INTRODUCTION Magnetic levitation is the latest in transportation technology and has been theinterest of many countries around the

world. The idea has been around since 1904 when RobertGoddard, an American Rocket scientist, created a theory that trains could be lifted off the tracks bythe use of electromagnetic rails. Many assumptions and ideas were brought about throughout thefollowing years, but it was not until the 1970s that Japan and Germany showed interest in it andbegan researching and designing. The motion of the Maglev train is based purely on magnetism and magnetic fields.This magnetic field is produced by using high-powered electromagnets. By using magnetic fields, theMaglev train can be levitated above its track, or guideway, and propelled forward. Wheels, contactwith the track, and moving parts are eliminated on the Maglev train, allowing the Maglev train toessentially move on air without friction.

FIGURE[1] BASIC PRINCIPLE OF MAGLEV TRAIN Maglev can be used for both low and high speed transportation. The low speedMaglev is used for short distance travel. Birmingham, England used this low speed transportationbetween the years of 1984 and 1995. However, engineers are more interested in creating the high-speed Maglev vehicles. The higher speed vehicle can travel at speeds of nearly 343mph or 552 km/h.Magnetic Levitation mainly uses two different types of suspension, which are

ElectromagneticSuspension and Electrodynamic Suspension. However, a third suspension system (Intuctrack) hasrecently been developed and is in the research and design phase. These suspension systems are whatkeep the train levitated off the track. PROPULSION SYSTEM Electrodynamic Propulsion is the basis of the movement in a Maglev system. The basicprinciple that electromagnetic propulsion follows is that opposite poles attract each other and likepoles repel each other. This meaning that the north pole of a magnet will repel the north pole of amagnet while it attracts the south pole of a magnet. Likewise, the south pole of a magnet will attractthe north pole and repel the south pole of a magnet. It is important to realize these three majorcomponents of this propulsion system. They are: A large electrical power source 1

Metal coils that line the entire guideway Guidance magnets used for alignment The Maglev system does not run by using a conventional engine or fossil fuels. Theinteraction between the electromagnets and guideway is the actual motor of the Maglev system. Tounderstand how Maglev works without a motor, we will first introduce the basics of a traditionalmotor. A motor normally has two main parts, a stator and a rotor. The outer part of the

motor isstationary and is called the stator. The stator contains the primary windings of the motor. The polarityin the stator is able to rapidly change from north and south. The inner part of the motor is known asthe rotor, which rotates because of the outer stator. The secondary windings are located within therotor. A current is applied to the secondary wingings of the rotor froma voltage in the stator that iscaused by a magnetic force in the primary windings.As a result, the rotor is able to rotate. Now that we have an understanding of how motors work, we can describe how Maglev uses avariation on the basic ideas of a motor. Although not an actual motor, the Maglevs propulsion systemuses an electric synchronous motor or a linear synchronous motor. The Maglev system works in thesame general way the compact motor does, except it is linear, meaning it is stretched as far as thetrack goes. The stators of the Maglev system are usually in the guiderails, whereas the rotors arelocated within the electromagnetic system on the train. The sections of track that contain the statorsare known as stator packs. This linear motor is essential to any Maglev system. The picture belowgives an idea of where the stator pack and motor windings are located. FIGURE[2] PARTS OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEM The guideway for Maglev systems is made up of magnetized coils, for both levitation andpropulsion, and the stator packs. An alternating current is then produced, from the large powersource, and passes through the guideway, creating an electromagnetic field which travels down therails. As defined by the Encarta Online dictionary, an alternating current is a current that reversesdirection. The strength of this current can be made much greater than the normal strength of amagnet by increasing the number of winds in the coils. The current in the guideway must bealternating so the polarity in the magnetized coils can change. The alternating current allows a pullfrom the magnetic field in front of the train, and a push from the magnetic field behind the train. Thispush and pull motion work together allowing the train to reach maximum velocities well over 300miles per hour. 2

