Thermal systems

Basic thermodynamics
1ste law

Closed system: no mass transfer in and out the system

For systems in the 1 phase region the total energy is characterized by 2 independent state properties
(for example pressure and temperature). For systems in the 2 phase region the total energy is
characterized by 1 state property and the composition (for example pressure and vapour fraction).
The total energy is a state function. It’s a sum of different energy forms.

The potential energy and the kinetic energy are macroscopic forms of energy. The internal energy is a
microscopic form of energy (molecular structure, degree of molecular activity,…).

Open system: mass transfer through the system

Derivation:
The flow work (dpv) is the work to keep the flow going. It can’t be controlled by humans. That’s why
it’s exclude from the technical work and taken into account in the enthalpy.

2nd law

The entropy for a closed system.

Tb is the temperature at which the heat is exchanged. It is expressed in Kelvin. The irreversible proces
is charactarized by >. The reversible proces is charactarized by =.

Equilibrium processes and thermodynamic diagrams

In the pv diagram of the closed system the integral over the volume gives the work. For a
compression (dv<0) work is added to the system (w>0).

In the pv diagram of the open system the integral over the pressure gives the technical work. For a
compression(dp<0) work is added to the system(l>0).

In the Ts diagram the integral over the entropy gives the heat. An increase in entropy implies an
addition of heat to the system.
Cycles

In a cycle the final state equals the initial state.

A clockwise process in the pv diagram is defined to be positive. Work is generated. From state 1 to
state 2 work is generated by the system (dv>0 so w<0). From state 3 to state 4 work is consumed by
the system (dv<0 so w>0). Since the area under 1-2 is bigger than the area under 3-4 there is netto
work generated. From the first law it’s clear that there’s heat added to the system.

A clockwise process in the Ts diagram is defined to be positive. Work is generated. From state 2 to
state 3 heat is added to the system (ds>0 so q>0). From state 4 to state 1 heat is removed from the
system (ds<0 so q<0). Since the area under 2-3 is bigger than the area under 4-1 there is netto heat
added. From the first law it’s clear that the system generates work.

Special cycles

Carnot: 2 isotherm processes and 2 isentropic processes

Brayton: 2 isobaric processes and 2 isentropic processes (vapour)

Rankine: 2 isobaric processes and 2 isentropic processes (vapour and liquid)

The Carnot cycle is an ideal cycle. The processes are reversible. It has the highest efficiency. In an
engine work is generated. The performance parameter is the efficiency ( ). In a refrigerator or a heat
pump work is consumed. The performance parameter is the coefficient of performance (COP).
Machines
Work has a higher energy-quality than heat. The energy-quality of heat increases with increasing
heat.

Refrigerator

The objective is to take the heat Qc from the low temperature reservoir. This process consumes
work. The work is delivered by a compressor.

The temperatures Tkc and Tkh are the temperature at which the heat is received and delivered
respectively. If the difference of these temperatures is smaller, the COP will be higher. This means
that Tkc should be as high as possible and that Tkh should be as low as possible. These temperatures
are limited by the temperatures of the reservoirs (Tc and Th). These are reached in a carnot cycle.
Heat pump

The objective is to give the heat Qh to the high temperature reservoir. Low quality heat is
transformed in high quality heat. This process consumes work. The work is delivered by a
compressor. This is more sustainable than a gasboiler.

Engine

The objective is to deliver work.

Thermal refrigerator

and equivalent cycle

The objective is to extract the heat Qc from the low temperature reservoir by delivering the heat Q
from a high temperature reservoir to the system. This is equivalent to two processes where the work
generated in a cycle (engine) is used in another cycle (refrigerator).
Single stage compression refrigerator
The refrigerator cycle

The refrigerator is a batch system (discontinuous flow with a piston) or a continuous system. The
analysis will be done for a continuous system. Consider a Carnot cycle.

The compressor brings state 1 to state 2 by increasing the pressure. In a system the compressor is
ideally isentropic (the component without system is ideally isotherm). The isentropic efficiency is
introduced to make it more realistic. It’s smaller than 100%.

The turbine brings state 3 to state 4 by decreasing the pressure. In a system the turbine is ideally
isentropic. Here’s also an isentropic efficiency necessary.

Heat exchangers bring state 2 to state 3 (condenser) and state 4 to state 1 (evaporator). Sensible
heat and latent heat are either rejected or absorbed.

