Dr. N.G.P.

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Coimbatore-641048

DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWER

BM8651 / BIOMECHANICS

REGULATION: 2017

Approved by

HoD/BME Principal
 Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering
SYLLABUS
BM8651 BIOMECHANIC LTPC
3003
OBJECTIVES:
The student should be made to:
• Explain the principles of mechanics.
• Discuss the mechanics of physiological systems.
• Explain the mechanics of joints.
• Illustrate the mathematical models used in the analysis of biomechanical systems

UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS 9

Introduction – Scalars and vectors, Statics – Force types, Resolution and composition of forces, Moments of force and couple,
Resultant force determination, parallel forces in space, equilibrium of coplanar forces, Dynamics, Basic principles – Linear motion,
Newton‘s laws of motion, Impulse and Momentum, Work and Energy Kinetics – Velocity and acceleration, Kinematics – Link
segment models, Force transducers, Force plates, Introduction to Constitutive equations – Constitutive equations of Nonviscous fluid,
Newtonian Viscous fluid and Hookean Elastic solid

UNIT II BIOFLUID MECHANICS 9

Intrinsic fluid properties – Density, Viscosity, Compressibility and Surface Tension, Viscometers – Capillary, Coaxial cylinder and
cone and plate, Rheological properties of blood, Pressure-flow relationship for Non-Newtonian Fluids, Fluid mechanics in straight tube
– Steady Laminar flow, Turbulent flow, Flow development, Viscous and Turbulent Sheer Stress, Effect of pulsatility, Boundary Layer
Separation, Structure of blood vessels, Material properties and modeling of Blood vessels, Heart –Cardiac muscle characterisation,
Native heart valves – Mechanical properties and valve dynamics, Prosthetic heart valve fluid dynamics.

UNIT III BIOSOLID MECHANICS 9

Constitutive equation of viscoelasticity – Maxwell &Voight models, anisotropy, Hard Tissues – Structure, blood circulation, elasticity
and strength, viscoelastic properties, functional adaptation, Soft Tissues – Structure, functions, material properties and modeling of
Soft Tissues – Cartilage, Tendons and Ligaments Skeletal Muscle – Muscle action, Hill‘s models, mathematical modeling, Bone
fracture mechanics, Implants for bone fractures.

UNIT IV BIOMECHANICS OF JOINTS 9

Skeletal joints, forces and stresses in human joints, Analysis of rigid bodies in equilibrium, Free body diagrams, Structure of joints,
Types of joints, Biomechanical analysis of elbow, shoulder, spinal column, hip, knee and ankle, Lubrication of synovial joints, Gait
analysis, Motion analysis using video.

UNIT V MODELING AND ERGONOMICS 9

Introduction to Finite Element Analysis, finite element analysis of lumbar spine; Ergonomics – Musculoskeletal disorders, Ergonomic
principles contributing to good workplace design, Design of a Computer work station, Whole body vibrations, Hand transmitted
vibrations.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course, the student should be able to:
• Understand the principles of mechanics
• Outline the principles of biofluid dynamics.
• Explain the fundamentals of bio-solid mechanics.
• Apply the knowledge of joint mechanics.
• Give Examples of computational mathematical modelling applied in biomechanics.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Y.C. Fung, ―Bio-Mechanics- Mechanical Properties of Tissues‖, Springer-Verlag, 1998.
2. Subrata Pal, ―Textbook of Biomechanics‖, Viva Books Private Limited, 2009.

REFERENCES:
1. Krishna B. Chandran, Ajit P. Yoganathan and Stanley E. Rittgers, ―Biofluid Mechanics: The Human Circulation‖, Taylor and
Francis, 2007.
2. Sheraz S. Malik and Shahbaz S. Malik, ―Orthopaedic Biomechanics Made Easy‖, Cambridge University Press, 2015.
3. Jay D. Humphrey, Sherry De Lange, ―An Introduction to Biomechanics: Solids and Fluids, Analysis and Design‖, Springer Science
Business Media, 2004.
4. Shrawan Kumar, ―Biomechanics in Ergonomics‖, Second Edition, CRC Press 2007.
5. Neil J. Mansfeild, ―Human Response to Vibration‖, CRC Press, 2005.
6. Carl J. Payton, ―Biomechanical Evaluation of movement in sports and Exercise‖, 2008

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering
UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS

1. What is Biomechanics? (Nov/Dec 2012)

- Biomechanics has been defined as the study of the movement of living things using the science of
mechanics. Biomechanics is the study of motion and its causes in living things. Biomechanics
provides key information on the most effective and safest movement patterns, equipment, and
relevant exercises to improve human movement.
2. Identify the applications of biomechanics. (May/June 2012)
- The applications of biomechanics to human movement can be classified into two main areas: the
improvement of performance and the reduction or treatment of injury.
- Improving Performance - Human movement performance can be enhanced many ways. Effective
movement involves anatomical factors, neuromuscular skills, physiological capacities, and
psychological/ cognitive abilities. Biomechanics is most useful in improving performance in sports
or activities where technique is the dominant factor rather than physical structure or physiological
capacity.
- Preventing and Treating Injury - Movement safety, or injury prevention treatment, is another primary
area where biomechanics can be applied. Biomechanical studies help prevent injuries by providing
information on the mechanical properties of tissues, mechanical loadings during movement, and
preventative or rehabilitative therapies.
3. Define Creep. (Nov/Dec 2012)
- Creep may be defined as a time-dependent deformation at elevated temperature and constant stress.
It describes the amount of deformation that a material undergoes with time as it is subjected a
constant load. Failure from such a condition is referred to as a creep failure or, occasionally, a stress
rupture. Rate of creep depends on stress and temperature.
4. State Newton’s law of universal gravitation. (Nov/Dec 2012)
- Newton's law of universal gravitation states that any two bodies in the universe attract each other
with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them
- F = ma
- F - force; M - mass; a - acceleration
5. Define Viscoelasticity. (Nov/Dec 2012) (Apr/May 2015)
Viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics
when undergoing deformation. Viscous materials, like honey, resist shear flow and strain linearly with
time when a stress is applied. Elastic materials strain when stretched and quickly return to their original
state once the stress is removed. Viscoelastic materials have elements of both of these properties and, as
such, exhibit time-dependent strain.
6. What is Engineering Mechanics?
Mechanics is a branch of physics that is concerned with the description of motion and how forces
create motion. Forces acting on living things can create motion, be a healthy stimulus for growth and
development, or overload tissues, causing injury. Biomechanics provides conceptual and mathematical

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

tools that are necessary for understanding how living things move and how kinesiology professionals
might improve movement or make movement safer.
7. What are the classifications of Engineering Mechanics?
• Mechanics of rigid bodies
• Mechanics of deformable bodies
• Mechanics of solids
8. Define Statics and Dynamics.
Statics is the branch of science, which deals with the study of a body at rest under the action of forces.
Dynamics is the branch of science which deals with the study of the motion of bodies, and the effect of
forces acting on them.
9. Define Kinetics and Kinematics (Apr/May 2017)
Kinetics is the branch of dynamics which deals with the motion of bodies, problems referring to the
forces causing the motion of the body.
Kinematics is the branch of dynamics which deals with the motion of the bodies problems without
referring to the forces causing the motion of the body.
10. Define Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics is the branch of science which deals with the behavior of fluids, subjected to the action
of forces in the state of rest or motion.
11. State the basic laws of Mechanics
• Newton’s First law
• Newton’s second law
• Newton’s third law
• Law of Transmissibility of forces
• Parallelogram law of forces
12. State Newton’s law of motion
Newton’s First law: Everybody continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line,
unless it is completed to change that state by external forces.
Newton’s Second law: The acceleration of a particle will be proportional to the force and will be in the
direction of the force.
Newton’s Third law: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
13. State the principle of Transmissibility of forces.
The state of rest or of motion of a rigid body is unaltered if a force acting on the body is replaced by
another force of the same magnitude and direction but acting anywhere on the body along the line of
action of the replaced force.
14. Define Vector. What are the characteristics of vectors?
A quantity which is completely specified by its magnitude as well as direction is called a vector. Ex:
weight, displacement, velocity.
The characteristics of vector are
• Magnitude.
• Direction
• Point of application and Line of action

