Magnetism- it’s everywhere!

Introduction to Quantum Physics

Prepared by,
Dr. L. Biswal, Dr. G. Shaw

Edited by,
Dr. L. Biswal
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 Magnetism-/it’s
Quantum everywhere!
Quantization
Charge acquired/exchanged is quantized.

Angular Momentum, Spin angular Momentum of electron in an atom are quantized.

Magnetic Moment of electron, Nuclei is quantized.

Energy exchange between radiation and electron (in Photoelectric effect etc.) is quantized.

Mass of 100 gm of water in a container appears to be continuously distributed.

But at microscopic level it is quantized.

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 Magnetism-/it’s
Quantum everywhere!
Quantization
Charge acquired/exchanged is quantized.

Angular Momentum, Spin angular Momentum of electron in an atom are quantized.

Magnetic Moment of electron, Nuclei is quantized.

Energy exchange between radiation and electron (in Photoelectric effect etc.) is quantized.

Mass of 100 gm of water in a container appears to be continuously distributed.

But at microscopic level it is quantized.

Every Macro-phenomenon which appears to be continuous

is microscopically quantized.

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 Magnetism-
Quantum it’s everywhere!
physics: the beginning

Towards the end of 19th century, classical physics had attained near-perfection and tremendous success both in
theoretical and experimental fronts.

Almost all the known physical phenomena, ranging from dynamics of point masses, rigid bodies,
thermodynamics, geometrical and wave optics, electromagnetism, among others, could be described well within
the frame work of classical physics.

The backbones of classical physics

1. Newtonian Mechanics
2. Laws of thermodynamics
3. Fresnel wave theory
4. Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism etc.

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 Magnetism-
Quantum it’s everywhere!
physics: the beginning

The fundamental ingredients of classical physics

Deterministic in nature, i. e., given the relevant laws, the behavior of the system can exactly be predicted.
Further, physical quantities can in principle be measured with unlimited accuracy.

The various physical quantities and their changes can have any continuous value without restriction.

Particles and waves in classical physics are regarded as distinct and separate entities.

Great success in explaining the phenomena involving macroscopic objects.

But grossly inadequate to account for many new experimental observations
during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

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 Magnetism-
Quantum it’s everywhere!
physics: the beginning

Inadequacy of classical physics & the need of quantum physics

Some of the observations which classical physics could not explain:

1. Energy distribution in spectrum of blackbody radiation.

2. Photoelectric effect.
3. Compton effect.
4. Atomic spectra and structure of atoms (stability of Atoms).
5. Low temperature variation of specific heat of solids.

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 Magnetism-
Black bodyit’s radiation
everywhere!

All matter absorbs electromagnetic radiation to some extent.

A blackbody is an ideal body that absorbs all incident Also a perfect emitter.
radiation (without reflection or transmission).

Emits (radiates) energy which is characteristic of the

blackbody, and not dependent upon the type of
A perfect absorber. incident radiation.

At uniform temperature, blackbody radiation has a characteristic frequency (and corresponding wavelength)
distribution, depending only on its temperature.

So a blackbody does not necessarily appear black, but has

a characteristic glow! (think of hot metals)

T (K)

Colour of a blackbody as function of surface temperature

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 Magnetism-
Black it’s everywhere!
body radiation spectrum
Total radiant heat energy emitted from the surface of a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature (Stephan-Boltzmann law).

The intensity of radiation emitted from a blackbody reaches its maximum at a wavelength which is inversely
proportional to its absolute temperature (Wien's displacement law).

Reasonable success in explaining the

observed nature of the spectra

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 Magnetism-
Black body radiation it’s everywhere!
spectrum: Classical distribution laws

Fails at long wavelengths

Fails at short wavelengths

(Ultraviolet catastrophe)

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 Magnetism-
Planck’s quantum it’s everywhere!
hypothesis and law of radiation

Max Planck’s revolutionary hypothesis

Source of radiations in black body chamber is atom like oscillators in a state of

oscillation, oscillating with different frequency.
Frequency of emitted radiations is equal to the frequency of oscillation.