Sensible heat comes from a temperature difference (one-phase region). Latent heat comes from the
transformation of gas to liquid or liquid to gas (two-phase region). The heat exchangers are in the
two-phase region. There the pressure and the temperature are constant which brings it close to a
carnot cycle. The enthalpy is higher than it would be in a one-phase region. This makes small and
cheap heat exchangers. The pressure drop is negligible in comparison to the pressure change in the
compressor\turbine.

The high temperature reservoir has a temperature below the temperature of the condenser because
the heat must go from the condenser to the environment. The low temperature reservoir has a
temperature above the evaporator because the heat must go from the room to the evaporator.
When looking at heat exchangers always look at the temperature gradient.

There will be corrosion because of the bubbles if the compressor works in the two-phase region.
Superheating is necessary to avoid this. The discharge state (after the compressor) has a higher
temperature. This means that more sensible heat (ΔT) has to be rejected in the condenser. There’s
also lubrication degradation which results in carbon formation. The suction state (before
compressor) is less influenced.

For a high technical work, the specific volume (v) should be as high as possible. The specific volume
of the liquid phase is much smaller than the specific volume of the vapour phase. So in contrast to
the compressor, the turbine won’t be set in a one-phase region. To avoid erosion in the turbine, the
turbine is replaced by a throttling valve.
 In a throttling valve the enthalpy stays the same.

These considerations result in the refrigerator cycle.

LogP-h diagram and the refrigerator cycle

The logP-h diagram is used for the analysis of the refrigerator. The main advantage of this diagram is
that the heat q and the technical work l can be evaluated by measuring the distance on the h-axis.

Only the pressures are necessary to know the complete cycle because the temperature is connected
to the pressure in the two-phase region.

The temperature difference from the reservoirs have typical values. For the heat exchange between
the refrigerant and water in the condenser the temperature difference is 5°C. For the heat exchange
between the refrigerant and air in the evaporator the temperature difference is 10°C.

Parameter analysis

The effect of the temperatures and additional heating/cooling on the coefficient of performance is
seen in the parameter analysis.
If the temperature of the evaporator is increased, the heat exchange is greater and the compressor
work is decreased. This means that the COP increases. From this it’s clear that the temperature of
the evaporator is as high as possible. It’s limited by the temperature of the low temperature
reservoir. It still has to be cooled.

If the temperature of the condenser decreases, the heat exchange increases and the compressor
work decreases. This means that the COP increases. From this it’s clear that the temperature of the
condenser is as low as possible. It’s limited by the temperature of the high temperature reservoir. It
still has to be heated.

If the refrigerant is subcooled before the throttle valve, the heat exchange in the evaporator
increases. This means that the COP increases. As a consequence, subcooling is beneficial to the
process. The temperature after the extra cooler has to stay above the temperature of the high
temperature reservoir in order to be able to be cooled.
It is necessary to superheat the refrigerant so there would be no liquid in the compressor (which
would lead to corrosion). As long as the temperature after superheating is below the temperature of
the low temperature reservoir, the exchanged heat contributes to the cooling of the room. If the
temperature after superheating is higher than the temperature of the low temperature reservoir, the
exchanged heat doesn’t contribute to the cooling of the room. There’s a mixed effect. This makes the
effect on the COP undetermined.

Liquid suction heat exchanger

The liquid suction heat exchanger combines the subcooling and superheating in one heat exchanger.
The exchanged heat is the same and thus the enthalpies are the same.

This doesn’t mean that the temperatures are the same.

Since the coefficient of heat at constant pressure of a gas is smaller than that of a liquid, the
temperature difference of the gas is bigger than that of the liquid.

The heat exchange in the evaporator increases more than the compressor work. The heat exchange
in the heat exchanger doesn’t contribute to the cooling of the room. The COP increases.
Practice

In practice the temperature of the evaporator is high. The temperature of the condenser is low.
Subcooling and superheating are implemented in a liquid suction heat exchanger. This results in an
increased COPR.

The massflow can be controlled with the throttling valve. This in turn controls the heat exchanged
with the room.

When the massflow decreases, the temperature difference has to increase to keep the balance.

Real cycle

The fluid flow causes friction. This causes a pressure drop in the pipes, condenser, evaporator,
suction and discharge valves. These pressure drops are taken into account in the real cycle. There are
also deviations from the carnot cycle since the expansion and compression are not isentropic.
Single stage compression refrigerator: components

Condenser

Heat is rejected to the cooling fluid either with a liquid or a gas.

When using a liquid the most common configurations are the tube in tube and the shell and tube. In
the tube in tube configuration, the refrigerant flows in the inner tube and the cooling fluid flows in
the outer tube in counter flow. Convective airflow gives extra cooling. In the shell and tube
configuration the cooling water goes through the shell and the refrigerant goes through the tubes.

