Machine Tools 2

IPE 441 Machine Tools
T HEORETICAL
D ETERMINATION OF
C UTTING F ORCES
Dr. M. Abu Hayat Mithu

Professor
Email: mithu-ipe@sust .edu
IPE 441 Machine Tools & Machining
Introduction
Metal cutting tools are subjected to extremely arduous

conditions, high surface loads & high surface temperatures
arise because the chip slides at high speed along the tool
rake face while exerting very high normal pressures (and
friction force) on this face.
The forces may be fluctuating - due to:

▪ the presence of hard particles in the component
microstructure, or
▪ more extremely, when interrupted cutting is being
carried out.
Hence cutting tools need: (i) strength at elevated temp., (ii)

high toughness, (iii) high wear resistance, (iv) high hardness
Slide # 02
Requirements for cutting tool materials
✓ During the process of chip formation, the cutting tools are

subjected to very high temperature (600-800c or higher).
✓ ‘Wear’ also been taken place at chip - tool and work - tool
interfaces and tool failure occur after a certain period.
To prevent failure the cutting tool material must possess

certain essential requirements:
▪ tool material should be strong and hard enough to
withstand the high pressures without having brittle
fracture.
▪ tool material should be able to retain its strength and
hardness at high operating temperature.
▪ The tool material must have sufficient wear
resistance, i.e.; resistance against adhesion or
diffusion at high temperatures.
Slide # 03
Orthogonal cutting model
Orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped tool in which the

cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of cutting
speed.
▪ As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is
formed by shear deformation along a plane called the
shear plane, which is oriented at an angle βo with the
surface of the work.
▪ Only at the sharp cutting edge of the tool does failure

of the material occur, resulting in separation of the
chip from the parent material.
▪ Along the shear plane, where the bulk of the

mechanical energy is consumed in machining, the
material is plastically deformed.
Slide # 04
Orthogonal cutting model cont…
Orthogonal cutting:
(a) three-dimensional
process, and
(b) how it reduces to
two dimensions in
the side view.
▪ During cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is positioned

a certain distance below the original work surface. This
corresponds to the thickness of the chip prior to chip
formation, based on the term called chip thickness ratio.
▪ As the chip is formed along the shear plane, its
thickness increases to the direction of vf.
▪ Chip thickness after cutting a2 is always greater than
the corresponding thickness before cutting, a1.
Slide # 05
Orthogonal cutting model cont…
▪ Shear strain that occurs along the shear plane can be

estimated by examining the given figure, which shows
shear deformation approximated by a series of parallel
plates sliding against one another to form the chip.
Fig. Shear strain during chip formation: chip formation

depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to
each other (left side); and shear strain triangle.
Slide # 06
Chips and their photomicrographs
Basic types of chips and their photomicrographs

(a) continuous chip with narrow, straight primary
shear zone; (b) secondary shear zone at the chip
tool interface; (c) continuous chip with large
primary shear zone; (d) segmented or non
Schematic illustration of homogeneous chip and (f) discontinuous chip.
cutting with an oblique tool.
Ref. Shaw, Wright, and S. Kalpakjian. Slide # 07
Forces acting on metal cutting
Several forces can be found relative to the orthogonal

cutting model. Based on these forces, shear stress, coefficient
of friction, and certain other relationships can be defined.
Friction force
The forces applied against the chip by the tool can be

separated into two mutually perpendicular components:
friction force and normal force to friction.
The friction force F is the frictional force resisting the flow

of the chip along the rake face of the tool. The normal force
to friction N is perpendicular to the friction force. These two
components can be used to define the coefficient of friction
𝑭
between the tool and the chip: 𝝁 =
𝑵
Slide # 08
Forces acting on metal cutting cont…
▪ The friction force and its normal force can be added

vectorially to form a resultant force R, at an angle called
the friction angle.
Shear force
▪ In addition to the tool forces acting on the chip, there are
two force components applied by the workpiece on the
chip: shear force and normal force to shear. The shear
force Ps is the force that causes shear deformation to
occur in the shear plane, and the normal force to shear Pn
is perpendicular to the shear force. Based on the shear
force, the shear stress: 𝑷𝒔
𝝉=
𝑨𝒔
acts along the shear plane between work and the chip.
𝒂𝟏 𝒘
where 𝑨𝒔 = area of the shear plane.
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜷
Slide # 09
Forces acting on metal cutting cont…
▪ Shear stress, 𝝉 represents the level

of stress required to perform the
machining operation.
▪ This stress is equal to the shear
strength of the work material
(𝝉 =S) under the conditions at
which cutting occurs.
▪ Vector addition of the two force
components Ps and Pn yields the
resultant force R2.
▪ To balance these forces, both R
must be equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction, and collinear
with the resultant R.
Slide # 10
Theoretical determination of forces
For the purpose of analysis, a simplified scheme of chip

formation is developed with the following assumptions:
▪ No contact at the flank, i.e., the tool is perfectly sharp;
▪ No side flow of the chips, i.e., b1 = b2 (condition of
plane strain);
▪ Uniform cutting velocity, i.e., vc = constant;
▪ A continuous chip is produced with no build-up edge;
▪ Free cutting conditions (no chip flow deviation);
▪ The chip is considered to be held in equilibrium by the
action of the two equal and opposite forces R1 and R2
and assume that these resultant forces are collinear.
Slide # 11
Theoretical determination of forces cont …
Assuming that the force system is due to

concentrated equivalence of any
distribution, a relationship between Pz
and Pxy and o , on other hand F, N and 
can be estimated.
From the geometry of figure, Force,