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

15. What are the types of fluid?

• Incompressible fluid: div u = 0 or Dτ ρ = 0.
• Idea fluid: surface force consists of only pressure force. No viscosity µ = 0.
• Isentropic fluid: there exists a function w, called enthalpy, such that ∇w = ρ −1∇p. If p = p(ρ), then it
is isentropic and w = R p 0/ρ. Example: Gas p = Aργ with constant A and γ ≥1
• Newtonian fluid: σ = σ (∇u) is linear in ∇u.
• Non-Newtonian fluid: σ = σ (∇u) is a non-linear function of ∇u.
• Homogeneous fluid: ρ = constant in space. For a homogeneous and incompressible fluid, ρ is also
constant in time due to the conservation of mass.
16. What is Stress- Relaxation?
When a body is suddenly strained and then the strain is maintained constant afterwards, the
corresponding stresses induced in the body decrease with time. This phenomenon is called stress-
relaxation.
17. What is Hysteresis?
If the body is subjected to a cyclic loading, the stress-strain relationship in the loading process is usually
somewhat different from that in the unloading process, and the phenomenon is called hysteresis.
18. What is Constitutive Equations? (Nov/Dec 2017)
Constitutive equation or constitutive relation is a relation between two physical quantities (especially
kinetic quantities as related to kinematic quantities) that is specific to a material or substance, and
approximates the response of that material to external stimuli, usually as applied fields or forces.
19. What are the characteristics of non Newtonian fluids?
The viscosity (the measure of a fluid's ability to resist gradual deformation by shear or tensile stresses)
of non-Newtonian fluids is dependent on shear rate or shear rate history. "Non-Newtonian" fluids show
different viscosities at different shear rates.
Many non-Newtonian fluids are actually slurries of suspended particles in a liquid.
Paint, clay slips, and wet sand are examples of fluids that exhibit this strange
behavior.
20. What is Newtonian fluid?
In a Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the strain rate is linear, the constant of
proportionality being the coefficient of viscosity. In simple terms, the size of the drops is directly related
to the thickness of the fluid, all else being equal. A Newtonian fluid is a fluid in which the viscous
stresses arising from its flow, at every point, are linearly proportional to the local strain rate the rate of
change of its deformation over time.
21. Explain Euler Equation.
The fluid velocity u of an inviscid (ideal) fluid of density ρ under the action of a body force ρf if
determined by the equation,

is known as Euler Equation. The scalar p is the pressure.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

22. What is stress tensor σij?

σij is the i-component of stress on a surface element that has a normal n pointing in the j-direction. Then if
t is the stress on a small surface element with unit normal n it is straightforward to demonstrate that,

23. Name the two types of drag force experienced by an object moving through a fluid
- Drag (sometimes called air resistance or fluid friction) refers to forces acting opposite to the relative
motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid. This can exist between two fluid
layers (or surfaces) or a fluid and a solid surface. The drag force acts in a direction that is opposite of
the relative flow velocity.
- Surface drag: depends mainly on smoothness of surface of the object moving through the fluid. Eg)
shaving the body in swimming; wearing racing suits in skiing and speed skating.
- Form drag: depends mainly on the cross-sectional area of the body presented to the fluid. Eg)
bicyclist in upright v. crouched position swimmer: related to buoyancy and how high the body sits in
the water.
24. Define elastic modulus.
Young's modulus (E) describes tensile elasticity, or the tendency of an object to deform along an axis
when opposing forces are applied along that axis; it is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile
strain. It is often referred to simply as the elastic modulus
25. What is Shear thinning properties of fluids? Give examples.
Shear thinning is an effect where a fluid's viscosity—the measure of a fluid's resistance to flow -
decreases with an increasing rate of shear strain. Another name for a shear thinning fluid is a pseudo
plastic. This property is found in certain complex solutions, such as lava, ketchup, whipped
cream, blood, paint, and nail polish. It is also a common property of polymer solutions and molten
polymers. Pseudo plasticity can be demonstrated by the manner in which squeezing a bottle of ketchup,
a Bingham plastic, causes the contents to undergo a change in viscosity. The force causes it to go from
being thick like honey to flowing like water. The study of such phenomena is called rheology.
26. What is Reynolds Number? Explain its significance.
In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number Re is a dimensionless number that gives a measure of the ratio
of inertial forces to viscous forces and consequently quantifies the relative importance of these two types
of forces for given flow conditions
Re=VLc/v
where v is the kinematic viscosity. V is the mean velocity of the fluid, and Lc is the characteristic length
of the geometry. The higher the Reynolds number is, the more turbulent the flow will be. The Reynolds
number is used to study fluids as they flow. The Reynolds number determines whether a fluid flow is
laminar or turbulent.
27. Mention the importance of shear stress. (Apr/May 2015)
Shearing stress is a force that causes layers or parts to slide upon each other in opposite directions. An
example of shearing stress is the force of two connecting rocks rubbing in opposite directions.
28. What is yield point? (Nov/Dec 2016)
The stress at which an elastic material under increasing stress ceases to behave elastically, under
conditions of tensile strength the elongation is no longer proportional to the increase in stress.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

29. Define Newton’s first law of inertia (May/June 2016)(Nov/Dec 2017)

Everybody continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is completed to
change that state by external forces.
30. State Newton’s 2nd law. (Nov/Dec 2016)
The acceleration of a particle will be proportional to the force and will be in the direction of the force.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

UNIT II- BIOFLUID MECHANICS

1. What is blood viscoelasticity? (May/ June 2013)

- Viscoelasticity is a rheological parameter that describes the flow properties of complex fluids like
blood.
- Viscoelasticity is a property of human blood that is primarily due to the elastic energy that is stored
in the deformation of red blood cells as the heart pumps the blood through the body. The energy
transferred to the blood by the heart is partially stored in the elastic structure, another part is
dissipated by viscosity, and the remaining energy is stored in the kinetic motion of the blood. When
the pulsation of the heart is taken into account, an elastic regime becomes clearly evident. It has been
shown that the previous concept of blood as a purely viscous fluid was inadequate since blood is not
an ordinary fluid.
2. Name the two types of drag force experienced by an object moving through a fluid (Nov/Dec 2013)
- Drag (sometimes called air resistance or fluid friction) refers to forces acting opposite to the relative
motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid. This can exist between two fluid
layers (or surfaces) or a fluid and a solid surface. The drag force acts in a direction that is opposite of
the relative flow velocity.
- Surface drag: depends mainly on smoothness of surface of the object moving through the fluid. E.g.
shaving the body in swimming; wearing racing suits in skiing and speed skating.
- Form drag: depends mainly on the cross-sectional area of the body presented to the fluid E.g. bicyclist
in upright v. crouched position
Swimmer: related to buoyancy and how high the body sits in the water.
3. State the reactions of blood components to extra-corporeal circulations. (May/June 2013)
- Reactions of blood components to extracorporeal circulation include
- complement and inflammatory reactions - A fundamental type of response by the body to disease
and injury,
- Coagulation - the process by which a blood clot is formed. The formation of a clot is often referred
to as secondary hemostasis, because it forms the second stage in the process of arresting the loss of
blood from a ruptured vessel.
- Thrombogenesis – Process of formation of blood clots.
- Hemolysis – Blood cell rupture and death.
- Platelet activation and adhesion to the extracorporeal circuit.
4. State the meaning of the Afterload. (May/June 2012)
Afterload is the tension or stress developed in the wall of the left ventricle during ejection.it is the end
load against which the heart contracts to eject blood. The resistance that the ventricle of the heart has to
overcome to eject the blood from the ventricle chamber during systole. The resistance comes from the
blood in the vessels and the constriction of the vessel walls.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

5. Differentiate Auto graft and Homograft related to Prosthetic valve design. (May/June 2012)
Homograft Auto graft
A graft of tissue obtained from a donor of the A tissue or organ that is grafted into a new
same species as, but with a different genetic position on the body of the individual from
make-up from, the recipient, as a tissue which it was removed.
transplant between two humans.

