝑦2 −𝑦1
Slope of tangent m = lim =
𝑥→4 𝑥2 −𝑥1
lim ____________________________ = ____________
𝑥→4

Equation of tangent line: __________________________________________________

Check Work Here

4.) Find the following for the below functions:

a. the average rate of change between 1 and 2
b. the instantaneous rate of change at x = 2
c. the equation of the tangent line at x = 2
3
i.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 7 ii.) 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+1
5.) Problems 2 & 4 on page 87 in class.

AVERAGE vs INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY:

Average Velocity = change in position

time elapsed

Instantaneous Velocity: velocity as the limit of time elapsed approaches zero. In other words, how fast something’s
going at the exact moment it is travelling (think of a speedometer)

NOTE: The average velocity is the slope of a secant line to a position function. The instantaneous velocity is the slope of
a tangent line to a position function.

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Examples Samantha:
1.) A ball is dropped from a tower 450 meters above the ground. The distance that an object has been dropped, in
meters, is 𝑠(𝑡) = 4.9𝑡 2 . Find the average velocity of the ball, in m/s, from t = 5 to t = 5.1. Using a table, find the
instantaneous velocity when t= 5.

Average velocity from t = 5 to t = 5.1: ____________________________

Time Interval Average Velocity (m/s)

5≤𝑡≤6

5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5.1

5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5.05

5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5.01

5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5.001

Velocity at t = 5: lim____________________________ = __________________

𝑡→5

2.) An object is travelling along a straight line. The displacement of the object at time t is 𝑠(𝑡) = 2𝑡 + 1 where t is
the number of seconds that have passed, and s(t) is measured in feet. Complete the following chart:

Find average velocity between t =0 and t = 4: ________________

Find instantaneous velocity at time t = 3: _________________

HOMEWORK: Rogawski: 2.1: 1-9 odd

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 The Definitions of the Derivative
(Stewart: 2.7)

Evaluating the limit of the difference quotients – Introduction to the derivative:

• The derivative lets us get the slope of the tangent line of a curve at a point.
o Derivation: assume that a function for a curve, f(x), has point P(a, f(a)). From the previous section, we
found that the slope of the tangent line of a curve, f(x), at point, P, is the following:

𝑦2 −𝑦1
𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = lim 𝑚𝑃𝑅 = lim =_____________________
𝑅→𝑃 𝑅→𝑃 𝑥2 −𝑥1

Letting h = x – a -> x = a + h, we get _______________________ = _________________________

• Definitions of derivatives:
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
o DEFINITION 1: lim (this is used to find the slope of the tangent line)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
o DEFINITION 2: lim (this is used to find the function that can find the slope of the .
ℎ→0 ℎ
tangent line)
o ALTERNATE FORMS OF DEFINITION 2:
𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
▪ lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
∆𝑦
▪ lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
∆𝑦
▪ NOTE: slope of the secant line can be written as , where ∆𝑦 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 and ∆𝑥 = ____________
∆𝑥
• Ways to write derivatives:
o Evaluating a derivative at a point:

▪
o The derivative as a function:

Examples Randy:
Using definitions 1 and 2, find the deriviatives of the following at the point, a, given:

𝑑 4𝑥+3
1.) 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 1, a = -3 2.) √𝑥 2 + 3𝑥, | 3.) , y’|1
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 2 −2𝑥+5
Using definition 2, find the derivatives of the following at the point, a, given. Find the function for the derivative:
𝜋 𝜋
3.) sin 𝑥 , 𝑎 = 5.) cos 𝑥 , 𝑎 =
3 4

Some things to notice about derivatives vs slopes of secants:

• A derivative is a slope of a tangent line at a point, or instantaneous rate of change.

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 • The slope of a secant line is the average rate of change.

Examples:

1.) The amount of money earned, M(t), in an investment shows the earnings displayed, in thousands of dollars, in the
graph below in terms of years since its investment. Answer the following:

a.)Find the average rate of change of the earnings between t = 1 and t = 2. What does this mean?

b.)Given that the instantaneous rate of change in earnings at t = 2 is –1500, find M’(2). Find the tangent line
of M(t) at t = 2. Graph the tangent line on the graph above.

c.) On a separate piece of paper, graph the function that shows how the rates of earning are changing
instantaneously.

#12, 14, 16, 32, 34, 36, 38 on 2.7

Examples 6, 7 on 2.7

Homework:

Rogawski: 3.1: 1-19 odd, 27-45 odd

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 The Derivative as a Function
The derivative of a function is itself a function, which one can take the derivative of in order to solve more complicated
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
problems. The version of the definition used in order to find the derivative as a function is: lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

Examples Blake:
Using the definition of the derivative, find the following. Graph the function and its derivative.:
𝑑 𝑥+1
1) (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥) 2.) 𝑓(𝑥) = √2𝑥 − 8, find 𝑓′(𝑥) 3.) 𝑦 = , find 𝑦′
𝑑𝑥 𝑥−2

Graph the derivative given the original graph:

1.)

2.)

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Differentiability: A function is differentiable at a if f’(a) exists. A function is differentiable on interval (a, b) if all points
between a and b are differentiable.

Differentiability vs continuity: If a function is differentiable on interval (a, b), then it is continuous on interval (a, b).
NOTE: continuity does not guarantee differentiability.

Examples Carey:
Find and graph the functions and their derivatives: State where the function is not differentiable. State where the
function is not continuous.
𝑥+3
1.) |𝑥| 2.)
|𝑥+3|

3.)

4.)

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Higher Derivatives: Higher derivatives are found by taking derivatives of derivatives.

• Notation for higher derivatives:

• The first derivative of a position function is velocity, the second derivative is acceleration, and the third derivative
is jerk.

Examples Stephanie:
1.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥. Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥), and 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥). Use your understanding of tangent lines to find 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥), and 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥)
without the definition.

2.) A particle is moving along a straight line. The position function for the function is shown below. Graph the velocity
and acceleration functions. State each function as a piecewise function.

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Homework: Rogawski: 3.2: 1-17 odd

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 Shortcuts to Finding Derivatives
• Rules for differentiable functions:
o Basic Rules:
𝑑
▪ Power Rule: 𝑑𝑥 (𝑎𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑
▪ Product Rule: 𝑑𝑥 (𝑓𝑔) = 𝑓𝑔′ + 𝑔𝑓′
𝑑 𝑓 𝑔𝑓′ −𝑓𝑔′
▪ Quotient Rule: ( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑔 𝑔2
,𝑔 ≠ 0
o Derivatives of exponentials and logarithms:
𝑑
▪ (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
▪ (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
▪ 𝑑𝑥
(ln 𝑥) =
𝑥
𝑑 1
▪ 𝑑𝑥
(log 𝑎 𝑥) =
𝑥 ln 𝑎
o Derivatives of Trig Functions:
𝑑
▪ 𝑑𝑥
(sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑑
▪ (cos 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
▪ (tan 𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
▪ (cot 𝑥) = − csc 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
▪ (sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
▪ 𝑑𝑥
(csc 𝑥) = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥

Normal Line: Line perpendicular to the tangent line of a graph at a given point.

Examples:

Problem Sets From Book:

Rogawski: 3.2: 19-41 odd

Rogawski: 3.3: 1-31 odd, 39-41 odd

Rogawski: 3.5: 1-23 odd, 37, 39, 41, 45

Rogawski: 3.6: 1-41 odd

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 Derivatives of Inverse Functions
NOTE: You must understand all rules of differentiation in order to understand this section

Click here for interactive version

The figure above shows the relationship between 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓 −1 (𝑥). x and y are swapped for inverse functions, which
means that the slope at (b, a) of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is the reciprocal of the slope at (a, b) of 𝑓(𝑥). This gives us the formula:
𝑑 1 1
[ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)]|𝑏 = = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑓′ (𝑎) 𝑓′ (𝑓−1 (𝑥))

Examples Jorie:
Use the information below to find the following:

Let 𝑓(2) = 7, 𝑓(7) = 5, 𝑓(5) = 2, 𝑓 ′ (2) = 5, 𝑓 ′ (5) = 7, and 𝑓 ′ (7) = 3,

Let the points (7, 4), (3, 9), (4, 2), and (5, 3) exist on the graph of 𝑡(𝑥). Let 𝑡′(2) = 11, 𝑡′(3) = 8, 𝑡′(4) = 10, 𝑡′(5) =
8, 𝑡′(7) = −6, and 𝑡′(9) = 1
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
1.) [ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)]|2 = ______ 2.) [ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)]|5 =_________ 3.) [ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)]|7 = _______
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
4.) [𝑡 −1 (𝑥)]|2 = _______ 5.) ) [𝑡 −1 (𝑥)]|9 = ________ 6.) ) [𝑓 −1 (𝑥) 𝑡 −1 (𝑥)]|2 = _______
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

4
7.) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
+ 2, and g is the inverse of f, then g’(10) = _______

8.) If f(x) = x2 + 1, x > 0, and g is the inverse of f, then g’(17) = _________, and g’(x) = _______________________

9.) Calculate g’(1) where g is the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 . Answer: _____________

10.) Find the derivative of ln(x). Graph the function and its derivative.

11.) Find the derivative of sin-1(x). Graph the function and its derivative.

