THE STANDARD MODEL OF

PARTICLE PHYSICS
SUPERVISED BY:
DR S. AL SALEH
DR A. MAHROUSEH
WHAT MAKES UP THE UNIVERSE ?

• This question has long puzzled humanity, since the rise of our species.
• It would be amazing to go back in time and be in the shoes of our ancestors,
and guess what they thought about the constituents of our universe and our
size in it !
• The Greeks where fist to propose an ‘atomic theory’.
• John Dalton, brought the Greek atomic theory to life, by stating more
scientific and testable proposal.
PRELIMINARIES : GROUP THEORY

• In physics, symmetry is very important. It can simplify enormous calculations and help theriticians to
classify things according to the symmetries they share.
• A group is a Set with “multiplication” that satisfies the following properties:
1. Closure
2. Existence of identity
3. Existence of inverse
• A very simple example of a group is the set of the nth order complex roots of 1
PRELIMINARIES: QUANTUM FIELD THEORY

• A field is a function which depends of spacetime coordinates. It could be scalar function, vector or
Tensor-valued function of any rank.
• Spinors are a special case of tensors, they are more complex, and they are characterized by the way
they respond to rotation of coordinates. In physics, spinor fields describe fields of half-integer spin
particles
• Spin is a crucial in QFT for classifying particles, integer spin particles are associated to Bose-Einstine
statistics ( Bosons) and half-integer spin particles are associated to Fermi-Dirac statistics ( Fermions ).
In Classical Fields, the interaction between “particles "is done via forces. While in QFT, interaction is held
by force carrying virtual particles, the number of these particles exchanged is proportional to the product
of charges in the interaction.
 PRELIMINARIES: GAUGE THEORY
• Consider a magnetic flux field, given by :
𝑩=𝛻×𝑨
Any continuous transformation of the vector potential given by
𝑨 → 𝑨 − 𝛻Λ
1) Forms a group 2) Leaves B unchanged

We can say that the magnetic flux field is gauge invariant. And the transformation above is called Gauge
transformation.
In a VERY short and simplified sense we define a gauge field theory being the theory of fields which their
Lagrangian is invariant under continuous ( Lie ) group of local transformation
The definition may seem rather abstract, but gauge theory is the foundation of the Standard Model.
PARTICLE PHYSICS OF THE 30’S- YUKAWA’S THEORY

• In the late 1930’s H. Yukawa postulated a theory to explain the strong nuclear interaction via “meason
exchange
1 1
ℒ𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 = 2 𝜕𝜇 𝜙𝜕𝜇 𝜙 − 2 𝜇2 𝜙 2 − 𝜆𝜙 4 (renormalizable) lagrangian of massive (self-interacting mason)

Moreover, the action of a psedoscalar meson field (φ) with Dirac baryon field is given by
1 𝜇 1 2 2
𝑆 = 𝑑 𝑥[ 𝜕 𝜙𝜕𝜇 𝜙 − 𝜇 𝜙 − 𝜆𝜙 4 + 𝜓 † 𝑖𝒟 − 𝑚 𝜓 − 𝑔𝜓 † 𝜙𝜓]
4
2 2
MORE ON YUKAWA’S THEORY*
• Consider the energy of relativistic particle
𝐸 2 = 𝑚2 𝑐 4 + 𝑝 2 𝑐 2
using the operator relations:
𝑖ℏ𝜕
𝐸≡ , 𝑝 = −𝑖ℏ∇
𝜕𝑡
We have the Klein –Gordon Equation :
𝑚2 𝑐 2 1 𝜕 2𝜓
∇2 𝜓 =− 2 𝜓− 2 2
ℏ 𝑐 𝜕𝑡
In spherical coordinates ( dropping the time dependence term and using spherical symmetry )
1𝜕 𝜕𝑈 𝑚 2𝑐2
𝑟2 = 2
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 ℏ
Has an integral of ( Yukawa potential )
𝑔 −𝑟
𝑈 𝑟 = 𝑒 𝑅
4𝜋𝑟
ℏ
𝑅=
𝑚𝑐
 PARTICLE PHYSICS IN THE 60’S… LOTS AND LOTS OF
PARTICLES!

• With the development of particle accelerators, new particles

were discovered almost every week!
• There is a huge list of particles can be found, for example
( p,n) ( Δ+, Δ-, Δ°, Δ*) ( π±, π°) (ɳ) ( ρ)…… etc
• Some, like the Δ family are called resonances, strongly
interacting particles are called HadronsAll these particles are
thought to be elementary.