Tissue comes from a donor Tissue comes from the individual receiving the
graft
6. Define cardiac output. (Nov/Dec 2013)
o The volume of blood pumped per minute by each ventricle of the heart. Cardiac output is equal
to the stroke volume (the amount of blood pumped from a ventricle in a single heartbeat) times
the heart rate.
o The volume of blood pumped per minute by each ventricle of the heart. Cardiac output is equal
to the stroke volume (the amount of blood pumped from a ventricle in a single heartbeat) times
the heart rate. It is used as a measure of the overall health of the heart.
o Cardiac output = stroke volume × heart rate
7. Define Prosthesis. (Nov/Dec 2014)
• A prosthesis is a device designed to replace a missing part of the body or to make a part of the
body work better. Diseased or missing eyes, arms, hands, legs, or joints are commonly replaced
by prosthetic devices.
• A prosthesis is designed for functional or cosmetic reasons or both. An artificial substitute or
replacement of a part of the body such as a tooth, eye, a facial bone, the palate, a hip, a knee or
another joint, the leg, an arm, etc. Typical prostheses for joints are the hip, knee, elbow, ankle,
and finger joints. Prosthetic implants can be parts of the joint such as a unilateral knee. Joint
replacement and arthroplasty mean the same thing.
8. What is a prosthetic valve? (Nov/Dec 2012)
- An artificial heart valve is a device implanted in the heart of a patient with alular heart disease.
When one of the four heart valves malfunctions, the medical choice may be to replace the natural
valve with an artificial valve.
- There are three main types of artificial heart valves: the mechanical, the biological, and the tissue
engineered valves.
- Mechanical heart valves (MHV) are prosthetics designed to replicate the function of the natural
valves of the human heart.
- Biological valves are valves of animals, like pigs, which undergo several chemical procedures in
order to make them suitable for implantation in the human heart.
9. State the main function of the cardiovascular system. ( Nov/Dec 2013)
- The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
- The four major functions of the cardiovascular system are:
o To transport nutrients, gases and waste products around the body
o To protect the body from infection and blood loss

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

o To help the body maintain a constant body temperature (‘thermoregulation’)

o To help maintain fluid balance within the body
10. Define Bio Fluid Mechanics?
Biological fluid mechanics (or biofluid mechanics) is the study of the motion of biological fluids in any
possible context (e.g. blood flow in arteries, animal flight, fish swimming,). It focus on fluid motion in
the human body. There are many organs in the human body whose functioning involves fluid motion.
Examples are: blood circulation hearth pumping; flow in the systemic arteries; flow in the pulmonary
arteries; flow in the microcirculation; flow in veins. air flow in the respiratory system flow in the eye
flow in the tear film on the cornea; flow of the aqueous humour in the anterior chamber; drainage of
aqueous humour, flow of the vitreous body due to eye rotations, flow of the axoplasm in the optic nerve
axons, flow in the ureter.
11. Define Viscosity. Give its units. (May/June 2016)
Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile
stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness". For example, honey has a much
higher viscosity than water. Viscosity is an important fluid property when analyzing liquid behavior and
fluid motion near solid boundaries. Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual
deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. The shear resistance in a fluid is caused by intermolecular
friction exerted when layers of fluid attempt to slide by one another. E.g. molasses is highly viscous;
water is medium viscous; gas is low viscous. The SI unit of viscosity is the Pascal second [Pa s]
12. What are the characteristics of non Newtonian fluids?
The viscosity (the measure of a fluid's ability to resist gradual deformation by shear or tensile stresses)
of non-Newtonian fluids is dependent on shear rate or shear rate history. "Non-Newtonian" fluids show
different viscosities at different shear rates.
Many non-Newtonian fluids are actually slurries of suspended particles in a liquid.
Paint, clay slips, and wet sand are examples of fluids that exhibit this strange
behavior.
13. Blood is non -Newtonian fluid - explain why?
- Blood is non -Newtonian fluid because doubling the speed that the layers slide past each other
does not double the resisting force. The viscosity depends strongly on the fraction of volume occupied
by red cells. In a non-Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the strain rate is
nonlinear, and can even be time-dependent. Therefore a constant coefficient of viscosity cannot be
defined. Multi-viscosity motor oil, which changes viscosity with temperature, is a common example.
Newtonian fluids obey Newton's laws. But non Newtonian fluids does not obey Newton's laws.
14. What is Hematocrit? Give its normal range.
- Hematocrit (Ht), also known as packed cell volume (PCV) or erythrocyte volume fraction (EVF), is
the volume percentage (%) of red blood cells in blood. It is normally 45% for men and 40% for
women. It is the ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of blood. An instrument
for measuring the ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of blood, typically by
centrifugation.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

15. What is Reynolds Number? Explain its significance.

In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number Re is a dimensionless number that gives a measure of the ratio
of inertial forces to viscous forces and consequently quantifies the relative importance of these two types
of forces for given flow conditions
Re=VLc/v
where v is the kinematic viscosity. V is the mean velocity of the fluid, and Lc is the characteristic length
of the geometry. The higher the Reynolds number is, the more turbulent the flow will be. The Reynolds
number is used to study fluids as they flow. The Reynolds number determines whether a fluid flow is
laminar or turbulent
16. What are the types of flow pattern?
- Laminar Flow: the flow of a fluid when each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path, paths which
never interfere with one another. One result of laminar flow is that the velocity of the fluid is
constant at any point in the fluid. The fluid moves slowly in layers in a pipe, without much mixing
among the layers.
- Turbulent Flow: irregular flow that is characterized by tiny whirlpool regions. The velocity of this
fluid is definitely not constant at every point. Where considerable mixing occurs, velocities are high.
- Laminar and Turbulent flows can be characterized and quantified using Reynolds Number
17. State Poiseuille’s law with equation
The law states that the velocity of the steady flow of a fluid through a narrow tube (as a blood vessel or a
catheter) varies directly as the pressure and the fourth power of the radius of the tube and inversely as
the length of the tube and the coefficient of viscosity.

18. What are the common defects of heart valves?

Heart valves can have three basic kinds of problems: regurgitation, stenosis and atresia. Regurgitation,
or backflow, occurs if a valve doesn't close tightly. Blood leaks back into the chambers rather than
flowing forward through the heart or into an artery. "Prolapse" is when the flaps of the valve flop or
bulge back into an upper heart chamber during a heartbeat. Prolapse mainly affects the mitral valve.
Stenosis occurs if the flaps of a valve thicken, stiffen, or fuse together. This prevents the heart valve
from fully opening. As a result, not enough blood flows through the valve. Some valves can have both
stenosis and backflow problems. Atresia occurs if a heart valve lacks an opening for blood to pass
through.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

19. What are the advantages & disadvantages of mechanical heart valves?
• Advantage of the mechanical valves is their durability. Mechanical valves are made to last a
lifetime. They do not wear out or break down, which means once you have the mechanical heart
valve implanted, it should not deteriorate and require a reoperation.
• Disadvantage of mechanical valves is that they cannot be implanted in patients who are still
growing. If you receive a mechanical valve, you will need to take a blood-thinning
(anticoagulant) medication every day. Blood-thinning medications such as warfarin delay the
clotting action of the blood, which helps prevent blood clots from forming on and around the
valve.
20. Write the types of artificial heart valve.
Mechanical heart valve replacements can save the lives of those they are implanted in, however like any
man made technology they are far from perfect. All three types show a high degree of durability, but
some have better performance characteristics than others.
Caged ball valves, which consist of a silastic ball with a circular sewing ring and a cage formed by 3
metal arches, are no longer implanted. However, several thousands of patients still have caged ball
valves, and these patients require follow-up.
Tilting Disc Valve: Mono leaflet valves are composed of a single disk secured by lateral or central
metal struts. The opening angle of the disk relative to valve annulus ranges from 60° to 80°, resulting in
2 distinct orifices of different sizes.
Bileaflet Valves : Bileaflet valves are made of 2 semilunar disks attached to a rigid valve ring by small
hinges. The opening angle of the leaflets relative to the annulus plane ranges from 75° to 90°, and the
open valve consists of 3 orifices: a small, slit-like central orifice between the 2 open leaflets and 2 larger
semicircular orifices laterally.
21. What are the possible that can complicate prosthetic heart valves:
A variety of problems can complicate prosthetic heart valves:
Thrombosis: this is a major potential problem with mechanical heart valves, requiring that the patient
remain on anticoagulant therapy, though this will not entirely prevent thrombosis and subsequent
embolization.
Infection: vegetations of infective endocarditis can develop on or around the prosthesis, and septic
embolization can subsequently occur
• Structural failure: this is a major problem with bio prostheses, because the leaflets tend to become
stiff and calcify.
• Dehiscence: seen mainly in the immediate postoperative period, dehiscence is separation of the
prosthetic valve suture line from the heart, leading to paravalvular leakage
• Disproportion: the prosthetic valve may not fit well in the heart, so that blood flow is not optimal.
22. What is a prosthetic valve?
An implanted device of non-synthetic origin designed to replace a defective heart valve.
Porcine bioprosthetic valves are less thrombogenic than mechanical valves, but are more
prone to structural degeneration, limiting their durability (35% fail within 15 years).
23. Write the types of blood vessels.
Blood vessels are found throughout the body. There are five main types of blood vessels: arteries,
arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