F = OB = EB = BC + CE = BC + AD
BC = Pxy Coso and AD = Pz Sino
So, F = Pxy Coso + Pz Sino ……………………(eq1)
and N = BBꞋ = OD – DE = OD – AC
N = Pz Coso - Pxy Sino ……………(eq 2)
Slide # 12
Theoretical determination of forces cont …
Thus, kinetic coefficient of friction can be developed by (eq 1)

divided by (eq 2)
F Pz Sin o + Pxy Cos o
= =
N Pz Cos o − p xy Sin o
p z tan  o + Pxy
=
Pz − Pxy tan  o
where,  = kinetic coefficient of friction

 = mean angle of friction at the rake surface
Slide # 13
Force system at the shear plane
Let Ps be the force acting tangentially at the hypothetical

single shear plane causing slip and deformation while Pn is
the compressive load on the shear plane.
From the geometry of fig
Ps = OQ = ON –QN = ON – MS
Ps = Pz Coso – Pxy Sino
and Pn = TQ = QS + ST = MN + ST
Pn = Pz Sino + PxyCoso
Again OQT,  QOT = o + - o
Fig. Force System at the
tan (o + - o) = Pn / Ps shear plane
 Pn = Ps tan (o + - o)

Slide # 14
Stress in conventional shear plane
From the geometry of figure (Forces acting on shear plane),

we get
Pz = R Cos( - o), where R is the resultant force
Ps= R Cos(o + - o)
Dividing Pz by Ps
Pz RCos ( −  o )
=
Ps RCos (  o +  −  o )
Cos ( −  o )
 Pz = Ps ..................(eq1)
Cos (  o +  −  o )
But Ps = s. As , where s = dynamic shear stress (Kg/ mm2)
on the conventional shear plane of area As mm2.
Slide # 15
Stress in conventional shear plane
a1b1 Sot
But As = =
Sin o Sin o
where So = feed and t = depth of cut
Sot
Ps =  s . putting in equation (1)
Sin o
 s .S o .tCos ( −  o )
pz =
Sin o Cos ( o +  −  o )
 Cos ( −  o ) 
 p z =  s .S o .t  
 Sin  o Cos (  o +  −  )
o 
 Sin( −  o ) 
Similarly, Pxy =  s .S o .t  
 Sin o Cos (  o +  −  )
o 
Slide # 16
Dynamic shear stress
For a sharp tool with no flank contact
p s , where P = shear force, and

s = s
As As = area of cross section
From the geometry or from the eq (1),

Ps Cos( o +  −  o )
=
Pz Cos( −  o )
S o .t
and ps =  s .
Sin o
Cos( o +  −  o )Sin o
we get,  s = Pz .
S o .t.Cos( −  o )
Slide # 17
The theoretical determination of cutting forces is important for estimating the

cutting forces only from the known physical parameters without the help of any
dynamometer.
Ernst and Merchant assumed that

▪ The shear stress is the true property of the work material, i.e., s = constant.
▪ The total energy input to the system has been consumed in deformation,
hence assumed,
dw …………………eq 1
= Pz .Vc
dt
▪ The friction process at the chip-tool interface is invariant, i.e.,  = constant.
Then
dw K .S o .tCos( −  o )vc
E= = Pz .Vc = .…..………….eq 2
dt Sin o Cos( o +  −  o )
 s .S o .t.Cos( −  o )
We found, Pz = …………… eq 3
Sin o Cos( o +  −  o )
Slide # 18
Force system during turning
The force system (general case) of conventional turning

process is shown.
The resultant cutting force is expressed by its components:

▪ Px known as the ‘feed force’ in the direction of the tool
travel,
▪ Py called as ‘thrust force’ in the direction
perpendicular to the produced surface, and
▪ Pz is the ‘cutting force’ or, the main force, acting in the
direction of the cutting velocity vector.
Note: These directions have been chosen for their suitability.
Slide # 19
Fig: Decomposition of the resultant cutting force F in major cutting force Fc and
minor force FN and decomposing the FN into feed force Ff and passive force Fp.
Here, F = resultant cutting force; Fc = major cutting force

FN = minor force; Ff = feed force; Fp = passive force
(displacement force)
Slide # 20
Force system during turning cont…
▪ After determining the individual components Px, Py and

Pz, the resultant force, R can be calculated as:
R = Px2 + Py2 + Pz2
▪ This three dimensional force system can be reduced to a
two dimensional force system if in the orthogonal plane
o the forces are considered in such a way that the entire
force system is contained in the considered state, when
R= P +P z
2 2
xy and Pxy = Px2 + Py2
▪ This is only possible when the force Pxy is contained in
plane o under conditions of free orthogonal cutting, this
corresponds to ‘orthogonal system of the first kind’ for
which the conditions are: (i) 0    900; (ii)  = 00; (iii)
the chip flow direction lies on the plane o.
Slide # 21