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Derivatives of inverse trig functions, and exponential/logarithmic functions:

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑥 𝑑
Proof that (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎 : (𝑎 𝑥 ) = (𝑒 ln 𝑎 ) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑒 x ln 𝑎 ) = ln 𝑎 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Problems in Rogawski:

3.9: 8, 12, 14, 20, 26, 38, 40, 42, 46, 48

HW:

Rogawski: 3.8: 1-37 odd

Rogawski: 3.9: 1-47 odd

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 Related Rates

Steps to solve related rates:

1.) Draw a picture & label the variables if possible. Use t for time. All other variables are functions of t, so their
derivatives are in relation to time.
𝑑
2.) Write down all information that you have for each variable. One of the pieces of information will be 𝑑𝑡 of one of
the variables that is not time.
3.) Write an equation that relates the variables.
4.) Differentiate with respect to t. Assume that all variables are differentiable functions of t. You will be using the
chain rule and/or implicit differentiation…
5.) Substitute your known values and solve for the unknown value.
6.) Explain what your answers mean in English. Make sure that your answer makes sense.

Examples Steve:
1.) If x2 + y2 = 25 and dy/dt = 6, find dx/dt when x = 4.

2.) A right triangle with legs labeled a and b, and hypotenuse, c is shrinking. When a = 30 cm and b = 40 cm, leg a is
shrinking at a rate of 2 cm/min and leg b is shrinking at a rate of 5 cm/min. Answer the following.
a. Find an equation relating a, b, and c.
b. Find da/dt and db/dt. Are these values positive or negative? Why?
c. Use implicit differentiation to find dc/dt. What information do you still need? What does this value
mean?
d. Using a and b, find out how the area of the triangle is changed when a = 30 cm and b = 40 cm. You will
need the equation for the area of the triangle, and you will need to implicitly differentiate the area
function.

3.) Oil spills from a tanker and spreads in a circular pattern around the tanker. Answer the following:
a. If A is the area of a circle with radius r and the circle expands as time passes, find dA/dt in terms of dr/dt.
b. If the radius of the oil spill increases at a constant rate of 1 m/s, how fast is the area of the spill changing
when the radius is 30 m? Explain your answer.

4.) The length of a rectangle is increasing at a rate of 8 cm/s and its width is increasing at a rate of 3cm/s. When the
length is 20 cm and the width is 10 cm, how fast is the area of the rectangle changing? Explain your answer.

5.) The radius of a sphere is increasing at a rate of 4mm/s. How fast is the volume changing when the diameter is
20 mm? Explain your answer.

6.) A particle moves along the curve 𝑦 = √1 + 𝑥 3 . As it reaches the point (2, 3), the y-coordinate is increasing at a
rate of 4 cm/s. How fast is the x-coordinate of the point changing at that instant?

7.) Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon so that its volume increases at a rate of 100 cm3/s. At what rate is
the radius changing when the diameter is 50 cm? Describe what this value means.

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 8.) A ladder 10 feet long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder slides away from the wall at a rate
of 1 ft/s, how fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 6 ft from the
wall?

9.) A 6 foot tall man walks away from a street light that is 22 feet tall at a rate of 8 ft/sec. What is the rate of
change of his shadow when he is 4 feet away from the light? At what rate is the tip of his shadow moving?
Describe what these values mean.

10.) A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with a base radius of 2 m and a height of 4 m. If water is
being pumped into the tank at a rate of 2 m3/min, find the rate at which the water level is rising when the water
is 3 m deep.

11.) If a snowball melts so that its surface area decreases at a rate of 1 cm2/min, find the rate at which the diameter
decreases when the diameter is 10 cm.

12.) A man walks along a straight path at a speed of 4 ft/s. A searchlight is located on the ground 20 ft from the path
and is kept focused on the man. At what rate is the searchlight rotating when the man is 15 feet from the point
on the path closest to the searchlight?

Answers: 1.) +-8 2.) I don’t know yet! 3.) b.) 60pi m2/s 4.) 140 cm2/s 5.) happy face! 6.) 2 cm/s 7.) 1/25pi 8.) -3/4 ft/s 9.)
shadow: 3 ft/sec …. Tip: 11 ft/sec 10.) 8/9pi m/min 11.) -1/20pi 12.) 16/125

HW: Rogawski: 3.11: 13-25 odd, 27

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 Finding Absolute Maximum & Minimum Values
• absolute extrema (absolute maximum and minimum values): the highest/lowest points on a graph
• local/relative extrema (local/relative maximum and minimum values): the highest/lowest point, f(c), such that
f(c)>f(x) for all x when x is near c.
• Steps for finding absolute extreme values on an interval [a,b] for a continuous function, f(x):
o Find f(a), and f(b).
o Find critical numbers for f(x) on the interval (a, b)
▪ Note: critical numbers are numbers, c, such that f’(c) = 0, or f’(c) DNE
o The largest of the values found in steps 1 & 2 is the absolute maximum, while the smallest is the
absolute minimum.

NOTE: the above method works for functions that are continuous on interval [a, b]. Functions that are not continuous
on the interval [a, b] may not have maximums or minimums.

Examples Jiah:
Find the absolute extrema for the following. State the critical values:

1.) 2.)

3.) 4.)

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5.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3/5 (4 − 𝑥) on [-1/2, 5] 6.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 1 on [-1/2, 4]

7.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 on [0, 2𝜋] 8.) 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 − 3|(𝑥 + 5) on [-6, 4]

9.) a.) If 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 − 3|(𝑥 + 5), state all of the critical values of f(x).

b.) If 𝑓′(𝑥) = |𝑥 − 3|(𝑥 + 5), state all of the critical values of f(x).

HW: 4.1: 3-11 odd, 15-49 odd, 57, 61, 65

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 The Mean Value Theorem and the First Derivative Test
• Mean Value Theorem (MVT)
o If f is a function such that:
• f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]
• f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b)
o Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that:
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
𝑏−𝑎
• 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓′(𝑐)(𝑏 − 𝑎)

NOTE: Rolle’s Theorem is a special case of MVT that states that if f(b) = f(a), then there exists a number c such that
f’(c) =0. We will use MVT as a justification for this case instead of Rolle’s theorem.

Examples Carol:
State whether the following functions satisfy the conditions for MVT. If not, provide the reason. If so, find the value of c
that satisfy the conclusion of MVT.
𝜋 7𝜋
1.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2, [0, 3] 2.) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 2𝑥, [ 8 , 8
] 3.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 1, [0, 2]

4.) 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)−2 , [-3, -1] 5.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 + |3𝑥 − 1| [-3, -1] 6.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 + |3𝑥 − 1| [-1, 3]

7.) Suppose f(0) =–3, and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ≤ 5 for all values of x. What is the largest possible value of f(2)?

First Derivative Test For Critical Points

• If a function, f, is differentiable, and if c is a critical point of

f(x), then the following holds
o If f’(x) changes from negative to positive at c, then
f(c) is a local minimum (happy face)
o If f’(x) changes from positive to negative at c, then
f(c) is a local maximum (sad face)
o If f’ does not change at c, then there is no local
maximum or minimum.

Examples Aaron:

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1.) Find where the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 5 is increasing and decreasing. State the critical values at
which the function has local minimums and maximums. State the reasons for why the values at these numbers are
max’s or min’s.

2.) Find where the function 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥 is increasing and decreasing on the interval [0, 2𝜋]. Find the maximum
and minimum values. State the reasons for why the values at these numbers are max’s or min’s.

3.) A particle is moving along a straight line. Below is the displacement function, s(t), for the particle. s(t) is continuous
and is twice differentiable on [0, 20]. Answer the following:

t (seconds) 0 1 5 6 11 15 20
s(t) (feet) -4 3 7 -2 5 -1 -4

a.) Find the average velocity of the function on the interval [1, 11]. What does this mean?

b.) What is a good estimate for the instantaneous velocity at t = 3? How can you guarantee that the particle moves at
the estimate given on the interval [1, 5]? What does this estimate mean?

c.) What is the least number of times that the particle must be at rest? On what intervals must this happen? Why?

HW: Rogawski: 4.2: 65-69 odd

Rogawski: 4.3: 1-7 odd, 13, 14, 15-29 odd, 41-55 odd

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 The Second Derivative
Concavity Test:

• where f ’’ is positive, graph is concave up (happy face)

• where f ’’ is negative, graph is concave down (sad face)
• where f ’’=0 or f ’’ DNE, and f ’’ changes sign, graph has an inflection point (changes from happy to sad, or sad to
happy)

NOTE: If f’’ is positive, then f’ is increasing. If f’’ is negative, then f’ is decreasing, as the below graphic shows:

Examples Rajul:
State the intervals where the following graphs are concave up/concave down. State the points of inflection.

1.)𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 4 + 1 2.) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 on [0, 2𝜋] 3.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5/3

4.)

Second Derivative Test:

• For critical values, c, of f, the following is true

o If f ’’ (c) is positive, f(c) is a local minimum (bottom of happy face)
o If f ’’ (c) is negative, f(c) is a local maximum (top of sad face)
o f ’’ (c) =0, f(c) can be a local maximum, minimum, or inflection point (see concavity test)
• NOTE: For the AP exam, the first derivative test is preferred, as it is more reliable. The second derivative is used
primarily to test concavity.

HW: Rogawski: 4.4: 1-17 odd, 23, 24, 25-51 odd

Rogawski: 4.6: 13-27 odd, 51-69 odd
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 Linear Approximation & its Applications (Linearization)
Using Calculus, one can use the tangent line to approximate values of functions near known values. This practice is
known as linear approximation.

