Introduction to Antenna ArraysIntroduction to Array Antennas The radiation pattern of a_ single element is relatively wide & each element provides low values of directivity (gain). In many applications, it is necessary to design antennas with very directive characteristics (very high gains) to meet the demands- of long distance communication. This can only be accomplished by increasing the electrical size of the antenna. Higher directivity is the basic requirement in point-to- point communication, radars and space applications.Enlarging the dimensions of single elements often leads to more directive characteristics. Another way to enlarge the dimensions of the antenna, without increasing the size of the individual elements, is to form an assembly of radiating elements in an electrical and geometrical configuration. This new antenna, formed by multi-elements, is referred to as an array. In most cases, the elements of an array are identical. Thus antenna array can be defined as the system of similar antennas directed to get required high directivity in the desired direction.The antenna array is said to be linear if the elements of the antenna array are equally spaced along a straight line. It is said to be uniform linear array if all the elements are fed with a current of equal magnitude with progressive uniform phase shift along the line. Five controls used to shape the overall pattern of the antenna. - Geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear, circular, rectangular, spherical, etc.) Relative displacement between the elements Excitation amplitude of the individual elements Excitation phase of the individual elements Relative pattern of the individual elements 2Types of Antenna ArraysTypes of Antenna Arrays * Practically various forms of the antenna array are used as radiating systems. They are; . Broadside Array (BSA) . End-Fire Array (EFA) . Collinear Array PWN PR . Parasitic ArrayBroadside Array A typical arrangement of a Broadside array is shown in Figure 1. A broadside array consists number of identical antennas placed parallel to each other along a straight line and the direction of maximum radiation is always perpendicular to the plane consisting elements. This straight line is perpendicular to the axis of individual antenna. It is known as axis of antenna array. Thus each element is perpendicular to the axis of antenna array.All the individual antennas are spaced equally along the axis of antenna array. All the elements are fed with currents with equal magnitude and same phase. As the maximum radiation is directed in broadside direction i.e. perpendicular to the line of axis of array, the radiation pattern for the broadside array is bidirectional. Thus broadside array can be defined as the arrangement of antennas in which maximum radiation is in the direction perpendicular to the axis of array and plane containing the elements of arrayFigure 1 Broadside Array Maximum radiation Antenna LAN he. Axis of antenna _ array Maximum radiationEnd Fire Array The end fire array is very much similar to the broadside array from the point of view of arrangement. But the main difference is in the direction of maximum radiation. In broadside array, the direction of the maximum radiation is perpendicular to the axis of array; while in the end fire array, the direction of the maximum radiation is along the axis of array. Thus in the end fire array number of identical antennas are spaced equally along a line.* All the antennas are fed individually with currents of equal magnitudes but their phases vary progressively along the line to get entire arrangement unidirectional finally. i.e. maximum radiation along the axis of array as shown in Figure 2. * Thus end fire array can be defined as an array with direction of maximum radiation coincides with the direction of the axis of array to get unidirectional radiation. = of antenna --- -44--}--] Direction of Maximum radiation toro pte eae areCo-linear Array As the name indicates, in the collinear array, the antennas are arranged co-axially i.e. the antennas are arranged end to end along, a single line as shown in Fig. 3-3 (a) and (b). The individual elements in the collinear array are fed with currents equal in magnitude and phase. This condition is similar to the broadside array. In collinear array the direction of maximum radiation is perpendicular to the axis of array.Collinear Array — :—-L a 5 Maina ae radiation radiation ! ' : Axis of _-(E===--F==}- ==} ES} ae ; Ay ; ' peed +— Axis of array (a) Vertical (b) Horizontal* So the radiation pattern of the collinear array and the broadside array is very much similar but the radiation pattern of the collinear array has circular symmetry with main lobe perpendicular everywhere to the principle axis. * Thus the collinear array is