There are two tower configurations as well: the forced circulation and the direct condensation.

Cooling with air is possible with natural or forced circulation. For air cp~1J/kgK so large quantities of
air are needed. Natural circulation has little flow resistance and needs a large heat transfer area. This
is usually for small loads (domestic refrigerator). Forced circulation uses a fan (multiple for large
applications).

Calculations can be done using the logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) method.
In case of a flat plate with thickness d the expressions are simple because A1=A2.

The conduction term is negligible. Add fins on the side of the air to lower the total resistance. This
way, the two convection terms become equal in order of magnitude.

Compressor

In order of increasing power: rolling piston, scroll, piston, screw (up until now positive displacement
compressors), centrifugal/axial (dynamic compressors). The behaviour can be plotted in performance
curves.

When the pressure ratio is increased, the theoretical volumetric efficiency is decreased and the mass
flow rate is decreased and vice versa. The temperatures of the heat exchangers also have an
influence.
When the temperature of the evaporator is increased (keeping the condenser temperature
constant). The pressure ratio decreases so the mass flowrate increases. The heat exchanged
increases and the compressor work can increase or decrease (increasing is more likely). The
coefficient of performance increases.

When the temperature of the condenser is increased (keeping the evaporator temperature
constant). The pressure ratio increases so the mass flowrate decreases. The heat exchanged
decreases and the compressor work can increase or decrease (increasing is more likely). The
coefficient of performance decreases.

Throttling valve

The throttling valve modulates the flow from condenser to evaporator. It controls the superheating
in the evaporator.

The simplest form is the capillary tubes. The mass flowrate is fixed and determined by the length,
diameter and pressure drop.

The hand expansion valve can be controlled manually.

The automatic expansion valve keeps the pressure in the evaporator constant with a spring. The 2
phase region should be long in the pipes for an efficient use of heat exchanger surface.

The thermostatic expansion valve is mostly used. It maintains a constant amount of superheat at the
evaporator’s outlet. The outlet competes with the inlet in the balance of the spring.

There’s a pressure drop over the tubes which has to be compensated. This is done in the externally
equalized thermostatic expansion valve. The outlet pressure is used to compare instead of the inlet
pressure.
Secondary components

The lubricant separator keeps the oil in the compressor otherwise there would be less heat
exchange. It’s not capable of completely separating the oil from the refrigerant.

The refrigerant drier removes the moister against corrosion in the compressor and to keep the
throttling valve from being blocked by frozen moisture.

The receiver tank valve is closed to keep the liquid from going into the evaporator. The pressure
drops and the compressor is turned off. This way there’s no liquid in the compressor at start up.

The hot gas defrost line melts the ice on the evaporator with a discharge line or by using the
refrigerator as a heat pump.
Multistage compression refrigerator

The COP can be increased by using several compression stages, but this increases the cost of the
installation. It’s often used when a low evaporator temperature is needed. A low evaporator
temperature implies a low evaporator pressure which results in a small heat exchange in the
evaporator. The effective volumetric efficiency depends on the compression ratio. If the ratio is high,
the efficiency will be low. By using multiple stages with a smaller ratio, the efficiency can be
increased.

Also, the discharge temperature of the compressor (temperature at the end of the compression) is
usually too high (bad for the lubricant oil). This temperature can be decreased significantly with
intercooling.

The heat exchange with the room can be increased by using a cascade of cycles. A distinction is made
between cycles with the same refrigerant and cycles with different refrigerants.
When using different refrigerants, the cycle is described by two logP-h diagrams because the two-
phase region is different for the two refrigerants. These can’t be easily represented in one diagram.

When using the same refrigerant, the cycle can be described in one logP-h diagram (the two cycles
have the same two-phase region). The heat exchanger is replaced by a flash chamber.

The energy balance of the flash chamber determines the ratio of the mass flows.
Thermal refrigerator

The compressor is replaced by 4 components. The absorber binds the solvent to the vapour. The
pump brings it to a higher pressure. It uses less work than a compressor. The generator separates the
solvent from the vapour. The throttle valve returns the solvent to the absorber.

Adsorption is a surface-based process while absorption involves the whole volume of the material.

Thermodynamics of the solution

1 is the solvent, 2 is the dissolved refrigerant (for example NH3). The specific enthalpy of mixing is the
difference between the enthalpies of the different components before mixing and the enthalpy of
the mixture. The mass fraction (ξ) determines the mixture.

The enthalpy of the solvent doesn’t change that much. This can be neglected in the mixing enthalpy.