Arteries carry blood away from the heart to other organs. They can vary in size. The largest arteries
have special elastic fibers in their walls. This helps to complement the work of the heart, by squeezing
blood along when heart muscle relaxes. Arteries also respond to signals from our nervous system, either
constricting (tightening) or dilating (relaxing).
Arterioles are the smallest arteries in the body. They deliver blood to capillaries. Arterioles are also
capable of constricting or dilating and, by doing this, they control how much blood enters the
capillaries.
Capillaries are tiny vessels that connect arterioles to venules. They have very thin walls which allow
nutrients from the blood to pass into the body tissues. Waste products from body tissues can also pass
into the capillaries. So, capillaries are known as exchange vessels.
Groups of capillaries within a tissue reunite to form small veins called venules. Venules collect blood
from capillaries and drain into veins.
Veins are the blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart. They may contain valves which stop
blood flowing away from the heart.
24. Write the uses of capillaries and its function.
Capillaries are the smallest of the body's blood vessels. They are only one cell thick, and they are
the sites of the transfer of oxygen and other nutrients from the bloodstream to other tissues in the body;
they also collect carbon dioxide waste materials and fluids for return to the veins. Capillaries are tiny
vessels that connect arterioles to venules. They have very thin walls which allow nutrients from the
blood to pass into the body tissues. Waste products from body tissues can also pass into the capillaries.
So, capillaries are known as exchange vessels.
Define blood flow & blood pressure
Blood enters the heart through two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava, emptying
oxygen-poor blood from the body into the right atrium of the heart. As the atrium contracts, blood
flows from your right atrium into your right ventricle through the open tricuspid valve.
Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of blood
vessels and is one of the principal vital signs. When used without further specification, "blood pressure"
usually refers to the arterial pressure of the systemic circulation, usually measured at a person's upper
arm. A person’s blood pressure is usually expressed in terms of the systolic pressure over diastolic
pressure and is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). Normal resting blood pressure for an adult
is approximately 120/80 mm Hg.
25. Give the relationship between velocity, blood flow & CSA?

26. What is vascular capacitance?

Vascular capacitance refers to degree of active constriction of vessels (mainly veins) which affects
return of blood to the heart and thus cardiac output. Vascular capacitance refers to degree of active
constriction of vessels (mainly veins) which affects return of blood to the heart and thus cardiac output.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

Capacitance changes participate in cardiovascular reflexes but passive volume changes resulting from
changes in transmural pressure are likely to be at least as important. Changes in vascular
capacitance provide a quick and effective mechanism for the filling of the right heart,
thereby influencing cardiac output. Vascular capacitance is somewhat analogous to vascular
resistance but whereas vascular resistance relates to flow through a blood vessel, vascular capacitance
relates to the volume contained in it.
27. Define arterial system.
Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. While most arteries carry oxygenated
blood, there are two exceptions to this, the pulmonary and the umbilical arteries. The effective arterial
blood volume is that extracellular fluid which fills the arterial system.
28. Define venous system.
Venous system refers to veins that drain into the right atrium without passing through two vascular beds
(i.e. they originate from a set of capillaries and do not pass through a second set of capillaries before
reaching the right side of the heart
29. What is stroke volume?
Stroke volume (SV) is the volume of blood pumped from one ventricle of the heart with each beat. The
amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle of the heart in one contraction. The stroke volume is not
all the blood contained in the left ventricle; normally, only about two-thirds of the blood in the ventricle
is expelled with each beat. Together with the heart rate, the stroke volume determines the output of
blood by the heart per minute (cardiac output).
30. Distinguish laminar and turbulent blood flow. (Apr/May 2015)(Nov/Dec 2017)
Laminar and turbulent flows are the two major forms of fluid flow, with laminar flow being an orderly
flow with all the fluid molecules moving parallel in the direction of flow, whereas in turbulent flow,
different streams of fluid form eddies and unpredictable currents in a different direction than the overall
direction of flow. Which type of flow arises in a fluid depends on its speed relative to its viscosity and
the size and shape of the pipe or other channel carrying the fluid. Viscosity is the resistance to flow, and
more inherently viscous fluids are more resistant to turbulence.
31. State the four most commonly used basic types of heart valve prostheses. (May/June2016)(Nov/Dec
2017)
o Mechanical heart valve
▪ Percutaneous implantation
• Stent framed
• Not framed
▪ Sternotomy/Thoracotomy implantation
• Ball and cage
• Tilting disk
• Bi-leaflet
• Tri-leaflet
o Tissue (biological) heart valves
▪ Allograft/isograft
▪ Xenograft
o Tissue-Engineered heart valves

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

32. What is called a

non Newtonian fluid? (Nov/Dec 2016)
A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid with properties that are different in any way from those of Newtonian
fluids. Most commonly, the viscosity (the measure of a fluid's ability to resist gradual deformation by
shear or tensile stresses) of non-Newtonian fluids is dependent on shear rate or shear rate history.
33. What is coquette flow? (Apr/May 2017)
Coquette flow is the flow of a viscous fluid in the space between two surfaces, one of which is moving
tangentially relative to the other. The configuration often takes the form of two parallel plates or the gap
between two concentric cylinders. The flow is driven by virtue of viscous drag force acting on the fluid,
but may additionally be motivated by an applied pressure gradient in the flow direction. The Coquette
configuration models certain practical problems, like flow in lightly loaded journal bearings and is often
employed in viscometry and to demonstrate approximations of reversibility.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

UNIT III-BIO SOLID MECHNICS

1. State the classification of bones. (May/June 2012)

- Types on the basis of shape:
1. Long bones- These bones typically have an elongated shaft and two expanded ends one on either
side of the shaft.
2. Short bones- These bones are short in posture and can be of any shape.
3. Fiat bones - These bones are flat in appearance and have two prominent surfaces.
4. Irregular bones - The shape of these bones is completely irregular and they do not fit into any
category of shape.
5. Sesamoid bones - These are not like the other types of bones because they are in the form of
nodules embedded in tendons and joint capsules.
- Types on the basis of structure:
1. Compact bone- The part of a bone where bone substance to bone space ration is a
bigger quantity is called compact bone. This means that there is more
bone tissue and less empty space.
2. Spongy bone - The part of a bone where bone substance to bone space
ratio is a smaller quantity. This means that there is more empty space and less bone tissue.
- According to Microscopic approach:
1. Fibrous bone- These have more fibers in them. In humans they are found only in fetus.
2. Lamellar bone - The type of bone which are composed of thin plates (lamellae) of bony tissue.
Most mature human bones are lamellar bones.
2. What is the composition of bone tissue? (Nov/Dec 2013)
• Bone itself consists mainly of collagen fibers and an inorganic bone mineral in the form of small
crystals. In vivo bone (living bone in the body) contains between 10% and 20% water. Of its dry
mass, approximately 60-70% is bone mineral. Most of the rest is collagen, but bone also contains
a small amount of other substances such as proteins and inorganic salts.
• Collagen is the main fibrous protein in the body. It has a triple helical structure, and specific
points along the collagen fibers serve as nucleation sites for the bone mineral crystals. - The
composition of the mineral component can be approximated as hydroxyapatite (HA), with the
chemical formula Ca10 (PO4)6(OH)2. However, whereas HA as has a Ca:P ratio of 5:3 (1.67),
bone mineral itself has Ca:P ratios ranging from 1.37 - 1.87. This is because the composition of
bone mineral is much more complex and contains additional ions such as silicon, carbonate and
zinc.
3. List the functions of Articular Fibrocartilage. (May/June 2012)
- Fibrocartilage is intermediate in character between hyaline cartilage and dense connective tissue.
- Fibrocartilage is always associated with dense connective tissue, and the border between the two is
usually indistinct.
- Its combination of cartilaginous ground substance and dense collagen bundles allows fibrocartilage
to resist deformation under great stress:
- It is important in attaching bone to bone and providing restricted mobility.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