also called omni directional array or broadcast array. * The gain of the collinear array is maximum if the spacing between the elements is of the order of 0.3A to0.5A.Parasitic Array In order to overcome feeding problems of the antenna, sometimes, the elements of the array are fed through the radiation from the nearby element. The array of antennas in which the parasitic elements get the power through electromagnetic coupling with driven element in proximity with the parasitic element is known as parasitic array. The simplest form of the parasitic array consists one driven element and one parasitic element. In multi-element parasitic array - one or more driving elements and also one or more parasitic elements. In general the multi-element parasitic array - at least one driven element and one or more parasitic elements. FeyThe common example of the parasitic array with linear half wave dipoles as elements of array is Yagi-Uda array or simply Yagi antenna. The amplitude and the phase of the current induced in the parasitic element depends on the spacing between the driven element and parasitic element. To make the radiation pattern unidirectional, the relative phases of the currents are changed by adjusting the spacing between the elements. This is called tuning of array. For a spacing between the driven and parasitic element equal to A/4 and phase difference of m/2 radian, unidirectional radiation pattern is obtained.Parasitic Array / Yagi Antenna Reflector Transmission LineTopic 1 Array of Two Point SourcesThe array of point sources is nothing but the array of an isotropic radiators occupying zero volume. For the greater number of point source in the array, the analysis of antenna array becomes complicated and time consuming. Also the simplest condition of number of point sources in the array is two. Then conveniently analysis is done by considering first two point sources, which are separated by distance and having same _ polarization. The results obtained for only two point sources can be further extended for ” number of point sources in the array. a7Let us consider the array of two isotropic point sources, with a distance of separation ‘d’ between them. The polarization of two isotropic point sources is assumed to be the same. To derive different expressions following conditions can be applied to the antenna array ; 1. Two point sources with currents of equal magnitudes and with same phase. 2. Two point sources with currents of equal magnitude but with opposite phase. 3. Two point sources with currents of unequal magnitudes and with any phase.Case 1 / Currents with Equal magnitude & Phase Consider two point-sources 1 and 2 separated by distance — d and both the point sources are supplied with currents equal in magnitude and phase as shown in Figure 1. Let point P far away from the array and the distance between point P and point sources 1 and 2 be r1 andr2 respectively. Assuming far-field observations -r1=r2 =r The radiation from the point source 2 will reach earlier at point P than that from point source 1 because of the path difference.Figure 1— Two Element Array To distant point P* The extra distance is travelled by the radiated wave from point source 1 than that by the wave radiated from point source 2. * Hence path difference - d d Path difference =z o 45 cosp=deosp (3.2) The path difference can be expressed in terms of wavelength as ; d Path difference =7 cos @ Hence the phase difference '1)'is given by ; Phase difference y= 2n x Path difference =3 ad ey p= XT cosh = cos wakdesp (33)] c] Let E, = Ey.e 2 is field component due topoint source 1. Similarly, let E, = Ep.e/2 is field component due to point source 2. Therefore, the total far-field at a distant point P is ; wv p Ep = Ey +Ey= Eye 2 + Eyez v Ey = Ey (% + e) = 2Ey ass 34) Note that the amplitude of both the field components is Ep as currents are same and the point sources are identical. Substituting value of 1) from Eqn. (3.3), we get, kd Ey = 2Ep cos ce (35)* Above equation represents total field intensity at point P, due to two point sources having currents of same amplitude and phase. * The total amplitude of the field at point P is 2EO while the phase shift is (kdcos )/2 . * By putting 2EO = 1, then the pattern is said to be normalized.Maxima Direction kdcos @ From Eqn. (3.5), the total field is maximum when cos is maximum. Maximum value of cosine function is +1. Hence the condition for maxima is given by, kd cos asl 7 4 =il Let spacing between the two point sources be A/2,, then ; cos E cos al =+1 3 8 T ie, 7008 mae = cos (+1) = tun, where,n = 0,1,2,... T 3 086 max = 0 Ifn =0, then; CSP max = 9; P max = 90° or 270°Minima Direction -d co: en er is minimum. Minimum value From Eqn. (3.5), the total field is minimum when cos of cosine function is 0. Hence