This propulsion is unique in that the current is able to be turned on and off quickly.Therefore, at one instance there can be a positive charge running through a section of the track, andwithin a second it could have a neutral charge. This is the basic principle behind slowing

the vehicledown and breaking it. The current through the guiderails is reversed causing the train to slow, andeventually to competely stop. Additionally, by reversing the current, the train would go in the reversedirection. This propulsion system gives the train enough power to accelerate and decelerate fairlyquickly, allowing the train to easily climb steep hills. The levitation, guidance, and propulsion of the electromagnetic suspension system must worktogether in order for the Maglev train to move. All of the magnetic forces are computer controlled toprovide a safe and hazard free ride. The propulsion system works hand in hand with the suspensionsystem on the Maglev system. MAGNETIC LEVITATION SYSTEM Magnetic levitation means to rise and float in air. The Maglev system is made possible bythe use of electromagnets and magnetic fields. The basic principle behind Maglev is that if you put twomagnets together in a certain way there will be a strong magnetic attraction and the two magnets willclamp together. This is called "attraction". If one of those magnets is flipped over then there will be astrong magnetic repulsion and the magnets will push each other apart. This is called "repulsion". Nowimagine a long line of magnets alternatively placed along a track. And a line of alternatively placedmagnets on the bottom of the train. If these magnets are properly controlled the trains will lift of theground by the magnetic repulsion or magnetic attraction. On the basis of this principle, MagneticLevitation is broken into two main types of suspension or levitation, 1. Electromagnetic Suspension. 2. Electrodynamic Suspension. A third type of levitation, known an Inductrack, is also being developed in the United States. .ELECTROMAGNETIC SUSPENSION SYSTEM(EMS) Electromagnetic Suspension or EMS is the first of the two main types of suspension usedwith Maglev. This suspension uses conventional electromagnets located on structures attached to theunderside of the train; these structures then wrap around a T-shaped guiderail. This guiderail isferromagnetic, meaning it is made up of such metals as iron, nickel, and cobalt, and has very highmagnetic permeability. The magnets on the train are then attracted towards this ferromagnetic 3 guiderail when a current runs through the guiderail and the electromagnets of the train are turnedon. This attraction lifts the car allowing it to levitate and move with a frictionless ride.

Vehiclelevitation is analyzed via on board computer control units that sample and adjust the magnetic forceof a series of onboard electromagnets as they are attracted to the guideway. The small distance of about 10mm needs to be constantly monitored in order to avoidcontact between the trains rails and the guiderail. This distance is also monitored by computers,which will automatically adjust the strength of the magnetic force to bring this distance back toaround 10mm, if needed. This small elevation distance and the constant need for monitoring theElectromagnetic Suspension System is one of its major downfalls. FIGURE[4] CR0SS SECTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SUSPENSION SYSTEM The train also needs a way to stay centered above the guideway. To do this, guidance coilsand sensors are placed on each side of the trains structures to keep it centered at all points during itsride, including turns. Again, the gap should be around 10mm, so computers are used to control thecurrent running through the guidance magnets and keep the gap steady. In addition to guidance,these magnets also allow the train to tilt, pitch, and roll during turns. To keep all distances regulatedduring the ride, the magnets work together with sensors to keep the train centered. However, theguidance magnets and levitation magnets work independently. There are several advantages to this system. First, the train interlocks with the guiderailmaking it impossible to derail. Noise is extremely limited with this system because there is no contactbetween the train and its track. In addition, there arent many moving parts, which reduces the noiseand maintenance of the system. With fewer parts, there is less wear and tear on the system. TheMaglev train is also able to travel on steep gradients and tight curves. Figure [4] shows the metalbeams which attach to the underside of the train. An example of Electromagnetic Suspension is shownin Figure [5] below. Before a Maglev system can be made, a choice must be made between using thistype of suspension or Electrodynamic Suspension. 4

FIGURE [5] PHOTOGRAPH OF MALEV TRAIN(EMS) .ELECTRODYNAMIC SUSPENSION SYSTEM The second of the two main types of suspension systems in use is the

