Measures of Central Tendency.

“ Averages tends to lie in the center of the distribution”.

What is an average?
A typical numerical value which represent whole data is called an average. There are various types of
averages which can be applied in different real life situations, these are,
i. The Arithmetic Mean (A.M)
ii. The Median
iii. The Mode
iv. The Geometric Mean (G.M)
v. The Harmonic Mean (H.M).
 
What is difference between parameter and statistic?
A value calculated on the basis of population data is called parameter on the other hand any value
calculated on the basis of sample data is called a statistic.
 The Arithmetic Mean (A.M).
It is defined as, the sum of the values dividing by their numbers. For population data is
denoted by read as (mu) and defined as

= (Sum of the values for population data)/(Total number of observation in

population), and for sample data, it is denoted by and defines as

= (Sum of the values for sample data)/(Total number of observation in sample,).

Question. Find arithmetic mean for the given data 1,2, 3, 4, and 5. X
Solution.
1

Total=  x =15
 Change of Origin and change of Scale.
When we add or subtract any value in the data it is called change of origin on the other hand when we
multiply or divide any value in the data is called change of scale as well. Now we will differentiate it with
numerical example

 x 15
i. x  3
n 5
 x 20
ii. x1  1   4
n 5
x 5
iii. x2  2   1
n 5
 x 30
iv. x3  3   6
n 5
 x 7.5
v. x4  4   1.5
n 5
Interpretation of the results of above illustration.

By (i) and (ii): The arithmetic mean of the original data is 3, by adding, 1 to each value the arithmetic
mean for new data is 4. It means that after adding 1 to each number the new mean also increases by 1, that is
new mean becomes 4 instead of original mean 3.

By (i) and (iii): The arithmetic mean of the original data is 3, by subtracting, 2 to each value the arithmetic
mean for new data is 1. It means that after subtracting 2 to each number the new mean also decreases by 2,
that is new mean becomes 1 instead of original mean 3.

By (i) and (iv): The arithmetic mean of the original data is 3, by multiplying, 2 to each value the arithmetic
mean for new data is 6. It means that after multiplying 2 to each number the new mean also increases by 2
times of the original, that is new mean becomes 6 instead of original mean 3.

By (i) and (v): The arithmetic mean of the original data is 3, by dividing, 2 to each value the arithmetic
mean for new data becomes 1.5. It means that after dividing by 2 to each number the Conclusion: We
conclude that arithmetic mean if effected by changing of origin as well as change of scale. new mean also
decreases by (1/2) times of the original, that is new mean becomes 1.5, instead of original mean 3.

Conclusion: We conclude that arithmetic mean if effected by changing of origin as well as

change of scale.
• Question. The mean of 15 values is 10. By including one more value the mean
becomes 12. Find the value which is included?
Solution.

The mean of 15 values=10,

It means that n=15 and x =10 or
x x
x or 10 =
n 15
 x = 10(15) = 150
Let A be the value included, the value of new mean becomes
(12) and new formula for mean becomes,
x A
x1 
n 1
Substituting the values in above expression we have,

150  A 150  A
12  
15  1 16
12 (16) =150+A or 192 = 150 + A
A=42 ( Included value is 42 ).
 Question. The mean of n values is 8. If a new value 28 is included the mean becomes 9. Find the value
of n.
 Solution.
 Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 131).

Question number 20. The mean of 10 values is 15. If one more value is included, the mean
becomes 18. Find the included value.(Ans. 48).

Question number 21. The mean of 3 values is 20. If one more value is included, the mean
becomes 25. Find the included value. (Ans. 40).

Question number 22. The mean of 5 values is 60. If one more value is included, the mean
becomes 62. Find the included value.(Ans. 72).

Question number 22. The mean of n values is 10. If a new value 20 is excluded the mean
becomes 8. Find the value of n. (Ans. 6)
 Question. A student calculated the value of mean as 20 from 25 observations. It
was later discovered at the time of checking that he had copied down two
values as 7 and 18, while the correct values were 13 and 17 respectively. Find the
correct value of Arithmetic mean.

