STATISTICS & PROBABILITY

Lesson 1: Understanding Confidence Interval

Estimates for the Population Mean

Interval estimate
- Also known as confidence interval, is a range of
values that is used to estimate a parameter.
Parameter
- is a numerical characteristic of a population, as
distinct from a statistic of a sample.

Lesson 2: Confidence Intervals For The Population

Mean When 𝝈 Is Unknown

Example:
A researcher wants to estimate the number of hours
that 5-year old children spend watching television. A
sample of 50, five-year old children were observed to
have a mean viewing time of 3 hours. The population is
normally distributed with a population standard
Example:
deviation 𝜎 = 0.5 hours, find:
An admission officer of an educational institution wants
a. The best point estimate of the population means.
to know the mean age of all entering mathematics
b. The 95% confidence interval of the population means.
majors. He computed a mean age of 18 years and a
Given: 𝑛 = 50 x ̄ = 3 𝜎 = 0.5
standard deviation of 1.2 years on a random sample of
a. The best point estimate of the population means.
25 entering mathematics majors purportedly coming
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 > 30, x
̄ =3→µ
from a normally distributed population. With 99%
b. The 95% confidence interval of the population means.
confidence, find:
a) the point estimate and
b) the interval estimate of the population mean.
Given: 𝑛 = 25 x ̄ = 18 𝑠 = 1.2
a. The point estimate.
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 < 30, x
̄ = 𝟏𝟖 df = 24
b. The 99% confidence interval estimate of the
population means.

*Look at the t-table to know the value of t*

Lesson 3: Point Estimate for The Population
Proportion p
Proportion
 - is a fraction expression where the favorable
response is in the numerator and the total
number of respondents is in the denominator.
The basic operation involves divisions. Thus, the
result is a decimal value that can be expressed
as a percent.
- It can be obtained from samples or populations.

Example:
A survey of 1,200 citizens showed that 715 trusted the
president. Compute a 95% confidence interval for the
proportion of all citizens who trust the president, find:
a) Point Estimate
b) 95% confidence interval
Given: x = 715 𝑛 = 1200
a. Point Estimate

b. 95% confidence interval

Population Proportion
- is a fraction of the population that has a certain
characteristic.
Example:
Let’s say you had 1,000 people in the population and
237 of those people have blue eyes. The fraction of
people who have blue eyes is 237 out of 1,000, or
237/1000. The letter p is used for the population
proportion, so you would write this fact like this: p =
237/1000 or p = 0.237.

Lesson 4: Computing Interval Estimates of

Population Proportions

The formula for computing a large-sample confidence

interval for a population proportion p is:
 ̂ = 0.42, 𝛼 = 95% or 0.95
Given: E = 2% 𝑜𝑟 0.02, p
Lesson 5: Confidence Level and Sample Size
There are two things to remember when deciding on
the quality of the sample size we need: confidence
and the narrowness of the interval. The computing
formula for determining sample size is derived from the
formula of the margin of error E where:

Lesson 6: Formula For Number Of Samples (𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒏 ′𝒔

𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍a)
Slovin’s Formula
- is used to calculate an appropriate sample size
from the population.

Example:
In a certain village, Leony wants to estimate the mean
weight 𝜇, in kilograms of all six-year old children to be
included in a feeding program. She wants to be 99%
confident that the estimate of 𝜇 is accurate to within Example:
0.06kg. Suppose from a previous study, the standard Use Slovin’s formula to find out what sample of a
deviation of the weights of the target population was population of 1, 000 people or students you need to
0.5kg, what should the sample size be? take for a survey about financial problems.
Given: 𝛼 = 99% or 0.99, 𝛼 = 1.00 − 0.99 = 0.01, E = Steps:
0.06kg, 𝜎 = 0. 5kg 1. Figure out what you want to your confidence
level to be:
a. Confidence level of 95%
Margin of error 𝛼 = 0.05

b. Confidence level of 98%

Margin of error 𝛼 = 0.02

2. Plug your data into the formula.

The Formula in Determining the Minimum Sample Size
Needed when Estimating the Population Proportion:

Lesson 7: Introduction to Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis Testing
- a decision-making process for evaluating claims
about a population based on the characteristics
Example:
of a sample purportedly coming from that
Mary wants to know, with 95% confidence, the
population. The decision is whether the
proportion of households who like to use detergent X. A
characteristic is acceptable or not.
previous survey showed that 42% like to use detergent
X. Mary likes to be accurate within 2% of the proportion. ❖ Null Hypothesis
What sample size does Mary need? - Ho
 - the hypothesis that there is no significant
difference between specified
populations, any observed difference
being due to sampling or experimental
error.
Example:
Examples:
Two parameters of interest, means denoted by 𝜇1 and 𝜇2
1. A gardener claims that his new fertilizer can
increase the growth of his plants.
One-tailed, right-tailed
2. Teachers believe that playing computer games
❖ Alternative Hypothesis reduces the academic productivity of the
- The hypothesis used in hypothesis testing students.
that is contrary to the null hypothesis. One-tailed, left-tailed
- Ha
3. A researcher wants to test if the collaborative
learning approach is effective for the students.
Two-tailed
Lesson 8: Z-test For One Sample Case
● Accept Ho = Without Significant Difference
(One-population Test)
Reject Ho= With Significant Difference