ElectrodynamicSuspension (EDS). EDS uses superconducting magnets (SCM) located on the bottom of the train tolevitate it off of the track. By using super cooled superconducting magnets,

the electrical resistance insuperconductors allows current to flow better and creates a greater magnetic field. The downside tousing an EDS system is that it requires the SCMs to be at very cold temperatures, usually around 5 K(-268C) to get the best results and the least resistance in the coils. The Japanese Maglev, which isbased on an EDS system, uses a cooling system of liquid nitrogen and helium. To understand whats really going on here, lets start from the inside out. The first majordifference between EDS and EMS is the type of track. Whereas with EMS the bottom of the train hooksaround the edges of the track, an EDS train literally floats on air, as shown in the figure [6]. FIGURE [6] 5

THE ELECTRODYNAMIC SUSPENSION SYSTEM The outside guides act like the cushions used to prevent gutter balls in bowling only an EDStrain has a magnetic safety net to keep the train centered, unlike your traditional bowling ally. If thetrain is knocked in the horizontal direction, the field on the side it shifts to becomes greater and thefield on the opposite side weakens due to this increase in distance. Therefore, in order to restoreequal magnetic forces from each side, the train is pushed back into the center of the guideway andthe strength of the magnetic fields reduces to their normal strength. This is one reason why EDS is amuch more stable suspension system. A second reason why the Electrodynamic Suspension system ismore stable is that it is able to carry a much heavier weight load without having its levitation greatlyaffected. As the gap between the train and vehicle

decreases, forces between the SCMs located on thetrain and the magnets on the track repel each other and increase as the train gets heavier. Forexample, if weight is added to the train, it is going to want to get closer to the track; however itcannot do so because repulsion forces grow stronger as the poles on the train sink closer to thesimilar poles on the guideway. The repulsive forces between the magnets and coils lift the train, onaverage, about 4 to 6 inches above the track, which virtually eliminates any safety issues regardingthe train losing levitation and hitting its guideway.This brings us to the next thing we encounter aswe move out from the center of the guideway. Levitation coils repel the SCMs underneath the train,providing the restoring forces to keep the train aligned. Propulsion coils are located next. The propulsion system of the Electrodynamic Suspensionsystem is quite similar to Electromagnetic propulsion, but does vary slightly. To propel the train, theguideway has coils running along the top and bottom of the SCMs. Induced current within these coilscreates alternating magnetic fields that attract or repel the SCMs, sending the train in the forward orreverse direction. Because the trains are moving by magnetic waves that push and pull it forward, itsvirtually impossible for trains to collide since they are in essence riding the same magnetic waves. No engine or other power source is required to keep the train moving except the initial speedthat is required to begin levitation. Therefore wheels are required to keep the train moving until about100 km/hr (65 mph) where it can then begin to levitate. Finally, the guideway has rails that encompass the outside of the train. Within these rails arethe propulsion coils and levitation coils needed to keep the train moving and levitating above thebottom of the track. Because the train has its own safety net of magnetic force to keep it centered,the rails simply provide a place for other coils to be located and used. This railway provides no othermeans of support for the train since the bulk of the train is floating above the entire track. FIGURE[7] NEW LEADING JAPANESE EDS CAR, MLX01-901 6

EDS suspension has several positive and negative aspects to it. To begin, initial costs arehigh and most countries do not have the money or feel the need to spend it on this kind oftransportation. Once up and running however, an EDS Maglev runs only on electricity so there is noneed for other fuels. This reduction in fuel will prove to be very important to the sustainability ofMaglev. One huge disadvantage of the EDS system is the great cost and inconvenience of having tokeep the super cooled superconductive magnets at 5K. Another drawback is that in the event of apower failure, a Maglev train using EDS would slam onto the track at great speeds. This is a secondreason for the wheels that are primarily used to get the train moving quickly enough for levitation.The wheels would need to have a shock system designed to compensate for the weight

of the car andits passengers as the train falls to the track. In Japan, where EDS Maglev is in its testing stage, trainsaverage about300 km/hr and have been clocked at 552 km/hr, which is a world record for rail speed.Compared to Amtrak trains in the United States, which travel at an average of