the condition for maxima is given by, kd cos cosh 3 ‘| =0 ~~~ (3.8) Let spacing between the two point sources be 4/2 , then ; cos E cos 4| =0 1 T ie, 70080 min =cos 1(0) =+(2n+ D>. where, n = 0,1,2, T Tr Ifn = 0, then; got min = a CSP min=t1 5 min = O° OF 180°... (3,9)Half Power Point Direction When the power is half, the voltage or current is E times the maximum value. Hence the V condition for half power point is given by, kd cos $] _ afoot F —- (3.10) Let spacing between the two point sources be A/2 , then; cos fe cos | =i 2 “2 a z h =0,1,2, gr where, n = 011.2, + i.e, 5059 ppp = cos © © Ifn=0, then; 7°SPureo = +7 1 cos uepo = +5 + Papen = +60° or + 120°* The field pattern drawn with T against @ for = A/2, then the pattern is bidirectional as shown in Fig. 2. * The field pattern obtained is bidirectional and it is a figure of eight (8). * Ifthis patterns is rotated by 360° about axis, it will represent three dimensional doughnut shaped space patternCase 1 / Equal in Amplitude & Phase = 90° Maximum Purrp — 120° Pupp = 60° p — 180° =o Minimum MinimumCase 2 / Currents Equal in Magnitude & Opposite in Phase * Consider two point sources separated by distance and supplied with currents equal in magnitude but opposite phase. * Consider Figure 2, all the conditions are exactly same except the phase of the currents is opposite i.e. 180°. * With this condition, the total field at far point P is given by,Epe(CE)tE, ee (3.12) Assuming equal magnitudes of currents, the fields at point P due to the point sources 1 and 2 wo canbe written as; Ey = Ey.e 22 a Ey = Bye!? Therefore, the total far-field at a distant point P is ; _@ iv Ep = (-Ey) + Ey =—By.e /2 + By.e!2 ar B= i [e-e| =} (2H) sat a (3.13)Now as the condition for two point sources with currents in phase and out of phaseis exactly same, the phase angle can be written as ; Wakdeos@ (3.14) Substituting value of in Eqn. (2.93), we get, kd Ey = j(2Ey) snl By (3.15) By putting j(2E)) = 1,, then the pattern is said to be normalized.Maxima Directions ¢ From Eqn. (3.15), the total field is maximum when sf Is maximum. Maximum value of sine function is +1. Hence the condition for maxima is given by, kd cos sin [ 7 ‘| =il # Let spacing between the two point sources be 4/2, then ; sin fe cos p] = +1 2 T 1" Le, 7008 > max =sin (+1) =+(2nt 1p where,n =0,1,2,.. = : oT 1 Ifn =0, then; 30050 min = # COS max =t1 | Pmax = 0° or 180° =n (3.17)Minima Directions kd cos © From Eqn. (3.15), the total field is minimum when sin} do i is minimum. Minimum value of sine function is 0.Hence the condition for maxima is given by, a - “ ‘ S00 aes (3.18) * Let spacing between the two point sources be 4/2, then ; sin F cos s| =0 2: T ie, 7089 min = sin4(0) = tnn, where,n = 0,12... li 0 Ifn=0, then; 2 (050 nin = COSP min =O; @ min = 90° or 270°Half Power Point Directions © When the power is half, the voltage or current iG times the maximum value. Hence the v condition for half power point is given by, ; [24 sin 7 =F + Let spacing between the two point sources be 4/2 , then; sin E COs él 5 5 T : 1 7 ie, =005$ ppp = sin? (:-| = t-,where,n=0,1,2, . 2 yi v41 T Ifn=0, then; 7°59 aoe = s 1 (059 pep = be > Pnppp = 260" or +120 (3.21) Thus from the conditions of maxima, minima and half power points, the field pattern can be drawn with Ep against @ ford = 1/2.as shown in Fig. 3-6,Case 2 / Equal in amplitude & Opposite in Phase Minimum P upen = 120° @ =90° Puppp = 60° Y Maximum ~-X =o Maximum = 180° =120° Minimum -60" = 270°Case 3 / Unequal in Amplitude & Any Phase Where E, = KE, 1 6= Phase angleCase 3 / Unequal in Amplitude & Any Phase * Two point sources are separated by distance and supplied with currents which are different in magnitudes and with any phase difference say a@,as shown in Figure 3. * Assume that source 1 is taken as reference for phase. The amplitude of the fields due to source 1 and source 2 at the distant point P is El and £2 respectively, in which E1 is greater than E2 , as shown in the vector diagram in Figure 3.a Now the total phase difference between the radiations by the two point sources at any far point P is given by, pe=kdcosota ~~~ (3.22) where a is the phase angle with which current [leads currentl;. Then the resultant field at point P is given by, Ep = Eye + Epel® ssseeeee (3.23) (Source 1 is assumed to be reference hence phase angle is 0) E , Epa Ey +E ev = a(t + Ze) ‘1 Let Fy Ep = E,[1 + k(cosy) + jsiny] wn (324)1 Note that £, > E>, the value of k is ess than unity and varies from 0 $n = cos (i) where ;n = 1,2,3...Maxima of minor lobes (secondary maxima ‘The maximum value of Eqn. (3.33) occur when ; N N 1 sin Gy) aly 7, =+(2st+ Do N 1" itd cosh, + a) = +(25 + D> Ly (s+)qr Pa ely os ial For BSAa=or $= 608 ‘5 E ql N b= osift t - =} $= 123... 