SCHOOL OF

AMOUD
POSTGRADUATE
STUDIES&
UNIVERSITY
RESEARCH

Course: Teaching Methodologies in Higher Education

Facilitator: Ahmed A. Arab (PhD candidate, Curriculum Management and Instruction)

Chapter One
Teaching and its Fundamental Basis
• By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Define the term teaching.
2. Differentiate between teaching, instruction, training, and indoctrination.
3. Distinguish teaching, teaching, learning, and education.

Introduction
The Concept of Teaching
Teaching is the communication of ideas (attitude), skills or information (knowledge) from the
teacher or source of information to the student or any receiver. The information that is taught
can be of any type. For example, a student taking a chemistry class may be taught about
chemicals and how they react on combining with each other. This is the information that is
taught to the student. The information again that is included in the process of teaching can vary.
It can be either all truth or some information can be subjected to falsehood. The students are
supposed to critically examine the information and then obtain the knowledge. Therefore,
teaching is aimed to impart knowledge, skill or attitude.

Teaching focuses on imparting information so that teacher learn the proper methodologies and
then apply the methodologies to deliver the information (content) appropriately. Students may
also question the information and the teacher in that case needs to satisfy the query by
supporting it with proper evidence. In some other cases, the student is free to make his own
opinion after taking a lesson. For example, after teaching a moral lesson, a student may be
asked: how he will react in a certain situation? In this case it is the perspective of student that
how he has grasped the teachings and then later is capable of making a decision. Now this
decision again differs from one student to the other. One can expect numerous answers of the

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same question from the students of the same class. This is also not wrong, something that has
been taught is examined by students and that later helps them in deciding the answer. Teaching
both formal and informal. It is formal when it occurs inside the classroom or informal when
you learn things outside the portals of the school. Such our parents teach us informally about
living life and correct values.

To understand the term teaching as used in educational institutions, we should know main
differences between teaching, training, instruction, and indoctrination.

Teaching and Indoctrination

Indoctrination means teaching or inculcating a doctrine, principal, or ideology especially one
with a particular point of view, as in the example of religious indoctrination. In religious
indoctrination a student is taught religious beliefs. The key word in defining a indoctrination is
belief- a belief can be described as an acceptance that the statement holds true, it is just the
acceptance or opinion (not supported by evidence as in case of beliefs). This means that it
varies from other teachings in one broad sense; the teachings of indoctrination should not be
critically examined. Indoctrination aims at teaching rigid beliefs, and these beliefs may not
have any evidence to be true. It is generally used in context to religious beliefs where people
tend to teach religious beliefs and the important thing is that, the person obtaining these beliefs
cannot argue it and has to accept it the way it is. These beliefs are taught in such a manner that
the student is unable to judge or evaluate these beliefs.

The main differences between the teaching and indoctrination are: teaching is open to
questions, students can always ask questions regarding the subject they are taught whereas
indoctrination is like giving instructions, one needs to listen it and is supposed to follow it. In
indoctrination, the student cannot question the subject matter. Again, teaching is not biased
whereas the indoctrination can have a biased approach. Teaching aims at developing brains of
students, it provides them with the opportunity to argue things and evaluate things and then
form an opinion whereas indoctrination has set opinion about the belief that is being taught and
hence, the student’s opinion does not matter or taught in a manner that a student is not supposed
to make his own opinion. Teaching is a positive activity in which students receive knowledge
whereas indoctrination is mostly associated as a negative kind of teaching where students are
expected to follow what is taught to them without making any enquiry. Thus, sometimes
indoctrination is also referred as brainwashing.

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Teaching and Instruction
Strictly speaking, teaching and instruction are mutually exclusive. However, teaching and
instruction go together especially in education. Both are needed in helping people learn and
develop as individuals. Teaching and Instruction are being used interchangeably by many
educators these days. Teachers are often called instructors supposing that their job is to instruct,
to give knowledge or instructions. However, there is subtle difference between teaching and
instruction. Instruction is not as complex as teaching because it is simply giving direction for
someone on what to do and how to do it. Instruction is the process of teaching and engaging
students with content. While curriculum is the organized content and plan for engaging students
with specific knowledge and skills, instruction is how a teacher organizes time and activities
in implementing that content and plan.

Teaching and Training

Training is similar to instruction but often has a more specific focus. Training typically gives
people the skills they need to perform a specific job or task. It often occurs in educational
settings such as schools or online. Teaching seeks to impart knowledge and provide
information, while training is intended to develop abilities. The key difference between
teaching and training is that teaching is the process of sharing knowledge and experience,
which focuses more on theories, whereas training is the process of acquiring and learning skills,
which focuses more on hands-on experience. Although teaching and training go along with
many occasions, there are slight differences between these two processes. Basically, teaching
mainly involves theory, whereas training involves a practical approach.