The enthalpy of the gas is the enthalpy of the liquid added to the latent heat.
Absorption refrigerator

The process can be described in a P,T,ξ – diagram. The solution has steeper lines in the P-T diagram.

The order in which to know the states in the diagram is 6,5,1,2,3,4. At state 6 P0 is known by T0 and
ξ=1. State 5 is found with the same mass fraction but a higher pressure. State 1 is at the same
temperature on a different pressure. State 2 is found with the same mass fraction but a higher
pressure. State 3 is at the higher temperature and higher pressure. State 4 is found with the same
mass fraction but a lower pressure.

For each component the component balance, the energy balance and the mass balance can be made.
Therefore all variables can be calculated. As a final check, the global energy balance should be
checked.

The scheme is extended with heat exchangers to bring the condenser and the evaporator in the two-
phase region for more efficient heating/cooling. The internal heat exchangers (not condenser,
evaporator, generator or absorber) can be assumed ideal unless specified differently.
Special refrigerators
Dry air refrigerator

In the dry air refrigerator dry air is used as a refrigerant (other gasses with better refrigerant
capabilities can be used). A turbine can be used instead of a throttling valve because the specific
volume of gas is bigger than the specific volume of liquid. The turbine partially drives the
compressor. This means that less work has to be provided.

It’s a Brayton cycle. There are 2 isobaric processes and 2 isentropic processes. The heat exchangers
are isobaric processes. Isobaric isn’t the same as isotherm because it’s not in the two-phase region.
For further calculations assume air is an ideal gas with constant specific heat constants.

The isentropic processes give extra relations between the temperatures.

The COP is similar to the COP of a carnot cycle using either T1 and T2 or T3 and T4. The maximum COP
on the other hand is a carnot cylcle between T1 and T3.

The real cycle isn’t isentropic. More work has to be put in the compressor and less work is gained
from the turbine. The temperature ratio’s and the isentropic efficiencies have a big influence on the
COP. Using an air suction heat exchanger, the COP can be improved. The cooling power of the room
is qin.

Since the specific heat is a small value, the mass flow has to be large. That’s why this cycle isn’t used
that often.

Liquification of air

Liquification of air is useful for cryogenic processes. For an ideal gas the temperature difference in an
expansion valve is zero. The ideal gas theorem doesn’t apply anymore when the gas liquefies.
Therefore the temperature difference isn’t zero. This isn’t enough though (from 400 to 1 bar only
gives 45.5°C). Something more is needed. Two processes are described. The linde process and the
claude process.

The inversion temperature is the critical temperature below which a non-ideal gas that is expanding
at constant enthalpy will experience a temperature decrease, and above which will experience a
temperature increase.
Process of Linde

Process of Claude

In The claude process there’s a higher yield and a little bit of the compressor work is compensated by
the turbine.
Refrigerants
The primary refrigerant runs in the cycle. The secondary refrigerant runs between the cycle and the
room. This is more economic and not toxic.

The primary refrigerant is usually a halocarbon or ammonia. The evaporation pressure is higher than
1 atmosphere so suction of air is possible. The absolute pressure is below 25 bar to keep the
installation cost reasonable.

The classifications are based on the thermodynamics and safety. Both are divided in 3 levels. For
thermodynamics the levels are 1)small machines 2)ideal, for most refrigerators 3)large installations.
For safety the levels are 1)safe 2)toxic, lower explosion level (so more explosive) 3) limited toxicity,
but highly flammable.

Potential risks can be a chemical reaction with air or a physical explosion (not chemical) because of
the high pressure.

Additionally the economics, compatibility and sustainability play a role.

The secondary refrigerant is water if the temperature is above 0 degrees. If the temperature is below
0 degrees it’s a salt solution or antifreeze. The salt solution has a eutectic point which means the
melting temperature is not constant. Antifreeze doesn’t have this eutectic point but it’s more
expensive.

The secondary refrigerant should be cheap and not dangerous.

Simulation and design
The balance point of a refrigeration system determines the temperatures and capacity characteristics
when operating at design conditions.

Linearization

When the deviation is small, linearization is possible around a design point. There are 5 unknowns:
Te,0 , Tc,0 , Qe,0 , Qc,0 , L0. This asks for 5 equations. The first equations are the linearizations.

The next equations are the equations of the heat exchangers.

The last equation is the first law of thermodynamics.

Graphical method

Draw a performance curve for each component. Combine the curves in 1 curve (make the functions a
function of the evaporator temperature or the condenser temperature). Reiterate until the operation
point is satisfactory.