5 = cos" a — 635)Beamwidth of major lobe Beamwidth is defined as angle between first null and maximum of major lobe (or) Beamwidth is the angle equal to twice the angle between first null and the major lobe maximum. BWEN =2x dy =2x (90-4) 90- Gn = op 2 -b=bp (3.36) 90 — dp = cost (-4) .) Take cosine on both sides ; A cos(90 — $5) = cos (cos (+5) \Z Nd A 0: . _ na singp =+ Na a For first null n = 1 sind, = +— NdNd indicates the total length of the array L wv BWEN = 2x ¢y =+— Nd 2 BWEN = TT a 114.6° BWEN = deg BWEN 1 Half power beamwidth (HPBW) HPBW = a aw HpBW = deg (L/A) Directivi Directivity can be expressed in terms of the total length of the array ; Dmnaa = 2(L/4)Topic 4 End-fire Array (EFA)An array is said to be end-fire array, if the direction of maximum radiation coincides with the array axis. In end-fire array, individual elements are equally spaced along a line and each element is fed with current of equal magnitude and opposite phase. The total phase difference of the fields at point P from adjacent sources is given by, w= kdcos@t+a The normalized array factor for 'N’ elements ; sin &g ) (AF )y = a fi Nsin ¢ »)Major lobe Inend-fire array ) = 0 and@ = 0° or 180° w=kdcos@t+a=0 w=0and ¢=0° > a=-kd w=O0and @=180" > a=kd @m = 0° or 180°Nulls To find the nulls of the array Eqn. (3.42) is set to zero ; ‘N N sin G¥) =0 5 31 stn 2 2 leet N For EFAw=—kd 7 (kd cosy + a) = tna N qld cosh, — kd) = tna where; n= 1,2,3... Nd FZ (shu i a (3.45) aint = gm. 2 “Nd A Ge =2sin*| tla] arene (3.46) 2NdMaxima of minor lobes (secondary maxima The maximum value of Eqn. (3.42) occur when ; salty) = ly 7 t0s41) 2 M s(t cosd, +a) = +(2s + 0 for EFA a= -kd 1 (cosd, - 1) = ts + ass 1233, by = COS 'f (25 + 1) ailBeamwidth of major lobe Beamwidth is defined as angle between first null and maximum of major lobe (or) Beamwidth is the angle equal to twice the angle between first null and the major lobe maximum. BWEN = 2X by 1 o, = 2sin~ ~ ond sin = nd aNd fona $n For small angles ; sin@, * dnNd indicates the total length of the array L For first null n = 1 on=t p “yo Ph 5) WM =the By 2 BWFN =+2 |—— ___ rad {uia) pwen =1146 | 4 (3.53) = Af a’ e eet ae aa “Half power beamwidth (HPBW) Directivity Directivity can be expressed in terms of the total length of the array ; Dnt) (355)Topic 5 Principle of Pattern Multiplication* The field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar sources is the product of the pattern of the individual sources and the pattern of isotropic point sources having the same _ locations, relative amplitudes, and phase as the non-isotropic point sources. * This is referred to as pattern multiplication for arrays of identical elements. Total field (E) = £1, #) x Ba(9,4)} x {Bpi(O,0) + Epa, 8)} —avenen (357) Multiplication of _ Addition of Phase Field pattern Pattern where ; E,(8,0) = E,(0,) = Field pattern of array of isotropic source eld pattern of individual source Eyi(0,6) = Phase pattern of individual source Eyq(8,$) = Phase pattern of array of isotropic sourceRADIATION PATTERN OF 4-ISOTROPIC ELEMENTS FED IN PHASE & SPACED A/2 APART * Consider a 4-element array of antennas as shown in Fig. 1, in which the spacing between the elements is 4/2 and the currents are in-phase (a = 0). * The pattern can be obtained directly by adding the four electric fields due to the 4 antennas. * However the same radiation pattern can be obtained by pattern multiplication in the following mannerFig 1 / Linear Array of 4 Isotropic elements* Two isotropic point sources spaced A/2 apart fed in- phase provides a bidirectional pattern as in Fig. 2 (b). * Now the elements 1 and 2 are considered as one unit and this new unit is considered to be placed between the midway of elements 1, 2 and similarly the elements 3,4 as shown in Fig. 2 (a). ® ® ® © ° A/2 ° A/2 ° a/2 ° 1 ¢ i ’ aya} a 1 aya i a 1 (a) Antenna @) and @ and © and @ replaced by single antenna separately(b) Radiation pattern of 2 antennas (c) Radiation pattern of 2 antennas spaced at distance A/2 and fed spaced at distance 4 and fed with equal currents in phase with equal currents in phase4 elements spaced A/2 have been replaced by 2 units spaced A and therefore the problem of determining radiation of 4 elements has been reduced to find out the radiation pattern of 2 antennas spaced / apart as in Fig. 3-9 (a). Resultant radiation . | Resultant radiation ae of 2 ‘_ pattern of 4 elements) ~ | pattern of individual elements spaced A Individual (unit pattern) Group pattern Resultant pattern of pattern due to 2 individual due toarray of wo 4 isotropic elements elements isotropic separated by A* Here the width of the principal lobe is the same as the width of the corresponding lobe of the group pattern. * The number of secondary lobes can be determined from the nulls in the resultant pattern, which is sum of the nulls in the unit and group pattern