Above Figure: Near a, the value of the tangent line, 𝐿(𝑎 + ∆𝑥), is very close to 𝑓(𝑎 + ∆𝑥)

NOTE: If the function is concave up at the interval being tested, then the linearized value is an underestimate. If the
function is concave down at the interval being tested, then the linearized value is an overestimate.

Remember: the tangent line for a function, 𝑓(𝑥), at a value, a, is 𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎). This is the same as writing
𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎)

• Difference between linear approximation and linearization:

o The linearization of a function is the tangent line. The linear approximation is the actual value.

Examples Anthony:
a.) Find a function that can help you approximate the following values. b.) Find the linearization of the function at a
relevant value. c.) Approximate the following values using the linearization. d.) Is this an overestimate or an
underestimate?
3
1.) √64.1 2.) √63.95 3.) √−26.9

Find the linearization, L(x), of the function at a.

4.) 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 at a = 1 5.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3/4 at a = 16

3 3
6.) Find the linear approximation of the function 𝑔(𝑥) = √1 − 𝑥 at a = 0 and use it to approximate √0.9

Extra Practice:

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Answers to #7 through 9

Differentials:

∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦
• Difference between ∆𝑥 and 𝑑𝑥 at a point, (a, f(a))
∆𝑦 𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
o = (the slope of the secant line of the function
∆𝑥 𝑏−𝑎
𝑑𝑦 𝐿(𝑏)−𝐿(𝑎)
o | = 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 𝑏−𝑎 (the slope of the tangent line of the
𝑑𝑥 𝑎
function)
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
o Remember that 𝑑𝑥 |𝑎 can be used as an approximation for ∆𝑥
• What this means for linear approximation:

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 o In the figure above, note that ∆𝑦 ≈ 𝑑𝑦, and that 𝑓(𝑎 + ∆𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ∆𝑦 ≈ 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑑𝑦,
so 𝑑𝑦 ≈ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)
o If we find dy, then we can use it to find approximations to functions. This also has other uses.
• The differential formula
𝑑𝑦
o Note that = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥). We can see how this leads to the differential: 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Examples Maurine:
Find the differential of each function:
𝑠
1.) 𝑦 = 1+2𝑠 2.) 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑢 cos 𝑢

Find the differential dy and evaluate dy for the given values of x and dx.
1
3.) : 𝑥 = 1, 𝑑𝑥 = −0.01
𝑥+1

Answers for #4 through 7:

Maximum Error Approximations, Relative Error Approximations & Error Percentage Approximations:

• We can use dy to find an approximation to the maximum errors in manufacturing, etc. using the following:
o Maximum Error Approximation: 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦
o Relative Error Approximation: 𝑓(𝑥)
o Percentage of error: Relative error multiplied by 100

Examples Jim:

Answers:
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HW: 3.10: 1-35 odd

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 Motion Revisited
(Displacement, Distance, Speed, Acceleration, Speeding Up & Slowing Down)

Authors: Scott Canady

Examples Georgia:

Answers to Examples Geogia:

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Homework: Beginning Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Practice

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 Indeterminate Forms & L’Hospital’s Rule

• Steps For Using L’Hospital’s Rule:

o Step 1: Show that you have an indeterminate form
o Step 2: Use L’Hospital’s Rule

Examples Scott:
Find the limits of the following using L’Hospital’s Rule:
NOTE: you can use L’Hospital’s Rule more than once.
ln 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 tan 𝑥−𝑥
1.) lim 2.) lim 3.) lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→∞ 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥 3

Answers for 4 – 7:

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Examples George Washington:
Determine whether L’Hospital’s Rule should be used. Evaluate the limit using any method. Use L’Hospital’s as a last
resort:

sin 𝑥
1.) 2.) 3.) 4.) 5.) lim
𝑥→𝜋− 1−cos 𝑥
Indeterminate Products: (infinity * 0) We can rewrite certain products of functions, fg into quotients, f/(1/g) in order to
make L’Hospital’s rule valid.

Examples Adams:
Find the limit either by using L’Hospital’s Rule or any other method. Show your work:

1
1.) lim 𝑥 ln 𝑥 2.) lim 3𝑥 ln 3.) 4.)
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0+ 𝑥

Indeterminate Differences: (infinity – infinity): Try to convert the difference into a quotient:

Examples Jefferson:
Find the limits

Answers:

Indeterminate Powers:

The following types are indeterminate powers:

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In these cases, take the natural logarithm of the function to change it into a product.

Examples Madison:
Find the limit:

1.) lim (1 + sin 4𝑥)cot 𝑥 2.) lim 𝑥 𝑥

𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0+
3 5 𝑥
3.) lim (1 + + ) 4.) lim 𝑥 1/𝑥
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥→∞

HW: Rogawski: 4.5: 1-53 odd, 57, 59

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 The Definite Integral: Signed Area Under a Curve:

• Versions of the integral that we will cover in this section:

𝑏
o ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥: the signed area from x = a to x = b
𝑥
o 𝐹(𝑥) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡: a function that represents the signed area from x = a to any value for F

The Idea Behind Signed Area:

If a < b:

If a > b:

Examples Monroe:
1.) f(x) is displayed below. Find the following integrals:

16 2 10 0
a.) ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 b.) ∫12 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 c.) ∫4 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 d.) ∫4 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

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 𝑥
2.) g(x) is displayed below. ℎ(𝑥) = ∫4 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡. Find the following:

a.) ℎ(3) b.) ℎ(−3) c.) ℎ(14)

2
5.) 𝑓(𝑥) = { √9 − 𝑥 + 2 . Find ∫6 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
3 6 −2 0
3.) ∫−3 √9 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 4.) ∫−2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 5.) ∫6 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 − 4, 𝑥 > 3
Graphs of Velocity Functions, and Their Relationships to Position:

Examples Quincy Adams:

1.) Pretend the below graph is the velocity, v(t), of a magical particle moving along the x-axis, in miles per hour. Now
pretend that the particle starts 3 miles from the origin, or that the position function, s(t), is such that s(0)=3. Answer the
questions below:

a.) How far has the particle travelled after 1 hour (what is s(1))?

b.) How far has the particle travelled after 2 hours?

c.) How far has the particle travelled after 5 hours?

d.) How does the area under the curve relate to the function s(t)?

e.) What is the maximum distance that the particle travels to the right?
Why?

2.) A car is racing on a straight street. The graph below shows the velocity of the car, v(t), in miles per hour. The car
starts at a starting line and races westward, then returns back after the race. Answer the following questions:

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 a.) Write the position function, s(t), as an integral.

b.) Using your answer in part a), find how far westward the
car travelled before it turned around. How many hours
passed before this happened?

c.) How close to the starting line is the car after 12 hours?

d.) What is the total distance travelled by the car?

Introduction to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:

• Part 1:
𝑥
o If f is continuous on [a, b], then the function g defined by 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 is continuous
on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), and 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).
• Part 2:
𝑏
o If f is continuous on [a, b], then 𝐹(𝑏) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐹(𝑎) where F is any antiderivative of f, that is, a
function such that F’ = f.
𝑥
• WARNING: If 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡, and you move backwards (x < a), the opposite of the derivative is the true
𝑑
slope of the graph. That is, 𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

HW: AP Exam Problems Below:

(2003 BC Exam #4)

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(2017 BC Exam #3)

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(05 BC Form B Exam #4)

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(05 BC Exam #5)

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(03 BC Form B Exam # 5)

Hunt for similar problems at: http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/members/exam/exam_information/8031.html

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 Riemann Sums, The Definite Integral, and Properties of the Integral
Approximating area under a curve using Riemann Sums:

Examples Jackson:
Below is a graph that is not Geometric in shape. We can approximate the area of the graph by dividing the graph into
rectangular subintervals, as displayed below. The larger the number of subintervals, the closer we get to the exact area.
Below, we use four subintervals with the leftmost points (L4), midpoints (M4), and rightmost points (R4).

L4 M4 R4

Using L4, 𝑓(𝑥) ≈ ___________ Using M4, 𝑓(𝑥) ≈ ___________ Using R4, 𝑓(𝑥) ≈ ___________

Is L4 an overestimate, or underestimate?

Is R4 an overestimate, or underestimate?

How would your answers for the last two questions change if 𝑓(𝑥) was decreasing?

• Formulas for area under a curve:

o General area under a curve on [a, b], where a<b:
▪ Below, ∆𝑥 is the width of each rectangle, and 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) is the height of each rectangle.
𝑏
▪ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim [𝑓(𝑥1 )∆𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑥2 )∆𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑥3 )∆𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 )∆𝑥] →
𝑛→∞
𝑏
▪ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim [𝑓(𝑥1 ) + 𝑓(𝑥2 ) + 𝑓(𝑥3 ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 )]∆𝑥 →
𝑛→∞
𝑏
▪ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 )∆𝑥
𝑛→∞
𝑏−𝑎 (𝑏−𝑎)𝑖
▪ Letting ∆𝑥 = 𝑛
and 𝑥𝑖 =𝑎+ 𝑛
we get:
𝑏 (𝑏−𝑎)𝑖 𝑏−𝑎
• ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑛
)∙ 𝑛
𝑛→∞

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 • Approximating the definite integral by using 𝑛 subintervals where 𝑛 is a finite number:
𝑏−𝑎
o On interval [a, b] with n subintervals, ∆𝑥 = 𝑛
(𝑏−𝑎)𝑖
o Right Riemann Sum Endpoint Generation: 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎 + 𝑖∆𝑥 → 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎 +
𝑛
o Left Riemann Sum Endpoint Generation: 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎 + (𝑖 − 1)∆𝑥
𝑥𝑖−1 +𝑥𝑖
o Midpoint Riemann Sum Midpoint Generation: 𝑥̅𝑖 = 2

Examples Van Buren:

Approximate the areas under the curves using n subintervals and left-hand (Ln), right-hand (Rn), or midpoint (Mn) sums.
Graph the functions and the approximated area:
Click Here to check your work

1.) Find L4 for 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(𝑥) on [𝜋, 2𝜋] 2.) Find R4 for 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 on [0, 4]. Is this an overestimate or
. underestimate?

