7.1. Briefly describe the different principles involved in the design of at-grade intersections.

The basic purpose in the design of at-grade intersections is to reduce the severity of
possible conflicts from the different streams of traffic and between pedestrians and
turning vehicles while facilitating smooth traffic flow so that while designing the
intersection, the operating characteristics of both the vehicles and pedestrians are taken
to account.

The design of an at-grade intersection involves the design of the alignment (horizontal
and vertical) of the intersecting roadways, the design of a suitable channeling system,
the determination of the minimum required widths of turning roadways when traffic is
expected to make turns at speeds higher than 15 mi/h, and the assurance that sight
distances are adequate for the type of control at the intersection.

7.2. Describe the different types of at-grade intersections. Also, give an example of an
appropriate location for the use of each type.

Different types of at-grade intersections are as follows:

• T-intersections

• Cross intersections

• Multileg intersections

• Traffic circles

T-intersections:

T-intersections consist of three approaches; it is also called as three-leg intersections.

Simple T-intersections are suitable for intersections of minor roads.

Cross intersections:

Cross intersections consist of four approaches; therefore, it is also called as four-leg

intersections. This type of intersections are placed mainly where the minor or local
roads cross. It can be also used where a minor road crosses a main highway.

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Multileg intersections:

Multileg intersections consist of five or more than five approaches. It should be avoided
whenever possible. When a multileg intersection exists, one leg should be realigned, if
possible, into a T intersection with the minor road, at a distance far enough away from
the 4-leg intersection to allow for independent operation of the intersections.

Traffic circles:

Traffic circles force traffic to use the intersection in a circular pattern, thereby
transforming crossing conflicts into merging and diverging conflicts. The neighborhood
traffic circle is placed for traffic calming purposes on local streets in residential areas to
reduce travel speeds and cut-through traffic.

7.3 Describe the different types of traffic circles, indicating under what conditions you would
recommend the use of each.

According to a Federal Highway Administration report, traffic circles can be grouped into
three categories:

• Rotaries

• Neighborhood traffic circles

• Roundabouts

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Rotaries:

A rotary could be used where maintaining high speed is important and a large amount
of right-of-way is available to accommodate the large radius required for a rotary.

Neighborhood traffic circles:

A neighborhood traffic circle may be suitable at the intersection of local streets in a low-
speed situation where there is interest in traffic calming measures; typically, stop control
or no control approach is used.

Roundabouts:

A roundabout may be suitable for situations intermediate to the two described above.
7.4. What are the key defining characteristics of roundabouts that distinguish them from other
traffic circles?

Key defining characteristics of roundabouts that separate them from other circular
intersections are as follows:

• Yield control at each approach

• Separation of conflict traffic movements by making pavement marking or raised

islands

• Reduces the travel speed of the vehicle to less than 

• Generally, parking is not allowed within the circulating roadway

7.5. What are the main functions of channelization at an at-grade intersection?

The main functions of channelization at an at-grade intersection are as follows:

• To provide a speed limit for the vehicles

• To manage the prohibited turns

• To divide the flow of traffic at signalized crossings by use of multiple-phase signals

• To provide proper space for traffic control devices at the intersections

• To provide service lanes for the turning vehicles and repairing vehicles

• To facilitate the pedestrian for shelter

• To provide precedence for the main movements of vehicle

• To provide clear sign for various actions of vehicles

• To diminish the conflict area of vehicles with the help of reduced the paved area

• To supervise the merge, diverge, and intersect angle of vehicles

• To check the vehicle’s travel path so that there is the number of intersections is not
more than the paths at any point

7.6. Discuss the fundamental general principles that should be used in designing a channelized
at-grade intersection.
To facilitate the safe and orderly movements of both vehicles and pedestrians, it is
necessary to provide a well-designed channelization which separates the conflicting
traffic. This channelization can be a traffic island. Intersections that are not properly
channelized may have the opposite effects like accidents. Thus it is very important to
consider some fundamental principles while designing a channelized at –grade.

Step 2/3
There are several fundamental principles considered in channelized intersection design.

Regarding guidance to the motorist, motorists should not be required to make more
than one decision at a time. Merging and weaving areas should be as long as possible,
but other areas of conflict between vehicles should be reduced to a minimum.

Crossing traffic streams that do not weave or merge should intersect at  , although a
range of   is acceptable; adequate sight distance is provided regardless of
angle. Sharp reverse curves and turning paths greater than   should be avoided.
Separate space should be provided for turning vehicles so that they do not interfere with
the movement of through vehicles.

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Prohibited turning movements should be blocked with channelized islands wherever
possible. Finally, the location of essential traffic control devices should be considered in
the design process.

The speed of the incoming traffic can be reduced by bending the path to the intersection
approach. This in turn reduces the conflict area.

7.7. Describe the different types of islands used in channelizing at-grade intersections, indicating
the principal function of each type.

Different types of islands used in at-grade intersections based on their functions are as
follows:

• Channelized islands

• Divisional islands

• Refuge islands

Channelized islands:
Channelized islands are used to control and direct traffic in merging and diverging
situations to guide motorists into the correct lanes for their movements at the
intersection.

Divisional islands:

Divisional islands are used to divide traffic in opposing directions at intersections to

provide clear and separate paths for each direction of traffic.

Refuge islands:

Refuge islands provide a stopping place out of the path of motorists for pedestrians
crossing wide intersections.