 Related Practice Questions from Book.

Question. The mean salary paid to 1000 employees of a factory was found to be Rs. 180.40.
Later on it was discovered that the wages of two employees were wrongly taken as 297 and
165 instead of 197 and 185 respectively. Find the correct value of A.M.
(Ans. 180.32)
 Question. If the sum of deviations from X = 15 for 10
values is 25. Find the arithmetic Mean.
Solution.
PROPERRIES OF ARITHMETIC MEAN(A.M)
(Property 1) The sum of deviations taken from arithmetic mean is always equal to zero
.i.e.
Theoretical Interpretation of above property.

Question.
Solution. In case of part (ii), the arithmetic mean is possible because of the first property of
arithmetic mean, that is,

It means that if the right side of the expression is equal to zero then by comparison of these two

The arithmetic mean is 25.

Corollary. If on the other hand if right hand is not equal to zero, then right hand will be equal to sum of
the deviation accordingly.
For the part (i) the arithmetic mean can be calculated by short cut formula with A=25 and n=10 which
are given.
(Property 2) The sum of squares of deviations taken from arithmetic mean is
least(minimum) .i.e.
Question. If we have the following information, find the combined mean.

Question. The mean wages of 100 workers working in a factory running two shifts
of 70 and 30 workers respectively is Rs. 84. The mean wage of 70 workers working
in morning shift is Rs.90. Find the mean wage of 30 workers working in evening
shift.
 Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 138).
Question number 16 to question number 24.

Question. A variable Y is determined by variable X by the equation . Find y

when X=-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Arithmetic Mean for Grouped Data.
Frequency Distribution.

Tabular arrangement of data by classes together with their corresponding class frequencies is called
frequency distribution.
Frequency.

Total number of observation in a particular class is called frequency of that class.

There are various methods for calculating arithmetic mean for grouped data, here we will discuss three
methods.
I. DIRECT METHOD.

Where X is the mid- point or class mark can be obtained by taking mean of lower and upper class limits.
II. IN-DIRECT (SHORT-CUT) METHOD.

Where A=arbitrary (assumed) value and D=Deviation=(X-A)

II. CODING METHOD.

Where h is the class interval size, which can be obtained by taking a difference between two consecutive
lower class limits or it is the difference between two consecutive mid points or class marks(X) as well.
 Question. From the following data, find missing frequency when mean is 15.38?

Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 139).

Question number 26.
Weighted Arithmetic Mean.

Question. A student obtained 40, 50, 60, 80 and 45 marks in the subjects of , Urdu, Mathematics,
Statistics and physics respectively, assigning weights 5, 2, 4, 3 and 1 respectively for the above
mentioned subjects. Find weighted Arithmetic mean per subject.

Solution.
Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 139).
Question number 14, 15.
The Median.
“Middle value of arrayed data’, when the number of values are odd and mean of two middle values,
when the number of values are even.

Arithmetic mean is effected by changing extreme value in the data but this is not the case for median and illustrated by
example.
 
Median for Grouped Data.
 First of all we will see, how we can change class limits into class boundaries.
The difference between upper class limit of the first class and lower class limit for the next class. In other
words, it is the difference between the secondary diagonal values of two consecutive class limits as, 5-4 =
0.5. So subtract this value of 0.5 from each lower class limit and add this value of 0.5 to the every upper
class limit accordingly. The results are shown in column 3 under the headings of (C.B).
Now we will find the value of the size of the item, from which we will find the solution.

Substituting the values in the above given formula in equation (a),

Quartiles. Which divide the distribution into four equal parts (quarters).
 Deciles. Which divide the distribution into ten equal parts (Deca).

Percentiles. Which divide the distribution into hundred equal parts (Percent).

Relationships.
Question. The daily wages for a group of 200 persons have been obtained from a frequency
distribution of a continuous variable X, after making the substitution u=

Calculate the median, lower and upper quartile, 3rd decile and 98 percentile.
Solution.
THE MEDIAN.