(EXTRA PRACTICE: Examples 2 and 5 in 5.2)

3.) Find the area under the curve of the function y = 2x on interval [1, 3] in the following ways: a.) use two subintervals
and the midpoint sum, b.) use four subintervals and the midpoint sum, and c.) find the area using geometry.

4.) The velocity of a car with a broken odometer is taken, in feet per second, every 5 seconds to find out how far the car
has travelled. Below is a table of the results. Using 6 subintervals, find L6 and R6 to estimate the number of feet the car
travelled (similar to example 4 on pg. 362)

Time (s) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Velocity (ft/s) 25 31 35 43 47 46 41

NOTE: On the AP Exam, you are not guaranteed that ∆𝑥 will always be constant. The below example illustrates this
issue:

5.) The rate at which water was leaking out of a tank was checked at various times in the day. The leak continuously
became worse over the course of the day. Based on this, use 4 subintervals using both a left and right Riemann sum to
estimate the amount of water, W(t), that leaked out from 1PM to 8PM. Write your answer as an inequality. How do
you know that one of the Riemann sums is an overestimate, and the other is an underestimate?

Time of day: 1PM 3PM 4PM 7PM 8PM

Leakage (gal/hr) 7 10 12 15 20

The following is true for the questions below. The closed interval [a, b] is given and is partitioned into n equal
subintervals, each of width of ∆𝑥, by the numbers 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 where 𝑎 = 𝑥0 < 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 < ⋯ < 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏. Express
each as an integral.

7.) lim ∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖3 + 𝑥𝑖 sin 𝑥𝑖 )∆𝑥 on [0, 𝜋]

𝑛→∞
8.) lim ∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖2 sec 𝑥𝑖 + 3𝑥𝑖 ln 𝑥𝑖 )∆𝑥 on [−5, 7]
𝑛→∞
tan 𝑥 𝑥
9.) lim ∑𝑛𝑖=1( 𝑥 2 +1𝑖 + log𝑖𝑥 )∆𝑥 on [−1, 10]
𝑛→∞ 𝑖 𝑖

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Find the following sums:
3 3𝑖 2 3𝑖
10.) lim ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑛 (6 ( 𝑛 ) + 2 ( 𝑛 ) − 5)
𝑛→∞
4 4𝑖 3 4𝑖 2
11.) lim ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑛 (12 ( 𝑛 ) + 3 ( 𝑛 ) + 1)
𝑛→∞
6 6𝑖
12.) lim ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑛 (4 ( 𝑛 ) − 3)
𝑛→∞
𝜋 𝑖𝜋
13.) lim ∑𝑛𝑖=1 sin
𝑛→∞ 3𝑛 3𝑛
𝑖𝜋 𝑖𝜋
𝑛 𝜋 sec6𝑛 tan6𝑛
14.) lim ∑𝑖=1
𝑛→∞ 6𝑛

Properties of the Integral:

𝑏
1. ∫𝑎 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑎)
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
2. ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑 𝑥
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
3. ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑏
4. ∫𝑎 𝑐𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

2017 AP Exam #1A:

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HW: Rogawski: 5.1: 1-19 odd,
Rogawski: 5.2: 1-17 odd, 33-41 odd, 43, 45

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 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
• Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1:
o If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] then the function 𝑔 defined by
𝑥
𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 , 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
𝑎
is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏), and 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
• Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2:
o If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏], then
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎
where 𝐹 is any antiderivative of 𝑓, that is, a function such that 𝐹 ′ = 𝑓.

Examples:

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Rogawski: 4.9: 24, 26

Answers to Examples:

Homework: Rogawski: 5.3: 19-25 odd, 33, 37, 43-47 odd, 55

Rogawski: 5.4: 7-13 odd, 21, 23, 25, 29-33 odd
Rogawski: 4.9: 25-29 odd

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 The Substitution Rule
Examples:

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Answers to Examples:

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Homework: Rogawski: 5.6: 7-21 odd, 27-71 odd, 79-89 odd
Rogawski: 5.7: 1-69 odd

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 Areas Between Curves
Examples:

Answers to Examples:

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Homework: Rogawski: 6.1: 1-29 odd, 33-43 odd, 51

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 Finding Volumes of Figures Using Integration & Cross Sections
𝑏
• For a vertical cross section or a cross section perpendicular to the x-axis: 𝑉 = ∫𝑎 𝐴(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

vertical cross section, or cross section perpendicular to the x-axis

𝑏
• For a horizontal cross section or a cross section perpendicular to the y-axis: 𝑉 = ∫𝑎 𝐴(𝑦)𝑑𝑦

horizontal cross section, or cross section perpendicular to the y-axis

Examples Harrison:
NOTE: Click on problems 1, 3, 6, 17, and 31 to see interactive versions of solids.

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 70
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33.) The areas of cross sections of Lake Nogebow at 5-meter intervals are given in the table below. The figure below
shows a contour map of the lake. Estimate the volume, V, of the lake by taking the average of the right and left
endpoint approximations to the integral of cross-sectional area.

Depth (m) 0 5 10 15 20
Area (million m2) 2.1 1.5 1.1 0.835 0.217

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Lake Nogebow

Answers to Examples Harrison:

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Released AP Exam Questions:
2014 #5

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 78
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(04 BC Form B Exam #3)

(03 BC Form B Exam #3)

Homework: Rogawski: 6.2: 9-13 odd, 24, 31

Rogawski: 6.3: 1-23 odd, 41-49 odd
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 Average Value of Functions and MVT for Integrals
Examples:

Answers to Examples:

Homework: Rogawski: 6.2: 39-59 odd

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 Integration by Parts
Examples:

Answers to Examples:

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Homework: Rogawski: 7.1: 1-33 odd, 37-53 odd

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 Trigonometric Integration
• Sine & Cosine Integration:
o If the power of sine or cosine function is odd, separate a single sine/cosine, then do the following:
▪ For sin 𝑥 2𝑘 sin 𝑥, change the function to (1 − cos2 𝑥)𝑘 sin 𝑥
▪ For cos 𝑥 2𝑘 cos 𝑥, change the function to (1 − sin2 𝑥)𝑘 cos 𝑥
o If both powers are even, use the power reduction formula:
1−cos 2𝑥
▪ sin2 𝑥 = 2
1+cos 2𝑥
▪ cos2 𝑥 = 2

Examples Tyler:
1.) ∫ cos 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2.) ∫ sin5 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3.) ∫ sin4 𝑥 cos 5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 4.) ∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

5.) ∫ sin4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Answers to Examples Tyler:

1 1 2 1 1 2 1
1.) sin 𝑥 − 3 sin3 𝑥 + 𝐶 2.) − 3 cos3 𝑥 + 5 cos 5 𝑥 − 7 cos7 𝑥 + 𝐶 3.) 5 sin5 𝑥 − 7 sin7 𝑥 + 9 sin9 𝑥 + 𝐶
1 1 3 1 1
4.) 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶 5.) 𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 + sin 4𝑥 +𝐶
2 4 8 4 32

• Tangent and Secant Integration

o If the power of secant is even, save a factor of sec 2 𝑥 and change everything else into tangents using
Pythagorean Identities
o If the power of tangent is odd, save a factor of sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥, and change everything else into secants using
Pythagorean Identities
o Integrals of single trig functions:
▪ ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln | sec 𝑥 | + 𝐶
▪ ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln | sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 | + 𝐶
▪ ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln | sin 𝑥 | + 𝐶
▪ ∫ csc 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln | csc 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 | + 𝐶

Examples Polk:
1.) ∫ tan6 𝑥 sec 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2.) ∫ tan5 𝑥 sec 7 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3.) ∫ tan3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 4.) ∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Answers to Examples Polk:

1 1 1 2 1
1.) 7 tan7 𝑥 + 9 tan9 𝑥 + 𝐶 2.) 11 sec11 𝑥 − 9 sec 9 𝑥 + 7 sec 7 𝑥 + 𝐶
1 1 1
3.) 2 tan2 𝑥 − ln | sec 𝑥 | + 𝐶 4.) 2 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + 2 ln|𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥| + 𝐶

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 • Using Product To Sum
1
o sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = 2 [sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 + 𝐵)]
1
o sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = [cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) − cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)]
2
1
o cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = 2 [cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)]

Examples Taylor:
𝜋
1.) ∫ sin 4𝑥 cos 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2.) ∫0 sin 4𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Answers to Examples Taylor:

1 1 8
1.) 2 cos 𝑥 − 18 cos 9𝑥 + 𝐶 2.)
7

Homework: 7.2: 1-49 odd

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 Trigonometric Substitution
Table of Trigonometric Substitutions:

Expression Substitution Identity

𝑎 𝜋 𝜋 cos 𝜃 = 1 − sin2 𝜃
2
√𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 = sin 𝜃 , − ≤ 𝜃 ≤
𝑏 2 2
𝑎 𝜋 𝜋 sec 2 𝜃 = 1 + tan2 𝜃
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 = tan 𝜃 , − < 𝜃 <
𝑏 2 2
√𝑏 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑎 𝜋 3𝜋 tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃 − 1
𝑥 = sec 𝜃 , 0 < 𝜃 < , 𝜋 < 𝜃 <
𝑏 2 2

Examples:

Evaluate the following:

√9−𝑥 2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
1.) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 2.) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 3.) ∫ √4𝑥 2 + 20 𝑑𝑥 4.) ∫
𝑥2 (4−𝑥 2 )3/2 𝑥 2 √𝑥 2 +4

𝑑𝑥 3√3/2 𝑥3 𝑥
5.)∫ 6.) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 7.) ∫ √16 − 5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 8.) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 √𝑥 2 −9 0 (4𝑥 2 +9)3/2 √3−2𝑥−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
9.) ∫
(𝑥 2 −6𝑥+11)2

Answers to Examples:

√9−𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1.) − − sin−1 (3) + 𝐶 2.) − sin−1 (2) + 𝐶
x √4−𝑥 2
√𝑥 2 +5+𝑥
3.) 𝑥√𝑥 2 + 5 + 5 ln + 𝐶 = 𝑥√𝑥 2 + 5 + 5 ln(√𝑥 2 + 5 + 𝑥) + 𝐶
√5

√𝑥 2 +4 √𝑥 2 −9 3 8 √16−5𝑥 2 𝑥√16−5𝑥 2
4.) − +𝐶 5.) +𝐶 6.) 7.) cos−1 ( )+ +𝐶
4𝑥 9𝑥 32 √5 4 2

𝑥+1 1 𝑥−3 𝑥−3

8.) −√3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − sin−1 ( 2
)+ 𝐶 9.) 4 tan−1 ( 2 ) + 4(𝑥2 −6𝑥+11) + 𝐶
√2 √

Homework: 7.3: 1-29 odd

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 Integration by Partial Fractions
• Breaking Up Fractions Using Partial Fraction Decomposition:
o Steps:
▪ 1.) If the degree of the numerator is the same or larger than the degree of the denominator,
then one should start by using long division.
▪ 2.) Factor the denominator.
▪ 3.) For each prime factor of the denominator, break the fraction up into a generic numerator
having a degree that is one less than the term.
▪ 4.) Repeated factors of the denominator (prime factors of a repeated degree) should be treated
the same as a prime factor in step 3 for each degree
▪ 5.) Set one side equal to the other.
▪ 6.) Eliminate the denominators, solve for unknown terms, and plug back into the decomposed
fraction
o Sample Generic Problems (do not attempt solving: steps 1 through 5 have been completed)
3𝑥+4 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷 𝐸𝑥 2 +𝐹𝑥+𝐺
▪ 1+ (4𝑥+3)(2𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 +2𝑥+3)(𝑥 3 −2𝑥+1)
= 1 + 4𝑥+3
+ 2𝑥−1
+ 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+3
+ 𝑥 3 −2𝑥+1
3𝑥+4 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷𝑥+𝐸 𝐹𝑥+𝐺
▪ −5 − (4𝑥+3)3 (𝑥2 +2𝑥+3)2 = −5 + 4𝑥+3 + (4𝑥+3)2 + (4𝑥+3)3 + 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+3 + (𝑥 2 +2𝑥+3)2

Examples Steve: Find the partial fraction decomposition

2 2𝑥
A.) B.)
(𝑥 2 −1) (𝑥 2 −1)

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Answers to Examples Steve:
1 1 1 1
A.) − B.) +
𝑥−1 𝑥+1 𝑥−1 𝑥+1

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Examples:
Evaluate the Integral.

𝑥−9 3 1 4 𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 −4
1.) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 2.) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 3.) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 4.) ∫ 1/
(𝑥+5)(𝑥−2) 2 𝑥 2 −1 3 𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2

(05 BC Form B Exam #5)

(05 BC Form B Exam #2)

(04 BC Exam #4)

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(04 BC Form B Exam #4)

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 Slope Fields and Euler’s Method
Slope Fields (Direction Fields):

Examples: Draw the slope fields for the families of functions below having the given derivatives. Use integers for the x
and y values:
𝑑𝑦 2𝑦
1.) y’ = x + y 2.) = 3.) x’(t) = 2t + 8, y’(t) = 2t2 + 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

Graph the functions through the points given to find the function satisfying the derivative whose slope field is graphed
below:

1.) y’ = x + y, through (0, 5) 2.) y’ = x + y through (0, –1 ) 3.) y’ = x + y through (0, –5)

Common Slope Fields (for Multiple Choice):

y' = Ax + B y’ = Ay + B y’ = Axy y’ = x – y or y – x y’ = x + y

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Example:

Review: Tangent Line Approximation:

Find the linearization of the following functions at the points given. Then use the linearization to approximate the
function at the value given. Is this an overestimate, or an underestimate?

3
1.) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 . Linearize at x = 8. Approximate f(7.8) 2.) 𝑔(𝑥) = sin 𝑥. Linearize at x=30o. Approximate g(36o).

𝑑𝑦 𝑥
3.) y’ = x + y. Linearize at (0, 1). Approximate y(0.4). 4.) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦. Linearize at (5, 4). Approximate y(4.2).

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Euler’s Method: Euler’s method is an extension of linear approximation such that you linearize over and over at a
specific step-value, as is shown in the illustration below:

NOTE: The above approximation is an overestimate because the curve is concave down on the interval that Euler’s
approximation is being used.

• Formula for Euler’s Approximation:

o Note: the linear formula 𝑦1 = 𝑚0 (𝑥1 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑦0 can be written as 𝑦1 = 𝑚0 ∆𝑥+ 𝑦0 , where ∆𝑥 is the
constant interval such that ∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥𝑛−1
′
o FORMULA: 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑚𝑛−1 ∆𝑥 + 𝑦𝑛−1 , where 𝑚𝑛−1 = 𝑦𝑛−1
▪ Notes:
• 𝑚𝑛−1 = 𝑦 ′ 𝑛−1
• 𝑥𝑛 = ∆𝑥 + 𝑥𝑛−1
Examples:

Use Euler’s Method to approximate the following. State whether the approximation is an overestimate, or an
underestimate:

1.) y’ = x + y. y(0) = 1. Approximate y(0.4) using 2 steps of equal size.

2.) y’ = x + y. y(0) = 1. Approximate y(0.4) using 4 steps of equal size.

𝑑𝑦 𝑥
3.) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦. y(5) = 4. Approximate y(4.2) using a step size of 0.4.

Example 3 on 9.2, Examples 2 & 4 on 9.2

HW: 9.2: 1-13 odd, 19, 21, 23

Solving Separable Differential Equations

Examples: Find the general and particular solutions to the following differential equations.
𝑑𝑦 𝑥2 𝑑𝑦
1.) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦2 , y(1)=3 2.) 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 y(0)=1 3.) 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑦 y(4)=7 4.) 𝑦 ′ = 𝑘𝑦

HW: 9.3: 1-21 odd

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 2005 Scoring Guidelines

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 The Exponential Models For Word Problems
• If the rate of change of a function is proportional to the function, it uses the exponential model
𝑥−ℎ
o The functions are always of the form: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑑 or 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑘𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
o Mathematically, the derivative is always 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑘𝑦 (Note that 𝑑𝑡 (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑡 (𝑎 𝑥 ) = ln(𝑎) ∗ 𝑎 𝑥 )
o Types of problems that require this form:
▪ Population Growth
▪ Investments Compounded Continuously
▪ Radioactive Decay
𝑥−ℎ
𝑑𝑦
▪ Newton’s Law of Cooling (NOTE: This uses 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑑 + 𝑇 and 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘(𝑦 − 𝑇), where T is the
temperature of the room, and k is negative).

Precalculus Examples (Can be on Calculus Exam):

1.) The rate at which a purification process can remove contaminants from a tank of water is proportional to the amount
of contaminant remaining. If 20% of the contaminant can be removed during the first minute of the process, and 98%
must be removed to make the water safe, approximately how long will the decontamination process take?

2.) Bacteria in a culture increase at a rate proportional to the number present. An initial population of 200 triples in 10
hours. If this pattern of increase continues unabated, then what is the approximate number of bacteria present in 1 full
day?

3.) A radioactive substance, such as Thorium-234, decays at a rate proportional to the amount of substance present at
any time, t. It takes 24 days for a sample of Thorium-234 to decay to the point where half of the original amount
remains. How long, to the nearest day, will it take for a sample of 10g of Thorium-234 to decay to 1 gram?

4.) A simplified model for human population in the world can use the fact that human population growth rate is roughly
proportional to population size. If there were 2560 million people in 1950, and 3040 million in 1960, what would the
estimated population have been in 1993?

5.) A bottle of soda pop at room temperature (72oF) is placed in a refrigerator where the temperature is 44oF. After half
an hour the soda pop has cooled to 61oF. a.) What is the temperature of the soda pop after another half hour? b.) How
long does it take for the soda pop to cool to 50oF?

Calculus Examples:

1.) An investment of $4000 grows at the rate of 320𝑒 0.08𝑡 dollars per year after t years. What is its value after 10 years?
𝑑𝐻
2.) A cup of coffee placed on a table cools at a rate of 𝑑𝑡
= −0.05(𝐻 − 70)oF per minute, where H represents the
temperature of the coffee and t is the time in minutes. If the coffee was at 120oF initially, what is the temperature of
the coffee after 10 minutes? What is the temperature of the room?