4. What is the use of cartilage? (Nov/Dec 2012)

- Cartilage is an important structural component of the body. It is a firm tissue but is softer and much
more flexible than bone. Articular cartilage is a thin layer of specialized connective tissue with
unique viscoelastic properties
- Its principal function is to provide a smooth, lubricated surface for low friction articulation and to
facilitate the transmission of loads to the underlying subchondral bone
5. State the two biomechanical functions performed by articular cartilage. (May/June 2013)
- Articular cartilage is a thin layer of specialized connective tissue with unique viscoelastic properties.
- principal function is to provide a smooth, lubricated surface for low friction articulation that is
surfaces roll or slide during motion as it Lines the ends of bones
- to facilitate the transmission of loads to the underlying subchondral bone and also transmits applied
loads across mobile surfaces .
6. What is anisotropy? (May/June 2013)
- Anisotropy is the property of being directionally dependent, as opposed to isotropy, which implies
identical properties in all directions. It is not isotropic that is
the state or quality of having different properties along different axes. Exhibits properties with
different values when measured in different directions. It has unequal physical properties along
different axes.
7. What are the types of cartilages? (Nov/Dec 2013)
Hyaline - most common, found in the ribs, nose, larynx, trachea. Is a precursor of bone. Hyaline
cartilage has widely dispersed fine collagen fibers (type II), which strengthen it is the weakest of the
three types of cartilage.
Fibro- is found in in vertebral discs, joint capsules, ligaments. This is the strongest kind of cartilage,
because it has alternating layers of hyaline cartilage matrix and thick layers of dense collagen
fibers oriented in the direction of functional stresses.
Elastic - is found in the external ear, epiglottis and larynx. In elastic cartilage, the chondrocytes are
found in a threadlike network of elastic fibers within the matrix.
Elastic cartilage provides strength, and elasticity, and maintains the shape.
8. Explain why bone is anisotropic
Bone is considered anisotropic because it responds differently if forces are applied in different
directions. Bone can handle large forces applied in the longitudinal plane (tension and compression);
bone is not as strong in handling forces applied transversely. The differences between the properties of
the cancellous and cortical bone contribute to the anisotropy of the bone. Cancellous bone provides
bending strength, and cortical bone provides significant compressive strength.
9. Explain how bone responds to stress applied
By modeling and remodeling process of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. The coordinated actions of
osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts occur within two biological contexts: bone modeling and
remodeling. Bone modeling is the process that shapes skeletal elements and ensures the acquisition of
the appropriate bone morphology and mass during growth. This process occurs at a low rate throughout
life and is required for repair and adaptation to changes in mechanical loading. In this process, bone
resorption and formation occur in an uncoupled manner and on separate surfaces. In contrast, bone
remodeling is the mechanism that ensures tissue turnover while maintaining bone mass and allowing for

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

adaptation to both mechanical loading and the requirements of calcium and phosphate metabolism in the
mature skeleton. Bone remodeling is based on the coupled and balanced activities of bone resorption and
formation that occur in packages of cells along specific sites on the same the bone surface (basic
multicellular units), mostly at the interface with the hematopoietic bone marrow.
10. State Wolff’s law
• The principle that every change in the form and the function of a bone or in the function of the
bone alone, leads to changes in its internal architecture and in its external form.
• Wolff’s Law states that bone grows and remodels in response to the forces that are placed upon
it. After injury to bone, placing specific stress in specific directions to the bone can help it remodel and
become normal healthy bone again. Wolff’s Law applies to physical therapy in the treatment
of osteoporosis and after a fracture.
11. What are the different types of fracture?
• Greenstick fracture: an incomplete fracture in which the bone is bent. This type occurs most
often in children.
• Transverse fracture: a fracture at a right angle to the bone's axis.
• Oblique fracture: a fracture in which the break has a curved or sloped pattern.
• Comminuted fracture: a fracture in which the bone fragments into several pieces.
• An impacted fracture is one whose ends are driven into each other. This is commonly seen in
arm fractures in children and is sometimes known as a buckle fracture. Other types of fracture
are pathologic fracture, caused by a disease that weakens the bones, and stress fracture, a hairline
crack.
• Other types of fracture are pathologic fracture, caused by a disease that weakens the bones, and
stress fracture.
12. What is bone atrophy?
• Bone modeling occurs throughout life in two ways: hypertrophy (growth) or atrophy (shrinking)
• Decrease in size or wasting away of a bone tissue due to degeneration of bone cells. Bone
atrophy occurs due to disuse of bones or even disease of bones. With loss of mass and strength,
can occur after prolonged immobility, such as extended bed rest, or having a body part in a cast
(living in darkness for the eye, bedridden for the legs etc.). This type of atrophy can usually be
reversed with exercise unless severe. Astronauts in microgravity must exercise regularly to
minimize atrophy of their limb muscles.
13. What is cortical bone
Cortical bone, synonymous with compact bone, is one of the two types of osseous tissue that
form bones. Cortical bone facilitates bone's main functions: to support the whole body, protect organs,
provide levers for movement, and store and release chemical elements, mainly calcium. The cortical
(compact) bone is one of the three layers of a bone. It is a dense, rigid bone. It is shaped like a cylinder
and is so hard that surgeons must use a saw to cut through it. It is honeycombed with thousands of tiny
holes and passageways, through which run nerves and blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients to
the bone. This dense layer supports the weight of the body and is made up of mostly calcium and
minerals, so that it feels no pain.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

14. What is Trabecular bone?

Cancellous bone, also called trabecular bone or spongy bone, light, porous bone enclosing numerous
large spaces that give a honeycombed or spongy appearance. The bone matrix, or framework, is
organized into a three-dimensional latticework of bony processes, called trabecular, arranged along lines
of stress. Cancellous bone is found at the ends of long bones, as well as in the pelvic bones, ribs, skull,
and the vertebrae in the spinal column. It is very porous and contains red bone marrow, where blood
cells are made. It is weaker and easier to fracture than cortical bone, which makes up the shafts of long
bones.
15. Write the composition of human bone.
- It has a triple helical structure, and specific points along the collagen fibers serve as nucleation sites
for the bone mineral crystals. The composition of the mineral component can be approximated as
hydroxyapatite (HA), with the chemical formula Ca10 (PO4)6(OH)2.
16. What is bone modeling?
The process of bone formation by osteoblasts and osteoclastic resorption, which
ends with bone maturation is called bone modelling. Bone modeling is the process that shapes skeletal
elements and ensures the acquisition of the appropriate bone morphology and mass during growth. This
process occurs at a low rate throughout life and is required for repair and adaptation to changes in
mechanical loading. In this process, bone resorption and formation occur in an uncoupled manner and
on separate surfaces.
17. What is an autograft bone?
Autograft bone is the bone of a patient for use in grafting procedures in their own body. Bone is taken from one part
of the body and grafted onto another part of the body to replace damaged tissues. The advantage of an autograft is a
high probability of successful bone fusion. However, complications with using a patient's own bone include
infection, bleeding, fractures and tissue damage.
18. Define the term “Afterload”.
Afterload is the tension or stress developed in the wall of the left ventricle during ejection. In other
words, it is the end load against which the heart contracts to eject blood. The greater the
aortic/pulmonary pressure, the greater the after load on the left/right ventricle. The resistance that the
ventricle of the heart has to overcome to eject the blood from the ventricle chamber during systole. The
resistance comes from the blood in the vessels and the constriction of the vessel walls.
19. What is a soft tissue & hard tissue?
• Soft tissue includes tendons, ligaments, fascia, skin, fibrous tissues, fat, and synovial membranes
(which are connective tissue), and muscles, nerves and blood vessels (which are not
connective tissue). Soft tissues connect, support, and surround organs. Soft tissue is a broad term
that covers various groups of cells within the body. Each of these cell groups, or tissue, serves a
purpose related to the body parts they are connected to. Some human tissues, such as tendons,
simply serve as connective tissue in order to join body structures, while other tissues, like
muscles, might help foster movement.
• Hard tissue is tissue that has become mineralized. It's a collection of cells and related matter that
has become firm, hardened or rigid. In people, hard tissue typically refers to cartilage, bones and
teeth. tissue having a firm intercellular substance, cartilage and bone

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

20. What is the difference between cartilage, ligament & tendon? (Apr/May 2017) (Nov/Dec 2017)
- Cartilage surrounds bones to prevent them from grinding together and acts as a shock absorber,
- ligaments connect bone to bone to make joints more stable and
- Tendons connect muscle to bone to allow movement.
- To sum up cartilage is a shock absorber, ligaments connect bone to bone and tendons connect
muscle to bone.
21. How does the tensile strength & compressive strength vary in both transverse & longitudinal direction of
bone?

22. What is bone remodeling?

Bone remodeling (or bone metabolism) is a lifelong process where mature bone tissue is removed from
the skeleton (a process called bone resorption) and new bone tissue is formed (a process
called ossification or new bone formation). These processes also control the reshaping or replacement of
bone. Bone remodeling is the mechanism that ensures tissue turnover while maintaining bone mass and
allowing for adaptation to both mechanical loading and the requirements of calcium and phosphate
metabolism in the mature skeleton.
23. What do you mean by arthritis? (Apr/May 2015)
Acute or chronic inflammation of a joint, often accompanied by pain and structural changes and having
diverse causes, as infection, crystal deposition, or injury.
24. What is emphysema? (Apr/May 2015)
A chronic, irreversible disease of the lungs characterized by abnormal enlargement of air spaces in the
lungs accompanied by destruction of the tissue lining the walls of the air spaces.
25. Identify the various types of soft tissues. (May/June 2016)
Soft tissue includes tendons, ligaments, fascia, skin, fibrous tissues, fat, and synovial membranes
(which are connective tissue), and muscles, nerves and blood vessels (which are not connective tissue).
It is sometimes defined by what it is not.
26. What are the functions of skeletal muscle? (Nov/Dec 2016)
It is a form of striated muscle tissue which is under the voluntary control of the somatic nervous system.
Most skeletal muscles are attached to bones by bundles of collagen fibers known as tendons. A skeletal
muscle refers to multiple bundles of cells called muscle fibers (fascicles). The fibres and muscles are
surrounded by connective tissue layers called fasciae. Muscle fibres, or muscle cells, are formed from
the fusion of developmental myoblasts in a process known as myogenesis. Muscle fibres are cylindrical,
and have more than one nucleus.
27. Draw the Maxwell and voight model for viscoelastic property. (Nov/Dec 2016)(Apr/May 2017)