Example:
The result of nationwide aptitude test in Mathematics
Examples: are normally distributed with 𝜇 = 80 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 15. Is there
The average sleeping time of all seven-year-old children any significant difference in the sample mean score of
is 8 hours. 86 from the selected 64 students who take the same
𝐻𝑜: 𝜇 = 8 𝐻𝑎: 𝜇 ≠ 8 examination? Use alpha 0.05
Is there a significant difference in the impact of
cyberbullying in academic performance when grouped
according to demographic profile?
Ho: There is no significant difference in the impact of
cyberbullying in academic performance when grouped
according to demographic profile.
Ha: There is a significant difference in the impact of
cyberbullying in academic performance when grouped
according to demographic profile.
Non-Directional
- When the alternative hypothesis utilizes the ≠
symbol.
- Also called a two-tailed test; Left-tailed: the
probability is found at the left- tail of the
distribution. Right-tailed: the probability is
found at the right-tail of the distribution.
Directional
- When the alternative hypothesis utilizes the > or
the < symbol.
- Also called as one-tailed test
The result of nationwide aptitude test in Mathematics Example:
are normally distributed with 𝜇 = 80 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 = 15 has Is there any significant difference in the Mathematics
significant difference in the sample mean score of 86 performance of the students when grouped according
from the selected 64 students who to take the same to their gender profile? Use alpha at 0.05 (Data as
examination. Follows)
Lesson 9: T-test For One Sample Case
(One-population Test)

Lesson 10: Independent Sample T-test

T-Test
- The most commonly used method to evaluate
the differences in means between two groups.
There are two types of t-test:
1. t-test for one sample case; and
2. t-test for two sample cases.
Divided to two types
a. t-test of independent sample; and
b. t-test of dependent sample.

Independent Sample T-Test

- compares the means of two independent groups
in order to determine whether there is statistical
evidence that the associated population means
are significantly different. *Look at the t-table to know the value of t-critical*
 *Look at the t-table to know the value of t-critical*

Lesson 11: Dependent Sample T-test

Lesson 12: One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Dependent Sample T-Test
ANOVA
- also called the paired t-test or paired-samples
- An analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to
t-test.
compare the means of three or more
- compares the means of two related groups to
independent samples and to test whether the
determine whether there is a statistically
differences between the means are statistically
significant difference between these means.
significant.
- The one-way analysis of Variance (one-way
ANOVA) can be thought of as an extension of a
t- test for independent samples. It is used when
there are 3 or more independent groups.
CLASSIFICATION OF ANOVA TEST
➢ One way ANOVA
- Compares multiple levels of one factor
and checks the variance of three or more
Example:
factors
Is there a significant difference in the learning process
➢ Two way ANOVA
of the students based on their pre-evaluation and post
- Compares multiple levels of two factors
evaluation conducted by their teacher? Use alpha at
and is used to study the effect of two
0.05 (Data as followed)
independent variables on a dependent
variable.

Example:
Is there any significant difference in the administrators’
performance of the academic administrators when they
group according to socioeconomic status? Use alpha
0.05 (Data as follows)
 - (x^2) statistic is a test that measures how
expectations compare to actual observed data.
Divided into three test:
A. Test of Goodness-of-Fit;
B. Test of Homogeneity;
C. Test of Independence.

Example:
Is there any significant difference in the survey asking
the student if they agree with the new school policy
when grouped according to gender? Use alpha 0.05
(Data as follows)

*Look at the F-table to know the value of F-critical*

*Look at the x^2-table to know the value of x^2-critical*

Lesson 13: Chi- Square

Chi- Square
Lesson 14: Pearson Correlation Example:
Pearson’s r Is there any significant relationship between the
- Also known as Pearson product-moment student English performances with their Mathematics
correlation coefficient. performances? At alpha 0.05 (Data as follows)
- measures the degree of relationship between
two variables, X and Y using a single number
called the correlation coefficient. When two
variables are mathematically associated, they
are said to be correlated.
- The value of the correlation coefficient denoted
by the symbol r, ranges from -1 to +1. If r is
negative, this means that as X increases, Y
decreases or that there is an inverse
relationship between X and Y. If r is positive
this means that as X increases, Y increases, or as
X decreases, Y also decreases. And a value r = 0
implies a lack of linearity and is not
associated.

*Look at the t-table to know the value of t-critical*