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 The Logistic Model for Population Growth
𝐿 𝑑𝑃 𝑃 𝐿−𝑃0
• The model: 𝑃(𝑡) = 1+𝐴𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 has the derivative 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘𝑃 (1 − 𝐿 ) where 𝐴 = 𝑃0
• L ( the population capacity or carrying capacity) is a horizontal asymptote as t goes to infinity (if P = 0, or P = L,
the derivative is 0)
• P=L/2 is the point at which the population is growing the fastest.
• Example graph of P(t) (click to view interactive version):

Examples:
𝑑𝑃 𝑃
1.) Write the solution to the initial value problem 𝑑𝑡
= 0.08𝑃 (1 − 1000), where 𝑃(0) = 100. Use it to find the
population when t = 40 and t = 80.
𝑑𝐶
2.) The rate of change in the number of coyotes in a population is given by = 9𝐶 − 3𝐶 2 , where C is the number of
𝑑𝑡
thousands of coyotes t years after January 1st, 2000. Find the value of C such that the number of coyotes is increasing
the fastest.

HW: Rogawski: 1-11 odd

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 Vector Functions
• If (𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡)) is the position vector of a particle moving along a smooth curve in the xy-plane, then, at any time
t,
o The particle’s velocity vector is (𝑥′(𝑡), 𝑦′(𝑡)). If drawn from the position point, it is tangent to the curve.
2 2
o The particle’s speed along the curve is the length of the velocity vector is √(𝑥 ′ (𝑡)) + (𝑦 ′ (𝑡))
o The particle’s acceleration vector is (𝑥′′(𝑡), 𝑦′′(𝑡))
𝑏 2 2
o The distance travelled from time t = a to t = b is ∫𝑎 √(𝑥 ′ (𝑡)) + (𝑦 ′ (𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡
o Vector functions work much like parametric equations

Examples:

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 Polar Equations & Coordinates
Polar Coordinates Review:

• Each point, P, in polar coordinates are of the form (𝑟, 𝜃), where r is the signed distance from the origin, and 𝜃 is
the angle of the coordinate in standard position.
• The origin is also called the pole.
• The ray originating from the pole moving right along the x-axis is called the polar axis.

P(𝑟, 𝜃)

𝜃
O (Polar Axis)
(Pole)

Examples:
Plot the following points:
5𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
1.) (1, 4
) 2.) (4, − 3 ) 3.) (2, −3𝜋) 4.) (−1, 4 )

Changing from Polar Coordinates to Rectangular Coordinates, or from Rectangular Equations to Polar Equations*:

• 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃

Changing from Rectangular Coordinates to Polar Coordinates, or from Polar Equations to Rectangular Equations*:
𝑦
• 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , tan 𝜃 = 𝑥
(NOTE: you must find out what quadrant you’re in to accurately find 𝜃.)

*NOTE: You will use these formulas, as well as other trigonometric identities, to change polar equations to rectangular
equations, and rectangular equations to polar equations. You can and must use all formulas for equations.

Examples:
Change the following polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates:
5𝜋 𝜋
1.) (2, ) 2.) (−4, ) 3.) (−5, 𝜋) 4.) (5, 0)
3 6

Change the following rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates. Provide multiple representations of the point:

1.) (-5, 5) 2.) (−2√3, −2) 3.) (4, 5) 4.) (-4, -5)
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Convert the following rectangular equations to polar equations:
1.) 𝑥 2 = 4𝑦 2.) 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 3.) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9 4.) 𝑦 = 5 5.) 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 1

Convert the following polar equations to Cartesian equations:

𝜋
1.) 𝜃 = 𝜋 2.) 𝜃 = 4 3.) 𝑟 = 3 4.) 𝑟 = 5 5.) 𝑟 = 6 cos 𝜃 6.) 𝑟 = 4 sin 𝜃

7.) 𝑟 2 = sin 2𝜃 8.) 𝑟 = 4 sec 𝜃 9.) 𝑟 = 3 + 3 sin 𝜃 10.) 𝑟 = 2 + 5 cos 𝜃

Converting Polar Equations to Parametric Equations:

• If 𝑟 = 𝑟(𝜃), then 𝑥 = 𝑟(𝜃)cos𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟(𝜃) sin 𝜃

Examples:
Convert the following polar equations into parametric equations:
1.) 𝑟 = 4 sec 𝜃 2.) 𝑟 = 3 + 3 sin 𝜃 3.) 𝑟 = 2 + 5 cos 𝜃 4.) 𝑟 = 5

Graphing Polar Equations:

Examples: Graph the following:
𝜋 2𝜋
1.) 𝜃 = 6
2.) 𝜃 = 3
3.) 𝑟 = 3 4.) 𝑟 = 4

5.) 𝑟 = 3 + 3 sin 𝜃 6.) 𝑟 = 2 + 2 cos 𝜃 7.) 𝑟 = 𝜃 8.) 𝑟 = cos 3𝜃

Quick-Graphing Common Polar Curves:

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Examples: Quick-Graph the Following:

1.) 𝑟 = 1 + 3 sin 𝜃 2.) 𝑟 = −1 − 3 cos 𝜃 3.) 𝑟 = 5 sin 3𝜃 4.) 𝑟 = 5 cos 3𝜃

5.) 𝑟 = 6 sin 2𝜃 6.) 𝑟 = 7 cos 4𝜃 7.) 𝑟 2 = 16 sin 2𝜃 8.) 𝑟 2 = 25 cos 2𝜃

HW: Precalc: 8.1: 1-59 odd, 8.2: 1-39 odd, 43-49 odd Calculus: 10.3: 1-5 odd, 15-25 odd, 29-47 odd, 71-75 odd

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 Calculus with Polar Equations
Derivatives of Polar Equations:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
• We use parametric forms of polar equations to get 𝑑𝜃, 𝑑𝜃, and 𝑑𝑥. We also assume that 𝑟 = 𝑟(𝜃)
𝑑𝑥
o 𝑥 = 𝑟(𝜃) cos 𝜃, so 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑟′(𝜃) cos 𝜃 − 𝑟(𝜃) sin 𝜃 using the product rule.
𝑑𝑦
o 𝑦 = 𝑟(𝜃) sin 𝜃, so 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑟′(𝜃) sin 𝜃 + 𝑟(𝜃) cos 𝜃 using the product rule.
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃
o To find slopes of tangent lines, use 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑑𝜃

Examples: Find the points at which the tangent line to the graphs of the following polar equations are horizontal. Find
when they are vertical.

1.) 𝑟 = 1 + sin 𝜃 2.) 𝑟 = cos 2𝜃

Area inside polar regions:

1 𝐵
• The area of a polar region from 𝜃 = 𝐴 to 𝜃 = 𝐵 is 2 ∫𝐴 [𝑟(𝜃)]2 𝑑𝜃

Examples: Find the areas of the following:

1.) One loop of the rose 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 2.) The topmost region between 𝑟 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and 𝑟 = 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

3.) The region inside the equation 𝑟 = 2 sin 𝜃 and above the lines 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = −𝑥
2
4.) The region, R, enclosed by the graphs of 𝑟 = and 𝑟 = 4sin(3𝜃) NOTE: You must use a calculator for this
cos 𝜃
problem.

HW: 10.3: 57-67 odd, 10.4: 1-21 odd

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 Finding Summation Notation Given Infinite Series and Introduction to Geometric Series

Examples: Write the following using Summation Notation (Sigma Notation). Find the general term.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1.) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + ⋯ 2.) 7 − 10 + 13 − 16 + 19 − ⋯ 3.) − + − 13 + 16 − 19 + ⋯
√7 √10 √ √ √

1 1 1 1 5 5 5 2 3 4 5 6
4.) 1 + + + + +⋯ 5.) 5 + + + +⋯ 6.) + + + + +⋯
3 9 27 81 4 16 64 3 8 15 24 35

𝑥 5 −1 𝑥 7 −1 𝑥 9 −1 𝑥 11 −1 𝑥 13 −1 5𝑥 15𝑥 3 25𝑥 9 35𝑥 27 45𝑥 81

7.) + + + − − ⋯ 8.) − + − + −⋯
23𝑥 14𝑥 7𝑥 2𝑥 𝑥 √7𝑥 3 +5 √10𝑥 8 +5 √13𝑥 15 +5 √16𝑥 24 +5 √19𝑥 35 +5

2 4 8 16
9.) 5 − 9 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 13 (𝑥 − 1)4 − 17 (𝑥 − 1)6 + ⋯ 10.) −2 + 6(𝑥 + 5) − 18(𝑥 + 5)2 + 54(𝑥 + 5)3 − ⋯

Geometric Series:

• Geometric series are of the form: ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑟 𝑖−1

𝑎1 (1−𝑟 𝑛 )
• The sum of a Geometric series with n terms is 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
𝑎1
• An infinite Geometric series converges to 𝑆 = if |𝑟| < 1
1−𝑟

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 o If |𝑟| ≥ 1, the infinite Geometric series diverges.