π°- proton scattering cross-section showing

resonance at the mass of the Δ+
WHO ORDERED THOSE ?

• A discovery of more massive and more stable set of particles, who decayed
via weak interaction ( called strange particles) confused physicists. They
seemed to have a new quantum number ( Strangeness) that was conserved
via strong interaction.
• The µ was discovered as well, it seemed like an exact replica of the electron,
but more massive. Leptons ( the light ones) are no longer “light”.
• It was becoming clear that there is a new generation of matter
 SU(2) AND ISOSPIN SYMMETRY

• SU(2) is a group of transformation homomorphic to the

group of “Real”3x3 rotations SO(3).
• The symmetry of isospin can be pictured like a symmetry
of geometrical object under rotation.
• To a very good approximation, Hadrons of the same
family ( like proton and neutron) have this symmetry and
interact strongly in the same way, as if the strong
interaction is blind to the fact that the hadron is either
proton or neutron.
 FUNDAMENTAL INTERACTIONS

• Theoretical developments of QFT and Gauge theory, along

with the experimental observation came to conclude that
there are four Fundamental interactions:
• Strong Interaction: primary and residual. Described by QCD
and Yukawa’s theory ( as seen before).
• Electromagnetic interaction described by QED
• Weak interaction ( Quantum flavour dynamics and
electroweak model)
• Gravitation ( beyond Standard model).
QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS AND U(1)
• The most accurate theory ever postulated, QED is matching
observations by an error factor of ten parts in a billion
• It describes the interaction between charged particles ( and ones
with dipole moment)
• Quantization of the Classical electromagnetic theory.
† 𝜇
1 𝜇𝜈
ℒ 𝑄𝐸𝐷 = 𝜓 (𝑖 𝛾 𝒟𝜇 − 𝑚 𝜓 − 𝐹𝜇𝜈 𝐹
4
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝐹𝜇𝜈 = 𝜕𝜇 𝐴𝜈 − 𝜕𝜈 𝐴𝜇 Faraday Tensor
• QED is an abelian gauge theory with symmetry group U(1) [ Circle
group] which has one generator , t there is one gauge boson ( due
to the local symmetry)
• One can think poetically about QED, it is the interaction that allows
us the Love, see and hear art and smell perfumes and flowers… or
even think !
MORE ON QED AND GAUGE THEORY *

• We use localization of global transformation lie group ( U1) on the Lagrangian of Dirac field to construct the covariant
derivative, then use gauge principle to find the minimal coupling ( coupling of fields by charge only). Gauge principle
states that adding coupling terms between fields must preserve the gauge invariance of the largrangian
• We start by the action of Dirac field ( the one that produces Dirac equation) :

𝒮= 𝑑 4 𝑥 𝜓 𝑖ℏ𝑐 𝛾 𝜇 𝜕𝜇 − 𝑚𝑐 2 𝜓

• Consider the transformation of U(1) - localized –

|𝜓 → 𝑒 𝑖Λ 𝑥 |𝜓
with the covariant derivative:
𝒟𝜇 = (𝜕𝜇 + 𝑖𝑒𝐴𝜇 )
• Applying gauge transformation of the vector potential :
1
𝐴𝜇 → 𝐴𝜇 − 𝜕𝜇 Λ
𝑒
• The interaction lagrangian becomes:
𝑒
ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐽 𝐴𝜇 = 𝜓 𝛾 𝜇 𝜓 𝐴𝜇 ⇒ ℒ𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝜓 𝑖ℏ𝑐𝛾 𝜇 𝒟𝜇 − 𝑚𝑐 𝜓
𝜇
ℏ

Using gauge principle and the result from classical electrodynamics we can now write the lagrangian of QED
1 𝜇𝜈
ℒ𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = − 𝐹 𝐹𝜇𝜈 − 𝐽𝜇 𝐴𝜇
4𝜇0
1 𝜇𝜈
ℒ 𝑄𝐸𝐷 = 𝜓 𝑖ℏ𝑐𝛾 𝜇 𝒟𝜇 − 𝑚𝑐 𝜓 − 𝐹𝜇𝜈 𝐹
4
YANG-MILLS THEORY

