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    Handout On GAS EXCHANGE

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    Eli Joshua Evangelista
    The respiratory system oversees gas exchange between the blood and external environment. Air enters through the nose, where it is warmed and filtered before passing through the pharynx and larynx. The trachea then branches into bronchi and bronchioles, ending in alveoli within the lungs where oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse between the blood and air. The diaphragm and intercostal muscles drive breathing by expanding the thoracic cavity and pulling in air during inspiration.

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    Handout On GAS EXCHANGE

    Uploaded by

    Eli Joshua Evangelista
    12 views4 pages
    The respiratory system oversees gas exchange between the blood and external environment. Air enters through the nose, where it is warmed and filtered before passing through the pharynx and larynx. The trachea then branches into bronchi and bronchioles, ending in alveoli within the lungs where oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse between the blood and air. The diaphragm and intercostal muscles drive breathing by expanding the thoracic cavity and pulling in air during inspiration.

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    The respiratory system oversees gas exchange between the blood and external environment. Air enters through the nose, where it is warmed and filtered before passing through the pharynx and larynx. The trachea then branches into bronchi and bronchioles, ending in alveoli within the lungs where oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse between the blood and air. The diaphragm and intercostal muscles drive breathing by expanding the thoracic cavity and pulling in air during inspiration.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOC, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as doc, pdf, or txt
    12 views4 pages

    Handout On GAS EXCHANGE

    Uploaded by

    Eli Joshua Evangelista
    The respiratory system oversees gas exchange between the blood and external environment. Air enters through the nose, where it is warmed and filtered before passing through the pharynx and larynx. The trachea then branches into bronchi and bronchioles, ending in alveoli within the lungs where oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse between the blood and air. The diaphragm and intercostal muscles drive breathing by expanding the thoracic cavity and pulling in air during inspiration.

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    HANDOUT: GENERAL BIOLOGY II

    GAS EXCHANGE

    Function of the Respiratory System


    Oversees gas exchanges between the blood and external environment
    Exchange of gases takes place within the alveoli
    Passageways to the lungs purify, warm, and humidify the incoming air

    THE NOSE

    The only externally visible part of the respiratory system


    Air enters the nose through the external nares (nostrils)
    The interior of the nose consists of a nasal cavity divided by a nasal septum

    Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity

    Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior surface


    The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa
    -Moistens air
    -Traps incoming foreign particles
    Lateral walls have projections called conchae
    -Increases surface area
    -Increases air turbulence within the nasal cavity
    The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity by the palate
    -Anterior hard palate (bone)
    -Posterior soft palate (muscle)

    Paranasal Sinuses
    Cavities within bones surrounding the nasal cavity
    Frontal bone
    Sphenoid bone
    Ethmoid bone
    Maxillary bone

    Function of the sinuses


    Lighten the skull
    Act as resonance chambers for speech
    Produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity

    Pharynx (Throat)
    Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
    Three regions of the pharynx
    Nasopharynx – superior region behind nasal cavity
    Oropharynx – middle region behind mouth
    Laryngopharynx – inferior region attached to larynx
    The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are common passageways for air and food

    STRUCTURE OF THE PHARYNX


    Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx
    Tonsils of the pharynx
    Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) in the nasopharynx
    Palatine tonsils in the oropharynx
    Lingual tonsils at the base of the tongue

    Larynx (Voice Box)


    Routes air and food into proper channels
    Plays a role in speech
    Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage (epiglottis)
    Vocal cords - vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)

    STRUCTURE OF THE LARYNX


    Thyroid cartilage
    Largest hyaline cartilage
    Protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)
    Epiglottis
    Superior opening of the larynx
    Routes food to the larynx and air toward the trachea
    Glottis – opening between vocal cords

    Trachea (Windpipe)
    Connects larynx with bronchi
    Lined with ciliated mucosa
    -Beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air
    -Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from lungs
    Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage

    Primary Bronchi
    Formed by division of the trachea
    Enters the lung at the hilus (medial depression)
    Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than left
    Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches

    Lungs
    Occupy most of the thoracic cavity
    -Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
    -Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
    Left lung – two lobes
    Right lung – three lobes

    Coverings of the Lungs


    Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface
    Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity
    Pleural fluid fills the area between layers of pleura to allow gliding