Examples:

Find the values of x for which the series converges. Find the sum of the series for those values of x. Find the interval
and radius of convergence.
𝑥𝑛 (𝑥−7)𝑛
1.) ∑∞
𝑛=0 5𝑛 2.) ∑∞
𝑛=0 3𝑛
3.) ∑∞
𝑛=0(7𝑥)
𝑛

Determine whether the following series is convergent or divergent. If it’s convergent, find its sum. If x is in the answer,
find the radius and interval of convergence.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5
1.) 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 + ⋯ 2.) 8 − 4 + 2 − 1 + ⋯ 3.) 20 − 10 + 5 − 2 + 4 − 8 + ⋯

4.) 500 + 100 + 20 + 4 + ⋯ 5.) −2 + 6(𝑥 + 5) − 18(𝑥 + 5)2 + 54(𝑥 + 5)3 − ⋯

7 7𝑥 7𝑥 2 7𝑥 3 7𝑥 4
6.) 5 − 10(𝑥 + 1) + 20(𝑥 + 1)2 − 40(𝑥 + 1)3 + ⋯ 7.) 4 + 20 + 100 + 500 + 2500 + ⋯
4 8 16 32 6 36 216
8.) 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 − ⋯ 9.) 1 + 𝑥−1 + (𝑥−1)2 + (𝑥−1)3 + ⋯

Answer the following:

3 7 2+3𝑛 4−3𝑛
1.) ∑∞
𝑛=2 5𝑛 = 2.) ∑∞
𝑛=3 2𝑛 = 3.) ∑∞
𝑛=0 5𝑛
= 4.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 2𝑛
=

3𝑁 2 +8 5𝑁 3 −2𝑁+1
5.) If ∑𝑁 ∞
𝑘=0 𝑐𝑘 = 7𝑁 2 −4 , find ∑𝑘=0 𝑐𝑘 6.) If ∑𝑁
𝑘=0 𝑐𝑘 = 4𝑁 5 −3𝑁+7 , find ∑∞
𝑘=0 𝑐𝑘

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
7.) Find the sum of the series 4 + 1 + 8 + 3 + 16 + 9 + 32 + 27 + 64 + 81 + ⋯. Write the sum in sigma notation.
2 1
8.) Find the sum of the series 50 + 16 + 10 + 4 + 2 + 1 + 5 + 4 + ⋯. Write the sum in sigma notation.

HW: 11.1: 1-41 odd

11.2: 3-7 odd, 11-19 odd, 35-51 odd

Deriving Famous MacLaurin Power Series: ex, sin(x), and cos(x)

We can approximate any n-differentiable function, f(x), near a point, p, using a polynomial function, Pn(x) = a0 + a1x +
a2x2 + a3x3 + … + anxn, as long as we satisfy the condition that f(p) = Pn(p), f’(p) = Pn’(p), f’’(p) = Pn’'(p), f(3)(p) = Pn(3) (p), …,
f(n)(p) = Pn(n) (p). Note that P1(x) = a0 + a1x = mx + b, which is the tangent line at point p. The method that we’re using is
an extension of the tangent line approximation that we already understand, but yields more accurate results.

Examples: Derive the approximations to the following power series near the values where x = 0. Use Pn(x) = a0 + a1x +
a2x2 + a3x3 + … + anxn + …:

1. ) f(x) = sin(x) 2.) f(x) = cos(x) 3.) f(x) = ex

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 Approximating Functions Using Known Taylor and MacLaurin Series
MacLaurin Series to Memorize:

1
• Geometric: = ∑∞ 𝑛 2 3 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑥 + ⋯
1−𝑥
o Interval of Convergence: −1 < 𝑥 < 1
o NOTE: This is the only memorized function where you need to worry about a radius/interval of
convergence.
𝑥𝑛 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥𝑛
• 𝑒 𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑛! = 1 + 𝑥 + 2
+ 3!
+ 4!
+ ⋯+ 𝑛!
+⋯
o Interval of Convergence: −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
𝑥 2𝑛+1 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥 2𝑛+1
• sin 𝑥 = ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0(−1) (2𝑛+1)! = 𝑥 − 3!
+ 5!
− 7!
+ ⋯ + (−1)𝑛 (2𝑛+1)! + ⋯
o Interval of Convergence: −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
𝑥 2𝑛 𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6 𝑥 2𝑛
• cos 𝑥 = ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0(−1) (2𝑛)! = 1 − 2
+ 4!
− 6!
+ ⋯ + (−1)𝑛 (2𝑛)! + ⋯
o Interval of Convergence: −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞

Creating New Series From Memorized Series:

Examples: Find the power series form of the following functions. Write the first 3 nonzero terms and state the degree
of the Taylor Polynomial created by the first three terms, and write the function in sigma notation. State which
polynomials have an infinite radius of convergence and make a first guess at the radius and interval of convergence if it
is not infinite. Note that all functions are centered at x=0.

1 1
1.) 𝑥 sin 𝑥 2 2.) 𝑥 cos 𝑥 3 3.) 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 4.) 1+2𝑥 5.) 1+𝑥2 6.) tan−1 𝑥 7.) ln(1 + 𝑥)

Find the first three nonzero terms of the Taylor Polynomial used to approximate the functions below:

8.) 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 9.) 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 10.) tan 𝑥

HW: 11:10: 29-41 odd

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 The Formulas for Taylor and MacLaurin Series:
𝑓′′ (𝑐)(𝑥−𝑐)2 𝑓′′′ (𝑐)(𝑥−𝑐)3 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑐)(𝑥−𝑐)𝑛
• Taylor Series/Polynomials: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)(𝑥 − 𝑐) + + + ⋯+ +⋯
2! 3! 𝑛!
o c is the center of the interval of convergence
𝑓′′ (0)𝑥 2 𝑓′′′ (0)𝑥 3 𝑓(𝑛) (0)𝑥 𝑛
• MacLaurin Series/Polynomials: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)𝑥 + 2!
+ 3!
+⋯+ 𝑛!
+⋯
(NOTE: The MacLaurin Series is simply the Taylor Series Centered at c =0)

Examples:
1.) Find the third degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0
3𝜋
2.) Find the third degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥 at 𝑥 =
4
3.) Suppose 𝑔 is a function with derivatives of all orders for all real numbers. Assume 𝑔(7) = −4, 𝑔′(7) = 2,
𝑔′′(7) = 6, and 𝑔′′′ (7) = −8. Find the third degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑔 at 𝑥 = 7, and use it to approximate
𝑔(7.5).
4.) Suppose 𝑓 is a function whose nth derivative satisfies 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 1)(𝑛 + 1)! For all x and n. If 𝑓(3) = −2,
what is the fourth degree Taylor polynomial for f at 𝑥 = 3?

HW: 11.10: 3-19 odd

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 The Alternating Error Bound and Lagrange Error Bound
• Alternating Error Bound:
o If a series is alternatingly positive and negative, and if the absolute value of each term is closer to zero
than the last term, then the series converges and each approximation has an error value that is the
absolute value of the next term.
o If the error is negative, then the value you have is an overestimate. If it is positive then the value you
have is an underestimate.

Examples: Decide whether the following series converge. If so, find the sum of the first 3 terms, and the largest error
bound. Decide whether the sum is an overestimate or an underestimate.

1 1 1 1 1 (−1)𝑛 1 1
1.) 1 − + − + − + ⋯ + +⋯ 2.) −5 + 1 − + −⋯
2 3 4 5 6 𝑛 5 20

3.) Approximate sin 0.5 using the first 3 nonzero terms of the MacLaurin polynomial for sin 𝑥. Find the error bound of
the approximation and decide whether your approximation is an underestimate or overestimate. Compare that to the
actual error using a calculator.

4.) Approximate cos 0.3 using the first 4 nonzero terms of the MacLaurin polynomial for cos 𝑥. Find the error bound of
the approximation and decide whether your approximation is an underestimate or overestimate. Compare that to the
actual error using a calculator.

• Lagrange Error Bound:

o If a Taylor Series is not alternating from positive to negative, and if it’s convergent, then you must use
|𝑓(𝑛+1) (𝑝)(𝑥−𝑐)𝑛+1 |
the Lagrange error bound: 𝑅𝑛 (𝑥) = (𝑛+1)!
o p is between x and c, and |𝑓 (𝑛+1) (𝑝)| is the maximum value of the function on the interval between x
and c.
o It’s sometimes helpful to choose a value larger than |𝑓 (𝑛+1) (𝑝)| in order to make the math easier.
o If all values beyond the approximation are positive, your answer is an underestimate. If all values
beyond the approximation are negative, your answer is an overestimate. Otherwise it can’t be
determined without further information.

Example:

1.) Approximate 𝑒 using the fourth degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑒 centered at zero. Find the Lagrange error bound of
your approximation. Use the fact that 𝑒 < 3. Is your approximation an overestimate, or an underestimate?

2.) Suppose 𝑔 is a function with derivatives of all orders for all real numbers. Assume 𝑔(7) = −4, 𝑔′(7) = 2,
𝑔′′(7) = 6, and 𝑔′′′ (7) = −8. Find the third degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑔 at 𝑥 = 7, and use it to approximate
𝑔(7.5). On the interval of 7 < 𝑥 < 8, 𝑔(4) (𝑥) < 2. Find the Lagrange error bound for the function. Explain what the
error bound means. Can you tell whether this is an overestimate or underestimate? Why?