• Since U(1) symmetry group is abelian ( commutative) The previous discussion was sufficient
to construct QED. However, QCD and electroweak interaction are associated with non-abelian
symmetry group. There is a special case of Gauge theory for any compact, semi-simple Lie
group such as SU(3) and U1 x SU2 groups.
• Yang Mills theory is very important in describing the behaviour of elementary particles
 SU(3) AND THE QUARK MODEL
• Hadrons seemed to form “patterns” and symmetries indicating a
substructure. SU(3) is a group of transformation that was just perfect
to be the model of that substructure.
• In the early 70’s The quark model was confirmed experimentally,
showing that hadrons are bound-states of quarks that interacted
strongly via ( gauge bosons exchange)
• Quarks are confined to hadrons ( and masons). One cannot isolated
a single quark, as the energy flux between two quarks is formed as
one tries to pull them apart causing quark-anti quark production.
• Later on, some models had shown that even further substructure
can be found inside hadrons ( diquark model). Such model is
debatable despite there were a good supporting experimental
evidence. Such model imposes a new symmetry via SU(6) group (D.
B. Lichtenberg et al, 1968)
QUANTUM CHROMODYNAMICS

• QCD is a gauge theory of the SU(3) gauge group obtained by taking the
colour charge to define a local symmetry. ( a symmetry that acts
independently at each point in spacetime) That requires an introduction of
its own gauge bosons ( what so called gluons).
• As SU(3) have 8 generators, from gauge theory, we have 8 gluons and their
fields ( like having eight types of photons in the EM interaction!)
• QCD is described by the Lagrangian:
1 𝛼 𝜇𝜈
ℒ𝑄𝐶𝐷 = 𝜓𝑖† (𝑖 𝛾 𝜇 𝒟𝜇
− 𝑚𝛿𝑖𝑗 𝜓𝑗 − 𝐺𝜇𝜈 𝐺𝛼
4
In the adjoint representation of SU(3), The Gluon field strength tensor is given
by ( in terms of gluon fields)
𝛼 = 𝜕 𝐴𝛼 − 𝜕 𝐴𝛼 + 𝒈𝒇𝒂𝒃𝒄 𝑨𝒃 𝑨𝒄
𝐺𝜇𝜈 𝜇 𝜈 𝜈 𝜇 𝝁 𝝂

This term comes from Yang-Mills

theory !
QUANTUM CHROMODYNAMICS
 NEUTRAL CURRENTS AND THE ELECTROWEAK
INTERACTION
• Neutral current is one of the ways that particles interact
via the weak force, an example of neutral current is
neutral contribution of 𝑒 − 𝜈𝑒 → 𝑒 − 𝜈𝑒 elastic cross-
section.
• However, Z- boson currents have a distinctive
significance as their discovery by CERN 1973 lead to
confirmation of electroweak model by Abdul-Salam and
Weinberg and The rise of The Standard Model. In
addition, they lead to the discovery of W± and Z boson
and Quantum Flavourdynamics.

Picture of Gargamelle bubble chamber neutrino experiment

weak-current
WEAK INTERACTION

• It is the only interaction capable of changing the flavour of quarks

(i.e., of changing one type of quark into another).
• It is the only interaction that violates P or parity-symmetry. It is
also the only one that violates CP symmetry. ( only Left-Handed
particles interact weakly)
• It is propagated by carrier particles (known as gauge bosons) that
have significant masses, an unusual feature
• There are two types of weak interactions:
- Charged current interaction ( e.g. beta decay)
- Neutral current interaction ( e.g. Z-boson decay)
ELECTROWEAK MODEL AND HIGGS MECHANISM
• At Energy of order of magnitude of 100GeV, electromagnetic and weak
interactions become indistinguishable. The theory which describes such
interaction is called electroweak model.
• Mathematically such unification is achieved via SU(2) x U(1) group. With
corresponding gauge bosons (W+, W0, and W−) , and the B0 - Weak
hypercharge is acquired from U(1) and isospin from SU(2).
• At lower energy, a mechanism postulated by P. Higgs, François Englert et al .
Predicts existence of a 0-spin scalar field that forms a condensate in all space,
knows as the Higgs field. When this field gets a vacuum expectation value ( E<
100GeV) spontaneous symmetry breaking occurs described– in short- as the
following:
𝛾 cos 𝜃𝑊 sin 𝜃𝑊 𝐵0
=
𝑍0 − sin 𝜃𝑊 cos 𝜃 𝑊 0
where 𝜃𝑊 is the weak mixing angle ( Weinberg angle) and defined empirically
𝑚
as sin 𝜃𝑊 = 𝑚𝑊
𝑍
MORE ON THE HIGGS
It is useful, for simplicity to think naively the symmetry-breaking of EW interaction caused
by the non-zero vacuum expectation value of the Higgs, is similar to one we see in optics.
Light of different wavelengths travel at different velocities in a prism hence, we see
different colours come out of the prism in different angles and dispersion phenomena
occurs. Same picture can help imagining Higgs mechanism Z –boson interacts differently
which the Higgs than photon ( the latter is massless and is very weakly coupled to the
Higgs).