FIRST QUARTILE.
THIRD QUARTILE.

THIRD DECILE.
  
69th PERCENTILE.

Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 139).

Question number 28, 29, 30, 31 and 33.
  
THE MODE (Modal Value).
“ Most frequent(repeated) value in the data is called mode”.
If there is one value in the distribution, which is repeated more times than other values, then the
distribution is called uni-modal (having one mode) distribution. If there are two mode then bi-modal
otherwise multimodal distributions. For example
Case I. 1, 4, 9, 6, 4 ( Mode= 4) [Uni-modal]
Case II. 1, 4, 9, 6, 4, 9 ( Mode= 4, 9) [Bi-modal]
Case III. 1, 4, 9, 6, 4, 9, 1, 6 [Multi-modal]
Median for Grouped Data.
 
In case of finding the mode for grouped data, the ith class will be in front of the maximum frequency (highest
frequency in data), therefore,
Question. The expenditure of 100 families is given below.

Mode of the distribution is 24. Calculate the missing frequencies.

Solution.

Mode for the given data=24

Empirical Relationship between, mean, median ad mode.

Mode =3 median-2 mean

Question. In a moderately asymmetrical distribution the mode and mean are 32.1 and 35.4 respectively.
Calculate the median
 Solution.

We know that

Mode = 3 median-2 mean

By substituting values in above expression we have,
32.1 = 3 median-2(35.4) after solving
Median = 34.3
Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 142).
Question number 40(ii, iii).
 

Symmetry and Skewness.

Symmetry. A distribution having equal tails on both side or 50% on either side of the central line, on the
other hand the distance between lower and upper quartiles are equal from central line too.
Skewness. Lack of symmetry is called skewness. These are of two types,
i. Positive skewness
ii. Negative skewness
 Positive Skewness. When the distribution having longer tail on right hand side is called positive
skewness. In positive skewness the value of mean is always greater then value of mode. i.e.

Negative Skewness. When the distribution having longer tail on left hand side is called negative
skewness. In negative skewness the value of mean is always smaller then value of mode. i.e.

Question. For each of the following unimodal distribution examine whether distribution is
symmetrical, skewed to the left or skewed to the right.

Solution (i).
 
Here value of mean is less than value of mode so the distribution is negatively skewed.
Solution (ii).
 
Here the distance of lower and upper quartiles is same from central line (mean)
Then the distribution is symmetrical in this case.
The GEOMATRIC MEAN (G.M).
“It is the nth root of the product of n positive
values”.

Question. Find G.M between 2 and 4.

Solution. By definition,

Question. Find G.M between 2, 4 and 6.

Solution. By definition,
GEOMATRIC MEAN for un-grouped data.

Question. Find G.M between 2, 4 and 6 by un-grouped data .

Solution.

By substituting the values in above formula we have,

Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 135).

Question number 63, 64 and 65.
Question number 63. The G.M of a series of 4 items is 10.2, find the product of all the items.
Solution.

As we know that

Question number 64. The G.M of two positive numbers is 10. By including the third number, the G.M
becomes 8. What is the fourth number?
Solution.

As we know that,
The G.M of two positive numbers is = 10, it means that,
Substituting value of equation (a) in equation (b) we have,

Similarly solve question number 65.

GEOMATRIC MEAN for Grouped data.

Question number 64. Find G.M for the given data?

Solution.
 By substituting values in the above formula we have,

Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 143).

Question number 43 and 65.

Question. A man gets a rise of 15% in his salary after the first year of his service and a further rise of 20%
and 25% in his salary at the end of his second and third year of his service respectively. Find his average
annual percentage increase.
Solution.

As we know that,
 Therefore average annual percentage increase in three years is 19.93.
 

Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 143).

Question number 54 and 55.

Question number 54. The population of a country increased by 20% in the first decade, 30% in the second
decade and 45% in the third decade. What is the average rate of increase per decade in the population?
(Ans. 31.28)
Question number 55. If the industrial production increased 2 percent in first year, 4 percent in second year
and 5 percent in third year. What is the average annual increase for the three?
(Ans. 3.65)
Question. The arithmetic mean of two items is 12.5 and geometric mean is 10. Find two items.
Solution.