.
▪ An ‘orthogonal two-dimensional system of second kind’

can be obtained by choosing  and  in such a manner
that either Px or Py can be made zero. In this case, Py is
made zero by having  = 0 and  = 900, when the two
dimensional force system is
R = Pz2 + Px2
Py
▪ Another, alternative way of having

an orthogonal system of the second
kind is to have Py = 0, during Reduced two-dimensional force system
radial turning or facing operation, when
R = Pz2 + Py2
Slide # 22
In case of specific cutting force under consideration

of its influencing variables:
- May be calculated with the equation given above:
Where,
kc = specific cutting force in N/mm2
kc1,1 = specific cutting force in N/mm2 (for h = 1 mm, b = 1 mm)
(basic cutting force), h = thickness of cut in mm; z = material
constant
K = correction coefficient
Kγ = correction coefficient for rake angle
Kv = correction coefficient for cutting speed
Kver = correction coefficient for wear
Kst = correction coefficient for chip compression
Slide # 23
Force system during drilling
The resultant force R required for the

plastic deformation of the layer under
drilling can be resolved into a tangential
component, Pz, and a thrust force, Pxy,
perpendicular to the cutting edge as
shown. Forces during drilling
▪ Force Pz is required for calculating the

torque required in drilling.
▪ Force Pxy can be resolved into a small
radial component Py and a horizontal
component Px acting axially along the
drill. The force, Px, is commonly known
as ‘thrust’ in drilling.
Slide # 24
Force system during drilling cont…
▪ From the basic mechanics of metal cutting, the main part

of the force Pz1 can be estimated, while the force Pz2 due
to flank friction can be found by utilizing Zorev’s data.
Another component Pz3 is negligible in the estimation of
torque involved in drilling.
▪ The total thrust during the process of drilling is given by:

Px Total 
= 2 Px cutting + Px extrusion + Px friction  ……..for 2 lip
Px cutting = Pxy Sin = Pz tan ( −  e )Sin assuming = 0
and Px friction = NSin  where N = specific normal force at

the cutting edge, d = dc = chisel edge diameter;  = ½ point
angle.
Slide # 25
Summary of force system
Summary
▪ None of the four force components F, N, Fs, and Fn can
be directly measured in a machining operation, because
the directions in which they are applied vary with
different tool geometries and cutting conditions.
▪ Cutting force Fc is in the direction of cutting, the same
direction as the cutting speed vc, and
▪ Thrust force Ft is perpendicular to the cutting force and
is associated with the chip thickness before cut.
𝑭 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜸𝟎 + 𝑭𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜸𝟎 ……………… (A)
Relations:
𝑵 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜸𝟎 − 𝑭𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜸𝟎 ……………… (B)
𝑭𝒔 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜷𝟎 − 𝑭𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜷𝟎 ……………… (C)
𝑭𝒏 = 𝑭𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜷𝟎 + 𝑭𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜷𝟎 ……………… (D)
Slide # 26
Problem and Solution
Problem In a machining operation that approximates

orthogonal cutting, the cutting tool has a rake angle 10°. The
chip thickness before the cut to 0.50 mm and the chip thickness
after the cut 0.75 mm. Calculate the shear plane angle and the
shear strain in the operation.
Again, suppose that cutting force and thrust force are measured
during an orthogonal cutting operation: Fc = 1550 N and Ft =
1270 N. The width of the orthogonal cutting operation w = 2.0
mm. Based on these data, determine the shear strength of the
work material.
Solution: The chip thickness ratio can be determined as:

chip thickness after cut, a2
𝑟=
chip thickness before cut, a1
Slide # 27
Problem and Solution cont…
Problem During machining of AISI 1025 steel with

0 – 10 – 6 – 6 – 8 – 90 – 1 mm shaped tool the following
observations were taken: Feed, 0.5 mm/rev; depth of cut, 2 mm;
cutting speed, 40 m/min; shear angle, 200; the power consumed
during machining, 3 Kw, and power consumed during idle, 0.5
Kw. Calculate: (i) the cutting force, (ii) chip thickness ratio, (iii)
normal pressure on the chip, and (iv) chip thickness.
Solution: From the geometry of the tool orthogonal rake γo= 100
principal cutting edge angle, φ = 900
Given that,
Feed, So = 0.5 mm/rev We have to find,
Depth of cut, t = 2 mm (i) cutting force, P = ?
Cutting speed, vc = 40 m/min (ii) chip thickness ratio, r = ?
Shear angle, βo = 200 (iii) normal pressure, Pn = ?
Power, Pm = 3 kw, & PI = 0.5kw (iv) chip thickness, to = ?
Slide # 29
Net cutting power = Gross power – power while machine idle

Fc = 3.0 kw – 0.5 kw = 2.5 kw
𝑭𝒄 . 𝒗𝒄 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟔𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟔𝟏𝟐𝟎
Power, 𝑷 = 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔 kw = 𝒗𝒄
=
𝟒𝟎
= 𝟑𝟖𝟐. 𝟓 kg
𝒓𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜸𝒐
Chip thickness ratio, 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝜷𝒐 =
𝟏 − 𝒓𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜸
𝟎
𝒓𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟏𝟎
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐𝟎𝒐 =
𝟏 − 𝒓𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕
(iii) Normal pressure on the chip,