The Higgs also gives fermions their masses via Yukawa interaction, example the ith
generation of Up and down quarks
ℒ𝑌
𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗 𝑖𝑗
𝜆𝑢 𝜙 0 − 𝑖𝜙 3 𝑖 𝑗 𝜆𝑢 𝜙1 − 𝑖𝜙 2 𝑖 𝑗 𝜆𝑑 𝜙 0 − 𝑖𝜙 3 𝑖 𝑗
=− 𝑢𝐿 𝑢𝑅 + 𝑑𝐿 𝑢𝑅 − 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝑅
2 2 2
𝑖𝑗
𝜆𝑑 𝜙1 − 𝑖𝜙 2 𝑖 𝑗
− 𝑢𝐿 𝑑𝑅 + ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
 FINAL FORM OF THE STANDARD MODEL
• There are two main types of particles: fermions and bosons.
• Fermions are “matter” particles, there are two types of them: quarks ( strongly interacting) and
leptons ( blind to the strong force). There are ONLY three generations of matter ( this is proven
due to Z boson decay confirmed by LEP- CERN ). There exist another copy of fermions as
antimatter .
• There are 12 gauge bosons *( force mediators ) and one scalar boson ( the Higgs ).
• Only left-handed particles interact weakly thus particles are supposed to be massless.
They acquire mass via coupling to the Higgs field
• Hadrons are strongly interacting composite particles ( baryons are made from qqq and measons
are made from qq*
• Gravity is not included in the model.

* From the group ( U1 × SU2 × SU3) has 12 generators -> under local symmetry we get 12 vector gauge fields and their
quanta ( gauge bosons )
IS IT COMPLETE ? BEYOND THE STANDARD MODEL

• The standard model is certainly the most successful theory humanity ever had to
describe the universe. It is mathematically consistent and experimentally verified in
many ways.
• Nevertheless, the theory is not a complete description of nature. There are so many
question that the SM cannot answer:
- Grand Unified Theories ( GUT)
- Baryogenesis
- Supersymmetry (SUSY)
- Dark matter and Dark Energy
- Quantum Theory of Gravity
- Unified Field Theories.
-why 3+1 dimensions ?
… and many more!
All are beyond the standard model.
• The SM is a very good description of nature at the level of 0.001fm ~100 GeV but
what goes beyond faces both experimental and theoretical difficulties.
• Ordinary matter only forms ~4 % of the universe !
 WHAT ARE THE APPROACHES BEYOND THE STANDARD
MODEL.
• GUT had theoretical difficulties in the past with SU(5) and proton
decay*. Now with SO(10) it’s believed that we have consistent model
• Many problems can be solved by SUSY, like hierarchy problem of the
nature of dark matter .
• CERN had models for a micro-black holes ( researches showed that if
they exist they could lead to the discovery of higher dimensions.
• Maybe the models beyond SM could be more mathematically elegant.
• Alpha experiment in the LHCb is considering the matter-antimatter
asymmetry.
• We are still far from consistent, testable Quantum theory of Gravity.
• Superstring theories and M-Theory are untestable by our technology.

*Virtual blackholes ( Hawking, 1995) can provide a solution to the proton decay
mechanism that is needed for many GUT’s.
 THANK YOU !
• References :
-Kaku, M. (1993). Quantum field theory (Vol. 378). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Langacker, P. (2011). The standard model and beyond. CRC press.
-Perkins, D. H., Perkins, D. H., & Perkins, D. H. (1982). Introduction to high energy physics (Vol. 2). Reading,
Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
-Lichtenberg, D. B., Tassie, L. J., & Keleman, P. J. (1968). Quark-diquark model of baryons and SU (6). Physical
Review, 167(5), 1535.
- http://www.quantumdiaries.org/ Amazing Blog about particle phsycis – Run By particle physists around
the world from various labs
- Omnes, R., & Barton, G. (1971). Introduction to particle physics. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
-http://home.web.cern.ch/fr/about/physics/standard-model

Images credit: CERN http://home.web.cern.ch/ and Les Paticules Élémentaires- Pour Las Science