7.8 The intersection shown in Figure (1) is a T-intersection with the two roadways
intersecting at an angle less than 90 degrees. This creates a condition where the right
turning vehicles from the minor road (SR 30) tend to violate the stop sign because the
intersection configuration causes that movement to resemble a through movement.
The intersection should be realigned so that the minor road (SR 30) intersects major
road (SR 150) at a right angle. This will cause the minor road right-turning vehicles to
make a much more defined turn, forcing them to slow down and stop.

The realignment will clearly indicate that SR 30 is the minor road, and by creating a
perpendicular intersection, drivers turning either way from the minor road will have
improved sight lines along the major road.

7.10. An existing intersection consists of a turning movement of 75 degrees, and the radius of the edge
of pavement is 18 m. The turning radius has no entry taper. What is the largest design vehicle that can be
accommodated at the intersection? What improvements would you recommend be made so this
movement could accommodate a WB-67 design vehicle?

The table labeled as table 7.2 "Minimum Edge of Pavement Design for Turns at
Intersections: Simple Curves and Simple Curves with Taper" reveals that for a turn
angle of 75 degrees and a simple curve radius of 18 m, the intersection can only
accommodate a SU-30 design vehicle at maximum.

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The following are the improvements that can be made to this intersection:
1) To accommodate the WB-67 design vehicle the pavement should consist of a simple
curve radius, and it should be constructed with tapering.
2) Provide a radius of 44 m, offset of 1.3 m, and taper L: T of 20:1.

Step 3/3
Table 7.3, "Minimum Edge of Pavement Design for Turns at Intersections: Three-
Centered Curves," presents the minimum edge of pavement design for turns at
intersections for symmetric and asymmetric 3-centered compound curves.
The WB-67 design vehicle requires curve radii of 128-23-128 m with a 3 m offset for
symmetric curves, or 61-25-183 m with 1.0 and 10.0 offsets for asymmetric curves.
Final answer

 Thus, the largest vehicle was the WB-67 vehicle.

 The details of improvements are as follows: “ The WB-67 design vehicle
requires curve radii of 128-23-128 m with a 3 m offset for symmetric curves,
or 61-25-183 m with 1.0 and 10.0 offsets for asymmetric curves.”
7.11. An intersection is being designed for two roads that intersect at approximately 60 degrees. For an
SU-30 design vehicle, recommend a design for pavement edge for the right turn movement for the a-
degree turns and the 120-degree turns.

Refer the Table 7.2 from the text book (Edge-of-traveled-way design for turns at
intersections – Simple curve radius with Taper)

For two roads that intersect at an angle of 60 degrees, design vehicle SU-30, a simple
curve with radius 60ft should be provided.

For the two roads that intersect at an angle 120 degrees, design vehicle SU-30 moving
over it, a simple curve with radius of 30ft, offset of 3ft and taper L:T of 10:1 should be
provided.

7.12. A ramp from an expressway with a design speed of 48 km/h connects with a local road,
forming a T intersection. An additional lane is provided on the local road to allow vehicles from
the ramp to turn right onto the local road without stopping. The turning roadway has stabilized
shoulders on both sides and will provide for a one-lane, one-way operation with no provision for
passing a stalled vehicle. Determine the width of the turning roadway if the design vehicle is a
single-unit truck. Use 0.08 for superelevation.

Calculate width of the turning roadway.

First calculate the minimum radius of the curve by using the equation.

Here, R is radius of the curve, u is the design speed, e is the super elevation, and is
the friction.

From table 3.3, “Coefficient of side friction factors assumed for design”, from the text
book.

For the design speed of   the value of coefficient of side friction is 0.20

Substitute   for u, 0.08 for e, 0.20 for  in equation (1)

Step 2/2
From table 7.5, “Design widths of pavements for turning roads”, from the text book.

For a one-lane, one-way operation with no provision for passing a stalled vehicle, it falls
under case I operation.

It is a single unit truck, and hence it falls under traffic condition B.

In case I for the traffic condition of B, the value of pavement width is 15 ft at the radius
of 215 ft.

Therefore, the required width of turning roadway is .

7.15. A four-leg intersection with no traffic control is formed by two two-lane roads with the speed limits
on the minor and major roads being 40 to 64 km/h, respectively. If the roads cross at 900 and a building
is to be located at a distance of 15 m from the centreline of the nearest lane on the minor road,
determine the minimum distance at which the building should be located from the centreline of the
outside lane of the major road so that adequate sight distances are provided. Grades are approximately
level.

A four-leg intersection with no traffic control is formed by two two-lane roads with the
speed limits on the minor and major roads being 25 and 40 mi/h, respectively. If the
roads cross at 90° and a building is to be located at a distance of 50 ft from the
centerline of the nearest lane on the minor road, determine the minimum distance at
which the building should be located from the centerline of the outside lane of the major
road so that adequate sight distances are provided. Grades are approximately level.

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Step 1/2
Calculate the minimum distance at which the building should be located from centerline
of the outside lane to major road by using the equation.

 …… (1)

Here,  is distance required on major road, is distance required on minor road,  is

the distance between centerline of the minor road and the building,  is the distance
between centerline of the major road and the building.

From the table 7.7, “Suggested lengths and adjustments of sight-triangle leg case A-No
traffic control”, from the text book.

For the design speed of  , the value of length of the leg is 115 ft.

For the design speed of  , the value of length of the leg is 195 ft.

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Substitute 115 ft for  , 195 ft for  , and 50 ft for d in equation (1).

Therefore, the required minimum distance at which building should be located from
centerline of the outside lane to major road is  .