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

UNIT IV BIO MECHANICS OF JOINTS AND IMPLANTS

1. What is the material composition of Prosthetic head in Total Hip Replacement? (Nov/Dec 2012)
- cobalt chromium alloy- It is a mixture of cobalt, chromium, nickel, iron
- titanium alloy – titanium, cobalt, nickel
- stainless steel - chromium, nickel, iron, carbon
2. What are the two methods of lubrication thought to be present in joints? (Nov/Dec 2013)
• Initially, hyaluronic acid (HA) was thought to be the lubricant, but it has been shown not to possess
the load-bearing ability required within the physiological joint. The glycoprotein fraction of
synovial fluid (lubricant) has been shown to have the same lubricating ability as synovial fluid. All
or part of this is thought to be due to the surface-active phospholipids (SAPLs) present in lubricant.
• Boundary lubrication occurs when each load-bearing surface is coated with a thin layer of large
molecules that forms a gel that keeps the opposing surfaces from touching each other. The layers
slide over each other more readily than they are sheared off the underlying surf ace. This type of
lubrication is considered to be most effective at low loads.
• Fluid-film lubrication involves a thin fluid film that provides separation of joint surfaces. Surfaces
lubricated by a fluid film typically have a lower coefficient of friction than do boundary- lubricated
surfaces.
3. What are the major factors that influence Joint Flexibility? (May/June 2012)
- Inherent Factors: Since we are born with these factors, they cannot be greatly altered by a stretching
program.
• The bony structure of the joint
• The structure, length and pliability of the joint capsule and surrounding ligaments
- Non-Inherent Factors: These factors are changeable. They represent either temporary conditions or
variables which can be manipulated to increase flexibility.
- Activity: During times of inactivity, we become stiff and less mobile. Active lifestyles and exercises
which incorporate full range of motion are required to maintain “normal” joint movement.
- Injuries: An injury to a joint or its surrounding muscles, tendons or ligaments will temporarily
decrease range of motion due to pain, scar tissue, swelling, or immobilization (from a cast or brace).
4. How will you define joint stability?
- Joint stability refers to the resistance offered by various musculoskeletal tissues that surround a
skeletal joint. Several subsystems ensure the stability of a joint. These are the passive, active and
neural subsystems. The ability maintain or control joint movement or position. Stability is achieved
by the coordinating actions of surrounding tissues and the neuromuscular system. The ability to
resist movement in a joint from an outside force.
5. What do you mean by diffusion property of articular cartilage?
- All molecules that need to reach chondrocytes (oxygen, nutrients, signaling molecules, etc.) or move
away from the chondrocytes (waste products, newly synthesized matrix, and enzymes for matrix
remodeling) must pass a substantial distance through the extracellular matrix by convection or
diffusion.

6. What are the different types of lubrication of joints?

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

- Boundary lubrication
- Fluid film lubrication
o Hydrostatic lubrication
o Hydrodynamic lubrication
- Mixed Lubrication
7. What is meant by Biphasic mixture theory of cartilage?
-According to the biphasic theory, three major internal forces act within the loaded tissue:
-The stress developed within the deformed collagen–PG solid matrix;
-The pressure that is developed within the fluid phase; and
-The frictional drag acting between the fluid phase and the solid phase as they flow past each other.
8. What is degenerative Osteoarthritis?
- Osteoarthritis (OA) also known as degenerative arthritis or degenerative joint
disease or osteoarthritis, is a group of mechanical abnormalities involving degradation of joints,
including articular cartilage and subchondral bone. Osteoarthritis is caused by mechanical stress on
the joint.
9. What are the different types of cartilages?
- Elastic - This type of cartilage has numerous yellow elastic fibers. It is present in the ear pinna,
external auditory meatus, Eustachian tubes, and epiglottis etc. Its color is yellowish and the
appearance is opaque.
- Hyaline - This type of cartilage has very thin fibers having same refractive index as the matrix of the
cartilage and thus these fibers are not seen. Hyaline cartilage is the articular cartilage of long bones,
sternum, ribs etc. Its color is bluish white and it is flexible.
- Fibrocartilage - This type of cartilage has numerous white fibers. It is present in the symphysis
pubis, and sterno clavicular joint etc. Its color is glistening white and the appearance is opaque.
10. Explain the structure & composition of Cartilage
- Articular cartilage is hyaline cartilage and is 2 to 4 mm thick. Unlike most tissues, articular cartilage
does not have blood vessels, nerves, or lymphatics. It is composed of a dense extracellular matrix
(ECM) with a sparse distribution of highly specialized cells called chondrocytes. The ECM is
principally composed of water, collagen, and proteoglycans, with other noncollagenous proteins and
glycoproteins present in lesser amounts. Together, these components help to retain water within the
ECM, which is critical to maintain its unique mechanical properties.
11. Explain why cartilage acts as a high shock absorber by stating its composition.
- It is composed of a dense extracellular matrix (ECM) with a sparse distribution of highly specialized
cells called chondrocytes which get nutrition from synovial fluid filling up joint spaces allowing
smooth load distribution. The ECM is principally composed of water, collagen, and proteoglycans,
with other noncollagenous proteins and glycoproteins present in lesser amounts.8,9 Together, these
components help to retain water within the ECM, which is critical to maintain its unique mechanical
properties.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

12. Which component of cartilage is responsible for the hydrophilic property of cartilage?
- Proteoglycans are hydrophilic and attract water. Proteoglycans make up a major part of the
extracellular matrix, the material between cells that provides structural support. Because they are
negatively charged, proteoglycans also help to attract positive ions, or cations, such as
calcium, potassium, and sodium. They also bind water, and aid in the transport of water and other
molecules through the extracellular matrix.
13. Explain the fluid film lubrication & its types
- Fluid film lubrication
- Fluid film lubrication is the lubrication regime in which through viscous forces the load is fully
supported by the lubricant within the space or gap between the parts in motion relative to one
another object (the lubricated conjunction) and solid–solid contact is avoided
o Hydrostatic lubrication
o Hydrodynamic lubrication
14. Define fibrous joints.
- Fibrous joints are connected by dense connective tissue, consisting mainly of collagen. In these
joints the bones are firmly interlocked by irregular hacksaw-like edges. These are fixed joints where
bones are united by a layer of white fibrous tissue of varying thickness.
15. What are the types of Fibrous joints
- Sutures are found between bones of the skull. In fetal skulls the sutures are wide to allow slight
movement during birth. They later become rigid (synarthrodial).
- Syndesmoses are found between long bones of the body, such as the radius and ulna in forearm and
the distal tibia-fibular joint in leg. Unlike other fibrous joints, syndesmoses are moveable albeit not
to such degree as synovial joints.
- Gomphosis is a joint between the root of a tooth and the sockets in the maxilla or mandible
16. Define synovial joints. (Apr/May 2017)
- A synovial joint, also known as diarthrosis, is the most common and most movable type of joint in
the body of a mammal. As with most other joints, synovial joints achieve movement at the point of
contact of the articulating bones. Synovial joints have a synovial cavity between the articulating
bones. This cavity is filled with synovial fluid that reduces friction at the joint, enabling the
articulating bones to move freely.
17. List out the types of synovial joints.
Gliding joints
Hinge joints
Pivot joints
Condyloid joints
Saddle joints
Ball and socket joints
18. What is range of motion? How is it measured?
- Range of motion is how far the person's joints can be moved in different directions. The exercises
help you move all the person's joints through their full range of motion.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