Fc 𝑭𝒄 𝑭𝒄 𝟑𝟖𝟐. 𝟓
𝑷𝒏 = = = = = 𝟑𝟖𝟐. 5 kg/mm2
chip area 𝒘 × 𝒕 𝒔𝒐 × 𝒕 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟓
(iv) chip thickness. Feed 0.5 mm/rev

= = = 𝟏. 𝟖5 mm
chip thickness ratio 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕
Slide # 30
Problem In an orthogonal turning operation, cutting

speed, 80 m/min; cutting force, 20 kg; feed force, 8 kg; back
rake angle, 150; feed, 0.2 mm/rev; chip thickness, 0.4. Determine
the following: (i) shear angle, (ii) work done in shear, and (iii)
shear strain.
Solution:
Chip thickness ratio, 𝑟 = 0.2

0.4
=0.5
Shear angle,
𝑟cos𝛾𝑜 0.5cos150 0.483
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 = = 0
= ≈ 0.55
1 − 𝑟sin𝛾𝑜 1 − 0.5sin15 0.871
 = tan −1 (0.55) = 28.80 Ans.
Slide # 31
Cutting force, Pz = 20 kg, feed force, Pxy = 8 kg

Shear force, Ps = Pzcos β - Pxysin β = 20*cos(28.8) – 8sin(28.8)
Ps = 17.526 – 3.854 = 13.672 Kg
Shear velocity,
vc cos  o 80 cos15o 77.27
vs = = = = 79.67  80m / min
cos(  −  o ) cos(28.8 − 15) 0.97
Work done, Ws = Ps. vs = 13.672*80 m/min =1090 kg-m/min
Shear strain,
s = cot  + tan (  −  o ) = 1.82 + 0.24 = 2.06
Slide # 32
Mechanism of chip formation
Distinct from the action of an indenting wedge, the tool is

oriented in a manner so that the excess material is
removed from the parent material in the form of chips.
▪ When a cutting tool removes a layer from the
workpiece, the uncut layer is first elastically deformed
followed by plastic deformation separation taking place
near the cutting edge of the tool.
▪ Therefore, it is difficult to postulate that the

deformation is concentrated at one point or one line.
Slide # 33
Mechanism of chip formation cont…
▪ On the other hand the plastic deformation takes place in

a certain region entrapped between the undeformed
material on one side and the cutting tool on the other
side is as shown in fig.
▪ The process of deformation can be simulated with the

compression deformation of the material occurring
between two flat plates as indicated in fig.
It is difficult to apply equation of plasticity as the
deformations in metal cutting are very large.
Slide # 34
Therefore, several methods have been used:
1. Taking photograph of the side surface of the chip

with a very high speed movie camera fitted with
microscope;
2. Observing the grid deformations (directly)
a. On the side surface of the workpiece, and
b. On the inner surface of a compound workpiece
3. Examination of frozen chip samples taken by
a. Drop tool apparatus, and
b. Quick stop apparatus

Slide # 35
Therefore, several methods have been used:
1. Taking photograph of the side surface of the chip

with a very high speed movie camera fitted with
microscope;
2. Observing the grid deformations (directly)
a. On the side surface of the workpiece, and
b. On the inner surface of a compound workpiece
3. Examination of frozen chip samples taken by
a. Drop tool apparatus, and
b. Quick stop apparatus

Slide # 36
Results from many observation shows that:

During machining of ductile materials like steel, Al, Cu,
Br, lead, titanium etc, a plastic deformation zone has been
observed in front of the cutting edge. As a result of plastic
deformation the thickness of the chip is greater than that
of the uncut layer.
Experimental results from Zorev (1952),
Kufarev (1958), Smirnov (1949) and many
others established:
1. The direction of three principal axes
of deformation;
Kufarev’s scheme of shear deformation process

Slide # 37
Deformation of Uncut Layer

The problem in the study of the mechanism of chip
formation is the deformation process of the chip ahead
of the cutting tool. Experimental techniques have
always been resorted to for analyzing the deformation
process of chips. Several methods have been used:
Observing the grid deformation (directly)

◼ on the side surface of the work piece and
◼ on the inner surface of a compound work
piece.
Negative rake Positive rake

2. The magnitude and sign of the three principal axes of

deformation;
3. The nature of metal cutting deformation, i.e., the type of
stress;
4. The cutting strain, ε .
Figure shows the schematic representation of the
transformation of circles into ellipses during chip formation
 r1   r2  Where,
e1 = ln   e2 = ln   ro = radius of circles marked
 0
r  0
r
on this workpiece
and, r1, r2 = semi-axes of the
Levy-Lode’s states that
ellipse after deformation
e1 + e2 − 2e3 tan(30 − e )
= and e1 + e2 + e3 = 0
e1 − e2 tan 30
Slide # 38
Levy-Lode’s theory of chip formation cont…
e1 + e2 − 2e3 tan(30 − e )
Levy-Lode’s states that =
e1 − e2 tan 30
and e1 + e 2 + e3 = 0 ………(Eq 1)
where ‘e’ is the deformation criteria; if e = 0 then the condition
is pure tension, if e = 60° then the condition is pure compression,
and if e =300 then the condition is shear.
If e1 + e2 + e3 = 0, 2e3 = -2(e1 + e2) and –2e3 = 2(e1= e2)
 r1   r2 
And also e1 = ln   and e2 = ln 
r 
 r0   0 
Putting these two values in equation eq 01,