3.) Let f be a function with positive derivatives of all orders for all real numbers. Assume 𝑓(−2) = 5, 𝑓′(−2) = 3, and
𝑓′′(−2) = 9. Find the second degree Taylor polynomial for f at 𝑥 = −2, and use it to approximate 𝑓(−1.5). On the
interval of −2 < 𝑥 < −1, 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) < 3. Find the Lagrange error bound for the function. Explain what the error bound
means.

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 Finding Radius and Interval of Convergence for Power Series
(NOTE: Power Series include Taylor Series, MacLaurin Series, and Geometric Series)

• Ratio Test:
𝑎𝑛+1
o Step 1: Start by using the ratio test: lim | |< 1, and solve the inequality.
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑛+1
(NOTE: If the ratio lim | | is less than 1 for any series, the series converges. If it’s greater than 1 it diverges. If it equals 1, it is inconclusive)
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑛+1
o Step 2: Check to see if the series also converges at the endpoints, where lim | 𝑎𝑛
|= 1.
𝑛→∞
▪ Alternating Series Test: If a series is alternatingly positive and negative, and if the absolute value
of each term is closer to zero than the last term, then the series converges ( lim |𝑎𝑛 | = 0).
𝑛→∞
𝑎
▪ p-series Test: If a series is of the form ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛𝑝 , then the series converges if 𝑝 > 1, and diverges
if 𝑝 ≤ 1
▪ Other tests will be described at a later time. Remember that endpoints are not guaranteed!
o For Geometric series only, you can use the simplification |𝑟| < 1. You never need to check the
endpoints for strictly Geometric series.

Examples: Find the interval and radius of convergence for the following:

2𝑥−5 𝑛 2𝑛 5𝑛 2𝑛 𝑛 5𝑛 𝑛
1.) ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑛 ( 3
) 2.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛3 𝑥
𝑛
3.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛3 𝑥
𝑛
4.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛
𝑥 5.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛
𝑥

𝑥𝑛 𝑥𝑛 (−4)𝑛−1
6.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 (2𝑛)! 7.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛! 8.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛
(𝑥 − 1)𝑛

9.) If the radius of convergence for the series ∑∞ 𝑛

𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 + 4) is 5, then what is the minimum interval of convergence?

10.) If the series ∑∞ 𝑛

𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 converges for 𝑥 = 6, then which of the following must be true?
I.) The series converges for 𝑥 = −6 II.) The series converges for 𝑥 = −3 III.) The series converges for 𝑥 = 8

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 Other Tests For Testing For Convergence/Divergence
• nth term Divergence Test: If lim 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then ∑ 𝑎𝑛 diverges
𝑛→∞
o NOTE: This only tests for divergence. If lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0, then the test is inconclusive, and you must try
𝑛→∞
other tests.

Examples: Show that the following series diverge using the nth term divergence test.

𝑛 2𝑛2 𝑒𝑛 2𝑛+5
1.) ∑∞
𝑛=5 2.) ∑ 3.) ∑ 4.) ∑
2𝑛+3 𝑛+6 𝑛2 √𝑛2 −7

• Improper Integral Test: Let 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 , and let 𝑓(𝑛) be a continuous, positive, decreasing function. ∑∞
𝑛=𝑎 𝑎𝑛
∞
converges if and only if ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑛) 𝑑𝑛 converges.
∞
o NOTE: ∑∞
𝑛=𝑎 𝑎𝑛 ≠ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑛) 𝑑𝑛 . This is a common mistake that students make.

Examples: State whether the following series converge.

𝑛 ln 𝑛 1
1.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 2.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 3.) ∑∞
𝑛=2
𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 ln 𝑛

• Comparison Test:
o Let 0 < 𝑎𝑛 < 𝑏𝑛 for all n.
▪ If ∑ 𝑏𝑛 converges then ∑ 𝑎𝑛 converges
▪ If ∑ 𝑎𝑛 diverges then ∑ 𝑏𝑛 diverges

Examples: State whether the following series converge.

1 1 1
1.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 2.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 3.) ∑∞
𝑛=0
𝑛2 +1 𝑛−1 3𝑛 +𝑛

• Limit Comparison Test:

𝑎𝑛
o Let 𝑎𝑛 ≥ 0 and 𝑏𝑛 > 0 for all 𝑛. Also, let 𝑐 = lim
𝑛→0 𝑏𝑛
▪ If 𝑐 is a positive number then either both series converge or both series diverge.

Examples: State whether the following series converge:

1 1 1 1
1.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛2 −1 2.) ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑛+1 3.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛+1 4.) ∑∞
𝑛=0 3𝑛 −𝑛

• Absolute vs. Conditional Convergence and Alternating Series

o An alternating series, ∑ 𝑎𝑛 , converges absolutely if ∑ |𝑎𝑛 | converges. Otherwise it converges
conditionally

Examples: State whether the following series converge conditionally or absolutely

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 (−1)𝑛−1 (−1)𝑛−1
1.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛
2.) ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛1.1

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Multiple Choice-Style Series Questions:

1.) Find the third degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 + 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 3 centered at 𝑥 = 1
2.) Find the third degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 3 centered at 𝑥 = 2
3.) If 𝑓(−3) = 4, 𝑓 ′ (−3) = 6, 𝑓 ′′ (−3) = 12, and 𝑓 ′′′ (−3) = −6, then find the third degree Taylor polynomial for
𝑓 centered at 𝑥 = −3.
4.) If 𝑓(−7) = 5, 𝑓 ′ (−7) = −3, 𝑓 ′′ (−7) = 10, and 𝑓 ′′′ (−7) = −15, then find the third degree Taylor polynomial
for 𝑓 centered at 𝑥 = −7.
5.) Find the third degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(4𝑥) centered at 𝑥 = 0.
6.) Find the fourth degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 3𝑥 centered at 𝑥 = 0.
7.) If 𝑃100 (𝑥) is the 100th degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = cos(7𝑥) centered at 𝑥 = 0, then find the coefficient
of 𝑥 52 .
8.) If 𝑃300 (𝑥) is the 300th degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(9𝑥) centered at 𝑥 = 0, then find the coefficient
of 𝑥 61 .
9.) If 𝑃200 (𝑥) is the 200th degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(11𝑥) centered at 𝑥 = 0, then find the coefficient
of 𝑥 62 .
10.) If 𝑃60 (𝑥) is the 60th degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = cos(2𝑥) centered at 𝑥 = 0, then find the coefficient of
𝑥 51 .
11.) If the coefficient of 𝑥 30 in the Taylor polynomial of degree 35 for 𝑓 centered at 𝑥 = 0 is 4, then find 𝑓 (30) (0).
12.) If the coefficient of 𝑥 15 in the Taylor polynomial of degree 200 for 𝑓 centered at 𝑥 = 0 is 6, then find 𝑓 (15) (0).
13.) If |𝑓 (4) (𝑥)| ≤ 6 for all 𝑥, and 𝑃(𝑥) is the Taylor polynomial of degree 3 for 𝑓(𝑥) centered at 𝑥 = 2, then using
the error bound, we know that |𝑓(5) − 𝑃(5)| ≤ 𝐵. What is the value of 𝐵?
14.) If |𝑓 (5) (𝑥)| ≤ 20 for all 𝑥, and 𝑇(𝑥) is the Taylor polynomial of degree 4 for 𝑓(𝑥) centered at 𝑥 = 7, then using
the error bound, we know that |𝑇(9) − 𝑓(9)| ≤ 𝑄. What is the value of 𝑄?
1
15.) What is the Taylor polynomial of degree 6 for centered at 𝑥 = 0?
1+2𝑥 2
1
16.) What is the Taylor polynomial of degree 9 for centered at 𝑥 = 0?
1+2𝑥 3
17.) If the radius of convergence for the series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 + 7) is 11, then what is the minimum interval of
convergence.
18.) If the radius of convergence for the series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 3) is 2, then what is the minimum interval of
convergence.
2
19.) ∑∞
𝑛=3 3𝑛 =
3
20.) ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=4(−1) 2𝑛 =
21.) If the series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 converges for 𝑥 = 7, then what is the minimum interval of convergence?
22.) If the series ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 4) converges for 𝑥 = 11, then what is the minimum interval of convergence?
3+4𝑛
23.) Find ∑∞
𝑛=0 5𝑛
2+3 𝑛
24.) Find ∑∞ 𝑛=0 4 𝑛
5𝑁 2 +7
25.) If ∑𝑁𝑘=0 𝑐𝑘 = 3𝑁2 −11, then find ∑∞
𝑘=0 𝑐𝑘 .
7𝑁 2 +3
26.) If ∑𝑁𝑘=5 𝑐𝑘 = 11𝑁2 −5, then find ∑∞
𝑘=5 𝑐𝑘 .
1 1
27.) ∑∞ 𝑟=3 (𝑟+1 − 𝑟+2) =
1 1
28.) ∑∞ 𝑟=4 (𝑟+1 − 𝑟+3) =
1 𝑛
29.) lim (1 + 𝑛) =
𝑛→∞

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 1
30.) lim (1 + 𝑥)𝑥 =
𝑥→0
5𝑘+7
31.) lim ∑𝑁
𝑘=0 is
𝑁→∞ 9𝑘+11
7𝑘+5
32.) lim ∑𝑁 𝑘=20 11𝑘+9 is
𝑁→∞
4𝑛+7
33.) ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑛𝑝 +11 converges for what values of 𝑝?
4𝑛3 +7
34.) ∑∞𝑛=7 𝑛𝑝 +11 converges for what values of 𝑝?

Beginning Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Practice

Solutions to Beginning Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Practice

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