- Each specific joint has a normal range of motion that is expressed in degrees. Devices to measure
range of motion in the joints of the body include the goniometer and inclinometer which use a
stationary arm, protractor, fulcrum, and movement arm to measure angle from axis of the joint.
19. List some diseases caused due to cartilage injury.
Diseases of the cartilage include osteoarthritis, a condition in which the cartilage is thinned out, resulting
in friction between bones, achondroplasia, which leads to dwarfism, costochondritis, which is
inflammation of the cartilage in the ribs, resulting in chest pain; and chondrodystrophies, which are a
group of diseases caused by the disturbance of cartilage growth and subsequent ossification (hardening)
of cartilage.
20. Define origin & insertion of muscles?
- The origin is the fixed attachment, while the insertion moves with contraction.
21. What are the mechanical properties of cartilage?
- Mechanical properties include the response of cartilage in frictional, compressive, shear and tensile
loading. Cartilage displays viscoelastic properties
22. List some natural substitutes for lubrication of joints.
- The natural lubricant of the joints is called hyaluronic acid (HA). This lubricant in concentrated form
can be injected into a joint to increase lubrication.
23. What are the types of modulus?
- Young's Modulus of elasticity
- Bulk Modulus of elasticity (K)
- Modulus of Rigidity
24. How will you calculate the young’s modulus of aligned fiber composites?
Young’s Modulus of aligned fiber composites can be calculated using the Rule of Mixtures and the
Inverse Rule of Mixtures for loading parallel and perpendicular to the fibers respectively.
25. What is role of collagen? (Apr/May 2015)
Collagen is most commonly found within the body in the skin, bones and connective tissues. The word
"collagen" is derived from the Greek "kolla," meaning glue. Collagen gives the skin its strength and
structure, and also plays a role in the replacement of dead skin cells.
26. What factors influence the stability of synovial joint? (May/June 2016)
o The shape of the articular surfaces of the bones
o The ligaments: strong bands of dense fibrous connective tissue which bind the adjacent bones
together,
o Muscles which extend between the two bones comprising the joint.
27. Define biomaterial. List its characteristics. (May/June 2016)
A synthetic material used to make devices to replace part of a living system or to function in intimate
contact with living tissue.
Characteristics
◼ Physical Requirements
◼ Hard Materials.
◼ Flexible Material.
◼ Chemical Requirements
◼ Must not react with any tissue in the body.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

◼ Must be non-toxic to the body.

◼ Long-term replacement must not be biodegradable.
28. List the various types of joints. (Apr/May 2015) (Nov/Dec 2016)(Nov/Dec 2017)

o Fibrous joints
o Cartilaginous
o Synovial Joints
- Hinge joint
- Pivot Joint
- Ball and socket joint
- Saddle joint
- Condyloid joint
- Gliding joint
29. Enumerate the biomaterials used for making implants. (Apr/May 2017)
o Metal and Metal alloys
- Stainless steel (SS)
- Titanium (Ti)
- Titanium alloys
- Titanium-AluminiumNiobium
o Ceramics
o Biodegradable and Nondegradable polymers. (Nov/Dec 2017)
30. Give the significance of free body diagram.
A free body diagram is a graphic, dematerialized, symbolic representation of the body (structure,
element or segment of an element) in which all connecting "pieces" have been removed. A FBD is a
convenient method to model the structure, structural element, or segment that is under scrutiny. It is a
way in which to conceptualize the structure, and its composite elements. All of the physical attributes of
the structure are removed. This is not completed at random, rather with a distinct method. A body, or
segment thereof, is represented by a simple single line. Each connection is solely represented by a
juncture with distinct properties, or is replaced by a set of forces and moments which would represent
the action at that connection. Internal forces which would be found at a node (connection or joint) can be
replaced by representational external forces where that "part" connects would connect with the other
member in the FBD. All loads are represented as force systems.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

UNIT V MODELLING AND ERGONOMICS

1. What is the need for modeling? (Nov/Dec 2012)

- A model is a simplified representation of a system at some particular point in time or space intended
to promote understanding of the real system.
- Modeling helps to get information about how something will behave without actually testing it in
real life. Modeling and Simulation is a discipline for developing a level of understanding of the
interaction of the parts of a system, and of the system as a whole.
2. What is gait analysis (Nov/Dec 2012)
- Gait analysis is the systematic study of animal locomotion, more specifically the study of human
motion, using the eye and the brain of observers, augmented by instrumentation for measuring body
movements, body mechanics, and the activity of the muscle. Gait is the way in which we move our
whole body from one point to another. Most often, this is done by walking, although we may also
run, skip, hop etc. Gait analysis is a method used to assess the way we walk or run to highlight
biomechanical abnormalities.
3. Define a normal Gait cycle. (May/June 2012)
- Physiological Definition:
- It is a mechanism which depends upon closely integrated action of the subjects, bones, muscles and
nervous system (including peripheral and central nervous system).The degree of integration
determines the different gait patterns. Any defect of any part of them or all of them will lead to
pathological gait.
- Mechanical definition;
- It is a form of bipedal locomotion as there is an alternating action between lower extremities. One
leg is in touch with the ground for restraining, supporting and propulsion. The other leg is in swing
phase for creating a new step forward. So gait is the result of a series of rhythmic alternating
movement of arms, legs, and trunk which create forward movement of the body.
4. State the applications of a Goniometer. (May/June 2012)
- measures range of motion joint angles of the body
- Instrument is a helpful, clinical tool that allows for objective measurements in order to accurately track
progress in a rehabilitation program.
- To document initial and subsequent range of motion, at the visits for occupational injuries.
- Contact angle goniometers (q.v.) can also determine the surface tension for any liquid in gas or the
interfacial tension between any two liquids.
5. State the parameter of gait. (May/June 2013)
The parameters taken into account for the gait analysis are as follows:
- Step length is the distance between the point of initial contact or one foot and the point of initial
contact of the opposite foot. In normal gait, right and left step lengths are similar.
- Stride length is the distance between successive points of initial contact of the same foot. Right and
left stride lengths are normally equal.
- Cadence or walking rate is calculated in steps per minute.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

- Velocity, the product of cadence and step length, is expressed in units of distance per time. “Free
speed” refers to the individual's comfortable walking speed. Since individuals walk at different
speeds depending on the situation, normal velocity values are somewhat arbitrary.
- Walking base is the sum of the perpendicular distances from the points of initial contact of the right
and left feet to the line of forward progression.
- Foot angle or toe out describes an angle between the line of progression and a line drawn between
the midpoints of the calcaneus and the second metatarsal head.
6. What are the factors that affect human motion on the physiological level? (Nov/Dec 2013)
- Extrinsic: such as terrain, footwear, clothing, cargo
- Intrinsic: sex (male or female), weight, height, age, etc.
- Physical: such as weight, height, physique
- Psychological: personality type, emotions
- Physiological: anthropometric characteristics, i.e., measurements and proportions of body
- Pathological: for example trauma, neurological diseases, musculoskeletal anomalies, psychiatric
disorders.
7. Differentiate the study of kinematics from kinetics. (Nov/Dec 2014)

Kinetics Kinematics

Kinetics comes from the Greek word kinesis When we study motion in terms of kinematics, we
which means pertaining to movement, and it is make heavy use of the laws of motion such as
the study of motion and its causes. Newton’s first law which states that an object in a state
of motion remains in motion unless and until an
external force is applied to stop it.

The study of forces that cause motion (ex. The study of describing movement (ex. displacement,
torque, gravity, friction, etc.) and can be time, velocity, etc.
classified into two groups; Linear and angular
motion.

8. What is FEM.
- Modern mechanical design involves complicated shapes, sometimes made of different materials.
The finite element method (FEM) is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions
to boundary value problems for partial differential equations. It uses subdivision of a whole problem
domain into simpler parts, called finite elements, and variation methods from the calculus of
variations to solve the problem by minimizing an associated error function. Engineers need to use
FEM to evaluate their designs.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

9. What are the applications of FEA?

- FEA Applications
- Evaluate the stress or temperature
- Distribution in a mechanical component.
- Perform deflection analysis.
- Analyze the kinematics or dynamic response.
- Perform vibration analysis.
10. Explain the stance phase
- Stance Phase, the phase during which the foot remains in contact with the ground.
The gait phase that lasts from heel strike to toe off, which accounts for 60% of a single gait cycle. D
uring thestance phase, the foot is on the ground acting as a shock absorber, mobile adapter, rigid leve
r and pedestal, and the body passes over itstop. Stance phase can be subdivided into contact phase an
d support phase.
- Phase of the normal gait cycle that begins with the strike of the heel on the ground and ends with the
lift of the toe at the beginning ofthe swing phase of gait.
11. Explain the swing phase.
Swing Phase, the phase during which the foot is not in contact with the ground. Is defined as the interval
in which the foot is not in contact with the ground (40% of the gait cycle). Denotes the time when the
foot is in the air, constituting the remaining 38 percent of the gait cycle. The swing phase could be
defined as the phase when all portions of the foot are in forward motion.
12. Define vibration.
Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium point. The
oscillations may be periodic such as the motion of a pendulum or random such as the movement of a tier
on a gravel road.
13. Differentiate hand-arm vibration and whole body vibration.
- Chronic exposure to whole-body vibration may result in an increased risk of low back pain, sciatic
pain, and prolapsed or herniated lumbar disks compared to control groups not exposed to vibration.
- Chronic injuries may be produced when the hand is exposed to vibration. Symptoms of numbness or
paresthesia in the fingers or hands are common. Reduced grip strength and muscle weakness may
also be experienced, and episodic finger blanching, often called colloquially "white fingers," "white
hand," or "dead hand," may occur in occupational groups (e.g., operators of pneumatic drills,
grinders, chipping hammers, riveting guns, and chain saws).
14. What is double limb support in gait cycle?
Double limb support occurs when both feet are on the ground. is the period of time when both feet are in
contact with the ground. This occurs twice in the gait cycle-at the beginning and end of stance phase-and
also is referred to as initial and terminal double-limb stance.
As velocity increases, double-limb support time decreases. Running constitutes forward movement with
no period of double-limb support.
In normal walking, initial double-limb support takes up about 12 percent of the gait cycle, and terminal
double-limb support occupies 12 percent as well.
Generally, the two periods of double-limb support represent 25 percent of the gait cycle.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