The energy of these oscillatiors is quantised and is an integral multiple hν.

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 Magnetism-
Planck’s quantum it’s everywhere!
hypothesis and law of radiation

This law agrees very well with experimental results

This idea of quantized energy of an oscillator also successfully explained the low temperature behavior of molar
specific heat of solids. Further extension of this quantum idea to the propagation of energy with electromagnetic
radiation successfully explained some other phenomena in other domains of physics which could not otherwise
be explained by classical ideas.

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 Magnetism-
Photoelectric it’s everywhere!
effect: observations

The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from the surface of

metals when radiation (light) of suitable frequency is incident on
it is known as Photoelectric effect

Experimental observations

Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process.

At a constant intensity and frequency of light, the photocurrent

at first increases and then attains a constant value, called
Saturation current).

The saturation current increases linearly with increase in

intensity of incident light (keeping frequency constant).

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 Magnetism-
Photoelectric it’s everywhere!
effect: observations

Experimental observations (contd.)

The stopping potential and hence the maximum kinetic energy

of emitted electrons is independent of intensity.

The stopping potential increases linearly with increase in

frequency of radiation.

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 Magnetism-
Photoelectric effect:it’s everywhere!
Einstein’s explanation

The intensity at a given frequency is determined by the number

of photons incident per second. Hence increase in intensity
increases the number of photons incident per second (but
individual photon energy remains unaffected).

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 Magnetism-
Photoelectric effect:it’s everywhere!
Einstein’s explanation

This equation explains all important features of photoelectric

effect which could not be explained by classical physics.

This is Einstein’s Photoelectric equation which earned him the

Nobel Prize

This equation can be used to determine the value of Planck’s constant

and work function of metal, something we will do in the lab course.

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 Magnetism-
Particle it’s everywhere!
nature of Radiation
Summary of the photon picture of electromagnetic radiation

In interaction with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles, called photons.

All photons of radiation of a particular frequency/wavelength have same energy 𝒉𝝂=𝒉𝒄⁄𝝀, irrespective of the
intensity of radiation. Photon energy is dependent on frequency and independent of intensity of radiation.

Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.

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 Magnetism-
Photon energyit’s
andeverywhere!
momentum

The direction of photon momentum is in the direction propagation of radiation.

In a light-matter interaction (such as between photons and electrons), the total energy and momentum are
conserved. However, the number of photons may not be conserved. Photons may be absorbed or created.

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 Magnetism-
Momentum and dualit’s everywhere!
nature of radiation

In summary

Certain optical phenomena, such as interference, diffraction, and polarization,

are explained by the wave nature of light.

However, light-matter interaction in processes of emission and absorption, such

as photoelectric effect and Compton effect, are explained by the corpuscular
(particle) nature of light.

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Wave natureMagnetism- it’s de
of particles: everywhere!
Broglie’s hypothesis
Louis de Broglie suggested that the wave particle duality is a universal principle
and is not restricted only to electromagnetic radiations.

He argued that nature is symmetric, and what is true for photons (radiation)
must be true for material particles.

Hence Material particles must exhibit wave-like properties.

De Broglie proposed that all material particles can manifest themselves as

waves, called matter waves (also called de Broglie waves)

De Broglie proposed that the role of matter waves in guiding the motion of
material particles is analogous to that of electromagnetic waves in guiding the
motion of photons.

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Wave natureMagnetism- it’s de
of particles: everywhere!
Broglie’s hypothesis

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Wave natureMagnetism- it’s de
of particles: everywhere!
Broglie’s hypothesis

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 Magnetism-
Matter waves and it’s everywhere!
structure of the atom

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 Magnetism-ofit’s
Properties everywhere!
matter waves

Lighter particles have longer wavelengths.

Higher velocity corresponds to shorter wavelength.

Velocity of matter waves depends on the velocity of the particle.

Velocity of matter waves may be greater than the velocity of light!

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