The Concept of Education

To understand an abstract concept like education, one is required to explicate its meaning or
nature from the point of view of the functions such concepts perform or the contexts in which
such concepts are appropriately used. But there is another sense also in which people (probably
wrongly) see education as an instrument by application of which certain individual or social
changes are brought about. For example, the economist would see education as a commodity
in which it is profitable for the community to invest. Sociologists would tell people that
education is a socializing force and teachers are the socializing agency in the community.
Similarly, a psychiatrist would say that the role of education, and hence of teachers, would be
to maintain the mentally health of Childrens.

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Etymologically, the word "Education" is derived from the Latin words "educare" and
"educere". Educare refers to "to bring up' or "to nourish", whereas the word 'educere" means
to "to bring forth" or "to draw out". Some others believe that the word has been derived from
another Latin word "educantum" which has two components. "E implies a movement from
inward to outward and "duco" refers to developing or progressing. An analysis of these words
reveals that education aims at providing a learner or a child a nourishing environment to bring
out and develop the latent potentiality hidden inside him.

Education of a human being is, perhaps, the most cherished goal of any human civilization that
ever existed or is yet to come in this world. Therefore, philosophers, educationists and great
thinkers have tried their best to define education. But in most of these definitions, one would
find the mark of their conceptions of the reality, values and belief systems. Although such
definitions might reflect the contemporary societal systems. no single definition has been found
so far that satisfies everyone. The search for a universal definition of education still continues.
However, the definitions of education given by the great philosophers and educationists can
broadly be categorized into three major trends. They are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Education as a spiritual pursuit: The stress on education as a spiritual pursuit is basically an

Indian concept. Right from the Vedic period, Indian spiritual thinkers have been propagating
education as a means of achieving spiritual goals. According to the Upanishads, "Education is
that whose end product is salvation" and Adi Shankaracharya said "Education is the realization
of the self'. The Rigveda says, "Education is something which makes a man self-reliant and
selfless". Viveknand says, "Education is the manifestation of divine perfection already existing
in man". All these definitions underline the presupposition that human beings are the creation
of God. It is education whose role is to bring out the divinity already existing in man and help
him to realize himself as well as lead him to achieve salvation.

Development of innate human potentialities: According to some educators, the human being
is the embodiment of rich inherent potentialities and it is the task of education to help him
develop, enhance and realize these potentialities. These innate potentialities are to be tapped
right from the birth of a child and nurtured through his growth and development of adulthood.
Rousseau said, "Education is the child's development from within". Plato propagated that,
"Education develops in the body and soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the perfection he
is capable of ', whereas Froebel said, "Education is unfoldment of what is already enfolded in
the gene. It is the process through which the child makes the internal external". According to

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Mahatma Gandhi, "By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in the child and
man - body, mind and spirit". T.P. Nunn says, "Education is the complete development of the
individuality of the child so that he can make an original contribution to human life according
to the best of his capacity". A close analysis of these definitions reveals the following:

Human personality has different facets -physical, mental, social and spiritual. It is the task of
education to ensure harmonious and balanced development of these innate power of an
individual by providing a nurturant and conducive environment for their growth and
development.

Social orientation of the human being: According to some thinkers, education is a means to
achieve larger societal goals as it is a sub-system of the macro societal system. Hence,
education of an individual should emphasize his orientation to achieve the social goals. In this
context, social dimension education of education takes a priority place in comparison to
individual dimension of for example, Kautilya says, "Education means training for the country
and love for the nation’’. Similarly, John Dewey has said that "All education proceed by
participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race”.

The Concept of Learning

Learning is about a change: the change brought about by developing a new skill, understanding
a scientific law, changing an attitude. The change is not merely incidental or natural in the way
that our appearance changes as we get older. Learning is a relatively permanent change, usually
brought about intentionally. When we attend a course, search through a book, or read a
discussion paper, we set out to learn! Other learning can take place without planning, for
example by experience. Generally, with all learning there is an element within us of wishing
to remember and understand why something happens and to do it better next time. Learning is
a process and not a product: Learning is a fundamental and life-long process. Attitudes, fears,
gestures, motor skills, language skills, etc. are the products of learning. They are not learning
themselves.

Teaching effectiveness: Although it is not always easy to define exactly what different people
might mean by the term ‘effective’, teachers have always needed a wide range of subject
knowledge and a large repertoire of professional skills. Teaching young children to read and
write, to understand the world around them, to grasp and be able to apply fundamental
mathematical and scientific principles, to use their developing intelligence and imagination, to

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live and work harmoniously with others, all require an effective teacher to possess knowledge
and understanding of the content of the subjects and topics being taught, as well as the ability
to manage a class, explain clearly, ask intelligent and appropriate questions, and monitor and
assess learning.