The arithmetic mean of two items=

Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 143).
Question number 49.Find two numbers whose mean is 9 and geometric mean is 7.2.
(Ans. 14.4, 3.6)  
Question.The mean and geometric mean of three numbers are 7 and 4 respectively. Find all three
numbers if the mean of first two numbers is 10 .
Solution.

Suppose X, Y and Z are three numbers.

Putting value of equation (d) in equation (b) we have
Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 143).
Question number 51. The mean and geometric mean of three numbers are 34 and 18 respectively. Find all
three numbers if the G.M of first two numbers is 9. (Ans. 27, 3, 72)
 The Harmonic MEAN(H.M).
“ It is the reciprocal of the mean of the reciprocals of the items in a
series”.

Question. Given the following set of data from a sample of size 5: 13.2, 14.2, 14.8, 15.2, and 16.2. Calculate
the harmonic mean.
Solution.
Question. Calculate the harmonic mean for the given data.

Solution.
  
Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 144).
Question number 57, 58, 59, 60 and 61.
Measures of Dispersion.

“ The degree(extent) to which a numerical data tends to spread out about an average
value is called measures of dispersion or measures of scatterness or simply measures of
i. variation”.
Absolute measure of dispersion.
Which measures the variation present between the observations in the unit of the variable. They give the
answers in the same units of the original observations. When the observations are in kilograms, the
absolute measure is also in kilograms. If we have two sets of observations, we cannot always use the
absolute measure of dispersion to compare their dispersion.
 
ii. Relative measure of dispersion.
Which measures the variation present between the observations relative to their average. It is used to
compare the variation between two or more set of data. These measures are free of units in which the
original data is measured. If the original data is in rupees or kilometers, we do not use these units with
relative measures of dispersion. These measures are a sort of ratio and are called coefficients. Each
absolute can be converted into its relative dispersion.
 
The Range.
“It is a difference between maximum and minimum value in the data”.
If denotes the maximum observation, denotes the minimum observation then the range is defined as,

It has its application and utility in quality control methods which are used to maintain the quality of the
products produced in factories. The quality of the products is to be kept within certain range of values. It is
a poor measure of dispersion as it uses only two extreme values in the data.
Question. Calculate the range and its coefficient for the given data 5, 8, 12, 6, 3.

Solution.
Range for the grouped data.

It is the difference between upper class boundary of the highest class and lower class boundary of the
lowest class.
Question. Calculate the range and its coefficient for the given data.
Solution.

Lower class boundary of the lowest class = 1.5

Upper class boundary of the highest class = 16.5
 Range for the discrete type of data.

It is the difference between the highest midpoint (class mark) and lowest midpoint (class mark).
Question. Calculate the range and its coefficient for the given data.

The Quartile Deviation (Q.D).

 It is slightly better measure of dispersion than the range. But it ignores the observations on the tails.
The quartile deviation calculated from the sample data does not help us to draw the conclusion
(inference) about the quartile deviation in the population.
The Mean Deviation (M.D).
The mean deviation or the average deviation is defined as the mean of the absolute deviations of
observations from some suitable average which may be arithmetic mean, median or mode.
Mean Deviation about Arithmetic Mean.

Mean Deviation about Median.

  
Mean Deviation about Mode.

The mean deviation is better measure of absolute deviation than the range and the quartile deviation. A draw back in
the mean deviation is that we use the absolute we use the absolute deviation which does not seem logical.
The mean deviation is based on all the observations, a property which is not possessed by the range and the quartile
deviation. Any suitable average among the mean, median or mode can be used in its calculation but the value of the
mean deviation is minimum if the deviations are taken from median. A serious drawback of the mean deviation is
that it cannot be used in statistical inference.
Question. Calculate the mean deviation from

(i) Arithmetic Mean

(ii) Median
(iii)Mode In respect of the marks obtained by the nine students given below and show that the mean deviation from
median is minimum.
Marks (out of 25): 7, 4, 10, 9, 15, 12, 7, 9, 7
Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 198).
Question number 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14.
 