 r   r  
3 ln  1  + ln  2  
3 ( e1 + e2 ) tan ( 30 − e ) 
  r0   = tan ( 30 − e )
 r0  
=
e1 − e2 tan 30 
  r1   r2  
 tan 30
ln   − ln   

  r0   r0  

Slide # 39
3
 r1r2 
ln  2 
 r0  = tan ( 30 − e ) ...............Eq 2
 r1  tan 30
ln  
 r2 
Case-01: r1 = r0 (1 +  )
Where
r1
= 1+   = cutting strength and,
r0  = coefficient of friction
and r2 = r0 (1 −  ) (letting  = 0.5 or ½)
r2 
= 1 −  = 1 − as the value of  is very
r0 2
small, we can write
Slide # 40
2
 r2   2
2
 
 = 1 −  = 1 −  +  1− 
 r0   2 4
2 2
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2
= 1 + 𝜀 1 − 𝜀 = 1 − 𝜀2 ≈ 1 ≫ 3 =1
𝑟0 𝑟0 𝑟0
 r r 2 2 r 
ln  1 32  1   r1 
ln  
 r0  r2  tan ( 30 − e )  2=
r tan ( 30 − e )  r r 2

= ...............as  3  = 1
12
 r1  tan 30  r1  tan 30  r0 
ln   ln  
 r2   r2 
 tan ( 30 − e ) = tan 30 30 − e = 30
 e = 0 ; the failure mode is pure tension.

Slide # 41
𝒓𝟏 𝜺 𝟏
Case-02: 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒓𝟎 𝟏 + 𝝁𝜺 ≫ =𝟏+ as 𝝁 =
𝒓𝟎 𝟐 𝟐
𝒓𝟐
𝒓𝟐 = 𝒓𝟎 𝟏 − 𝜺 ≫ =𝟏−𝜺
𝒓𝟎
𝟐
𝒓𝟏 𝜺𝟐
= 𝟏+𝜺+ ≅𝟏+𝜺
𝒓𝟎 𝟒
𝟐
𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐
= = 𝟏 + 𝜺 𝟏 − 𝜺 = 𝟏 − 𝜺𝟐 ≈ 𝟏
𝒓𝟑𝟎 𝒓𝟎 𝒓𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝐥𝐧 .
𝒓𝟑𝟎 𝒓𝟏 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟑𝟎𝟎 − 𝒆
=
𝒓 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝐥𝐧 𝒓𝟏
𝟐
30o – e = -30o as e = 600, deformation criteria is pure compression.

Slide # 42
Case-03: r = r (1 +  +  )  r1 = 1 +  +  = 1 +  +  = 1 + 3
1 0
r0 2 2
r2 3
r2 = r0 (1 −  −  )  = 1 −  −  = 1 −  −  = 1 −
1
r0 2 2
r1 r2 r1 r2  3  3  9 2
and also = 2 = 1 + 1 −  = 1 −   1
r0 r0 r0  2  2 4
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝟑
𝐥𝐧
𝒓𝟐𝟎 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟑𝟎𝟎 − 𝒆 𝒐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟑𝟎𝟎 − 𝒆
= ≫ =
𝒓𝟏 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟑𝟎 𝟎 𝒓𝟏 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟑𝟎 𝟎
𝐥𝐧 𝐥𝐧
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟑𝟎𝟎 − 𝒆 = 𝟎 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟎𝟎 ≫ 𝟑𝟎𝟎 − 𝒆 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒆 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎
as ln(1) = 0
The failure mode is pure shear.
Slide # 43
Chip Reduction Coefficient (ξ)

Chip reduction coefficient (ξ) is defined as the ratio
of chip thickness (a2) to the uncut chip thickness
(a1).
This factor, ξ, is an index of the degree of

deformation involved in chip formation process during
which the thickness of layer increases and the length
shrinks. In the USA, the inverse of ξ is denoted by rc
and is known as cutting ratio.
a2
ξ=
a1
AC OAcos(β − γ0 ) cosβ cosγ0 + sinβ sin γ0

= = =
AB OAsin β sinβ
a1
a2
A Chip
B
β
O
C γo
the formation of flat chips under
orthogonal cutting conditions. From the
geometry of the following Figure.
Workpiece Tool
a 2 = AC = OAcos(β − γ0 ) = cosβ cosγ0 + sinβ sin γ0

ξ= − − − −[1]
a1 AB OAsin β sinβ
Department of Industrial & Production
Engineering
Shear Angle (β)
From Equation [1]
cosβ cosγ + sinβsin γ cosγ

ξ= 0 0 = 0 + sinγ
sinβ tanβ 0
cosγ0
tanβ =
ξ − sinγo
− 1 cosγ o 
β = tan Shear angle
 ξ − sinγ 
 o