30 km/hr,Maglev can get people where they need in about half of the time. The EMS and EDS suspensionsystems are the two main systems in use, but there is a possibility for a third to soon join the pack. .A NEW TRACK IN THE RUNNING Engineers are constantly trying to improve on previous technology. Within the past few yearsthe United States has been developing a newer style of Maglev called the Inductrack, which is similarto the EDS system. This system is being developed by Dr. Richard Post at the Lawrence LivermoreNational Laboratory. The major difference between the Inductrack and the Electrodymanic System isthe use of permanent magnets rather than superconducting magnets. This system uses an arrangement of powerful permanent magnets, known as a Halbacharray, to create the levitating force. The Halbach array uses high field alloy magnetic bars. Thesebars are arranged so the magnetic fields of the bars are at 90 angles to the bars on either side,which causes a high powered magnetic field below the array. The Inductrack is similar to that of the EDS system in that it uses repulsive forces. Themagnetic field of the Halbach array on the train repels the magnetic field of the moving Halbach arrayin the guideway. The rails in the system are slightly different. The guideway is made from two rowsof tightly packed levitation coils. The train itself has two Halbach arrays; one above the coils forlevitation and the other for guidance. As with the EMS and EDS system, the Inductrack uses a linearsynchronous motor. Below is a picture of the Halbach array and a model of the Inductrack system. FIGURE [8] MODEL OF THE INDUCTRACK 7

A major benefit of this track is that even if a power failure occurs, the train can continue tolevitate because of the use of permanent magnets. As a result, the train is able to slow to a stopduring instances of power failure. In addition, the train is able to levitate without any power sourceinvolved. The only power needed for this system is for the linear synchronous motor and the onlypower loss that occurs in this system is from aerodynamic drag and electrical resistance in thelevitation circuits. Although this type of track is looking to be used, it has only been tested once on a 20metertrack. NASA is working together with the Inductrack team to build a larger test model of 100

metersin length. This testing could eventually lead to a workable Maglev system for the future. TheInductrack system could also be used for the launching of NASAs space shuttles. The following picturedisplays side by side all three types of levitation systems. FIGURE [9] IMAGE OF THREE TYPES OF LEVITATION TECHNIQUES LATERAL GUIDANCE SYSTEMS The Lateral guidance systems control the trains ability to actually stay on the track. Itstabilized the movement of the train from moving left and right of the train track by using the systemof electromagnets found in the undercarriage of the MagLev train. The placement of theelectromagnets in conjunction with a computer control system ensures that the train does not deviatemore than 10mm from the actual train tracks. The lateral guidance system used in the Japanese electrodynamic suspension system is ableto use one set of four superconducting magnets to control lateral guidance from the magneticpropulsion of the null flux coils located on the guideways of the track as shown in Fig.[10]. Coils areused frequently in the design of MagLev trains because the magnetic fields created are perpendicularto the electric current, thus makingthe magnetic fields stronger. The Japanese Lateral Guidancesystem also uses a semi-active suspension system. This system dampens the effect of the side to sidevibrations of the train car and allows for more comfortable train rides.This stable lateral motioncaused from the magnetic propulsion is a joint operation from the acceleration sensor, control devive,to the actual air spring that dampens the lateral motion of the train car. 8

FIGURE [10] A SKETCH OF THE COMBINED LEVITATION,PROPULSION AND GUIDANCE SYSTEM The lateral guidance system found in the German transrapid system(EMS) is similar to theJapanese model. In a combination of attraction and repulsion, the MagLev train is able to remaincentered on the railway. Once again levitation coils are used to control lateral movement in theGerman MagLev suspension system. The levitation coils are connected on both sides of the guidewayand have opposite poles. The opposites poles of the guideway cause a repulsive force on one side ofthe train while creating an attractive force on the other side of the train. The location of theelectromagnets on the Transrapid system is located in a different side of the guideways. To obtainelectro magnetic suspension, the Transrapid system uses the attractive forces between iron-coreelectromagnets and ferromagnetic rails. In addition to guidance, these magnets also allow the trainto tilt, pitch, and roll during turns. To keep all distances regulated during the ride, the magnets worktogether with sensors to keep the train centered. .ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF MAGLEV ADVANTAGES Magnetic Fields Intensity of magnetic field effects of Maglev is extremely low (below everyday household devices) Hair dryer, toaster, or sewing machine produce stronger magnetic fields Energy Consumption Maglev uses 30% less energy than a highspeed train traveling at the same speed. (1/3 more power for the same amount of energy) Speed ICE Train