15. What is single limb support in gait cycle?

- Single limb support when only one limb is on the ground. Is the period of time when only one foot is
in contact with the ground. In walking, this is equal to the swing phase of the other limb.
- The term ipsilateral is used to describe the same side of the body, and the term contra-lateral is used
to describe the opposite side of the body or the opposite limb. The direction of walking is referred to
as the line of progression.
16. List some adverse effects of Vibration on human
- Vibration can induce physiological responses in the cardiovascular, respiratory, skeletal, endocrine,
and metabolic systems and in muscles and nerves.
- Vibration can stimulate a tonic reflex contraction in muscles, which is a response to the stretching
force (the tonic vibration reflex), disturb postural stability, and lead to body sway.
- Extremely low-frequency whole-body vibration, such as occurs in many transportation vehicles and
ships, may also cause motion sickness (kinetosis).
17. What is loading response?
- Loading response begins with initial contact, the instant the foot contacts the ground. (Normally, the
heel contacts the ground first. In patients who demonstrate pathological gait patterns, the entire foot
or the toes contact the ground initially.) Loading response ends with toe off, when the opposite
extremity leaves the ground. Thus, loading response corresponds to the gait cycle's first period of
double limb support.
18. Define pre swing. give its significance
Pre swing begins at contralateril initial contact and ends at toe off. At around 60 percent of the gait
cycle. Thus, pre swing corresponds to the gait cycle's second period of double limb support. Pre-swing is
the terminal double-limb support period and occupies the last 12 percent of stance phase, from 50
percent to 62 percent. It begins when the contra-lateral foot contacts the ground and ends with ipsilateral
toe off. During this period, the stance limb is unloaded and body weight is transferred onto the contra-
lateral limb. The descending portion of the second peak of the vertical force graph demonstrates the
period of pre-swing
19. What are the different stages of swing phase?
- Initial swing - The initial one-third of the swing period, from the 62- to 75-percent periods of the gait
cycle, is spent in initial swing.
- Mid swing - Mid-swing occurs in the second third of the swing period, from the 75- to 85-percent
periods of the gait cycle.
- Terminal swing - In the final phase of terminal swing from the 85- to 100-percent periods of the gait
cycle
20. What are ground reaction forces (GRF)?
- Ground reaction force (GRF) is the force exerted by the ground on a body in contact with it. For
every action, according to Newton's 3rd Law of Motion (Law of Reaction), there is an equal and
opposite reaction. Due to the gravity, we constantly maintain contact with the ground, and in this
process, there occur interactions between the body and the ground. The reaction force supplied by
the ground is specifically called the ground reaction force (GRF), which is basically the reaction to

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

the force the body exerts on the ground. The GRF, along with the weight, is an important external
force. The GRF is normally measured by a force-plate.
21. What is midstance?
- Midstance begins with contralateral roe off and ends when the center of gravity is directly over the
reference foot. Mid-stance represents the first half of single support, which occurs from the 10- to
30-percent periods of the gait cycle. It begins when the contra-lateral foot leaves the ground and
continues as the body weight travels along the length of the foot until it is aligned over the forefoot.
The descending initial peak of the vertical force graph reveals the period of mid-stance.
22. What is terminal stance?
- Terminal stance constitutes the second half of single-limb support. It begins with heel rise and ends
when the contra-lateral foot contacts the ground. Terminal stance occurs from the 30- to 50- percent
periods of the gait cycle. During this phase, body weight moves ahead of the forefoot.
- The term heel off (HO) is a descriptor useful in observational analysis and is the point during the
stance phase when the heel leaves the ground. The ascending second peak of the vertical force graph
demonstrates the period of terminal stance.
23. How does the video based gait analysis work?
- An object with markers attached at known positions is used to calibrate the cameras and obtain their
positions and the lens distortion of each camera is measured. If two calibrated cameras see a marker,
a three-dimensional fix can be obtained. Typically a system will consist of around 2 to 48 cameras.
Systems of over three hundred cameras exist to try to reduce marker swap. Extra cameras are
required for full coverage around the capture subject and multiple subjects.
24. Define
i) Center of mass (COM)
- The center of mass is the point where all of the mass of the object is concentrated. When an object is
supported at its center of mass there is no net torque acting on the body and it will remain in static
equilibrium.
ii) Center of gravity (COG)
- The center of gravity is a geometric property of any object. The center of gravity is the average
location of the weight of an object.
25. What is initial swing?
- The initial one-third of the swing period, from the 62- to 75-percent periods of the gait cycle (6), is
spent in initial swing. It begins the moment the foot leaves the ground and continues until maximum
knee flexion occurs, when the swinging extremity is directly under the body and directly opposite
the stance limb.
26. What is terminal swing?
- In the final phase of terminal swing from the 85- to 100-percent periods of the gait cycle (6), the
tibia passes beyond perpendicular, and the knee fully extends in preparation for heel contact.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

27. Define (Apr/May 2017)

Stride length
- The distance between 2 successive placements of the same foot, consisting of 2 step lengths; SL
measured between successive positions of the left foot is always the same as that measured by the
right foot, unless the subject is walking in a curve.
Stride width/base
- The lateral distance (measured in millimeters) between the midline of the footfall during a person’s
normal gait, which is usually measured at the midpoint of the heel (or less commonly at the centre of
the ankle joint).
28. What are the types of muscle contractions?
- Dynamic isotonic (concentric)
- Of or involving muscular contraction against resistance in which the length of the muscle changes.
Antonym is isometric. Isotonic movements are either concentric (working muscle shortens) or
eccentric (working muscle lengthens).
- Isometric (static)
- In the direction of contraction of a muscle. (E.g., extension of the lower arm via the elbow joint
while contracting the triceps and other elbow extensor muscles.
- Negative (eccentric)
- Against or in the opposite direction of contraction of a muscle. (E.g., flexion of the lower arm
(bending of the elbow joint) by an external force while contracting the triceps and other elbow
extensor muscles to control that movement.
29. What do you mean by gait pattern? (Apr/May 2015)
Gait is the pattern of movement of the limbs of animals, including humans, during locomotion over a
solid substrate. Most animals use a variety of gaits, selecting gait based on speed, terrain, the need to
maneuver, and energetic efficiency.
30. Define sport and exercise biomechanics. (May/June 2016)
Sports biomechanics is a quantitative based study and analysis of professional athletes and sports
activities in general. It can simply be described as the Physics of Sports. In this subfield
of biomechanics the laws of mechanics are applied in order to gain a greater understanding of athletic
performance through mathematical modeling, computer simulation and measurement.
31. Define ergonomics. (Nov/Dec 2016)(Apr/May 2017)(Nov/Dec 2017)
The term “ergonomics” can simply be defined as the study of work. It is the science of fitting jobs to the
people who work in them. Adapting the job to fit the worker can help reduce ergonomic stress and
eliminate many potential ergonomic disorders (e.g., carpel tunnel syndrome, trigger finger, tendonitis).
Ergonomics focuses on the work environment and items such as the design and function of workstations,
controls, displays, safety devices, tools and lighting to fit the employee’s physical requirements,
capabilities and limitations to ensure health and well being. It may include restructuring or changing
workplace conditions to reduce stressors that cause musculoskeletal disorder.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Department of Biomedical Engineering

32. What are the goals of sport biomechanics? (Nov/Dec 2016)

The major goal of biomechanics of sport and physical exercise is to improve performance in
given sport or physical exercise. In a wider context the goal of biomechanics of sport and physical
exercise is also to increase physical fitness.
33. Brief about injury mechanics. (Nov/Dec 2017)
The damage sustained by tissues of the body in response to forces applied through physical trauma.
Injury causation is a central issue in many personal injury claims. In sports and recreation events, injury
causation can be related to many different issues including exercise equipment, safety equipment, player
contact, playing surface, internal muscle forces, skeletal anatomy and individual tolerance.

Question Bank - Two Marks With Answer BM8651/Biomechanics