Engineering
Condition for maximum chip reduction coefficient (ξ) from Equation [1]
dξ  d  cos(β − γ 0 ) 
dβ = 0dβor =0
 sinβ 
 
sinβ −sin( β − γ ) − cos(β − γ )cosβ
0 0 =0
sin 2β
π
cos(β − γ ) cosβ + sin( β − γ ) sinβ = 0 = cos
0 0 2
π
cos(β − γ + β) = cos
0 2
β =  + γ 0  Shear angle
1 π
22 
Engineering
Velocity Relationships
The following Figure shows the velocity relation in metal cutting. As the tool
advances, the metal gets cut and chip is formed. The chip glides over the rake
surface of the tool. With the advancement of the tool, the shear plane also moves.
There are three velocities of interest in the cutting process which include:
VC = velocity of the tool

relative to the workpiece.
It is called cutting
velocity γo -β
90o -γo
Vf = velocity of the chip β
(over the tool rake) Vf
relative to the tool. It is Vc
called chip flow velocity
Vs
Chip γo
Vs= velocity of Vf Vs
displacement of Vc β 90o -β+γ o
formation of the newly γo
cut chip elements,
relative to the workpiece
along the shear plane. It Workpiece Tool
is called velocity of
shear
Engineering
According to principles of kinematics, these three velocities, i.e. their
vectors must form a closed velocity diagram. The vector sum of the cutting
velocity, Vc, and the chip velocity, Vf, is equal to the shear velocity, Vs.
Thus,
V =V +V
s c f
V V V 90o -γo γo -β
s = c = f
sin(90 o − γ ) sin 90o − (β − γ  sinβ
Vf
o  o  Vc
γo
sinβ V sinβ V Vs
V =V = c = c
β 90o -β+γ o
sin 900 − (β − γ ) cos(β − γ o ) ξ
f c
 o 
Vc
or, =ξ
Vf

Engineering
22/50
Kronenberg derived an interesting relation for chip reduction coefficient

(ξ) which is of considerable physical significance. Considering the motion of
any chip particle as shown in the following Figure to which principles of
momentum change are applied:
dv
F = −m
dt π
( − γ0 )
2
dθ Vc
N = mω2r = mv
dt
F dv Vf γo
μ= =− N
F
N v dθ
− = μ dθ
dv
v
Engineering
As the velocity changes from Vc to Vf, hence
Vf dv ( π2 -γ o )
 − =  πdθ π
v ( −γ )
V 0 2
0
c Vc
V  π 
− ln  f  = μ − γ 
V   2 o  F
Vf γo
 c N
π 
 
V μ  − γ 
c =e  2 0 

V
f
This equation demonstrates that the chip reduction coefficient and chip
π 
  flow velocity is dependant on the frictional aspects at the interface as
μ − γ  well as the orthogonal rake angle (γ0). If γ0 is increased, chip reduction
2 0 
ξ=e   coefficient decreases.
Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 22/

22/52
Shear Strain (ε)
The value of the shear strain (ε) is an indication of the amount of deformation that
the metal undergoes during the process of chip formation. The shear strain that
occurs along the shear plane can be estimated by examining the following Figure.
The shear strain can be expressed as follows:
AC AD + CD AD CD
ε= = = + = cot β + tan(β − γ ) - -[1]
BD BD BD BD o
A
Chip=parallel
Shear shear plates
plane
Magnitude of A β
β strained
D β-γo
material
Plate
Cγ
C thickness o
γo B
B
b c
Workpiece Tool a
Shear strain during chip formation (a) chip formation depicted as a series of parallel sliding relative to each
other (b) one of the plates isolated to illustrate the definition of shear strain based on this parallel plate model
(c) shear strain triangle
Engineering
22/53
From equation [1]

cos γo
ε = cot β + tan(β − γ ) = − −[2]
o sin β. cos (β - γ )
o
From velocity relationsh ip
V cos γ
s = o − − −[3]
V cos (β - γ )
c o
From equation [2] and equation [3]
V
ε= s Shear strain
V sin β
c

Engineering
Cutting Tool Life

Cutting tools are subjected to an extremely severe
rubbing process. They are in metal-to-metal contact
between the chip and work piece, under high stress
and temperature.
The situation becomes severe due to the existence of

extreme stress and temperature gradients near the
surface of the tool.
The objective of this lecture is:

• to provide a view of reasons of tool failure.
• to predict tool life based on the tool wear rate or
physical considerations,
• to predict tool life
• to understand the tool failure mechanism.
Tool Failure
The term tool failure may be defined as

“the condition of the tool when it starts
giving unsatisfactory performance while
cutting”.
Tool failure can be broadly categories as:

1. Abnormal failure or avoidable tool failure.
2. Normal failure or unavoidable but

controllable, i.e., tool wear.
Tool Failure: Abnormal failure
Abnormal failure: The failure due to avoidable causes is

known as abnormal failure.
These failures included:

• Breakage of insert - This includes either the breakage at
the corner or a breakage right across.
• Built-up edge formation - (BUE) means the adhesion of
work material on the rake face of the cutting tool near
the cutting edge (in softer or ductile metals at lower cutting speeds).
• Plastic deformation - tool is unable to support the cutting
pressure over the area of contact between the tool and
chip.
• Thermal deformation - or mechanical cracking usually
results from cyclic loading of the tool
• Micro-chipping of cutting edge - breaking due to excess
vibration or low system stiffness can also lead to
chipping.
• Notch wear - occurs when the chip curls back and strikes
the tool.
Tool Failure: Abnormal failure
Abnormal failure:
failure due to
avoidable causes.
Failures included:
• Breakage of
insert
• Built-up edge
formation
• Plastic
deformation
• Thermal
deformation
• Micro-chipping
of cutting edge
• Notch wear -
Tool Failure: Normal failure
Normal failure: The failure to

unavoidable but controllable
causes is known as normal
failure.
These failures include:
• flank wear, wear on the relief
or clearance face,
• crater wear, occurs on the
rake face of the tool, and the
shape of wear is that of a
crater or a bowl.
Tool Wear
Tool wear is generally a gradual process due to
regular operation.
Tool wear can be comparing with the wear of
the tip of an ordinary pencil.
According to Australian standard, the tool wear is-
“the change of shape of the tool from its original
shape, during cutting, resulting from the gradual loss
of tool material ”.
The useful 'life' of a tool is limited by tool wear. The
wear between two rubbing surfaces occurs due to:
i. macro-transfer type mechanical wear process
like abrasion and adhesion,
ii.micro-transfer type thermochemical process
like diffusion,
iii.electrochemical process like localized
galvanic action, oxidation, etc.
Mechanical wear takes place in 2 predominant ways:

a. abrasion due to ploughing into softer matrix by hard
constituents such as segregated carbides,
inclusions, etc.
b. adhesion and formation of metallic bonds formed
over the rubbing surfaces under load and
subsequent rupture of these bonds followed by
transfer of these elementary particles.
Other wears are:
a. diffusion wear occurs when cutting ferrous work
materials with uncoated tungsten carbide tools and the
cutting temperature exceeds 750°C.
b. chemical wear may result from reactions with the work
material or the cutting fluid. Fluids containing high
concentrations of free sulfur additives are particularly
produce chemical wear.
c. oxidation wear occurs due to the penetration of
atmospheric oxygen into the tool–chip contact surface.
Tool Wear Affecting Parameters

Tool wear is ‘the change of shape of the tool from its original shape,
during cutting, resulting from the gradual loss of tool material’.
Tool wear depends upon following parameters:
• tool and workpiece material; ● tool shape;
• cutting speed (vc);. ● feed or feed rate (f, fr);
• depth of cut (t or d); ● cutting fluid used;
• machine tool characteristics, etc.
Then, the tool wear affects the following items:

• increase cutting forces;
• increases cutting temperature;
• decreases the accuracy of produced parts;
• decreases tool life;
• poor surface finish of the machined part; and
• effects on the economics of cutting operations.
Tool Life
Tool life is a general term and there is no single
definition that defines it.
tool life is the time elapsed between two

In general,
successive grindings of a cutting tool.
In production and manufacturing fields, tool life can

signify following definitions:
• The volume of material removed by a machining

tool during its total usage span. The volume may
be in cubic mm (mm3) or cubic cm (cm3) at a
standard cutting speed.
• The duration for which the tool is usable for

machining, i.e, the time taken till there is tool
failure. Here failure can mean fracture, crater
formation on tool surface, softening of edges etc.
• Number of workpieces the tool can be used to

produce (mainly finishing) in case workpieces
are discreet and countable.
• Time of actual operation, i.e., the time the tool

is in contact with the job, and the equivalent
cutting speed,
However, often 'actual cutting time'

particularly in turning operation is
used to measure tool life.
Factors Affecting Tool Life

The life of tool is affected by many factors such as:
▪ cutting speed, depth of cut, chip thickness, tool
geometry, w/p material, use of cutting fluid, and
rigidity of machine tools.
▪ physical and chemical properties of work material
▪ nose radius tends to affect tool life.
Tool Life Equation

In 1907, F. W. Taylor developed relation between tool life and cutting
speed, time, by keeping feed as constant.
The Taylor’s equation between Vc, T is given by equation:
Vc Tn = C
A more general form of the equation considering depth of cut and feed rate is:
Vc Tn Dx Fy = C
Where, Vc = Cutting speed (m/min);
T = Tool life (min),
D = Depth of cut (mm),
F = Feed rate (mm/rev),
x, y = exponents, that are determined experimentally for each
cutting conditions, and
n = exponent, that depends on tool materials
C = Machining constant, found by experimentation or
published data-book (C represents cutting speed for 1 minute as tool life).
Tool Life Equation Analysis