Maglev Train 200 km/hr 32 Wh/km 32 Wh/km 250 km/hr 44 Wh/km 37 Wh/km 300 km/hr 71 Wh/km 47 Wh/km 9

400 km/hr 71 Wh/km Noise Levels No noise caused by wheel rolling or engine Maglev noise is lost among general ambient noise At 100m - Maglev produces noise at 69 dB At 100m - Typical city center road traffic is 80 dB Vibrations Just below human threshold of perception Power Supply 110kV lines fed separately via two substations Power Failure Batteries on board automatically are activated to bring car to next station Batteries charged continuously Fire Resistance of vehicles Latest non-PVC material used that is non-combustible and poor transmitter of heat

 Maglev vehicle carries no fuel to increase fire hazard Safety 20 times safer than an airplane 250 times safer than other conventional railways 700 times safer than travel by road Collision is impossible because only sections of the track are activated as needed.The vehicles always travel in synchronization and at the same speed, further reducing thechances of a crash. Operation Costs Virtually no wear. Main cause of mechanical wear is friction. Magnetic Levitation requires no contact, and hence no friction. Components normally subjected to mechanical wear are on the whole replaced by electronic components which do not suffer any wear Specific energy consumption is less than all other comparable means of transportation. Faster train turnaround time means fewer vehicles LIMITATIONS 10 There are several disadvantages with maglev trains. Maglev guide paths are bound to bemore costly than conventional steel railways. The other main disadvantage is lack with existinginfrastructure. For example if a high speed line between two cities it built, then high speed trains can serve both cities but more importantly they canserve other nearby cities by running on normal railways that branch off the high speed line. The highspeed trains could go for a fast run on the high speed line, then come off it for the rest of the journey.Maglev trains wouldn't be able to do that, they would be limited to where maglev lines run. This wouldmean it would be very difficult to make construction of maglev lines commercially viable unless therewere two very large destinations being connected. Of the 5000km that TGV trains serve in France,only about 1200km is high speed line, meaning 75% of TGV services run on existing track. The factthat a maglev train will not be able to continue beyond its track may seriously hinder its usefulness. A possible solution Although it is not seen anywhere a solution could be to put normal steel wheels onto the bottom of a maglev train, which would allow it to run on normal railway once it was off the floating guideway. .CONCLUSION

Railways using MagLev technology are on the horizon. They have proven to be faster thantraditional railway systems that use metal wheels and rails and are slowed by friction. The lowmaintenance of the MagLev is an advantage that should not be taken lightly. When you dont have todeal with the wear and tear of contact friction you gain greater longevity of the vehicle. Energy savedby not using motors running on fossil fuels allow more energy efficiency and environmental friendliness. Maglev will have a positive impact on sustainability. Using superconducting magnets insteadof fossil fuels, it will not emit greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Energy created by magneticfields can be easily replenished. The track of a Maglev train is small compared to those of aconventional train and are elevated above the ground so the track itself will not have a large effect onthe topography of a region. Since a Maglev train levitates above the track, it will experience nomechanical wear and thus will require very little maintenance. Overall, the sustainability of Maglev is very positive. Although the relative costs ofconstructing Maglev trains are still expensive, there are many other positive factors that overshadowthis. Maglev will contribute more to our society and our planet than it takes away. Consideringeverything Maglev has to offer, the transportation of our future and our childrens future is on verycapable tracks. .REFERENCES Sawada, Kazuo, "Magnetic Levitation (Maglev) Technologies 1. Supderconducting Maglev Developedby RTRI and JR Central", Japan Railway & Transport Review, No. 25, 58-61. 11