 

The Standard Deviation (S.D).

It is the positive square root of the mean of the squared deviation of the observations taken from arithmetic
mean. For population data, it is denoted by and defined as

Question. Calculate the standard deviation for the following data: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

Solution.
 
Properties of standard deviation and variance(square of the standard deviation).

(i).The standard and the variance are positive quantities. The standard deviation is expressed in the same
as the units as the units of observations and the variance is expressed in square of the units of the
observations.
(ii). The standard deviation and the variance are zero if all the observations have some constant value. If C
is a constant, then
Question. What will be the value of standard deviation and variance in each of the following cases?
i. 2X
ii. X+2
iii. 2X+4 if, Var (X) =25.
Solution.

We have given as,

  
The Coefficient of Variation(C.V).
“It is the ratio between standard deviation and arithmetic mean and expressing the result as percentage”.

It is a pure number and the units of the observations is not mentioned with its value. When its value is 20%, it means that
when the mean of the observations is assumed to 100, their standard deviation will be 20. The C.V is used to compare the
dispersion in different sets of data particularly the data which differ in their means or differ in the units of measurement.
It is used for checking,
i. Consistent performance
ii. Variability.
Question(a).

(i) Which data has greater (more) absolute dispersion?

(i) Which data has greater (more) relative dispersion?
Question(b).

(i) Which data has greater (more) variability?

(i) Which data is more consistent?
Solution.
 

Standard Deviation for Grouped Data.

Question(a).

Calculate standard deviation by the above three methods for the following data.
Solution.

By substituting values in the above formulas as,

Question.

The weight measurements in grams of 20 eggs are given below.

65,68,60,76,65,74,58,56,61,57,63,64,72,66,65,67,65,63,67,67. Find the percentage of observations lying
within the limits.
Question. The mean of 200 items is 48 and their standard deviation is 3. Find the sum and sum
of squares of all these items.
Solution. For the above data, we have,
Question. A computer calculated mean and standard deviation from 20 observations as 42 and 5 respectively.
It was later discovered at the time of checking that it has copied down two values as 45 and 38, whereas the
correct values were 35 and 58. Find correct value of the coefficient of variation.
Solution. For the above data, we have,
Measures of Skewness. The difference between mean and mode is an absolute measure of skewness.
Greater the difference between the mean and mode, greater the skewness. The difference between the
mean and mode is standardized and we get what is called relative measure of skewness or coefficient of
skewness.
Karl Pearson suggested two measures of skewness which are defied below:
Karl Pearson coefficient of skewness.

 
Sometimes the mode is not clearly located in the data with the result that it cannot be calculated. In such
case the median is calculated by substituting the value of mode in the above formula from empirical
relation as,
After simplification we get,
 The above two formulas are designed in such a manner that the coefficient of skewness is zero for
symmetrical distribution, it is positive for positively skewed distribution and negative for negatively skewed
distribution, therefore the range for coefficient of skewnees lies between -1 and +1, i.e.

Bowley’s coefficient of skewness.

Another measure of skewness was suggested by Bowley’s, and after his name it was called Bowley’s
coefficient of skewness as,

Related Practice Questions from Book. (Page 204).

Question number 50, 51, 52, 54 and 55.
 Some Important Relations.

Some Important Questions.

(Page number 194, question number 44 to question number 55).
Question N0 44. Find biased sample variance for the given data 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10.
Solution. Biased sample variance id defined as,
Question N0 45. Find un-biased sample variance for the given data 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10.
Solution. Biased sample variance id defined as,

Question N0 51. In a surprise checking of passengers in a local bus, 5 passengers without tickets were caught.
The sum of squares and the standard deviation of the amount found in their pockets were Rs 5000 and Rs.
10 respectively. If the total fine imposed is equal to the amount discovered from them, and fine imposed is
uniform. Find amount of fine to be paid by each passenger.
Solution. Here we are given,