Effective teaching is the knowledge, strategies, processes and behaviors which lead to good
student outcomes. Effective teachers have a positive impact on their students and use their
expertise to improve learning. These good outcomes are often those that can be measured
easily, usually through summative assessment. There are many factors which combine to
demand from teachers ever higher levels of professional competence. These include the rapid
growth in the acquisition of knowledge, the changing nature, the increased public pressure for
accountability, the development of new forms of educational and information technology, and
the broadening role of a teacher.

Student Learning Styles

It is widely believed that understanding students’ learning style and preferences can benefit
both students and teachers. As students learn in various ways, it appears impossible to change
the learning style of each student in the classroom. Instead, teachers might modify their
teaching style so as to be more consistent with their students learning style. There is no doubt
that learners and teachers are different in various ways. Gaining knowledge on students’
learning styles can be very helpful for both teachers and learners. Involving learners in the
active process of learning requires identifying and understanding learners learning styles and
teachers teaching styles. The two can either be matched or mismatched. It is vital to study the
relationship between them. Many studies have been conducted on match and mismatch of
learning styles and teaching. Most of them refer to matching the two as having a positive impact
on the students’ performance and indicate the opposite for mismatching.

Learning style are defined as “the complex manner in which, and conditions under which,
learners most effectively perceive, process, store, and recall what they are attempting to
learn”.

Broadly speaking, learning styles can be categorized into three main types: cognitive,
personality (psychology), and sensory. Cognitive encompasses analytical/ global, field
dependent/field independent, impulsive/ reflective learning styles, Kolb’s model of learning
styles and Ehrman and Leavers’ construct. Personality learning styles include

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extroverted/introverted, random-intuitive/concrete sequential, and closure-oriented/ open
oriented. Sensory learning styles are divided into three sub-types: visual, tactile/kinesthetic and
auditory.

The following are the major student learning styles in educational settings:

Visual versus verbal Learner: Visual learners prefer to think in pictures and obtain
information through visual means such as diagrams and videos. In contrast verbal learners gain
more information through verbal explanations (either spoken or written).
Auditory learners: Auditory learners gain information through aural channels such as verbal
discussions and listening to others speech. These learners understand meaning by concentrating
on the pitch, tone and speed of voice. They benefit from reading text out loud and they may
not make use of written information.
Kinesthetic or tactile learners: they like movement and work with touchable objects. They
enjoy regular breaks and move around the room.
Intuitive (random) versus Sensing (sequential): Intuitive learners prefer information that
originates from their imagination, reflection and internal memory. They think in futuristic, no-
sequential and large-scale ways and enjoy creating new theories and possibilities. Conversely,
sensing learners prefer information that arises from senses. They think about here and now, and
prefer facts to theories. They would like to be guided and instructed by teacher.
Global versus analytic: Global learners concentrate on the big picture and follow their
instincts or guess the main idea of a text. They like short answers rather than long explanations.
On the other hand, analytic learners focus on logical analysis and thinking to tackle problems.
They break ideas apart and tend to place more emphasis on grammar rules.
Active versus Reflective: Active learners enjoy doing tasks directly by applying and
discussing them with others, while reflective learners understand and remember information
best by reflecting on it in advance. Active learners prefer to work in groups, while reflective
learners enjoy working alone or in pairs
Individual versus group preferences: Individual learners prefer to work and learn
independently on their own. On the other hand, learners with a group preference like to study
and learn in groups.

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 Abraham Maslow
Introduction
What motivates human beings to work has been a question that has always fascinated the
ancient scholars and the modern administrative thinkers alike. Abraham Harold Maslow (1908-
1970) is one of the most distinguished thinkers in the realm of motivation in psychology as
well as in administrative theory. His theory of motivation is immensely popular and widely
known though he also worked on organization. Maslow’s humanistic approach is very
significant turning point in the evolution of administrative theory and he is rightly considered
a revered father figure of the human potential movement.

A Brief Life History of Abraham H. Maslow

Maslow was born in New York City in 1908 of Jewish immigrant uneducated parents. “A poor,
lonely, unhappy child, he turned, at a very early age, to books and study for solace and they
carried him through childhood and adolescence to Cornell and the University of Wisconsin.
(Schultz, 1977) There, two events considerably broadened his life: his marriage (Maslow calls
it “a school in itself”) and his introduction to behavioristic psychology. He received his Ph.D.
degree in 1934 and he returned to New York for advanced study at Columbia and then accepted
a position in the psychology department at Brooklyn College. Maslow studied with various
psychotherapists, including Alfred Adler, E. Fromme, and Haren Horney who left a deep
impression on him. Besides, he was most strongly influenced by Max Wertheimer, and by Ruth
Benedict, a brilliant cultural anthropologist. Realizing how little psychology contributed to
major world problems, Maslow decided to deal with the heights that human beings are capable
of attaining. He criticized the pessimism of so many psychologists like Freud who - Maslow
believed - had “dealt too much with human frailty and not enough with human strengths.”
(Lundin, 1984) By emphasizing the positive side of humanity, Maslow became one of the
foremost spokesmen of humanistic psychology, which he characterized as the “Third Force” in
American Psychology, the other two being behaviorism and psychoanalysis. His famous need
hierarchy theory was published in 1943. His major works are:

1. Motivation and Personality (1954)

2. Religions, Values and Peak-Experiences (1964)
3. Toward a Psychology of Being (1968)
4. The Psychology of Science: A Reconnaissance (1966)
5. Eupsychian Management: A Journal (1965)

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6. The Farther Reaches of Human Nature (Published posthumously in 1971)

Maslow joined Brandeis University shortly after its establishment in 1951 and remained there
till 1968. He was chairman of the first psychology department there. He was elected president
of the American Psychological Association in 1967. From 1968 to 1970, Maslow was Fellow
of the W.P. Laughlin Charitable Foundation in California. He died of a fatal heart attack in
June, 1970.

Maslow’s Theory of Motivation

Maslow’s theory of motivation or need hierarchy as it is popularly called is perhaps the most
celebrated and widely known theory of motivation. Maslow’s theoretical framework stands on
the following assumptions:
i. Man is a perpetual wanting creature. When he satisfies one want, others spring up to
receive his attention. It is a never- ending process.
ii. Satisfied needs do not motivate. Only unsatisfied needs motivate.
iii. Man has certain basic needs.
iv. A normal healthy man has “a natural drive towards health, happiness and
accomplishment.”
v. There is an ordering of needs

Need Hierarchy Theory

Maslow’s theory of motivation postulates that people are continuously in a motivational state.
Human beings have five classes of basic needs which organize themselves in a hierarchy
according to their prepotency. As one need is relatively satisfied, the next higher need in the
hierarchy becomes a motivator and so on.

1. The Physiological Needs s

Physiological needs like hunger and thirst are the most important of all needs and constitute
the lowest rung in the hierarchy. It implies that if all the needs of human being are equally
unsatisfied, the physiological needs are most likely to be major motivating force rather than
any other needs. Maslow says, “For our chronically and extremely hungry man, utopia can be
defined simply as a place where there is plenty of food.” Capacities that are not useful for this
purpose lie dormant, or are pushed into the background. The urge to write poetry, the desire to
acquire an automobile......or philosophy, community feeling, love, freedom is waved aside

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since they fail to fill the stomach. Therefore, Maslow remarks. “Man, lives by bread alone -
when there is no bread”. But Maslow recognizes that such chronic, extreme hunger of the
emergency type is not common in most of the known societies. When gratified, the
physiological needs cease to be the most important motivator and next want emerges.

2. The Safety Needs

The safety needs are the next set of needs to dominate the behavior of individuals. Even
sometimes, the physiological needs, which being satisfied now are underestimated. Safety
needs are like the common preference for a job with tenure and protection, savings accounts
and all sorts of insurance (medical, dental, unemployment, disability, old age). The need for
safety becomes an active and dominant motivator only in emergencies, e.g., war, disease,
natural catastrophes, crime waves.....” and similar bad condition.

3. The belongingness and love need

When both the physiological and safety needs are fairly gratified, the love and belongingness
needs will emerge and “the person will feel keenly as never before, the absence of friends, a
social circle, or a sweetheart, or a wife, or children”. He might have sneered at love as
unnecessary when he was hungry but now, he will strive with great intensity to achieve it.
These needs, Maslow points out, are often thwarted in our society and are a common cause of
maladjustment and psychopathology. It should be noted that it is ‘D-love and not B-Love’. The
love needs can never be fully satisfied but at some level of satisfaction of these needs, their
dominant influence diminishes on the individual and the esteem needs become more important.

4. The Esteem Needs

According to Maslow, all people in our society (with a few pathological exceptions) have a
need for esteem which can be classified into self-esteem and esteem from others. The former
includes “the desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for mastery and competence,
for confidence in the face of the world, and for independence and freedom” and the latter
includes “the desire for reputation or prestige, status, dominance, recognition, attention,
importance, or appreciation.”

5. The Need for Self-Actualization

Even if all these needs are satisfied, we may still often expect that a new discontent and
restlessness will soon develop, unless the individual is doing what he is fit for. In often quoted
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lines of Maslow,” A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is
to be ultimately at peace with himself. What a man can be, he must be.” The emergence of the
topmost need of self-actualization after the satisfaction of other four needs make an individual
desire to use his potential to the fullest and to accomplish all he is capable of accomplishing .
END

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