From the equation, it is observed that, Vc Tn Dx Fy = C
• Tool life decreases with increase in cutting speed, and vice versa.
• Tool life also depends to a great extent on the depth of cut (D) and
feed rate (F).
• Decrease of tool life with increased speed is twice as great
(exponentially) as the decrease of life with increased feed.
• The greatest variation of tools life is with the cutting speed and tool
temperature which is closely related to cutting speed.
Tool life curves are generally

plotted on log-log graph paper.
In a finishing operation, a tool
failure will mean that the
specified conditions of surface
finish and dimensional
accuracy can no longer be
achieved.
✓ From the Taylor’s TL eq, it is clear that the cutting speed has the highest
effect on tool life followed by feed and depth of cut, respectively.
✓ Tool life decreases when feed rate increases. Also, the same case for
depth of cut.
For cemented carbide tool and low carbon steel, the equation comes:
Vc.T 0.20.F 0.35.D 0.08 = C
The above statement is justified by the following equation given by Yanitsky:
C
Vc =
H b1.7 
where,
Hb = Brinel hardness number of work material
Ψ = Percentage reduction
Vc = Permissible cutting speed for a given tool life
If the cutting is intermittent, the tool bears impact loading, results in chance
of its quick failure.
Tool Life : Problems and solution
1. The durability of a cutting tool is 40 min at a cutting speed of 140

m/min and 100 min at a cutting speed of 60 m/min. Calculate: (i)
Taylor constants; (ii) The tool life for V = 1 m/min; (iii) The cutting
speed for a tool life T = 1 min; (iv) The tool life for V = 70 m/min; and
(v) The cutting speed for durability of 120 min [Source: Fundamentals
of Machining Processes Conventional and Nonconventional Processes,
EL -Hofy, pp. 98].
2. Determine percentage change in cutting speed required to give 50%

reduction in tool life (i.e., to reduce tool life to 1/5 of its previous
value). Take n = 0.2. [Debapriya M, http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/]
3. Compare the tool life of two catting tools (HSS and carbide) at a speed
of 30 m/min. The tool life is 130 min. The tool life equation for HSS
tool is given by VT1/7 = C1 and for carbide VT1/5= C2 at a cutting
speed of 24 m/min. [Debapriya M, http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/]
1. Find the tool life equation if a tool life of 80 min is obtained at a

cutting speed of 30 m/min and 8 min at 60 m/min.
2. Tool life tests on a lathe have resulted in the following data: (1) v =
350 ft/min, T = 7 min; (2) v = 250 ft/min, T = 50 min. (a) Determine
the parameters n and C in the Taylor tool life equation. (b) Using
your equation, compute the tool life that corresponds to a cutting
speed v = 300 ft/min. (c) Compute the cutting speed that
corresponds to a tool life T = 10 min. [Fundamentals of Modern
manufacturing, materials process and Systems, Groover].
3. In a production turning operation, the workpart is 125 mm in

diameter and 300 mm long. A feed rate of 0.225 mm/rev is used in
the operation. If cutting speed = 3.0 m/s, the tool must be changed
every 5 workparts; but if cutting speed = 2.0 m/s, the tool can be
used to produce 25 pieces between tool changes. Determine the
Taylor tool life equation for this job. [Fundamentals of Modern
manufacturing, materials process and Systems, Groover]
Undeformed layer of
work material
Material undergoing
deformation
Deformed layer of
material as chip
vc

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IPE 441 Machine Tools

Dr. M. Abu Hayat Mithu

Metal cutting tools are subjected to extremely arduous

The forces may be fluctuating - due to:

Hence cutting tools need: (i) strength at elevated temp., (ii)

Requirements for cutting tool materials

✓ During the process of chip formation, the cutting tools are

To prevent failure the cutting tool material must possess

Orthogonal cutting model

Orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped tool in which the

▪ Only at the sharp cutting edge of the tool does failure

▪ Along the shear plane, where the bulk of the

Orthogonal cutting model cont…

▪ During cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is positioned

Orthogonal cutting model cont…

▪ Shear strain that occurs along the shear plane can be

Fig. Shear strain during chip formation: chip formation

Chips and their photomicrographs

Basic types of chips and their photomicrographs

Forces acting on metal cutting

Several forces can be found relative to the orthogonal

The forces applied against the chip by the tool can be

The friction force F is the frictional force resisting the flow

Forces acting on metal cutting cont…

▪ The friction force and its normal force can be added

Forces acting on metal cutting cont…

▪ Shear stress, 𝝉 represents the level

Theoretical determination of forces

For the purpose of analysis, a simplified scheme of chip

Theoretical determination of forces cont …

Assuming that the force system is due to

From the geometry of figure, Force,

Theoretical determination of forces cont …

Thus, kinetic coefficient of friction can be developed by (eq 1)

where,  = kinetic coefficient of friction

Force system at the shear plane

Let Ps be the force acting tangentially at the hypothetical

 Pn = Ps tan (o + - o)

Stress in conventional shear plane

From the geometry of figure (Forces acting on shear plane),

Stress in conventional shear plane

Dynamic shear stress

For a sharp tool with no flank contact

p s , where P = shear force, and

From the geometry or from the eq (1),

The theoretical determination of cutting forces is important for estimating the

Ernst and Merchant assumed that

Force system during turning

The force system (general case) of conventional turning

The resultant cutting force is expressed by its components:

Here, F = resultant cutting force; Fc = major cutting force

Force system during turning cont…

▪ After determining the individual components Px, Py and

Force system during turning cont…

▪ An ‘orthogonal two-dimensional system of second kind’

▪ Another, alternative way of having

radial turning or facing operation, when

Force system during turning cont…

In case of specific cutting force under consideration