    Respiratory Tree Divisions


    Primary bronchi
    Secondary bronchi
    Tertiary bronchi
    Bronchioli
    Terminal bronchioli

    Bronchioles
    Smallest branches of the bronchi
    All but the smallest branches have reinforcing cartilage
    Terminal bronchioles end in alveoli

    Respiratory Zone
    Structures
    Respiratory bronchioli
    Alveolar duct
    Alveoli
    Site of gas exchange

    Alveoli
    Structure of alveoli
    Alveolar duct
    Alveolar sac
    Alveolus
    Gas exchange takes place within the alveoli in the respiratory membrane
    Squamous epithelial lining alveolar walls
    Covered with pulmonary capillaries on external surfaces

    Gas Exchange
    Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion
    -Oxygen enters the blood
    -Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
    Macrophages add protection
    Surfactant coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces

    Events of Respiration
    Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in and out of the lungs
    External respiration – gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli
    Respiratory gas transport – transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the bloodstream
    Internal respiration – gas exchange between blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries

    Mechanics of Breathing (Pulmonary Ventilation)


    Mechanical process
    Depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity
    Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to equalize pressure of flow of gases

    2 phases
    Inspiration – flow of air into lung
    Expiration – air leaving lung

    Inspiration – flow of air into lung

    Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract


    The size of the thoracic cavity increases
    External air is pulled into the lungs due to an increase in intrapulmonary volume

    Expiration
    Passive process dependent up on natural lung elasticity
    As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs
    Forced expiration can occur mostly by contracting internal intercostal muscles to depress the rib cage

    Nonrespiratory Air Movements


    Caused by reflexes or voluntary actions
    Examples
    Cough and sneeze – clears lungs of debris
    Laughing
    Crying
    Yawn
    Hiccup

    Respiratory Sounds
    Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
    Bronchial sounds – produced by air rushing through trachea and bronchi
    Vesicular breathing sounds – soft sounds of air filling alveoli

    External Respiration
    Oxygen movement into the blood
    -The alveoli always has more oxygen than the blood
    -Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of lower concentration
    -Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
    Carbon dioxide movement out of the blood
    -Blood returning from tissues has higher concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in the
    alveoli
    -Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon dioxide
    ***Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich and carbon dioxide-poor

    Gas Transport in the Blood

    Oxygen transport in the blood


    Inside red blood cells attached to hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin [HbO2 ])
    A small amount is carried dissolved in the plasma

    Carbon dioxide transport in the blood


    Most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3 –)
    A small amount is carried inside red blood cells on hemoglobin, but at different binding sites than those
    of oxygen

    Internal Respiration
    Exchange of gases between blood and body cells
    An opposite reaction to what occurs in the lungs
    -Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to blood
    -Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue

    Neural Regulation of Respiration


    Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to the brain by the phrenic and intercostal nerves
    Neural centers that control rate & depth are located in the medulla
    The pons appears to smooth out respiratory rate
    Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15 min.
    Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often due to extra oxygen needs

    Respiratory Disorders:
    > Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
    Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and emphysema
    Major causes of death and disability in the United States
    Features of these diseases
    Patients have a history of smoking
    Labored breathing (dyspnea)
    Coughing and frequent pulmonary infections
    Most victims retain carbon dioxide
    Have hypoxic and respiratory acidosis
    Those infected will ultimately develop respiratory failure

    > Emphysema
    Alveoli enlarge as adjacent chambers break through
    Chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis
    Airways collapse during expiration
    Patients use a large amount of energy to exhale
    Over-inflation of the lungs leads to a barrel chest
    Cyanosis appears late in the disease

    > Chronic Bronchitis


    Inflammation of the mucosa of the lower respiratory passages
    Mucus production increases
    Pooled mucus impairs ventilation & gas exchange
    Risk of lung infection increases
    Pneumonia is common
    Hypoxia and cyanosis occur early

    > Lung Cancer


    Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer deaths in the United States
    Increased incidence associated with smoking
    Three common types
    Squamous cell carcinoma
    Adenocarcinoma
    Small cell carcinoma

    > Asthma
    Chronic inflammation if the bronchiole passages
    Response to irritants with dyspnea, coughing, and wheezing

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